E d i t o r s : Ga b b a r d , G l en O . ; B e c k , J u d i t h S .

; H o l m e s , Jeremy T i t l e : O x f o r d T e x t b o o k o f P s y ch o t h e r a p y , 1 s t E d i t i o n C o p y r i g h t 2 0 0 5 O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Pr e s s
> Table of Contents > Section I - Major modaliti es > 4 - Group psychotherapy

b e l o w . A s a g r o up a n a ly s t , m y m a i n f o c us w i l l b e t h e g r o u p a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to g r o u p p s y c h o t he r ap y .

The whole is more than the sum of its parts

A group is more than the sum of its members, just like the m e a n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e is m o r e t h a n t h e l i n e - up o f v a r io u s w o r d s . T h e r e f o r e , w e c an u s e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s i n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h o l e g r o u p c o n f ig u r a t i o ns :

4 Group psychotherapy
Werner Knauss

T h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e d if f e r e n t m e m b e r s . T h e i n t r a p s y c h i c w o r ld o f a n i n d i v i d u a l i s m ad e u p o f internalized networks of relationships (Laing, 1974, p. 16). This internalized network of relationships g e t s r e a c t i v a te d i n a g r o u p .

Introduction Historical roots and developments One social settingdifferent approaches

G r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y u s e s a n a t u r a l s o c i a l s e t ti n g t h e s m a l l , t h e m e d i a n , a n d th e l a r g e g r o u p t o c o n d u c t i t s p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e s s e s . W e g r o w u p i n s m a l l g r o up s ( a m o n g f a m i l y , p e e r s , f r i e n d s ) , w e l e a r n a nd w o r k i n m e d i a n g r o up s ( i n c l a s s r o o m s , c o m m i t t e e s , t e a m s ) , a n d w e e n g a g e i n s c ie n c e , e c o no m i c a c t i v i t y , a n d p o l i t i c s i n l ar g e g r o u p s ( t h r o ug h a s s e m b l i e s , n e t w o r k s , c o m p a n ie s , p o l i t i c a l parties, parliaments, etc.). This chapter will discuss the c o n d i t i o ns t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s e n a t u r a l g r o up i n g s t o b e c o m e p s y c h o t he r a p e u ti c . T h e v a r i e t y o f d if f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e p s y c ho t h e r a p e u t i c u s e o f g r o up s , r a n g i ng f r o m p s y c h o e d u c a t io n , p s y c ho a n a l y s i s , p s y c ho d r a m a , g r o u p a n a l y s i s , a nd h u m a n i s t i c p s y c h o l o g y to c o g n i t i v e b e h a v io r i s m , r e f l e c ts t he d i f f e r e n t h i s to r ic r o o t s o f g r o up psychotherapy. S o , l e t u s f i r s t l o o k a t th e d if f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u nd s , tr e a t m e n t p r i n c ip l e s , a n d c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f p r o c e s s e s , as w e l l a s a t t h e d if f e r e n t r o l e p l a y e d b y t he g r o u p t h e r a p i s t . T h e e f f e c t i v e ne s s a n d e f f i c a c y o f g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y , a n d t h e i n d i c a t i o n s a n d c o n t r a i nd i c a t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m e m p ir i c a l r e s e a r c h f i nd i n g s , w i l l b e o u t l i n e d

T h e i n t e r a c t i o n o r t h e i nt e r r e l a t e d ne s s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t m e m b e r s . T h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r ac t i o n between different, unconscious networks of r e l a t i o n s h ip s , r e ac t i v a t e d i n a g r o u p s e t t i n g , i s a f o c u s o f a t t e n t io n i n a l l a n a l y t i c a l l y o r ie n t e d g r o u p a p p r o a c h e s . T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n o c c ur s e v e n i n o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s , e v e n w he n t h e y r e f r a i n f r o m u s i n g th i s p r o c e s s o f i n t e r ac t i o n : f o r i n s t a n c e , c o g n i t i v e b e h a v io r a l a p p r o ac h e s te n d to a v o i d i t a l t o g e t h e r . T h e s e q u e nc e , t he s t r u c tu r e , a nd t he e m o t io n a l q u a l i t y o f t h i s i n t e r a c t io n i s us e d to e n g e nd e r t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e s s e s i n a l l a n a l y t i c a l l y o r ie n t e d approaches.

T h e s y s t e m o f t h e g r o u p a s a w h o le i n i t s c o n t e x t s . E a c h u n i q u e g r o u p d e v e l o p s t h r o ug h a c l a s h o f c e n t r i p e t a l a nd c e n t r if u g a l f o r c e s , w h i c h ar e b a l a n c e d b y i t s c o n s t a n t l y c h a ng i n g s t r uc t u r e . C e n t r ip e t a l f o r c e s c o n s i s t o f a s h ar e d g o a l a nd th e c o h e s i o n o r c o he r e n c e o f t h e g r o u p a s a w ho l e . W h i l e c o h e s io n d e s c r ib e s t h e a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f a g r o u p t o i t s m e m b e r s ( Le v i n , 1 9 5 1 ) , c o h e r e nc e f o c u s e s o n a n u n d e r ly i ng s e n s e o f c o n t a i n m e n t

b a s e d up o n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a nd u nd e r s t a n d i n g ( P i n e s a n d S c h l a p o b e r s k y 2 0 0 0 , p . 1 4 5 2 ) . C e n tr i p e t a l f o r c e s e n s ur e t h e e x is t e n c e o f t h e g r o u p a n d i t s s t a b i l i t y o v e r t i m e . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , d if f e r e n t n o r m s , d i f f e r e n t r o l e s a n d t h e i n d i v id u a l ' s d e v i a t i o n f r o m g r o u p n o r m s a r e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s t h a t i n i ti a t e c h a n g e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t. O n l y i f t h e r e i s a b a l a nc e b e t w e e n t h e tw o f o r c e s c a n t h e g r o up d e v e lo p a f l u i d s t r u c t u r e . I t i s t h i s s tr uc t u r e t h a t m a k e s t h e g r o u p a s a f e e no u g h p l a c e f o r i ts m e m b e r s to r i s k m a k i ng changes. In order to understand the group process, all three p e r s p e c t i v e s h a v e to b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s id e r a t i o n. E a c h a p p r o a c h us e s t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s d i f f e r e n t l y . T he p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l , a n d s o c i a l c o n te x t o f e a c h u n i q u e g r o up c r e a t e s t h e f r a m e w o r k f o r a n u nf o ld i n g a n d e v e r e x p a n d in g g r o u p process.

emotional developments occurring during the teaching process in a group. P s y c ho a n a l y s is i s t h e b as i c t h e o r y u n d e r p i n n i n g g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y a p p r o ac he s t h a t f o c u s no t o n t e ac h i n g a nd e d u c a t i o n , b u t o n i n s i g ht . T h i s i n s i g h t - t h r o u g h - g r o up e x p e r i e n c e i s p ur s u e d t h r o ug h a n u m b e r o f v a r i at i o n s o n t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e m e : g r o u p a n a l y s is , p s y c ho d r a m a , p s y c h o d y n a m i c g r o up s , a n d v a r io u s f o r m s o f h um a n i s t i c p s y c h o lo g y s u c h a s G e s ta l t t h e r ap y ( P e r l s ) a nd t r a n s a c t i o n a l a n a l y s is ( B e r n e ) , o r e n c o u n t e r g r o up s (Rogers). T h e f i r s t p s y c h o a n a ly s t to b r i ng to g e t h e r p a t i e n t s s uf f e r i n g f r o m n e ur o t i c s y m p t o m s i n a g r o up u s i n g p s y c ho a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s w a s T . B ur r o w (1 9 2 8 ) , ag a i n i n t h e U S . H i s starting point was the perception of humans as a social b e i n g a n d o f t h e g r o up as t h e n a t u r a l f o c u s o f t r e a t m e n t . H i s a i m w a s t o m a k e c o ns c i o u s b o t h l a t e n t a n d r e p r e s s e d m e a n i n g s t h r o u g h t h e he r e - a nd - n o w i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n a g r o u p . B ur r o w n a m e d h i s m e t h o d g r o u p a n a l y s i s . H e r e l i e d o n F r e u d ' s s t u d y , G r o u p p s y c h o lo g y a n d t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e g o (F r e u d , 1 9 2 1 ) . J a c o b M o r e no u s e d t h e th e a t r e s t a g e t o c r e a t e a s c e n i c understanding of intrapsychic conflictual life. From 1928 o n w a r d s , h e o f f e r e d p s y c h o d r a m a d e m o n s t r a t io ns a t C a r n e g i e H a l l . M o r e no u s e d p s y c h o d r am a i n a s m a l l g r o up s e t t i n g f o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y a t t h e Mo u n t S i n a i H o s p i t a l i n N e w Y o r k C i t y . H e d e v e lo p e d t h e m e t h o d o f s o c io m e tr y ( 1 9 3 8 ) a nd i n 1 9 4 2 f o u nd e d t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e ty f o r G r o up P s y c ho t h e r a p y a nd Ps y c h o d r a m a . T he S o c i e t y i n 1 9 5 1 b e c a m e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n al A s s o c i a t i o n f o r G r o up P s y c ho t h e r a p y , a n u m b r e l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r a l l a p p r o ac h e s . P.36

Brief history
T h e f i r s t p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c u s e o f g r o up s w as m a d e i n t h e U S b y m e d ic a l d o c t o r s w i t h t h e a i m o f p s y c ho e d uc a t i o n . P r a t t ( 1 9 0 8 , 1 9 2 2 ) , L a z e l l ( 1 9 2 1 ) , a nd M a r s h ( 1 9 3 3 ) a d d r e s s e d le c t u r e s t o d if f e r e n t g r o u p s o f p a t i e n t s . T h e a i m w a s t o i n c r e a s e s e l f - c o nt r o l b y p r o v i d i n g t h e m w i t h m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n g iv e n a b o u t t h e i r d i s e a s e . T he s e l e c t u r e s w e r e p r o v id e d i n s m a l l , m e d i a n , o r l a r g e g r o u p s . Pr a t t r e f e r r e d to t h e m a s t h o ug h t c o n tr o l c l a s s e s , L a z e l l a s e t i o lo g y s p i e l , a n d M a r s h a s m i l i e u t h e r a p y b y s o c i a l - e d u c a t io n a l g r o up s ( E t t i n , 1 9 9 9 , p . 7 2 8 ) . S i m i l a r d e v e lo p m e n t s i n V i e n n a w e r e d e s c r ib e d a s g u i d a n c e g r o up s b y A d l e r . H i s f o l lo w e r D r e i k ur s ( 1 9 3 2 ) , w o r k i ng i n t h e U S , us e d t h e s a m e t e r m . T h e p s y c h o e d u c a t io n a l a p p r o a c h i s no w a d a y s us e d i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f b e h a v io r o r c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r t h e r a p y i n groups (cf. Fiedler, 1996; Free, 1999). I n p s y c ho e d u c a t i o n a l g r o u p s , t h e c u r a t iv e f a c t o r s a r e defined as reeducation, socialization, the imbuing of an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h h o p e , t he r a i s i n g o f m o r a l e , a n d t h e

In the 1940s, several psychoanalysts used their p s y c h o a n a ly t i c a l u nd e r s ta n d i n g to w o r k w i t h p a t i e n t s i n a group setting: Lauretta Bender (1937), Louis Wender

( 1 9 4 0 ) , P a u l S c h i l d e r ( 1 9 4 0 ) , a nd A l e x a n d e r W o l f (1 9 4 9 ) w o r k e d w i t h r e s i s t a n c e s a n d tr a n s f e r e n c e p r o c e s s e s . T h e y defined the therapist as a symbolic parent and the other p a t i e n t s a s r e p r e s e n t i n g s i b l i n g s w i t h t h e a i m o f p r o v i d i ng social insights through interpersonal exchange: the group r e m o v e s t h e p r o b l e m f r o m t he s p h e r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s y m p t o m f o r m a t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g . T hr o ug h g r o up i n t e r a c t i o n t h e i s o l a t io n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , w h i c h i s s e e n a s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f p s y c ho n e u r o s i s , i s o p e n e d up ( S c h i l d e r , 1936, pp. 61214). A l l t h e s e p s y c ho a n a l y t i c a l l y b a s e d g r o up t h e r ap y a p p r o a c h e s h a d o n e t h i n g i n c o m m o n : t h e m e t ho d t h e y u s e d w a s t h e ap p l i c a t io n o f i nd i v i d u a l p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t o a g r o u p s e t t i n g w i t h t h e a i m o f s o c i a l i n t e g r a t io n . T h e t h e r a p e u t i c e m p h a s is w a s k e p t o n t he i n d iv i d u a l p a t i e n t i n a s m a l l g r o u p s e t t i n g . S am u e l S a l v s o n f o u nd e d t h e A m e r i c a n G r o u p P s y c ho t h e r a p y A s s o c i a t io n i n 1 9 4 2 a n d c r e a te d th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Jo u r n a l o f G r o u p P s y c h o t h e r a p y i n 1 9 5 1 . Moreno, Schilder, and Wolf worked mainly with adults s u f f e r i n g f r o m n e ur o t i c il l n e s s e s a n d r e c o m m e n d e d t h e e x c l u s io n o f p s y c ho p a t hs , a l c o h o l i c s , h y p o m a n i c p a t i e n t s , a n d h a l l u c i n a t i n g p s y c ho t i c s f r o m g r o up s . B e nd e r a n d S l a v s o n w o r k e d w i t h d i s t u r b e d c h i l d r e n a nd us e d p u p p e t p l a y ( B e nd e r , 1 9 3 7 , p . 1 1 6 1 ) a n d a c t i v i ty g r o u p s p r i m a r i l y t o tr e a t o v e r a g g r e s s iv e a n d e x c e s s i v e ly w i t h d r a w n c h i l d r e n . S a l v s o n i nv e n t e d t h e t e r m g r o u p d y n a m i c s i n 1 9 3 3 .

E a c h o f t h e s e h a s a d if f e r e n t f o c us w h e n i t c o m e s to t he p r o c e s s , t h e t a s k o f t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e c ur a t i v e f ac t o r s i n g r o up p s y c ho t h e r ap y .

