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1.

Introduction

The prestressing and precasting of concrete are inter-related features of the modern building industry. Through the application of imaginative design and quality control, they have, since the 1930s, had an increasing impact on architectural and construction procedures. Prestressing of concrete is the application of a compressive force to concrete members and may be achieved by either pre tensioning high tensile steel strands before the concrete has set, or by post-tensioning the strands after the concrete has set. Although these techniques are commonplace, misunderstanding of the principles, and the way they are applied, still exists. This paper is aimed at providing a clear outline of the basic factors differentiating each technique and has been prepared to encourage understanding amongst those seeking to broaden their knowledge of structural systems.
2. Definitions

2.1 Prestressed Concrete Prestressing of concrete is defined as the application of compressive stresses to concrete members. Those zones of the member ultimately required to carry tensile stresses under working load conditions are given an initial compressive stress before the application of working loads so that the tensile stresses developed by these working loads are balanced by induced compressive strength. Prestress can be applied in two ways - Pre-tensioning or Post-tensioning. 2.2 Pre-tensioning Pre-tensioning is the application, before casting, of a tensile force to high tensile steel tendons around which the concrete is to be cast. When the placed concrete has developed sufficient compressive strength a compressive force is imparted to it by releasing the tendons, so that the concrete member is in a permanent state of prestress.
2.3 Post-tensioning

Post-tensioning is the application of a compressive force to the concrete at some point in time after casting. When the concrete has gained strength a state of prestress is induced by tensioning steel tendons passed through ducts cast into the concrete, and locking the stressed tendons with mechanical anchors. The tendons are then normally grouted in place.
3.Advantages of Prestressing

3.1 General Advantages

The use of prestressed concrete offers distinct advantages over ordinary reinforced concrete. These advantages can be briefly listed as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Prestressing minimises the effect of cracks in concrete elements by holding the concrete in compression. Prestressing allows reduced beam depths to be achieved for equivalent design strengths. Prestressed concrete is resilient and will recover from the effects of a greater degree of overload than any other structural material. If the member is subject to overload, cracks, which may develop, will close up on removal of the overload. Prestressing enables both entire structural elements and structures to be formed from a number of precast units, e.g. Segmented and Modular Construction. Lighter elements permit the use of longer spanning members with a high strength to weight characteristic. The ability to control deflections in prestressed beams and slabs permits longer spans to be achieved. Prestressing permits a more efficient usage of steel and enables the economic use of high tensile steels and high strength concrete.

3.2 Cost advantages of Prestressing Prestressed sconcrete can provide significant cost advantages over structural steel sections or ordinary reinforced concrete.
4. Limitations of Prestressing

The limitations of prestressed concrete are few and really depend only upon the imagination of the designer and the terms of his brief. The only real limitation where prestressing is a possible solution may be the cost of providing moulds for runs of limited quantity of small numbers of non-standard units.
5. Fundamentals of Prestressing

5.1 The Tensile Strength of Concrete

The tensile strength of unreinforced concrete is equal to about 10% of its compressive strength. Reinforced concrete design has in the past neglected the tensile strength of unreinforced concrete as being too unreliable. Cracks in the unreinforced concrete occur for many reasons and destroy the tensile capability. See Fig.1.With prestressed concrete design however, the tensile strength of concrete is not neglected. In certain applications it is used as part of the design for service loadings. In ordinary reinforced concrete, steel bars are introduced to overcome this low tensile strength. They resist tensile forces and limit the width of cracks that will develop under design loadings. Reinforced concrete is thus designed assuming the concrete to be cracked and unable to carry any tensile force. Prestressing gives crack-free construction by placing the concrete in compression before the application of service loads. 5.2 The Basic Idea A simple analogy to prestressing will best explain the basic idea. Consider a row of books or blocks set up as a beam. See Fig.2(a). This "beam" is able to resist compression at the top but is unable to resist any tension forces at the bottom as the "beam" is now like a badly cracked concrete member, i.e. the discontinuity between the books ensures that the "beam" has no inherent tension resisting properties. If it is temporarily supported and a tensile force is applied, the "beam will fail by the books dropping out along the discontinuities. See Fig.2(b). For the beam then to function properly a compression force must be applied as in Fig.2(c). The beam is then "prestressed" with forces acting in an opposite direction to those induced by loading. The effect of the longitudinal prestressing force is thus to produce pre-compression in the beam before external downward loads are applied. The application of the external downward load merely reduces the proportion of precompression acting in the tensile zone of the beam. 5.3 The Position of the Prestressing Force