Psychoanalysis in the group

A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , th e p io n e e r i n g f i g u r e s S al v s o n , W o l f , S c h i l d e r , a nd B e nd e r , a s w e l l a s M o r e no , f o c u s e d o n t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v id u a l a na l y s i s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a g r o up , w o r k i ng t hr o ug h r e s i s t an c e s a n d t r a n s f e r e nc e p r o c e s s e s t o d e v e l o p t he c u r a t i v e f a c t o r s : i n s i g h t , s u b l i m a t i o n , a n d c a t h a r s i s . T h e i r a i m w as t o b r i n g a b o u t m o r e c o n s c i o u s p e r s o n a l a c t i o n a n d s o c ia l i n t e g r a t i o n . I n t h i s ap p r o a c h , t h e t h e r a p i s t w o r k s l i k e a n in d i v i d u a l p s y c ho a n a l y s t b y u s i n g h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f u n c o n s c io u s tr a n s f e r e n c e an d d e f e n s e m e c h a n i s m s , s up p o r t e d b y a c a t a l y t i c g r o u p c o n t e x t .

Psychoanalysis of the group

T h e af t e r m a t h o f W o r ld W a r I I s a w t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n e w a p p r o a c h e s i n g r o up p s y c h o t h e r a p y , w h i c h s o ug ht t o c o m b i n e t he o r y a n d p r ac t i c e i n t h e g r o u p a s a w h o l e . A g a i n t h i s w a s b a s e d o n F r e ud ' s i d e a s o n g r o u p p s y c h o lo g y i n w h i c h h e e m p h a s i z e d t he r e g r e s s iv e a s p e c t s o f g r o u p l i f e . H e r e t h e g r o up i s s e e n as a c o l l e c t i v e a n o r g a n is m i n w h i c h t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l c o ns c i o us n e s s e s i s b r o k e n d o w n w i t h c o m m o n f a n t a s i e s t h a t g r ip e ac h a n d e v e r y m e m b e r to a l e s s e r o r g r e a t e r e x t e n t .

Group psychotherapy today Specific psychoanalytic approaches

T h r e e d if f e r e n t p e r s p e c ti v e s c a n h e l p u s t o d if f e r e n t i a t e a m o n g t h e v a r i o us p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s :

W . B i o n ( 1 9 6 0 ) d e s c r ib e d t hr e e b as i c , u nc o n s c i o u s g r o u p a s s u m p t i o ns as a r e s u l t o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h g r o up s . T h e s e as s um p t i o n s u n i f y t h e g r o u p a s a whole: ( a ) f i r s t , d e p e n d e n c y th e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t s o l u t i o n s w i l l b e p r o v id e d b y a g o d - l i k e leader;

p s y c h o a n a ly s i s i n t h e g r o u p p s y c h o a n a ly s i s o f t h e g r o u p p s y c h o a n a ly s i s b y t h e g r o u p .

( b ) s e c o nd l y , f ig h t a nd f l i g h t g r o up m e m b e r s s e e k to f l e e f r o m b a t t l e s a b o u t d i f f e r e n c e s among them and project them to an outside group;

( c ) t h i r d ly , p a i r i n g g r o u p m e m b e r s ho p e f o r salvation through forming an idealized c o u p le .

c o nf l i c t s w i t h t h e a i m o f p e r m i t t i n g m o r e p r o d u c t i v e s o l u t i o n s . H e r e , f o r e x am p l e , t h e i n h i b i t i o n o f r iv a l r y i n t h e g r o u p av e r t s p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s a g g r e s s i o n , b u t a l s o s t if l e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l s t r e ng t h s .

T h e s e b as i c a s s u m p t i o n s a r e s h a r e d b y t h e e n t i r e g r o u p a n d u n c o n s c io u s l y d e t e r m i n e i t s f a n t a s i e s , c o m m u n i c a t io n s , a nd tr a n s a c t i o n s . T h e y t h e r e f o r e u n d e r m i n e t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t a s k s a s a w o r k in g g r o u p . T h e t r a n s f e r e nc e r e l a t i o n s h ip w i t h t h e t h e r a p i s t i s s e e n a s tw o - d i m e n s i o n a l , a s b e i n g b e t w e e n t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e g r o u p . T e c h n i q ue c o n c e n t r a t e s o n tr a n s f e r e n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e w h o l e g r o u p , a n d i t s r e la t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e t h e r a p i s t . I n t r ag r o up d y n a m i c s a r e t a k e n i n c o ns i d e r a t i o n o n l y i n w h a t t h e y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g r o u p a s a w h o le . B i o n ' s E x p e r i e n c e s i n g r o u p s l a t e r r e s u l t e d i n t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e T a v is t o c k Mo d e l , w h i c h i s to d a y a l s o us e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n s u l t a n c y , a p p ly i n g h is i d e a s t o c o r p o r a t i o ns a n d other social institutions.

Psychoanalysis by the group

S . H . F o u l k e s (1 9 4 8 ) d e v e l o p e d t he g r o up - a n a l y t i c a p p r o ac h , w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e d a s p s y c h o a n a l y s i s b y t he g r o u p , o f t h e g r o up , i n c lu d i n g i t s c o n d uc t o r ( F o u l k e s , 1 9 7 5 , p . 3 ) . H e w a s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e s o c i a l p hi l o s o p h y o f t h e F r a nk f ur t S c ho o l ( F r o m m , A d o r n o , M a r c u s e , E l i a s , F r o m m -R e ic h m a n n e t a l ., ) w h o t r ie d t o i n t e g r a t e t h e f i n d i n g s o f p s y c h o a n a ly s i s a n d s o c io l o g y ( c f . E l l i o t t , 1 9 9 9 , p p . 4 6 7 6 ) . D r a w i n g a n a n a l o g y w i t h t h e n e w u nd e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n e ur o n a n d t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m , w h i c h h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y t h e G e r m an n e u r o lo g i s t K u r t G o l d s te i n ( 1 9 3 4 ) , F o u l k e s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d t h e g r o u p - a n a l y t i c p r o c e s s as a d y n a m ic w e b o f c o m m u n i c a t io n s , t h e s o -c a l l e d d y n a m i c m a t r ix , in w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s a no d a l p o i n t . T h e w ho l e c a n ad j u s t to a nd t h e n c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e f u n c t io n a l d i s t u r b a n c e c a u s e d b y l o c a l d a m a g e ( G o l d s t e i n, 1 9 3 4 ) . H e r e t h e id e a o f a n i n d i v i d u a l i s l i k e t h a t o f a n is o l a t e d ne u r o n o r e l e c t r o n a m y t h , a s e v e r y i nd i v i d u al i s p a r t o f a w e b o f r e l at i o n s h i p s that define his or her individuality. I n t h i s a p p r o a c h , t h e t he r ap i s t f o l lo w s t h e g r o up p r o c e s s , e n c o ur a g i ng t h e e v e r - i n c r e as i n g c o m p l e x i t y o f c o m m u n i c a t io n s a t v a r io u s l e v e l s m a i n l y b y h i s / h e r g r o up a n a l y t i c a t t i t u d e i . e . , at t u n i n g t o a m u l t i d i m e ns i o n a l n e t w o r k o f c o n s c i o u s a nd u n c o n s c i o u s , v e r b a l a nd no n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t io n s . T he s e r e c e i v e t h e i r m e a n i n g t h r o u g h a g r o u p m a tr i x , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e m e a n i n g a nd s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a l l e v e n ts ( F o u l k e s , 1 9 6 4 , p . 2 9 2 ) . H e r e , t h e g r o u p t h e r a p i s t no l o n g e r f u n c t io n s a s a g r o u p l e ad e r b u t a s a g r o up c o n d u c to r , f r us t r a t i n g r e g r e s s i v e n e e d s a n d t h u s r e p l a c i ng t h e l e ad e r ' s a u t h o r i t y b y t h a t o f th e g r o u p :

H . E z r i e l ( 1 9 7 3 ) p e r c e i v e d g r o up d e v e lo p m e n t a s directed by a shared, common group tension r e s u l t i n g f r o m u nc o n s c i o u s , i n f a n t i l e c o nf l i c t s . Ea c h p a t i e n t c o n t r ib u t e s t o t h e s h a r e d te n s i o n o n a l a t e n t level. Interpretations concentrate on these everc h a n g i n g g r o up te n s i o ns , w h i c h a r e s e e n a s a d e f e n s e ag a i n s t c a t a s t r o p h i c f e a r s t h u s p a i r i n g might be seen as a defense against abandonment c l i n g i n g to g e t h e r t o a v e r t f a l l i n g i n t o a v o i d , a t b o t h a n i n d i v id u a l a n d g r o u p l e v e l .

D . S . W h i t a k e r a nd M . A . L i e b e r m a n n ( 1 9 6 4 ) p e r c e iv e t h e g r o up ' s i n t e r a c t io n a s a c o m p r o m i s e : u n c o n s c io u s c o n f l i c t s t ha t e m e r g e d ur i n g t h e s ha r e d f o c a l c o nf l i c t s a l lo w o n ly r e s t r ic t e d s o l u t i o n s . I n t e r p r e t a t i o ns a r e e x p e c t e d t o r e v e a l t ho s e r e s tr i c t e d s o l u t i o n s a nd t h e i r u n d e r ly i n g u n c o ns c i o u s

all members interpret, analyze, and support each other, i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n d u c to r .

a n d L i e b e r m a n n , 1 9 6 4 ; Y a l o m , 1 9 7 0 /1 9 8 5 ; E z r i e l , 1 9 7 3 ; A g a z a r i a n , 1 9 9 7 ) w i t h th e a i m o f a n i n t e g r a t iv e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n ( R u t an a n d S to n e , 2 0 0 1 , p . 2 7 ) : t h i s m e a n t t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e i n t r a p s y c h i c ( c h ar ac t e r f o r m a t i o n , t y p i c a l d e f e ns e s , i n t e r n a l o b j e c t r e l at i o n s ) , t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l (r e l a t i o n a l s t y le s a n d r o l e s , e x t e r na l i z a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l r o l e t h r o u g h p r o j e c t i o n a nd p r o j e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ) t h e s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p o n e nt s ( g r o up n o r m s , v a l u e s , a s s um p t io n s , a nd r e s t r i c t io n s ) o f g r o up p s y c h o t h e r ap y .

Eclectic or integrative approaches Interpersonal group psychotherapy

S t a r t i n g f r o m Y a l o m ( 1 9 7 0 /1 9 8 5 ) , m o r e e c le c t i c o r i n t e g r a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s s e e tr a n s f e r e n c e a s no m o r e (o r less) than one among a number of important aspects of g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y , c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g i t a s a n i nt e r p e r s o n a l , p e r c e p t i o n a l d i s t o r t i o n . I n s ig h t i s s o u g h t a t f o ur d if f e r e n t levels.

Disturbance-specific application of
H o w o t h e r s s e e t h e p a t ie n t . W h a t t h e p a t i e n t i s d o i ng i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r s . W h y t h e p a t i e n t m i g h t b e d o i n g w h a t h e / s he i s doing.

P.37

psychoanalysis The application of psychoanalysis in groups on three levels (Gttinger model)

H e i g l - E v e r s a n d H e ig l (1 9 7 3 ) d if f e r e n t i a t e a m o ng t hr e e m o d e l s o f a p p l y i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n g r o up s , d e p e n d i ng o n t h e e g o s tr e n g t h o f a g r o u p o f p a t i e n t s : a n i n t e r a c t i o n a l m o d e l i s u s e d i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f p a t i e n t s w ho a r e s e v e r e ly d i s t u r b e d . T h e t h e r a p i s t t r i e s to k e e p r e g r e s s i o n t o a m a n a g e a b l e l e v e l b y av o i d i n g tr a n s f e r e n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

B i o g r ap h i c a l i n s i g h t .

Y a l o m s i n g l e s o u t 1 1 c ur a t i v e f a c to r s i n g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y : t h e g i v in g o f h o p e , t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f s u f f e r i n g , a l t r u is m , c o r r e c t i v e e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , t h e r e c ap i t u l a t i o n o f p r i m a r y f a m i l y g r o u p ( i . e . , t r a n s f e r e n c e ) , s o c i a l i z a t i o n , i m i t a t i o n , i n t e r p e r s o n a l le a r n i n g th r o ug h f e e d b a c k , g r o u p c o h e s iv e n e s s , c a t h a r s i s , a n d e x i s t e n t i a l f a c t o r s . T h e t h e r a p i s t o f f e r s e n c o u r a g e m e n t to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h m o r e s a t i s f y i n g i n t e r a c t io n s a n d i s s u p p o r te d b y feedback from all group members.

a n d b y d is c l o s i n g h i s o r h e r o w n f e e l i n g s a n d t h o u g h t s i n response to certain interactions by the patients. F o r p a t i e n t s s uf f e r i ng f r o m a c t u a l c o nf l i c t s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n a n a l y t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d m o d e l i s p r o v id e d , w h i c h i s v e r y s i m i l a r to t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l t h e o r i e s . T h i s m o d e l a i m s t o promote social, interpersonal learning, mainly by providing f e e d b a c k w i t h m i n i m a l in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f u n c o n s c i o u s f a n t a s i e s a n d t r a n s f e r e nc e p r o c e s s e s . T h e t h i r d m o d e l , p s y c h o a n a ly t i c g r o up p s y c ho t h e r ap y , i s o n ly us e d f o r t h e w o r k i ng t hr o ug h o f u n c o n s c i o u s , o e d ip a l c o nf l i c t s f u e l l i n g n e u r o t i c s y m p t o m f o r m at i o n . A d e e p l e v e l o f r e g r e s s i o n i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a n a l y s is o f un c o n s c io u s d e f e n s e a nd tr a n s f e r e n c e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e g r o up . T h i s i s f o s t e r e d b y t h e t he r ap i s t ' s n e u tr a l i t y a nd ab s t i ne n c e , a nd b y h i m r e s t r i c t i n g h i m s e l f to tr a n s f e r e n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

Psychodynamic group psychotherapy

Rutan and Stone (2001) developed the concept of p s y c h o d y n a m i c g r o up p s y c h o t he r a p y i n t h e U S , w h i c h o f f e r e d a n i n t e g r a t i v e a p p r o a c h . T h e ir p s y c ho d y n a m i c g r o u p s tr i e d t o i n t e g r a t e a l l s o - c a l l e d m o d e r n t he o r i e s o f g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y ( F o u l k e s , 1 9 4 8 ; B io n , 1 9 6 0 ; W h i t a k e r

Systems-centered group psychotherapy

A g a z a r i a n (1 9 9 7 ) i m p l e m e n t e d g e n e r a l s y s te m t h e o r y i n g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r ap y b y f o c u s i n g t h e t h e r a p i s t ' s a n d t h e g r o u p ' s a t t e n t io n o n b o un d a r y is s u e s a nd s u b g r o u p i n g f a c t o r s . T h e m a i n t a s k , s h e a r g ue d , w a s to i n c r e a s e c o m m u n i c a t io n ac r o s s b o u n d a r i e s : H o w t h e g r o u p c o m m u n i c a te s i s a lw a y s m o r e im p o r t a n t t h a n w h a t i t i s communicating about (Agazarian, 1989, p. 176). I n her t e c h n i q u e t h e g r o u p l e a d e r c l a r i f ie s s u b g r o up b o u n d a r i e s a n d e nc o ur a g e s v e r y a c ti v e l y i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t c r o s s boundaries in a respectful way.

s p l i t t i n g p r o c e s s e s a c t e d o u t o n a w ar d c a n no t b e i n t e g r a t e d b y t h e t h e r a p e u t i c t e a m a n d s o r e m a in apart.

T h e i n t e g r a t i v e m o d e l ( Ja n s s e n , 1 9 8 5 ) t r i e s to b r i n g together the different aspects of primitive object r e l a t i o n s o r p ar t - o b j e c t r e l a t i o n s o f t h e p a t i e n t b y regular and continuing communication of a t h e r a p e u t i c t e am . T h e s e a r e t h e n r e e n ac t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t i nd i v i d u a l s o r s u b g r o up s o f t h e t e am . Th e w h o l e n e t w o r k o f d is t o r t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a nd i n t e r a c t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o r s ub g r o u p s o n a w a r d c a n t h u s b e u nd e r s t o o d as a f o r m o f d e f e n s e and can become conscious through the integrative c a p a c i ty o f t h e t h e r a p e ut i c t e a m .

Different clinical settings Outpatient and inpatient treatment

G r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y c a n b e a p p l i e d i n l o ng - t e r m psychotherapy (of more than 50 sessions) or in short-term psychotherapy (of 20 or fewer sessions). I t can be used in an inpatient or an outpatient context, in closed groups ( w h e r e a l l g r o up m e m b e r s s t a r t a n d f i n i s h t h e g r o u p t o g e t h e r ) , i n s e m i - o p e n g r o u p s (w i t h a s l o w c h a n g e o f m e m b e r s h i p ) o r a n o p e n g r o up s e t t i n g ( o f m a i n l y i n p a t i e n t g r o u p s w i t h a n o f t e n r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g m e m b e r s hi p ) . I n p a t i e n t p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s w i d e l y o f f e r e d to s e v e r e ly d i s t u r b e d p a t i e n t s i n p s y c h o t he r a p e u t i c u n i t s i n g e n e r a l , o r i n p s y c h i a t r i c ho s p i t a l s . T h e s e p s y c ho t h e r a p y u n i t s u s e a v a r i e ty o f g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h e s . Practitioners may draw on the therapeutic community (see C h a p t e r 2 2 A n t i s o c i a l p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r ) , a c o n c e p t f ir s t i n t r o d uc e d i n E ng l a n d b y T . M a i n (1 9 7 7 , c f . W h i t e l e y , 1 9 9 4 ) , b u t s tr u c t u r e t h e u n d e r s t a nd i n g o f t h e g r o u p d y n a m i c s w i t h i n t h e w ho l e w a r d d i f f e r e n t l y :

T h e g r o u p - a n a l y t i c m o d e l ( K n a u s s , 2 0 0 1 ) us e s l ar g e g r o u p s e s s io n s t o d e v e l o p a n u n d e r s t a nd i n g o f t he i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o up s o n t h e w ar d , t h e patient group and the team group, and between the w a r d a nd t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t o f t h e h o s p i t a l . B o t h s u b g r o u p s n e e d a c o n d u c to r : t h e p a t i e n t g r o u p n e e d s o n e i n v a r io u s g r o up s e t t i n g s ( i n t h e t h e r a p y g r o u p , t h e ar t g r o u p , t h e o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p , t h e m u s i c g r o up , e t c . ) a nd t h e t h e r ap e u ti c t e a m n e e d s a n e x t e r n a l s u p e r v is o r i n o r d e r to understand its own internal dynamics and to p r e s e r v e i t s i n t e g r a t i n g , g r o up - a n a l y t i c c ap a c i t y . T h e r a p y m a i n l y t a k e s p la c e as a n i n t e r a c t i o n w i th i n a n d b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o s u b g r o up s : t he p a t i e n t s t h e r a p y g r o up s a n d t h e t e a m g r o u p .

Theoretical basis and treatment principles The dynamic administration Selection and composition

T h e b ip o l ar m o d e l ( E n k e , 1 9 6 5 ) d if f e r e n t i a t e s a t h e r a p e u t i c r o o m , w h i c h i s d e s i g n e d f o r a n a l y z in g u n c o n s c io u s c o n f l i c t s , f r o m a r e a l i t y r o o m , w h ic h i s d e s ig n e d t o a l l o w e x p e r im e n t i n g a nd r e a l i t y t e s t i n g . T h e w e a k ne s s o f t h i s m o d e l l i e s i n t h e d a n g e r t ha t

I n a l l a p p r o ac h e s , t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e g r o u p i s c r u c i a l i n te r m s o f t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c ie n c y . Mo s t a p p r o a c h e s , e x c e p t f o r th e p s y c h o e d u c a t io n a l o r c o g n i t i v e b e h a v io r a l o n e s , f o l l o w th e g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p a t i e n ts a nd t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e g r o up d e t e r m i n e t h e q u a l i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n a m o n g g r o up m e m b e r s . T he s e f a c t o r s , i n t u r n , t h e n p r o v i d e t he f o u nd a t i o n s f o r e f f e c t i v e treatment. I n a l l a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s , i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t th e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e g r o up s h o u l d b e he t e r o g e n e o u s a s r e g a r d s t h e p a t i e n t s p s y c h o p a t h o lo g y a n d p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e s . I t s ho u l d a l s o v a r y i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l c l a s s , a g e , a n d g e n d e r , i . e . , p a t i e n t s c u l t u r a l l y s p e c i f ic w a y s o f i n t e r a c t i n g . H o w e v e r , t he g r o u p s ho u l d b e ho m o g e n e o u s w h e n i t c o m e s to t h e l e v e l o f f r u s tr a t i o n i t s m e m b e r s c a n c o p e w i t h o r t h e c o n f l i c ts t h e y c a n w o r k t hr o ug h p r o d uc t i v e ly ( m e a s ur e s o f e g o s tr e ng t h s ) . O n l y f o r s o m e g r o u p s o f p a t i e n t s d o e s h o m o g e ne i t y h a v e a d v a nt a g e s : t h e s e ar e p a t i e n t s w i t h d r ug o r a l c o h o l a d d i c t i o n , s e v e r e psychosomatic illnesses or personality disorders with d e s tr u c t i v e a c t i n g o u t , a s w e l l a s p s y c ho t i c p a t i e n t s o r f o r e n s ic p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s ( K n a u s s , 1 9 8 5 ; D i e s , 1 9 9 3 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , c o g n i t i v e -b e h a v i o r a l a nd p s y c ho e d uc a t i o n a l a p p r o ac h e s p r e f e r g r o u p s t o b e h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p s i n t e r m s o f s y m p t o m s i n o r d e r to t e a c h p a t i e n t s w i th s i m i l a r s y m p t o m s ab o u t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e i r d e v i a n t b e h a v io r . T h e N o a h ' s A r k Pr i n c i p le ( t h e a n i m a l s c a m e i n t w o b y two) applies to all approaches: M e m b e r s i s o l a t e d f r o m th e r e s t o f the group by problems, p e r s o n a l i t i e s , o r h i s t o r i e s t h a t no o n e e l s e s h a r e s a r e l i k e l y to f i n d t h e e x p e r i e nc e t h r e a te n i n g . W e d o n o t p u t a p a t i e n t i n to a p o s i t i o n o f

b e i n g i s o l a t e d b y v ir t u e o f a g e , intelligence, ethnicity, P.38 gender, or extreme s y m p t o m a to l o g y . A n i m p u l s i v e s o c io p a t h o r s e x u a l d e v ia n c e w o u ld n o t b e w e l l p l a c e d e x c e p t i n a g r o up of other such people, at least for t h e f ir s t p h a s e o f t h e t he r ap y . --Pines and Schlapobersky (2000, p. 1454). T h e g r o u p s i z e r e c o m m e n d e d b y a n a l y t i c a p p r o ac h e s i s b e t w e e n f iv e a n d n i n e , a s i z e t h a t e nc o ur a g e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t r u s t a nd i n t i m a c y . C o g n i t i v e -b e h a v i o r a l a p p r o a c h e s r e c o m m e n d a g r o up s i z e o f b e t w e e n f o ur a nd s i x f o r t h e tr a i n i n g o f n e w s k i l l s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e m ay b e u p t o 20 group members present for the teaching part. T h e c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s : W h i c h p a t i e n t c an b e ne f i t f r o m w h i c h g r o u p ? A c e n t r a l i s s ue i s w he t h e r o r n o t a p a r t i c u l a r tr e a t m e n t g r o u p i s s u i t a b l e f o r a s p e c if i c p a t i e n t at a given point in the manifestation of symptomatology and t h e g r o u p ' s c ur r e n t l e v e l o f d e v e lo p m e n t ( D i e s , 1 9 9 3 , p . 487).

Preparation and motivation

T o p r e p a r e p a t i e n t s f o r th e o f t e n a n x io u s l y aw a i t e d e x p e r i e n c e o f g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y is as i m p o r t an t f o r a p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e a s t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t he g r o u p ( S a lv e n d y , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e p o i n t o f p r e p ar i n g p a t i e n t s i s t o r e d u c e a n x ie t y a n d t o m o t iv a t e t h e m b y c o g n it i v e l y a n d p o s i t i v e l y p r e s t r uc t u r i n g t h e g r o up e x p e r i e n c e t ha t t h e y w a n t t o u n d e r g o i n o r d e r to g e t b e t t e r . A nx i e t y t o d i s c lo s e o n e ' s s o f a r p r i v a t e f a n t a s i e s , ne e d s , w e ak n e s s e s , a n d t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e s , o f t e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h g u i lt a n d s h a m e ( S e id l e r , 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 0 a ,b ) c a n m ak e a p a t ie n t d r e ad the encounter with that public body, the group. But so can

the social isolation caused by the patient's symptom f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s c r u c i a l t h a t t he t h e r a p i s t d e v o t e s s e v e r a l i n d i v id u a l s e s s i o n s o r a w a i t i n g g r o up to t h e p a t i e n t ' s p r e p a r a t i o n a nd m o t i v a t io n . T h i s s t r a te g y i s a n e m p ir i c a l l y p r o v e n p r e d ic t o r o f a s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e (Tschuschke and Dies, 1994).

m e a n s t h a t c o n s c io u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s e s i n g r o u p s a r e d e e p l y s t r uc t u r e d b y t h e s o c i a l u n c o n s c io u s : t h e g r o up i s t h e p r i m a r y p s y c ho l o g i c a l u n i t , t h e i n d iv i d u a l t h e p r i m ar y biological one. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d al l a n a l y t i c ap p r o a c h e s t he ab o v e theoretical statement by Foulkes, based on the social p h i l o s o p hy o f N o r b e r t E l i a s ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d t h e d y n am i c p s y c h o ne u r o l o g y o f K u r t G o l d s te i n , s ho u l d to b e t a k e n i n t o account. I n t h o s e a p p r o a c h e s t h at f o c u s o n p s y c ho a n a l y s is i n g r o up s , t h e a n a l y s is o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n a g r o up c o n t e x t , w h i c h c o n t r ib u t e s t o i n d i v id u a l a n a l y s is , i s p l a c e d a t t h e c e n t e r . I n a p p r o a c he s t h a t f o c us o n t h e p s y c h o a n a ly s i s o f t h e g r o u p , a s i n t h e T a v i s t o c k t r ad i t i o n , t h e m a i n o b j e c t iv e s o f a n a l y s i s a r e t h e s h ar e d a s s u m p t io n s , te n s i o n s , o r c o n f l i c t s o f t h e g r o up a s a w h o l e . I n g r o up - a n a l y t i c p s y c ho t h e r ap y t h e s h ar e d e x p e r i e n c e o f d e v e l o p i n g c o m m u n i c a t io n s w i t h i n t h e g r o up is a n a l y z e d b y t h e g r o u p , i n c l ud i n g i t s c o n d uc t o r , a t f o u r l e v e l s .

Group rules
O n e a s p e c t o f p a t i e n t p r e p a r a t i o n i nv o lv e s f a m i l i a r i z i n g t h e p a t i e n t w i t h t h e g r o u p r u l e s . A l l a n a l y t i c a l l y o r ie n t e d a p p r o ac h e s o p e r a t e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i ng r u l e s : c o nf i d e n t i a l i t y , f r e e - f lo a t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h no c o ns c i o us e x c l u s i o n o f a ny f a n t a s y , m e m o r y o r t h o ug h t a r i s i n g i n t h e g r o up p r o c e s s , t o l e r a n c e t o w ar d s e v e r y v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e e x c l u s io n o f b o d y a c t i o n, a n d n o m e e t i n g s o u t s id e t h e g r o u p s e s s io n . I f s u c h m e e t i n g s d o o c c ur , t h e y h a v e t o b e d i s c u s s e d i n t he f o l lo w i ng g r o u p s e s s io n . T h e g r o u p b o u n d a r i e s h a v e t o b e c le a r t o a l l p a t i e n t s : t h e y m u s t k n o w w h o b e l o n g s to t he g r o up , t h e t i m e , p l a c e , a n d d u r a t i o n o f g r o u p s e s s io n s , a nd t h e h o n o r a r i u m f o r e a c h s e s s i o n . I t i s h e l p f u l t o m e n t i o n t h e p o s s ib i l i t y o f s y m p t o m a g g r a v a t i o n at the beginning of therapy, which is a sign of resistance to change, because this may prevent patients from dropping o u t e a r l y o n . M e e t i n g s o u t s i d e t h e g r o u p a n d s ub g r o up i n g s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e s is t a n c e to o p e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e h a v e t o b e d i s c u s s e d i ns i d e t h e g r o up . I n o r d e r t o a l l o w t he g r o u p to w o r k t hr o ug h a s e p a r a t i o n , m e m b e r s m u s t a n no u n c e t h e te r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r t h e r ap y to t h e g r o u p w e l l i n a d v a nc e .