Prestressing can be used to best advantage by varying the position of the prestress force. When the prestress is applied on the centroid of the cross-section a uniform compression is obtained. Consider the stress state of the beam in Fig.3(b). We can see that by applying a prestress of the right magnitude we can produce pre-compression equal and opposite to the tensile force in Fig.3(b).Then by adding the stress blocks we get: i.e. zero stress towards the bottom fibres and twice the compressive stress towards the top fibres. Now apply the precompression force at 1/3 the beam depth above the bottom face. As well as the overall compression we now have a further compressive stress acting on the bottom fibre due to the moment of the eccentric prestress force about the neutral axis of the section. We then find it is possible to achieve the same compression at the bottom fibre with only half the prestressing force. See Fig.3(d). Adding now the stress blocks of Fig.3(b) and 3(d) we find that the tensile stress in the bottom fibre is again negated whilst the final compressive stress in the top fibre is only half that of Fig.3(c). See Fig.3(e). Thus by varying the position of the compressive force we can reduce the prestress force required, reduce the concrete strength required and sometimes reduce the cross sectional area. Changes in cross sections such as using T or I or channel sections rather than rectangular sections can lead to further economies. 5.4 The Effect of Prestress on Beam Deflection From 5.3 it is obvious that the designer should, unless there are special circumstances, choose the eccentrically applied prestress. Consider again the non-prestressed beam of Fig.1(a). Under external loads the beam deflects to a profile similar to that exaggerated in Fig.4(a). By applying prestress eccentrically a deflection is induced. When the prestress is applied in the lower portion of the beam, the deflection is upwards producing a hogging profile. See Fig.4(b). By applying the loads of Fig.4(a) to our prestressed beam, the

final deflection shape produced is a sum of Figs.4(a) and 4(b) as shown in Fig.4(c). Residual hogging, though shown exaggerated in the Fig.4(c), is controlled within limits by design code and bylaw requirements. Such control of deflection is not possible with simple reinforced concrete. Reductions in deflections under working loads can then be achieved by suitable eccentric prestressing. In long span members this is the controlling factor in the choice of the construction concept an technique employed. 5.5 Prestress Losses Most materials to varying degrees are subject to "creep", i.e. under a sustained permanent load the material tends to develop some small amount of plasticity and will not return completely to its original shape. There has been an irreversible deformation or permanent set. This is known as "creep" Shrinkage of concrete and "creep" of concrete and of steel reinforcement are potential sources of prestress loss and are provided for in the design of prestressed concrete. Shrinkage:The magnitude of shrinkage may be in the range of 0.02% depending on the environmental conditions and type of concrete.With pre-tensioning, shrinkage starts as soon as the concrete is poured whereas with posttensioned concrete there is an opportunity for the member to experience part of its shrinkage prior to tensioning of the tendon, thus pre-compression loss from concrete shrinkage is less. Creep:With prestressing of concrete the effect is to compress and shorten the concrete. This shortening must be added to that of concrete shrinkage. In the tensioned steel tendons the effect of "creep is to lengthen the tendon causing further stress loss. Allowance must be made in the design process for these losses. Various formulae are available. Pull-in: With all prestressing systems employing wedge type gripping devices, some degree of pull-in at either or both ends of a pretensioning bed or post-tensioned member can be expected. In normal operation, for most devices in common use, this pull-in is between 3mm and 13mm and allowance is made when tensioning the tendons to accommodate this. 5.6 Materials 5.6.1 Steel Early in the development of prestressing it was found that because of its low limit of elasticity ordinary reinforcing steel could not provide sufficient elongation to counter concrete shortening due to

creep and shrinkage. it is necessary to use the high tensile steels which were developed to produce a large elongation when tensioned. This ensures that there is sufficient elongation reserve to maintain the desired pre-compression. The relationship between the amount of load, or stress, in a material and the stretch, or strain, which the material undergoes while it is being loaded is depicted by a stress-strain curve. At any given stress there is a corresponding strain. Strain is defined as the elongation of a member divided by the length of the member. The stress-strain properties of some grades of steel commonly encountered in construction are shown in Fig.5. It is apparent from these relationships that considerable variation exists between the properties of these steels. All grades of steel have one feature in common: the relationship between stress and strain is a straight line below a certain stress. The stress at which this relationship departs from the straight line is called the yield stress, and is denoted by the symbol fy in Fig. 5. A conversion factor may be used to convert either stress to strain or strain to stress in this range. This conversion factor is called the modulus of elasticity E. Structural grade steels which are commonly used for rolled structural sections and reinforcing bars, show a deviation from this linear relationship at a much lower stress than high strength prestressing steel. High strength steels cannot be used for reinforced concrete as the width of cracks under loading would be unacceptably large. These high strength steels achieve their strength largely through the use of special compositions in conjunction with cold working. Smaller diameter wires gain strength by being cold drawn through a number of dies. The high strength of alloy bars is derived by the use of special alloys and some working. 5.6.2 Concrete