T h e c ur r e n t l e v e l , w h i c h i s t h e w o r k i n g a l l i a n c e . T h e t r a ns f e r e n c e l e v e l . The projective level. T h e p r i m o r d i a l o r ar c h a ic l e v e l .

T h e a i m i s no t o n l y a n a ly s i s , b u t a l s o t h e t r a n s la t i o n o f u n c o n s c io u s s y m p to m f o r m a t i o n i n t o c o ns c i o us c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n a n d b e tw e e n g r o up m e m b e r s . G r o u p - a n a ly t i c p s y c h o t h e r ap y s e e k s t o c r e a te a n e v e r e x p a n d i ng , i n c r e a s i ng l y c o m p le x p r o c e s s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l i s p e r c e iv e d as a n o d a l p o i n t i n t h e n e t w o r k o f g r o u p r e l a t i o n s , a n d t r an s f e r e n c e a s w e l l a s c o u n t e r t r a n s f e r e nc e p r o c e s s e s f o r m h i s o r h e r l i n k to t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . T h e he r e -a n d - n o w c o n f l i c t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n r e s e m b le s a f i g ur e h o v e r i n g i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e d y n a m i c m a tr i x o f t h e g r o up as a w h o l e . I n le a r n i n g t o

The conceptualization of the group process Taking the group seriously (Dalal, 1998)?
T h e g r o u p , t h e c o m m u ni t y , i s a n u l t i m a t e p r i m a r y u n i t o f c o n s id e r a t i o n , a nd t h e s o - c a l l e d i n n e r p r o c e s s e s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ar e i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n s o f t h e f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e g r o u p t o w h i c h h e b e l o ng s ( F o u l k e s , 1 9 7 1 , p . 2 1 2 ) . T h i s

c o m m u n i c a te , t h e g r o u p c a n b e c o m p a r e d to a c h i l d l e a r n i ng to speak (Foulkes and Anthony, 1968, p. 263).

l e a d e r ' s a u t h o r i t y b y t h at o f t h e g r o u p ( F o u lk e s , 1 9 6 4 , p . 61). B y w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e s e d e p e n d e n c y n e e d s , t he d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e u n if y i ng no r m s o f t h e g r o u p ar e b r o u g ht t o t h e f o r e , a n d s o c a n b e e x p e r i e n c e d a n d d i s c u s s e d . Th i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n p r o c e s s r u n s p ar a l l e l w i t h t h e v e r y p a i n f u l a n d s lo w p r o c e s s o f a c c e p t i n g t h e o t h e r ne s s o f th e o t h e r , o f b e i n g s e p a r a t e d . I t is ad v a n c e d b y d e s t r u c t i v e f an t a s i e s , w h i c h , a c c o r d i ng to W i n n i c o t t ( 1 9 8 0 ) , c r e a t e a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e tw e e n th e s e l f a n d t h e o t h e r . Th e m a j o r d e f e n s e a g a i n s t l i s t e n i ng to t h e o t h e r ne s s o f t h e o t h e r i s a f e a r o f t h e s tr a n g e r , o f a d if f e r e n t w o r l d v ie w . A f u n c t i o n i n g g r o u p c o u l d b e s e e n as a c o m m u n i c at i o n p r o c e s s in which competing discourses come into conflict with the aim to free each group member from being stuck in ones o w n , p r i v a t e d is c o u r s e , o n e s o w n e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s e lf a n d t h e w o r ld a nd i n i t i a t e s a p r o c e s s o f o p e n i n g u p to c o m m u n i c a te w i t h o t he r d i s c o u r s e s , o t h e r w ay s o f b e i n g a nd e x p e r i e n c i n g w h i c h o ne d i d n o t h av e p r e v io u s a c c e s s t o (Dalal, 1998, p. 177). T o a c h i e v e t h i s p r o c e s s o f d if f e r e n t i a t i o n , t h e g r o u p m ak e s u s e o f m ir r o r i n g ( P i n e s , 1 9 8 2 ) . M i r r o r i n g c o m b i ne s e m p a t h y a n d t h e n o t io n o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t he r i n t o a s i n g l e e m o t i o n a l r e ac t i o n t o o n e ' s p e r c e p t io n o f t h e o t h e r ne s s o f t h e o t h e r . T h r o ug h m ir r o r i n g , s i m i l a r i t i e s a nd differences P.39 b e t w e e n g r o up m e m b e r s a r e e x p l o r e d . I f t h e p r o j e c t i v e p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s i n m i r r o r in g i s n o t f u l ly u nd e r s t o o d , i t c a n d e t e r i o r a t e i n t o m a l i g n an t m i r r o r i n g ( Z i n k i n , 1 9 8 3 ) . T h i s h a p p e ns w h e n o n e g r o u p m e m b e r a t t e m p ts to c ha n g e t he other, while trying to deny his or her otherness. In case of m a l i g n a n t m i r r o r i n g , t h e c o n d u c to r n e e d s to ac t w i t h t h e a i m o f c o n t a i n i n g t h e u n b e ar a b l e p a i n o f s e p ar a te n e s s .

The basic law of group dynamics

The healing effect of group communication is defined by F o u lk e s a s o n e o f t h e b a s i c l a w s o f g r o up d y n a m i c s : T h e d e e p e s t r e a s o n w hy p a t i e n t s c a n r e i n f o r c e e a c h o t h e r s n o r m a l r e a c t i o ns a nd w e a r d o w n a n d c o r r e c t e ac h o t h e r s n e u r o t i c r e a c t io n s is t h a t c o l l e c t i v e ly t h e y c o n s t it u t e t h e very norm from which, individually, they deviate (Foulkes, 1 9 4 8 , p . 2 9 ) . I t is t h e d e v i a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i n d iv i d u a l m e m b e r s f r o m t h e n o r m , w i t h e a c h o f t h e m g o i ng o f f i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , r a t he r t h a n t h e i r s ub m i s s i o n t o t h e n o r m , w h i c h b r i n g s a b o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t : w e s e e k to r e p l a c e s ub m i s s io n b y c o - o p e r a t i o n o n e q u a l t e r m s b e t w e e n equals (Foulkes, 1964, p. 65). G r o u p s ar e h e l d t o g e t h e r b y t h e n e e d t o b e l o n g , w h i c h i s b a s i c w h e n i t c o m e s t o th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o h e s i o n . A t f i r s t , a l l d if f e r e n c e s w i t hi n t h e g r o u p t e nd to b e d e n i e d . T h e r e g r e s s iv e p r o c e s s c a n ta k e t w o d i r e c t i o n s : e i t he r t h e g r o up t u r n s i n t o a f us e d m a s s , w h i c h i d e n t if i e s w i t h a n i d e a l i z e d , o m n i p o t e n t l e a d e r , a nd h i s o r h e r i d e o lo g y , o r i t b e c o m e s t h e s u m o f i s o l a t e d i n d iv i d u a l s w ho c a n n o t f i n d a n y m e a n i n g i n r e l a t i n g . T h e r e f o r e , s u b m i s s io n , i d e a l i z a t i o n , a n d d e p e n d e n c y , w h ic h a l l i ni t i a l l y c o n tr i b u t e t o t h e c o h e s i o n o f the group, are simultaneously interpreted as possible defenses against development. T h e c o n d uc t o r ' s a n a l y t i c a t t i t u d e f r u s t r a te s t h e g r o u p m e m b e r s d e p e nd e n c y ne e d s b y t h e n s e t t i n g i n t o m o t i o n a p r o c e s s o f c o n s c io u s d if f e r e n t i a t i o n . T h e g r o up a n a l y s t h a s t o a c c e p t t h e u n c o n s c io u s f a n t a s y o f t h e g r o up w h i c h p u t s t h e t h e r a p i s t i n t h e p o s it i o n o f a p r i m o r d i a l l e a d e r i m a g e a n d o n e w ho i s o m n i p o te n t , a n d t h e g r o up e x p e c t s m a g i c a l help from him. But instead of fulfilling this regressive need, t h e c o n d u c to r u s e s i t i n t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t o f t h e g r o u p , which means that he has to change from a leader of the g r o u p t o a l e a d e r i n t h e g r o u p , r e p l a c i ng t h e r e b y t h e

A s t he f o l lo w i n g e x a m p le i l l u s t r a t e s , d e s tr u c t i v e f a n t a s ie s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n p r o c e s s ( c f . Knauss, 1999): A patient, a truck driver, disclosed a f t e r 2 0 s e s s i o n s t h a t he w o u l d b e a t up h is w i f e w h e n e v e r s h e s a id s o m e t h i n g u n p le a s a n t o r d if f e r e n t f r o m h i s o w n v i e w . A t t hi s p o i n t i t w a s c l e a r t h a t h e e x p e c te d t o b e t h r o w n o u t o f t h e g r o up . T h e c o m m u n i c a t io n p r o c e s s s t o p p e d , a tense silence emerged, and the whole group was waiting for my r e a c t io n . A f t e r I h a d m e n t i o n e d t h i s process, he was echoed by another patient, a priest, who disclosed that h e w as s o m e t i m e s f u l l o f d e s tr u c t i v e , m ur d e r o u s f a n t a s i e s i n w h i c h w o m e n w e r e s l a ug h t e r e d b y a swimming pool. A third patient, a policeman, reported as a resonance t o t h e o t h e r t w o a nd l ik e i n a c h a i n , t h a t h e w a s a b o u t to k i l l h i s w i f e , w h e n he d i s c o v e r e d t h a t s h e h a d a lover. Especially female group m e m b e r s c o u ld m ir r o r t he s e d e s tr u c t i v e f a n t a s i e s a nd t h e i r acting out as an attempt to bring t h e o t h e r n e s s o f t h e o t he r u n d e r o m n i p o t e n t c o n tr o l , a nd a s a r e s i s t a nc e t o t h e d i f f i c u lt p r o c e s s o f r e s p e c t i n g t h e o t h e r ne s s o f t h e o t h e r . I n a l o ng p r o c e s s o f w o r k i n g t h r o u g h a n d r e m e m b e r i ng t h i s c o u l d b e u n d e r s to o d a s a v e r y p a i nf u l process of separating from fused,

e a r l y c h i l d ho o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h r o ug h r e s o n a n c e a nd th e m ir r o r r e a c t io n , t h e g r o up m e m b e r s w e r e a b l e to u nd e r s t a n d t h a t d e s tr u c t i v e fantasies and impulses express o n e ' s n e e d f o r u n if i c a t i o n a n d s u p p o r t o n t h e o n e h a nd , w h i l e initiating one's need for d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a nd s e p a r a t i o n o n the other. A process was set in motion that went from a lack of c o m m u n i c a t io n , t h r o u g h r e s o n a n c e a n d m ir r o r i ng , t o o p e n c o m m u n i c a t io n , i . e . , f r o m m o n o lo g u e to d i a l o g ue . T h e a n a l y t i c a t t i t u d e , t h e s e t t i n g a n d t h e c a r e f u l s e le c t i o n a n d

10

c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e g r o up a l l s e r v e to p r o t e c t t he g r o u p f r o m a c t u a l d e s t r uc t i o n . T h e y a l s o e nc o ur a g e t h e c r e at i o n o f a s a f e p l a c e f o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f d e s t r uc t i v e f a n t a s i e s . T h i s m e a ns e g o d e v e l o p m e n t a n d no t o n l y e g o tr a i n i n g i n a c t i o n (F o u l k e s , 1 9 6 4 , p p . 8 2 , 1 2 9 ) . M o r r i s N i t s u n (1 9 9 6 ) h as d e s c r ib e d d e s tr u c t i v e g r o u p f o r c e s , n a m i n g t he m t h e a n t i g r o up . He s h o w e d t h a t a c t u a l d e s tr u c t i o n i s o n l y a c te d o u t i f t h e d e s t r u c t iv e f an t a s y c a n n o t b e v e r b a l i z e d a nd if t h e o b j e c t o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e fantasy seeks retaliation. In that case, developmental p r o c e s s e s o f d i f f e r e n t i a ti o n b e t w e e n m e a n d n o t m e c a n n o t b e s e t i n m o t i o n . T he c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f v e r b al i z e d , d e s tr u c t i v e f a n t a s i e s e nc o u r a g e s a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n p r o c e s s ( K n a u s s , 1 9 9 9 ) . I t f o s t e r s t h e g r o up m e m b e r s p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e a n o t h e r a s d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s w i t h t h e i r o w n r ig h t s a nd n e e d s . T h e s o c i a l u nc o ns c i o u s o f t h e g r o up , u nd e r s to o d a s a h a r b o r o f a l l t h e d e n i e d h e t e r o g e n e i t y w i t h i n t h e g r o up , b e c o m e s c o ns c i o us a nd b r i n g s p o w e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n g r o up s i n t o a s h a r e d p r o c e s s o f c o m m un i c a t i o n . T h i s c a n a l s o b e s e e n as a p r o c e s s o f d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n . C o h e s i o n , c o he r e n c e , r e g r e s s io n , m ir r o r i n g , i m i ta t i o n , identification, internalization, resonance, condensation,

e x c h a ng e , s h a r i ng , s o c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d p o l a r i z a t i o n , a s w e l l a s p r o j e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t io n a r e g r o u p - s p e c if i c t h e r a p e u t i c f a c t o r s . T h e d y n a m i c l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s tr u c t u r e , t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e d i s c us s io n a nd t h e f o r m i t t a k e s c a n b e c o m e conscious by an ongoing process of mutual interpretations a m o n g g r o u p m e m b e r s . O n l y w h e n t h e c o m m u n ic a t i o n p r o c e s s g e t s s t u c k d o e s t h e g r o u p c o n d u c to r n e e d to s t e p i n w i t h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r c l a r if i c a t i o n . T h e c o n d uc t o r t h e r e f o r e f o l l o w s t h e g r o u p p r o c e s s w i t h c u r i o s it y , e m p a t h y , a n d t a c t , a n d s ho u l d no t i n t e r r u p t c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s l o n g a s it flows freely. He intervenes solely if the communication p r o c e s s s t a g n a t e s a s a r e s u l t o f o v e r w h e l m i n g d e f e ns e mechanisms.

T h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n. T h e o f t h e u n c o ns c i o us ne t w o r k o f r e l a t i o ns h i p s e x i s t i n g w i t h i n t h e g r o u p , c r e a t i n g i n t he c o n d uc t o r a c o u n t e r t r an s f e r e n c e t o t h e d y n a m i c m a tr i x o f t h e g r o up as a w ho l e , w h i c h h e is a p ar t . T h e c o n d uc t o r m a y a b a nd o n h i s r o l e as a p ar t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r w he n , a nd o n ly w h e n , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s b r e a k s d o w n d u e t o u n c o n s c io u s c o nf l i c t s . I f t h e g r o up p r o c e s s d o e s g e t s t u c k , h o w e v e r , t he c o nd u c t o r m u s t i n t e r v e ne b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . W h e n t h e g r o up s t o p p e d

11

v a r io u s c o u n t e r tr a n s f e r e n c e p r o c e s s e s f o c us o n th e d y n a m i c

c o m m u n i c a t i n g a f t e r t h e r e p o r t o f t h e f ir s t p a t i e n t a b o u t h i s v i o l e n c e to w a r d s h i s w i f e a n d w a s w a i t i n g f o r m y r e ac t i o n to i t , I s a i d : D o y o u k e e p s i l e n t a n d j u s t w a i t to s e e ho w I w o u l d r e a c t? T h i s r e m a r k o n t h e p r o c e s s o p e n e d a s p ac e f o r r e s o n a nc e , c h a i n a nd m i r r o r r e a c t i o ns i n o t h e r g r o up m e m b e r s a nd t he c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s , w h i c h w as b l o c k e d b y s e p a r a t i o n an x i e t y , c o u l d c o n t i n u e . I n t h i s c o m m e n t i n g - o n - p r o c e s s i n t e r v e n t i o n t h e c o n d uc t o r n e e d s to t a k e i n t o c o ns i d e r a t i o n (1 ) t h e p a s t o ut s i d e t he g r o u p t h e s o c i a l h i s to r y ; (2 ) t h e p a s t i n s id e t h e g r o u p t h e g r o u p ' s h i s to r y ; (3 ) t h e p r e s e n t o u t s i d e t h e g r o u p t h e a c t u a l c o n t e x t ; a n d ( 4 ) t h e p r e s e n t i n s id e t h e g r o up t h e a c t u a l l y d e v e l o p i n g d y n am i c m a tr i x . T h e c o nd u c to r m i g h t l o c a l i z e m i r r o r r e a c t i o n s , w h i c h c a n b e h e lp f u l w h e n i t c o m e s t o r e c o g n i z i n g a s p e c t s o f o n e s e l f a n d o t he r s a n d to a c c e p t t h e v ie w p o i n t s o f o t h e r s o n o n e s e l f . H e c a n a l s o m a k e t h e g r o up a w a r e o f g r o up r o le c o nf i g ur a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i f a s c a p e g o a ti n g p r o c e s s i s t ak i n g p l ac e , a nd should always keep in mind the aim of fostering the process o f i n d iv i d u a l i z a t i o n a nd r e l a t i n g . T h e t h e r ap i s t ' s t a s k i s t o f o l l o w t h e i n t e r a c t i o n , to us e i n t e r v e n t i o n s s p ar i n g l y a nd s t r a t e g i c a l l y , to c u l t i v a te a r e f l e c t i v e c ur i o s i t y ( P i n e s a n d Schlapobersky, 2000, p. 1455). This will include gesture, b e h a v io r , b o d y l a n g u ag e , a n d o t h e r n o nv e r b a l

The group therapistconductor

I n e a c h a p p r o a c h , t h e t h e r a p e u t i c a t t i t u d e o f t h e g r o up c o n d uc t o r o r g r o u p l e a d e r i s a n e s s e n t i a l f a c to r . A c u l t u r e o f b as i c t r u s t c a n d e v e l o p o n l y i f h e t a k e s a l a r g e l y p o s i t i v e , s i n c e r e , a n d c ur i o u s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s e a c h p a t i e n t a n d t h e g r o u p . T h i s a t t i t u d e is a p r e c o nd i t i o n f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f a l l t h e r a p e u t ic a l l i a n c e s . I n a n a ly t i c a p p r o a c h e s , t h e a b s t i n e n c e a n d n e u tr a l i t y o f t h e c o n d uc t o r ( K n a u s s , 1 9 9 4 ) , c o m b i n e d w i t h a s i n c e r e e f f o r t t o u n d e r s ta n d w h a t i s going on, but not to act, is an additional requirement. As mentioned, in a group-analytic approach, the term leader i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e t e r m c o n d uc t o r , s o a s t o m a k e c le a r t h a t t h e c o n d uc t o r m us t b e f r e e f r o m t h e t e m p ta t i o n t o p l a y t h i s g o d - l i k e r o l e , to e x p l o i t i t f o r h i s o w n n e e d s ( F o u l k e s , 1 9 6 4 , p . 6 0 ) . I n s t e a d , he m u s t s e e k t o w e a n t h e group from this need for authoritative guidance (Foulkes, 1 9 6 4 , p . 6 1 ) a nd l e a d e r s h i p . T h i s g r o up - a n a l y t i c a t t i t u d e c o n tr i b u t e s f u n d a m e n t a l l y t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a g r o u p c u l t u r e a nd a c l i m a te o f t o l e r a n c e a n d d if f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n a p r o c e s s o f f r e e f l o a t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e t r a ns f e r e n c e p r o c e s s e s a r e no t o n l y i n v o lv i n g t h e c o nd uc t o r , b u t a l s o a l l o t h e r g r o up m e m b e r s i n a p r o c e s s o f m u l t i p l e , m u t u a l t r a n s f e r e nc e s .

c o m m u n i c a t io n s t h a t c o n v e y f e e l i n g s w h e n e m o ti o n s c a n n o t b e p u t i n to w o r d s . A p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g i s o f c o ur s e r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t t h e s e t a s k s . G r o u p -a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g w i l l i n c l u d e t h e o r y a n d a l o ng - t e r m p e r s o n a l t h e r a p y b y t h e t h e r a p is t i n a g r o u p , a s w e l l a s l o ng - t e r m a n d i n t e n s iv e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v is i o n o f g r o up - a n a l y t i c p r o c e s s e s .

T h e J o ur n a l o f P s y c ho t he r ap y : T h e o r y , Pr a c t i c e a n d Research) during the last 20 years by looking at 117 e m p ir i c a l s t u d i e s e x a m i ni n g m a i n l y t h e o u t c o m e o f b e h a v io r a l o r c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v io r a l g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y . He a l s o a n a ly z e d 6 2 e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s e x a m i n i n g m ai n l y t h e p r o c e s s o f p s y c h o d y n a m i c o r a n a l y t i c g r o up p s y c h o t h e r ap y . T s c h u s c hk e c o n c l u d e s t ha t s t u d i e s o f b e h av i o r a l o r c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l g r o u p p s y c h o t he r ap y c o n c e n t r a t e o n a

12

Scientific exchange and training organizations

I n 1 9 5 2 , S . H . F o u l k e s f o u n d e d t he G r o u p -A n a l y t i c S o c i e ty ( L o n d o n ) f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t , e x c h a n g e a nd d i s c u s s io n o f group-analytic theory, practice, and research. The GroupA n a l y t i c S o c i e ty ( Lo n d o n ) n o w p r o v i d e s a n e tw o r k f o r s c i e n t i f i c d i a lo g u e b e t w e e n q u a l if i e d g r o u p a n a l y s t s a nd researchers from all over the world. T o c a r r y o u t t h e s p e c if i c t a s k o f t r a i n i n g , s e n i o r c o l l e a g ue s o f t h e G r o up - A n a l y t i c S o c i e t y ( L o n d o n ) f o u n d e d t h e I n s t i t u t e o f G r o u p A n a l y s i s , Lo n d o n , i n 1 9 7 2 . T h e s c i e n t i f i c j o u r n a l G r o up A n a l y s i s ha s b e e n p ub l i s h e d b y t he G r o u p A n a l y t i c S o c i e ty ( Lo n d o n ) s i n c e 1 9 6 7 . N u m e r o u s o t h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r g r o u p a n a l y s i s h a v e s ub s e q ue n t l y b e e n c r e a t e d a l l o v e r E ur o p e , a s w e l l a s i n I s r a e l a n d A u s t r a l i a . T he y a r e a l s o s l o w ly d e v e lo p i n g i n t h e U S . T h e E u r o p e a n G r o up A n a l y t i c T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t i o n s N e t w o r k h a s established an I nternational Federation of Training I n s t i t u t i o n s i n G r o u p - a na l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p y .

s p e c i f i c d i s o r d e r a n d t h e o u t c o m e f o r t h e i nd i v i d u a l p a t i e n t , w h i l e s t ud i e s o f a n a l y t i c g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s d ur i n g t h e g r o up a n a l y t i c p r o c e s s i n p a t i e n t s s uf f e r i n g f r o m v a r io u s d is o r d e r s a n d tr e a t e d i n h e t e r o g e n e o u s ly c o m p o s e d g r o up s . O n ly i n t h e l a s t 1 0 y e ar s h av e s o m e s t u d ie s s o u g h t to e x a m i n e t h e outcome-process interrelatedness. W e m ig h t w i s h to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n t h e f o l l o w i n g :

Outcome studies with mainly prepost designs

o o o o

( a ) e i t h e r w i t h o r w i t h o ut c o n tr o l g r o u p s ( b ) c o m p a r i n g d i f f e r e n t a p p r o ac h e s ( c ) c o m p ar i n g d if f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s o f c o n d uc t i n g (d) comparing different patient groups.

P r o c e s s - o u t c o m e s t u d ie s e x a m i n i n g d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s b y c o m p ar i n g th e g r o u p s o f s uc c e s s f u l a n d u n s u c c e s s f u l p a t i e n t s i n h e t e r o g e n e o us l y c o m p o s e d groups.

Brief summary of research findings What works in groups?

T s c h u s c hk e ( 1 9 9 9 b ) a n a l y z e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a nt j o ur n a l s f o r g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y ( i . e . , G r o up , G r o u p A n a l y s i s , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Jo u r n a l o f G r o u p P.40 P s y c ho t h e r a p y , Jo u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g a n d C l i n i c a l P s y c ho l o g y , S m a l l G r o u p B e h a v i o r , S m a l l G r o up R e s e a r c h ,

R a n d o m i z e d c o n tr o l l e d tr i a l s (R C T s ) ar e d if f ic u l t t o m o u n t a n d e v a l u a t e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f g r o up a n a ly s i s f o r v ar i o us reasons:

R C T s t e nd t o f o c u s o n s i n g l e r a t h e r t h a n m u l t i p l e disorders (Hall and Mullee, 2000, p. 320). As groupa n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r ap y u s u a l l y w o r k s f o r d y n a m i c r e a s o n s w i t h m i x e d d i ag n o s e s i n a g r o u p , t h e s tu d y

o f a s p e c if i c d i s o r d e r s e e m s t o b e i m p o s s i b le . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e s t u d i e s c o n c e n tr a t e o n t h e e f f e c t s o f d if f e r e n t g r o u p p r o c e s s e s o n v a r i o u s p a t i e n t s . O n l y h o m o g e n e o u s l y c o m p o s e d g r o up s , s u c h a s b e h a v io r a l o r c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v io r a l g r o u p s o r g r o u p analytic treatment of addicts or eating disorders, allow the examination of a specific disorder.

A r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e e f f i c a c y o f g r o up p s y c h o t h e r a p y i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f b u l i m i a ne r v o s a b y M c K i s a c k a n d W a l l e r (1 9 9 7 ) s ho w s t h a t i m p r o v e m e n t w a s associated with long-term groups. V a l b ak (2 0 0 3 ) u nd e r t o o k a n e m p i r ic a l s t ud y o f lo n g - t e r m g r o u p - a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t he r ap y h o m o g e n e o u s ly c o m p o s e d

13

w i t h s e v e r e ly d i s t u r b e d b u l i m i c p a t i e n t s . I t s p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a te t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e o f t h e t r e a t m e nt h a s to include the following elements:

R C Ts t e nd t o b e u s e d t o e v a l u a t e s h o r t - t e r m g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y . G r o up - a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s a l o n g - t e r m a p p r o a c h w i t h t h e a i m o f b r i n g i ng a b o u t s t r u c t u r a l c h a ng e s .

A c a r e f u l a s s e s s m e n t i n te r v i e w . C o n s is t e n t m o n i t o r i n g o f e a t i n g h a b i t s a n d o f t h e c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a n d o u t l o o k . A n a c t iv e r e s p o n s e to a n y r u p t ur e s o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c a l l i a n c e t o p r e v e n t d r o p p i n g -o u t . A n e m p h a s is o n c o n t i n u i t y , a t t u n e m e n t a n d t i m i n g o f supportive and confronting interventions. T h e s u s t a i n i n g o f t h e g r o u p m a t r ix a s a c a r r i e r o f hope.

R C Ts ne c e s s i t a t e s t r i c t p r o t o c o l a n d m u l t i p l e o u t c o m e m e a s u r e s . T h e s e a r e u p s e t t i n g o r ir r i t a ti n g t o p a t i e n t s a nd a r e s o un l i k e w o r k i n n a t u r a l clinical settings that lessons from the research are n o t e as i l y a p p l i c a b l e t o f u t u r e c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ; e f f i c a c y d o e s n o t e q u a l c l i n i c a l e f f e c t i v e ne s s . ( H a l l and Mullee, 2000, p. 321).