To accommodate the degree of compression imposed by the tensioning tendons and to minimise prestress losses, a high strength concrete with low shrinkage properties is required. Units employing high strength concrete are most successfully cast under controlled factory conditions.
6. Prestressing Methods

6.1 General Methods of prestressing concrete fall into two broad categories differentiated by the stage at which the prestress is applied.That is, whether the steel is pre-tensioned or post-tensioned. From the definitions para 2.2 pre-tensioning is stated as "the application before casting, of a tensile force to high tensile steel tendons around which the concrete is cast. . ." and para 2.3 "Post-tensioning is the application of a compressive force to the concrete at some point in time after casting. When the concrete has hardened a state of prestress is induced by tensioning steel tendons passing through ducts cast into the Concrete". 6.2 Types of Tendon There are three basic types of tendon used in the prestressing of concrete: Bars of high strength alloy steel.These bar type tendons are used in certain types of post-tensioning systems. Bars up to 40mm diameter are used and the alloy steel from which they are made has a yield stress (fy Fig.5) in the order of 620 MPa. This gives bar tendons a lower strength to weight ratio than either wires or strands, but when employed with threaded anchorages has the advantages of eliminating the possibility of pull-in at the anchorages as discussed in para. 5.5, and of reducing anchorage costs. Wire, mainly used in post-tensioning systems for prestressing concrete, is cold drawn and stress relieved with a yield stress of about 1300 MPa. Wire diameters most commonly used in New Zealand are 5mm, 7mm, and 8mm. Strand, which is used in both pre and post-tensioning is made by winding seven cold drawn wires together on a stranding machine. Six

wires are wound in a helix around a centre wire which remains straight. Strands of 19 or 37 wires are formed by adding subsequent layers of wire. Most pre-tensioning systems in New Zealand are based on the use of standard seven wire stress relieved strands conforming to BS3617:"Seven Wire steel strand for Prestressed concrete." With wire tendons and strands, it may be desirable to form a cable to cope with the stressing requirements of large post-tensioning applications. Cables are formed by arranging wires or strands in bundles with the wires or strands parallel to each other. In use the cable is placed in a preformed duct in the concrete member to be stressed and tensioned by a suitable posttensioning method. Tendons whether bars, wires, strands, or made up cables may be used either straight or curved.
i. ii. Straight steel tendons are still by far the most commonly used tendons in pre-tensioned concrete units. Continuously curved tendons are used primarily in post-tensioning applications. Cast-in ducts are positioned in the concrete unit to a continuous curve chosen to suit the varying bending moment distribution along the members.

6.3 Pre-Tensioning As discussed, (para 2.2) pre-tensioning requires the tensile force to be maintained in the steel until after the high strength concrete has been cast and hardened around it. The tensile force in the stressing steel is resisted by one of three methods:
a. b. c. Abutment method - an anchor block cast in the ground. Strut method - the bed is designed to act as a strut without deformation when tensioning forces are applied. Mould method - tensioning forces are resisted by strong steel moulds.

It is usual in pretensioning factories to locate the abutments of the stressing bed a considerable distance apart so that a number of similar units can be stressed at the same time, end to end using the same tendon. This arrangement is called the "Long Line Process". After pouring, the concrete is cured so that the necessary strength and bond between the steel and concrete has developed in 8 to 20 hours. When the strength has been achieved tendons can be released and the units cut to length and removed from the bed. Post-tensioning systems are based on the direct longitudinal tensioning of a steel tendon from one or both ends of the concrete member. The most usual method of post-tensioning is by cables threaded through

ducts in cured concrete. These cables are stressed by hydraulic jacks, designed for the system in use and the ducts thoroughly grouted up with cement grout after stressing has occurred. Cement grouting is almost always employed where post-tensioning through ducts is carried out to: Protect the tendon against corrosion by preventing ingress of moisture. Eliminate the danger of loss of prestress due to long term failure of end anchorages, especially where moisture or corrosion is present. To bond the tendon to the structural concrete thus limiting crack width under overload.
7. Resistance of Prestressed Concrete