C o n s e q ue n t l y , r a n d o m i z e d t r i a l s c o m p a r i n g t w o t r e a t m e n t s or open trials with a large number of patients treated in a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g a p p e a r t o b e m o r e s u i t a b l e m e th o d s t h a n R C Ts f o r e v i d e nc e - b a s e d g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y . T h i s i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t R C T s p r o v id e t h e o n l y v a l i d a l b e i t l i m i t e d s o u r c e o f e v id e n c e f o r t h e e f f i c a c y o f v a r i o u s f o r m s o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l t r e a t m e n t ( R o t h a nd F o n a g y , 1 9 9 6 , p . 1 9 ) .

Comparing group analytic and cognitivebehavioral groups

E x t e r n a l i z i n g p a t i e n t s t e n d to d o b e t t e r i n c o g n i t i v e b e h a v io r a l g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y , w h i l e i n t e r n a l i z i n g p a t i e n t s d o b e t t e r i n s u p p o r t i v e g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r ap y ( B e u t l e r e t a l . , 1991, 1993). S e v e r e l y a l c o h o l a b u s i ng p a t i e n t s s ho w m o r e i m p r o v e m e n t i n c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v io r a l g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r ap y , w h i l e l e s s s e v e r e a b u s e r s d o b e t t e r i n p s y c ho d y n a m i c g r o up p s y c h o t h e r ap y ( K a d d e n e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 , 2 0 0 1 ; S a n d a h l e t a l . , 1 9 9 8 ) . I n t h e c a s e o f p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r s , no d i f f e r e nc e h a s b e e n s ho w n b e t w e e n t h e tw o t r e a t m e n t m o d a l i t i e s ( K a d d e n e t a l . , 2 0 0 1 ) . S t e u e r e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) s ho w e d t h a t w h e n i t c o m e s to d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e e l d e r l y , p s y c h o d y n a m i c a n d c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v io r a l g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y ar e e q u a l l y e f f e c t iv e i n r e d uc i n g l e v e l s o f d e p r e s s io n . I t ap p e a r s t h a t i t

Individual versus group psychotherapy

T h e e f f e c t s i z e ( E S ) i n 2 3 s t u d i e s u s i ng R C T s to c o m p a r e d i r e c t l y i n d i v id u a l a n d g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y s h o w e d no d i f f e r e n c e , w h i l e b o t h t r e a t m e n t m o d a l i t i e s s ho w a b i g d i f f e r e n c e i n e f f e c t s i z e , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e c o n tr o l g r o up : f o r i n d i v id u a l p s y c h o t h e r a p y i t i s 0 .7 6 ES a nd f o r g r o up psychotherapy 0.90ES (McRoberts et al., 1998).

Group-analytic treatment in eating disorders

i s t h e g r o up t h a t w o r k s f o r t h e s e p a t i e n t s , r a t h e r t h a n a n y s p e c i f i c a p p r o ac h . S a n d a h l e t a l . (2 0 0 0 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e r e w a s a s ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e w a y c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l g r o up c o n d u c to r s c o m m u n i c a te i n c o m p a r is o n w i t h t h e g r o u p a n a ly s t s w a y o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g i n a g r o up : c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v io r a l ly o r i e n t e d t h e r a p i s ts t a l k e d m o r e t h a n t w i c e a s m u c h a s t he g r o u p a n a l y t i c a l l y o r ie n t e d t h e r a p i s ts w h i l e g r o up m e m b e r s t a l k e d 8 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e t i m e i n t h e g r o up - a n a l y t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d g r o up s a n d 6 0 p e r c e n t i n t h e c o g n i t i v e -b e h a v io r therapy (p. 343). The contents of the communication d i f f e r s s i g n if i c a n t l y i n tw o c a t e g o r i e s : w h i l e g r o u p a n a l y s t s a n d p a t i e n t s i n g r o up - a na l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p y c o m m u n i c a t e more on the contents. P i p e r e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) s ho w e d t h a t l o ng - t e r m g r o u p t h e r ap y ( a v e r a g e 7 6 s e s s i o n s ) i s m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n s ho r t - t e r m g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r ap y ( a v e r a g e 2 2 s e s s i o n s ) . L o r e n t z e n ( 2 0 0 0 ) d o c u m e n t e d s i g ni f i c a n t p r o g r e s s i n t h e s c a l e o f s y m p t o m s , i n t e r p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s , t a r g e t c o m p la i n t s , a n d p s y c h o s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n g a f te r 1 0 0 s e s s i o ns o f o u t p a t i e n t g r o u p - a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t he r a p y . S i m i l a r p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s a r e r e p o r te d b y T s c h u s c h k e a n d A nb e h , (2 0 0 0 ) w h o s t u d i e d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f p a t i e nt s ( m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 ) i n a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g w i t h a p r e p o s t d e s i g n , c o m p a r i n g l o ng - t e r m , o u t p a t i e n t a n a ly t i c g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y w i t h p s y c h o d r a m a g r o u p s . H e f o u nd f o r p a ti e n t s i n g r o u p - a n a ly t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p y a n E S o f 0 . 9 7 f o r t h e G lo b a l A s s e s s m e n t F u n c t i o n i n g S c a l e a n d a n E S o f 2 .3 5 f o r T a r g e t C o m p l a i n t s . T h e I n v e n t o r y o f I n t e r p e r s o n a l P r o b l e m s s ho w e d a n E S o f 0 . 6 2 a n d t h e G l o b a l S e v e r i t y I n d e x -S C L9 0 - R s ho w e d a n E S of 0.67.

14

T h e g r o u p a s a w ho l e T h e i n d iv i d u a l p a t i e n t T h e d if f e r e n t s t y l e s o f c o n d u c t i n g T h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l d y n am i c b e t w e e n p a t i e n t s i n th e group.

T h e a u t h o r s f o u n d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e nc e b e t w e e n t h e t w o a p p r o a c h e s o n t h e l e v e l o f t h e g r o up a s a w h o l e . T h e s t y l e s o f c o n d uc t i n g w e r e c l e ar l y d i f f e r e n t . P a t i e n t s w i t h m o r e s t a b le o b j e c t r e l a t io n s (Q O R = Q u a l i t y o f O b j e c t R e l a t i o n s ) b e n e f it m o r e f r o m a p s y c ho d y n a m i c approach. Patients with P.41 a l o w e r c a p a c i t y to u n d e r s t a n d p s y c h o d y n am i c p r o c e s s e s ( l o w p s y c ho l o g i c a l m i n d e d n e s s ) b e n e f i t m o r e f r o m o t he r p a t i e n t s . P s y c ho l o g i c a l - m i n d e d ne s s a n d a h i g h e s t e e m o f t h e g r o u p a s a w h o l e ar e t h e b e s t p r e d i c t o r s f o r a g o o d individual outcome in group psychotherapy.

The Stuttgart Study by Tschuschke and Dies, R. R. (1994)

I n t h i s s t ud y , f iv e p r o c e s s v ar i a b l e s w e r e u s e d to p r e d i c t w h o w o u l d b e t h e s uc c e s s f u l a nd t he u n s uc c e s s f u l i n p a t i e n t s i n g r o up - a n a l y t i c p s y c ho t h e r a p y . T he s e f a c t o r s w e r e :

cohesion s e l f - d is c l o s u r e feedback i n t e r p e r s o n a l le a r n i n g r e e n a c t m e n t o f e a r ly f am i l y c o nf l i c t s i n t h e g r o u p .

Process-outcome studies The Vancouver/Edmonton Study by Piper et al . (1992); 1996a,b; 2001)

T h i s s t u d y c o m p a r e d p s y c h o d y n a m i c a n d s up p o r t i v e g r o up p s y c h o t h e r a p y i n a R C T d e s ig n o n v a r i o u s l e v e l s :

The authors found that:

c o h e s i o n a n d t h e f e e l i n g t o b e l o n g to t h e g r o u p a r e g o o d p r e d i c to r s f o r s u c c e s s ;

e a r l y s e l f -d i s c l o s u r e p r o d u c e s a b e t t e r o u t c o m e ; m o r e c r i t i c a l f e e d b a c k w a s r e c e i v e d a n d g iv e n b y successful patients; i n s i g h t i n t o t he r e e n a c tm e n t o f i n f a n t i l e c o nf l i c ts i n g r o u p s c h a n g e s t h e i n t e r n a l i z e d r e l a t i o n a l n e tw o r k f o r t h e b e t t e r a nd i s l i n k e d t o a n i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e q u a l i t y o f o b j e c t r e l a t io n s .

L i e b e r m a n n (1 9 7 1 ) h as e m p ir i c a l l y s h o w n t h a t a w e l l f u n c t i o n i n g g r o u p i s ab le t o e s t a b l i s h a g r o up c u l t u r e i n w h i c h t h e g r o u p m e m b e r s i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e t he r ap i s t ' s therapeutic attitude and thus become more and more therapeutically active. K o r d y a n d S e n f (1 9 9 2 ) ha v e s ho w n t h a t b e i n g i s o l a t e d w i t h a s p e c if i c s y m p to m i n a g r o u p l e ad s t o p r e m a t ur e d r o p -o u t ( a s p e r t h e N o a h ' s A r k Pr i n c i p l e , s e e ab o v e ) . A r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e e m p ir i c a l r e s e a r c h o f g r o u p p s y c ho t h e r ap y b y D i e s ( 1 9 9 3 ) a n d b y B u r l i n g a m e e t a l . (2 0 0 1 ), 2 0 0 2 ) a r g u e d t h a t g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s e f f e c t iv e i n c as e s o f a l c o h o l i s m , a n x i e ty disorders, bereavement, eating disorders, depression, s c h i z o p h r e n i a , a n d s e x ua l a b u s e .

15

A n i n t e n s e a nd p o s i t i v e w a y o f e m o t i o n a l l y r e l a ti n g t o c o members, which can be fostered by preparing patients for the group process, promotes the capacity to disclose and l e a d s t o m o r e f r e q ue n t a n d i n t e n s e f e e d b a c k f r o m f e l l o w p a t i e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r ha n d , t h e p a t i e n t w ho h a s a n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r g r o u p m e m b e r s w i l l d i s c l o s e l i t t l e a n d w i l l r e c e iv e r e la t i v e l y l i t t l e m e a n i n g f u l f e e d b a c k . T s c h u s c hk e a n d D i e s ( 1 9 9 4 ) c o n c l u d e t h a t t he r e i s a c o m p l e x i n t e r d e p e nd e nc y a m o ng t h e t h r e e t h e r a p e u t i c f a c t o r s o f c o h e s i v e ne s s , s e lf - d i s c l o s ur e a n d f e e d b a c k , w h i c h promotes a working-through process that is also apparent in the improvement of interpersonal patterns (interpersonal l e a r n i n g - o u tp u t ) w i t h i n th e g r o u p a n d p r o d u c e s e n d u r i n g i n t r a p s y c h i c c h a n g e s i n o b j e c t s a n d s e l f -r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s (family re-enactment). E a r l y c o h e s io n a nd t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o h e r e nc y , e a r ly d i s c l o s u r e to a nd c o nf r o n t a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s , a l a r g e l y p o s i t i v e a l l i a n c e w i t h o t h e r s , a n d a n i n c r e a s i n g ly n o n i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t g r o up t h e r a p i s t a r e a l l l i nk e d t o a p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e f o r t h e i n d i v id u a l p a t i e n t ( S o l d z e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ; S t r a u , 1 9 9 2 ; M a r z i a l i e t a l . , 1 9 9 7 ) . S e i d l e r ( 2 0 0 0 a ,b ) h a s f o u n d a s i g n if i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n i n c r e a s e d s e lf - r e l a t e d n e s s a n d t h e r e d uc t i o n o f psychosomatic symptoms among inpatients undergoing a n a l y t i c a l l y o r ie n t e d g r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y . I n t he b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r a p y he c o u ld o b s e r v e a s h if t f r o m s o m a t i c s y m p to m s t o n e ur o t i c s y m p t o m f o r m a t i o n .

Cost-effectiveness
T h e H e nd e r s o n t h e r a p e ut i c c o m m u n i t y a p p r o a c h d e m o n s t r a te d i t s c o s t - e f f e c t iv e n e s s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f severe personality disorders according to an empirical study c o n d uc t e d b y D o l a n e t al . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . T h i s o u t c o m e p a v e d t h e w a y f o r c e n t r a l f u n d i n g f o r s i m i l ar u n i t s i n o t he r p a r t s o f t h e U K ( c f . C ar t e r , 2 0 0 2 , p . 1 3 1 ) . A r e tr o s p e c t i v e s t ud y b y H e i n t z e l e t a l . (2 0 0 0 ) p r o d u c e d a k e y a r g um e n t i n f a v o r o f b e t t e r f u n d i ng f o r g r o up p s y c h o t h e r a p y b y i n s u r an c e c o m p a n i e s . B y a n a l y z i n g h ar d d a t a s u c h a s t h e u s e o f h o s p i t a l c a r e , s i c k l e av e , m e d i c a l a p p o i n t m e n t s , a nd m e d i c a t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s s h o w e d t h a t 2 7 m o n t h s a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e r a p y , p a t i e n t s w ho ha d s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e d a l o n g - t e r m a n a l y t i c g r o up p s y c h o t h e r a p y h a d s av e d m o r e t h a n t h r e e t i m e s t h e i r t h e r a p y c o s t s b y us i n g f a r l e s s m e d i c a l c ar e c o m p a r e d w i t h w h a t t h e y h a d us e d i n th e 2 7 m o n t h s p r i o r to i t.

Indications and contraindications

The results of empirical research cannot yet provide us with a d e t a i l e d a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n : W h a t w o r k s f o r w ho m ? T s c h u s c hk e ( 1 9 9 9 ) p r o v id e s a n o v e r v ie w o f R C T s t u d i e s t h a t c o m p a r e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f i nd i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p t h e r ap y .

T h e y a r e b o t h s i m i l a r ly e f f e c t iv e c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e d u c t io n o f s u f f e r i n g f r o m n e ur o t i c , p s y c h o s o m a t i c , o r b o r d e r l i n e p a t h o l o g y . G r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s m o r e e c o no m ic a n d f o s t e r s t h e c a p a c i ty to d e v e lo p m o r e s a t i s f y i n g r e l a t i o n s h ip s . T h e r e f o r e , a l l p a t i e n t s w h o c a n p r o f i t f r o m p s y c ho t h e r a p y are potentially suitable for group psychotherapy, but assessment must also consider additional factors as follows. G r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y s ho u l d b e i n d i c a te d o n ly a f t e r a p r o c e s s i n w h i c h a p a t i e n t ' s m o t i v a t i o n a n d a b i l it y f o r s e lf d i s c l o s u r e a nd f e e d b a c k , a s w e l l a s t h e i r h i s t o r y o f p r e v i o us g r o u p i n t e r ac t i o n s , h a v e b e e n c a r e f u l ly a s s e s s e d . A c c o r d i ng t o D i e s ( 1 9 9 3 ) , g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n s f o r g r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y i n c l u d e : t h e m o t i v a t i o n t o p a r t i c ip a t e a nd t o g e t e m o t i o n a l ly i nv o lv e d , s o m e p o s i t i v e e x p e r i e nc e s i n r e l a t i n g t o o t h e r s i n g r o up s i n c h i l d h o o d , o r a t p r e s e n t , s o m e i n t e r e s t i n e x p l o r i n g o n e s e l f a n d o t h e r s a nd s o m e a b i l i t y t o s y m p a t h i z e o r e m p h a s i z e w i t h o t h e r s n e e d s a nd p r o b l e m s . C o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e no t c o nf i n e d to s y m p to m s s u c h as ac u t e d e s t r u c t i v e o r s e l f - d e s tr u c t i v e a c t in g o u t o r a c u t e p s y c h o s i s . M a j o r p r o b l e m s o f s e l f -d i s c l o s u r e , d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h i n t i m a c y , g e ne r a l p e r s o n a l d i s tr us t , a n d t h e e x c e s s iv e u s e o f d e n i a l a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t io n s t o g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d n e e d a p r e l i m i n a r y p h a s e o f in d i v i d u a l p s y c h o t h e r ap y ( K n a u s s , 1 9 8 5 ) .

16

d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a nd c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n e q u a l s ; c o nf r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r n e s s o f t h e o t h e r ; t o l e r a n c e a n d a n ac c e p ta n c e o f t h e v a l u e o f d i v e r s i ty ; d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a nd i nd i v id u a t i o n o f e a c h g r o up m e m b e r w i t h i n h i s / h e r o w n g r o u p s a nd i n r e l a t i o n to other groups.

T h u s t h r o u g h s h a r i n g , r e c i p r o c i t y , to l e r a n c e , a nd s o l i d ar i t y w i t h t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e o t h e r , g r o up s d e v e l o p a w e a l t h o f r e s o u r c e s f o r h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t a nd g r o w t h .

References
A g a z a r i a n , Y . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . G r o u p - as - a - w h o l e s y s t e m t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . G r o up , 1 3 , 1 3 1 5 4 . Agazarian, Y. M. (1997). Systems-centered therapy for g r o u p s . N e w Y o r k : G u i l f o r d Pr e s s . P.42

B a t e m a n , A . W . a n d F o n a g y , P . (2 0 0 0 ) . Ef f e c t iv e n e s s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c t r e a tm e n t o f p e r s o n a l i t y d is o r d e r . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a tr y , 1 7 7 , 1 3 8 4 3 . B e n d e r , L . (1 9 3 7 ) . G r o u p a c t iv i t i e s i n a c h i l d r e n ' s w a r d as m e t h o d s o f p s y c ho t h e r ap y . A m e r ic a n Jo u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 93, 115173. B e u t l e r , L . E . , e t a l . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . Pr e d i c t o r s o f d if f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e t o c o g n i t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l , a nd s e l f -d i r e c t e d p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e d u r e s . Jo u r n a l o f C o n s u lt i n g a n d C l i n i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , 5 9 (2 ) , 3 3 3 4 0 . B e u t l e r , L . E . , e t a l . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . D if f e r e n t i a l p a t i e nt t r e a t m e n t m a i n t e n a n c e a m o ng c o g n i t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l , a nd s e lf

Conclusions
G r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s a n e f f i c ie n t a n d e c o no m ic t r e a t m e n t f o r a g r e a t v ar i e t y o f m e n t a l d i s o r d e r s . G r o up psychotherapy uses a natural setting under specific c o n d i t i o ns to ac h i e v e t he r a p e u t i c g o a l s . G r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s e c o no m i c a l n o t j u s t i n e c o no m i c t e r m s , but also the wealth of potential outcomes: for a large p r o p o r t i o n o f p a t i e n t s , g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y d o e s no t m e r e l y r e s u l t i n a r e l i e f o f s uf f e r i ng f r o m n e ur o t ic , psychosomatic, or borderline symptoms. It also fosters:

d i r e c t e d p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s . J o ur n a l o f P s y c ho t h e r a p y I n t e g r a t io n , 3 , 1 5 3 1 . B i o n , W . R . (1 9 6 0 ) . Ex p e r i e n c e s i n g r o u p s . N e w Y o r k : B a s i c Books. B u r l i n g a m e , G . M . , Ma c K e n z i e , K . R . , a n d S t ra u , B . ( 2 0 0 1 ) . Z u m ak t u e l l e n S t a n d d e r G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r a p i e f o r s c h u n g I : A l l g e m e i n e E f f e k t e v o n G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r a p i e n u n d E f f e k t e s t r u n g s s p e z i f i s c he r G r u p p e nb e h a nd l u n g e n . Z e i t s c hr i f t f r G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r a p i e u n d G r u p p e nd y n a m i k , 3 7 , 2 9 9 3 1 8 . B u r l i n g a m e , G . M . , Ma c K e n z i e , K . R . , a n d S t ra u , B . ( 2 0 0 2 ) . Z u m ak t u e l l e n S t a n d d e r G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r a p i e f o r s c h u n g : I I Ef f e k t e v o n G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r a p i e a l s B e s t a n d t e i l k o m p l e x e r B e h a n d l u n g s a n s t z e . Z e it s c h r i f t f r G r u p p e np s y c h o t h e r a p i e u n d G r u p p e nd y n am i k , 3 8 , 5 3 2 . B u r r o w , T . (1 9 2 8 ) . T he b a s i s o f g r o up a n a l y s i s o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e a c t i o n s o f n o r m a l a nd n e u r o t i c i n d i v i d u a l s . B r i t i s h Jo u r n a l o f Me d i c a l P s y c h o lo g y , 8 , 1 9 8 2 0 6 . C a r t e r , D . (2 0 0 2 ) . R e s e a r c h a n d s ur v iv e ? A c r i t ic a l q u e s t i o n f o r g r o up a n a ly s i s . G r o u p A n a ly s i s , 3 5 , 1 1 9 3 4 . D a l a l , F . (1 9 9 8 ) . T a k i n g t h e g r o up s e r i o u s ly . L o n d o n : Jessica Kingsley. D i e s , R . R . (1 9 9 3 ) . R e s e a r c h o n g r o u p p s y c h o t he r ap y : o v e r v i e w a nd c l i n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n : A . A lo n s o a n d H . J . Swiller, ed. Group therapy in clinical practice, pp. 48990. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. D o l a n , B . M . , e t a l . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . C o s t - o f f s e t f o l l o w i ng s p e c i a l i s t treatment of severe personality disorders. Psychiatric Bulletin, 20, 41317.

D r e i k u r s , R . (1 9 3 2 ) . E ar l y e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r ap y . A m e r i c an J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o t he r ap y , 1 3 , 88291. E l i a s , N . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . D i e G e s e l l s c h af t d e r I nd i v i d ue n . F r a nk f u r t : S u h r k a m p . E l l i o t , A . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . S o c i a l t h e o r y a nd p s y c ho a n a l y s i s i n t r a n s i t i o n , p p . 4 6 7 6 . Lo n d o n : F r e e A s s o c i a t i o n B o o k s . E n k e , H . (1 9 6 5 ) . B i p o l a r e G r u p p e n t h e r a p i e a l s M g l i c h k e i t p s y c h o a n a ly t i s c h e r A r b e i t i n d e r s t a t i o n r e n P s y c ho t h e r a p i e . Z e i t s c h r i f t f r P s y c h o t he r ap i e , P s y c ho s o m a t i k u nd M e d iz i n i s c h e P s y c ho l o g i e , 1 5 , 1 1 6 . E t t i n , M . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . F o u n d a t i o n s a nd ap p l i c a t io n s o f g r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y . A s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e , p p . 7 2 8 . L o n d o n : Jessica Kingsley. E z r i e l , H . (1 9 7 3 ) . P s y c ho a n a l y t i c g r o up t he r ap y . I n : L . W o l b e r g a nd E . S c h w a r tz , e d . G r o u p t h e r ap y 1 9 7 3 : a n overview. New York: Stratton Intercontinental Medical Books. F i e d l e r , P . (1 9 9 6 ) . V e r h a l t e n s t h e r a p ie m i t G r up p e n . W e i n h e i m : P s y c ho l o g i e -V e r l a g s u n i o n . F o u l k es , S . H . ( 1 9 4 8 ) . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o g r o up - a na l y t i c p s y c h o t he r a p y . L o nd o n : H e i n e m a n .

17

F o u l k es , S . H . ( 1 9 6 4 ) . T h e r a p e u t i c g r o up a n a ly s i s . Lo n d o n : Allen & Unwin. F o u l k es , S . H . ( 1 9 7 1 ) . A c c e s s t o u n c o n s c io u s p r o c e s s e s i n the group-analytic group. In: Selected Papers, pp. 20921. London: Karnac Books (first published in Group Analysis (1971), 4, 414).

F o u l k es , S . H . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . G r o u p a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t he r a p y : m e t h o d s a nd p r i n c i p a l s . L o n d o n : G o r d o n & B r e a c h . F o u l k es , S . H . a n d A n t h o n y , E . J . ( 1 9 6 5 ) . G r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y : t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h , 2 nd e d n . B a l t i m o r e , MD : P e ng u i n B o o k s . Free, L. M. (1999). Cognitive therapy in groups. Guidelines a n d r e s o ur c e s f o r p r a c t ic e . C h i c h e s te r : J o h n W i l e y & S o n s . F r e u d , S . (1 9 2 1 / 1 9 5 5 ) . G r o u p p s y c h o lo g y a n d t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e g o . I n : J S t r a c h e y , e d . a n d t r a n s S t a nd a r d e d i t i o n o f t h e c o m p le t e p s y c ho l o g ic a l w o r k s o f S i g m u n d F r e u d , V o l . 18, pp. 65143. London: Hogarth Press. G o l d s t e i n , K . ( 1 9 3 4 ; r e p r i n t e d 1 9 9 5 ) . T he o r g a n i s m . London: Zone Books. H a l l , Z . M . a n d M u l l e e , M . ( 2 0 0 0 ) . U n d e r t ak i n g p s y c h o t h e r ap y r e s e a r c h . G r o up A n a l y s i s , 3 3 ( 3 ) , 3 1 9 3 2 . H e i g l - E v e r s , A . a n d H ei g l , F . S . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . G r u p p e n t h e r a p i e : i n t e r a k t i o ne l l , t i e f e n p s y c h o l o g i s c h f u n d i e r t ( a n a l y t i s c h o r i e n t i e r t ) , p s y c h o a n a ly ti s c h . Z e i t s c h r if t f r G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r a p i e u n d G r u p p e nd y n a m i k , 7 , 1 3 2 5 7 . H e i n t z e l , R . , B e y e r , F . , a n d K l e i n , T . (2 0 0 0 ) . O u t - p a t i e n t p s y c h o a n a ly t i c i nd i v i d u a l a n d g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y i n a n a t i o n w i d e c a t a m ne s t i c s t u d y i n G e r m a n y . G r o up A n a l y s i s , 33, 35372. J a n s s en , P . L . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . I n t e g r a t iv e a n a l y t i s c h e p s y c h o t h e r ap e u t i s c h e Kr a n k e n h a u s b e h a n d l u n g . F o r u m d e r P s y c ho a n a l y s e , p . 2 9 8 f f . K a d d en , R . M . , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . M a t c h i ng a l c o ho l i c s t o c o p i n g skills or interactional therapies: posttreatment results. J o u r n a l o f C o ns u l t i n g a nd C l i n i c a l P s y c ho l o g y , 5 7 , 6 8 0 7 0 4 .

K a d d en , R . M . , e t a l . ( 2 0 0 1 ) . Pr o s p e c t i v e m a t c hi n g o f a l c o h o l i c c l i e n t s t o c o g n it i v e - b e h av i o r a l o r i n t e r ac t i o n a l g r o u p t h e r a p y . Jo u r n a l o f S t u d i e s o n A l c o h o l , 6 2 , 3 5 9 6 9 . K n a u s s , W . (1 9 8 5 ) . T h e t r e a tm e n t o f p s y c ho s o m a t i c i l l n e s s e s i n g r o u p - a n a l y ti c p s y c h o t h e r a p y i nd i c at i o n s a nd c o n t r a - i n d ic a t i o n s . G r o up A n a l y s i s , X V I I I / 3 , 1 7 7 9 0 . K n a u s s , W . (1 9 9 4 ) . A b s t i n e n z : G r e n z e o d e r S c hr a n k e i n d e r g r up p e n a n a l y t i s c he n A u s b i l d u n g . I n : W . K n au s s a nd U . K e l l e r , e d . 9 t h E u r o p e a n s y m p o s i u m i n g r o up a na l y s i s b o u nd a r i e s a n d b a r r ie r s . H e i d e l b e r g : M a t t e s -V e r l a g . K n a u s s , W . (1 9 9 9 ) . T h e c r e a t i v i t y o f d e s tr u c t i v e f a n t a s ie s . G r o u p A n a ly s i s , 3 2 (3 ) , 3 9 7 4 1 1 . K n a u s s , W . (2 0 0 1 ) . G r up p e n a n a ly s e i n d e r s t a t i o n r e n P s y c ho t h e r a p i e . G r u p p e n a n a l y s e , 1 1 , 7 7 8 6 . K o r d y , H . a n d S e n f , W . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e r ap i e ab b r e c h e r i n g e s c h l o s s e n e n G r u p p e n . Z e i t s c h r if t f r P s y c ho t h e r ap i e , P s y c ho s o m a t i k u nd M e d iz i n i s c h e P s y c ho l o g i e , 4 2 , 1 2 7 3 5 . L a i n g , R . D . (1 9 7 4 ) . D ie Po l i t i k d e r F a m i l i e . C o lo g n e : Kiepenheuer und Witsch. L a z el l , E . W . (1 9 2 1 ) . T h e g r o u p t r e a t m e n t o f d e m e n t i a p r ae c o x . P s y c h o a n a ly t i c R e v i e w , 8 , 1 6 8 7 9 . L e v i n , K . ( 1 9 5 1 ) . F i e ld t h e o r y i n s o c i a l s c i e nc e . N e w Y o r k : Harper & Row. L i e b e r m a n n , R . (1 9 7 1 ) . R e i n f o r c e m e n t o f c o h e s iv e n e s s i n g r o u p t h e r a p y : b e h av i o ur a l a nd p e r s o n a l i t y c h a n g e s . A r c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l Ps y c h i a t r y , 2 5 , 1 6 8 7 7 . L o r e n t z en , S . (2 0 0 0 ) . A s s e s s m e n t o f c h a n g e af te r l o n g t e r m p s y c h o a n a l y t i c g r o u p tr e a t m e n t . G r o up A na l y s i s , 3 3 , 37396.

18

M a i n , T . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . D a s K o n z e p t d e r T he r ap e u t i s c h e n G e m e i n s c h a f t . I n : H . H i lp e r t e t a l . , e d . Ps y c h o t he r a p i e i n der Klinik, pp. 4666. Heidelberg-Berlin: Springer. M a r s h , L . C . (1 9 3 3 ) . G r o u p t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p s y c h o s i s b y t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e q u i v a l e n t o f r e v i v a l . M e n t a l H y g i e ne , 1 5 , 32849. M a r z i a l i , E . , Mu r o e - B l u m , H . , a n d M c C l e a r y , L . (1 9 9 7 ) . T h e c o n t r ib u t i o n o f g r o up c o h e s i o n a n d g r o u p a l l i a n c e to t h e o u t c o m e o f g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f G r o u p P s y c h o t he r a p y , 4 7 ( 4 ) , 4 7 5 9 . M c K i s a c k , C . a n d W a l l e r , G . ( 1 9 9 7 ) . F a c t o r s in f l u e n c i n g t h e o u t c o m e o f g r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y f o r b u l i m i a n e r v o s a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Jo u r n a l o f E a t i n g D i s o r d e r , 2 2 , 1 1 3 . McRoberts, C., Burlingame, G. M., and Hoag, M. J. ( 1 9 9 8 ) . C o m p a r a t i v e e f f ic a c y o f i n d iv i d u a l a nd g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y : a m e t a -a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e . G r o u p Dynamics, 2, 10117. N i t s u n , M . (1 9 9 6 ) . T h e a n t i - g r o up . Lo n d o n : R o ut l e d g e . P i n e s , M . (1 9 8 2 ) . R e f l e c t i o n s o n m i r r o r i n g . R e p r i n t i n : M . P i n e s ( 1 9 9 8 ) . C ir c u l a r r e f l e c t i o ns . Lo n d o n : J e s s i c a K i n g s l e y . P i n e s , M . a n d S c h l a p o b e r s k y , J . ( 2 0 0 0 ) . G r o up m e t h o d s i n a d u l t p s y c h i a t r y . I n : M . G e l d e r , L . Lo p e z -I b o r J u n i o r , a n d N . A nd r e a s e n , e d . N e w O x f o r d t e x t b o o k o f p s y c h i a t r y , V o l . 2 , p p . 1 4 4 2 6 2 . O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n iv e r s i t y P r e s s . P i p e r , W . F . , D e b b a n e , E . G . , B i e n v en u e , J . P . , a n d G a r a n t , J . (1 9 8 4 ) . A c o m p a r a t iv e s t u d y o f f o u r f o r m s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y . J o ur n a l o f C o n s u l t a n t a nd C l i n i c a l P s y c ho l o g y , 5 2 , 2 6 8 7 9 .

Piper, W. E., McCallum, M., Joyce, A. S., and Rosie, J. S . (1 9 9 2 ) . A d a p t a t i o n t o l o s s t hr o ug h s h o r t - t e r m g r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y . N e w Y o r k : G u i lf o r d Pr e s s . Piper, W. E., Joyce, J. S., and Azim, H. F. A. (1996a). Time-limited day treatment for personality disorders: i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s e ar c h d e s i g n a n d p r a c t i c e i n a g r o u p p r o g r a m . W a s h i n g to n , D C : A m e r i c a n Ps y c h o lo g i c a l Association. P i p e r , W . E . , e t a l . (1 9 9 6 b ) . T i m e - l i m i t e d d ay tr e a t m e n t

19

f o r p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r s : i n t e g r a t i o n o f r e s e ar c h d e s i g n a n d p r ac t i c e i n a g r o up p r o g r a m . W a s h i n g t o n , D C : A m e r i c a n P s y c ho l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n . P i p e r , W . E . , M a c Ca l l u m , M . , J o y c e , A . S . , a n d R o s i e , J . S . (2 0 0 1 ) . P a t i e n t p e r s o n a l i t y a n d t i m e - l i m i t e d g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r ap y f o r c o m p li c a t e d g r i e f . I n t e r n a t i o na l J o u r n a l o f G r o u p P s y c h o t h e r ap y , 5 1 , 2 1 1 3 9 . P.43

P r a t t , J . H . ( 1 9 0 8 ) . R e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e t r e at m e n t o f p u l m o n a r y t u b e r c u l o s i s . B r i t i s h Me d i c a l J o ur n a l , 2 , 1 0 7 0 71. P r a t t , J . H . ( 1 9 2 2 /1 9 6 3 ) . T h e t u b e r c u l o s is c l a s s . A n e x p e r i m e n t i n h o m e tr e at m e n t . R e p r i n t i n M . R o s e n b a u m a n d M . B e r g e r , e d . G r o up p s y c ho t h e r ap y a nd g r o u p f u n c t i o n , p p . 1 1 1 1 2 . N e w Y o r k : B as i c B o o k s . R o t h , A . a n d F o n a g y , P . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . W h a t w o r k s f o r w ho m ? A c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e p s y c ho t h e r ap y r e s e ar c h . N e w Y o r k : Guilford Press. R u t a n , J . S . a n d S t o n e, W . N . ( 2 0 0 1 ) . P s y c h o d y n a m i c g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y , 3 r d e d n . N e w Y o r k : G u i l f o r d Pr e s s .

S a n d a h l , C . , e t a l . (1 9 9 8 ) . T i m e - l i m i t e d g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y f o r m o d e r a t e l y a l c o h o l d e p e nd e n t p a t i e n t s : a r a n d o m i z e d c o n tr o l l e d c li n i c a l t r i a l . J o ur n a l f o r P s y c ho t h e r a p y R e s e a r c h , 8 , 3 6 1 7 8 . S a n d a h l , C . , e t a l . (2 0 0 0 ) . D o e s t h e g r o up c o nd u c t o r m ak e a d if f e r e n c e ? c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s i n g r o u p - a n a l y t i c a l l y a n d c o g n i t i v e b e h a v i o ur a l l y o r i e n t e d t h e r a p y g r o u p s . G r o u p A n a l y s i s , 3 3 (3 ) , 3 3 3 5 2 .

S t eu e r , J . , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . C o g n i t i v e -b e h av i o r a l a n d p s y c h o d y n a m i c g r o up p s y c h o t he r ap y i n tr e a t m e nt o f g e r i a t r i c d e p r e s s i o n . J o ur n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g a n d C l i n i c a l P s y c ho l o g y , 5 2 , 1 8 0 9 2 . S t r a u , B . (1 9 9 2 ) . E m p ir i s c h e U n t e r s uc h u n g e n z u r s t a t i o n r e n G r u p p e n t h e r a p i e . Z e i t s c hr i f t f r G r u p p e np s y h o t h e r a p i e un d G r up p e nd y n a m i k , 2 8 , 1 2 5 4 9 . T s ch u s c h k e , V . (1 9 9 3 ) . W i r kf a k t o r e n s t a t i o n r e r

20

S a l v en d y , J . T . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . S e l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a r a t i o n o f p a t i e n t s i n o r g a n i s a t io n o f t h e g r o up . I n : H . J . Ka p l a n a n d B . J . S a d o c k , e d . C o m p r e h e n s i v e g r o up p s y c ho t h e r a p y , 3 r d e d n , p p . 7 2 8 4 . B a l t i m o r e , MD : W i l l i a m s & W i l k in s . S c h i l d e r , P . (1 9 3 6 ) . T he a n a l y s i s o f id e o l o g i e s a s a p s y c h o t h e r ap e u t i c m e t ho d , e s p e c i a l l y i n g r o up tr e a t m e n t . A m e r i c a n Jo u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 9 3 , 6 0 1 1 5 . S c h i l d e r , P . (1 9 4 0 ) . I n tr o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s o n g r o u p s . J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c ho l o g y , 1 2 , 8 3 1 0 0 . Seidler, G. H. (1997). From object-relations theory to the t h e o r y o f a l t e r i t y : s h a m e a s a n i n t e r m e d i a r y b e tw e e n t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l w o r l d a nd t h e w o r ld o f p s y c h i c s tr u c t u r e . A m e r i c a n Jo u r n a l o f P s y c h o t h e r a p y , 5 1 , 3 4 3 5 6 . S e i d l e r , G . H . ( 2 0 0 0 a ) . I n o t h e r s ' e y e s . A n a n a ly s i s o f s h a m e . M a d i s o n , W I : I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s Pr e s s .

G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r ap i e . P r o z e s s Er g e b n i s R e l at i o n e n . G t t i n g e n : V a nd e n h o e c k u n d R up r e c h t . T s ch u s c h k e , V . (1 9 9 9 a) . G r up p e n t h e r ap i e v e r s u s E i n z e l t h e r a p i e g l e i c h w i r k s a m ? ( I nd i v id u a l v e r s us G r o u p P s y c ho t h e r a p y Eq u a l l y E f f e c t i v e ? ) . Z e i t s c h r if t f r G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r ap i e u n d G r u p p e nd y n am i k , 3 5 ( 4 ) , 2 5 7 76. T s ch u s c h k e , V . (1 9 9 9 b ) . E m p i r is c h e S t ud i e n m it v e r h a l t e n s t h e r a p e u t i s c h e n u n d p s y c h o a n a ly t i s c he n G r u p p e np s y c ho t h e r ap i e -B e h a n d l u n g e n . E i n L i t e r a t u r b e r b l i c k . Pr ax i s K l i n i s c h V e r h a l t e n s m e d i z i n u n d Rehabilitation, 48, 1117. T s ch u s c h k e , V . a n d A n b e t , T . ( 2 0 0 0 ) . E ar l y tr e a t m e n t e f f e c ts o f l o ng - t e r m o u t - p a t i e n t g r o up t h e r ap i e s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s . G r o u p A n a l y s is , 3 3 , 3 9 7 4 1 2 . T s ch u s c h k e , V . a n d D i e s , R . R . (1 9 9 4 ) . I n t e ns i v e a n a ly s i s

S e i d l e r , G . H . ( 2 0 0 0 b ) . T h e s e l f - r e l a t e d ne s s c o ns t r u c t : e m p ir i c a l v e r i f i c a t io n v ia o b s e r v a t i o n i n t h e c o nt e x t o f i n p a t i e n t g r o up t he r a p y . G r o up A n a l y s i s , 3 3 , 4 1 3 3 2 . S o l d z , S . , B u d m a n , S . , a n d D e m b y , A . (1 9 9 2 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n m a i n a c t o r b e h a v i o r s a n d tr e a t m e n t o u t c o m e i n g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y . P s y c ho t h e r a p y R e s e a r c h , 2, 5262.

o f t h e r a p e u t i c f a c to r s a nd o u t c o m e i n l o ng - t e r m i n p a t i e n t g r o u p s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Jo u r n a l o f G r o up P s y c h o t he r ap y , 4 4 , 183214. V a l b a k , K . ( 2 0 0 3 ) . S p e c i a l i s e d p s y c ho t h e r ap e u t ic g r o u p a n a l y s i s : ho w d o w e m ak e g r o up a n a l y s i s s u i t a b l e f o r n o n s u i t a b l e p a t i e n t s . G r o up A n a ly s i s , 3 6 , 7 3 8 6 .

W e n d e r , L . ( 1 9 4 0 ) . G r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y : T h e s t u d y o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o ns . P s y c ho l o g ic a l Q u a r t e r l y , 1 4 , 7 0 8 1 8 . Whitaker, D. S. and Liebermann, M. A. (1964). P s y c ho t h e r a p y t hr o ug h th e g r o u p p r o c e s s . N e w Y o r k : A t h e r to n Pr e s s . W h i t el e y , S . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . A tt a c h m e n t , l o s s a n d t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n : p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r i n t h e t he r a p e u t i c c o m m u n i t y . G r o u p A n a ly s i s , 2 7 (4 ) , 3 5 9 8 2 . W i n n i c o t t , D . W . (1 9 8 0 ) . P l a y i n g a n d r e a l i t y . L o n d o n : Penguin Press. Wolf, A. (1949). The psychoanalysis of groups I. American J o u r n a l o f P s y c ho t h e r a p y , 3 , 5 2 5 5 8 . Y a l o m , I . D . (1 9 7 0 / 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c ti c e o f g r o u p p s y c h o t he r a p y , 1 s t e d n . N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s ( 1 9 8 5 , 3 r d edn, New York: Basic Books). Z i n k i n , L . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . M a l ig n a n t m i r r o r i n g . G r o up A n a l y s i s , 1 6 , 11326.

21