All concrete is incombustible. In a fire, failure of concrete members usually occurs due to the progressive loss of strength of the reinforcing steel or tendons at high temperatures. Also the physical properties of some aggregates used in concrete can change when heated to high temperatures. Experience and tests have shown however that ordinary reinforced concrete has greater fire resistance than structural steel or timber. Current fire codes recognise this by their reference to these materials. Pre stressed concrete has been shown to have at least the same fire resistance as ordinary reinforced concrete. Greater cover to the prestressing tendons is necessary however, as the reduction in strength of high tensile steel at high temperatures is greater than that of ordinary mild steel.
8. Applications of Prestressing

8.1 General The construction possibilities of pre stressed concrete are as vast as those of ordinary reinforced concrete. Typical applications of pre stressing in building and construction are:
1. 2. Structural components for integration with ordinary reinforced concrete construction, e.g. floor slabs, columns, beams. Structural components for bridges.

3. 4. 5. 6. 9. Conclusions

Water tanks and reservoirs where water tightness (i.e. the absence of cracks) is of paramount importance. Construction components e.g. piles, wall panels, frames, window mullions, power poles, fence posts, etc. The construction of relatively slender structural frames. Major bridges and other structures.

Prestressed concrete design and construction is precise. The high stresses imposed by prestressing really do occur. The following points should be carefully considered:
1. To adequately protect against losses of prestress and to use the materials economically requires that the initial stresses at prestressing be at the allowable upper limits of the material. This imposes high stresses, which the member is unlikely to experience again during its working life. Because the construction system is designed to utilise the optimum stress capability of both the concrete and steel, it is necessary to ensure that these materials meet the design requirements. This requires control and responsibility from everyone involved in prestressed concrete work - from the designer right through to the workmen on the site.

2.

We have seen that considerable design and strength economies are achieved by the eccentric application of the prestressing force. However, if the design eccentricities are varied only slightly, variation from design stresses could be such as to affect the performance of a shallow unit under full working load. The responsibility associated with prestressing work then is that the design and construction should only be undertaken by engineers or manufacturers who are experienced in this field.

1. Introduction

Concrete is used in either a precast or an in-situ state. Precasting is the process whereby concrete is cast into elements (units) prior to their integration into a structure. From the precasting process comes precast concrete formed in the image of its mould to be used as an element of architectural design, whether structural, functional or decorative. Examples of precast concrete are numerous and as it will be seen from the following description, precast concrete needs to be an applied term for it to have a useful descriptive meaning. Precasting may take place as either an on-site or a factory operation. However, in New Zealand the greatest emphasis is on factory precasting.

2. Applications

2.1 On-Site Precasting

On-site precasting may be established for one or more of the following reasons: (i) Where it is uneconomic to transport the unit(s) because of distance or awkward shape. (ii) Where factory quality controls are not warranted. Elements particularly suited to onsite precasting are: (a) Large wall panels - poured on floor slab and tilted into final position. (b) Lift slab constructions - heavy roof or floor slabs poured on preceding floor and jacked into position. Factory precasting embodies greater quality control and expertise than is possible in insitu placement or on-site precasting of concrete. The four main categories of factory precasting are: (a) Civil engineering Components: For bridges, reservoirs, wharves etc. (b) Floor slabs/joists: A wide range of standard floor units are available today. These have been successfully integrated with steel frames, reinforced masonry, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete structures. (c) Structural frames: Much scope exists in New Zealand for prestressed multi-frame design. Prestressed structural frames can be produced with a high standard of finish, which permit a designer to express the frame to best

2.2 Factory Precasting

advantage. Concrete frames, unlike steel are fire resistant. (d) Architectural concrete: The architectural applications of precast concrete are extensive. With few limitations on shape and a wide range of finishes and mould textures at his disposal the designer can express his own style and give character to his designs. Architectural precast concrete is employed as decorative wall panels, window frames, stairs or feature walls (structural), non-structural wall panels, and in fact all exterior concrete that contributes to the visual effect of the building. This concrete can range from the lower cost plain panels to the more expensive textured or exposed aggregate faced units.
3. Advantages

Maximum advantage from precast concrete can be achieved when consideration is given to its potential at an early stage in design. Factory precasting offers real advantages:
Enables use of pre-tensioning techniques, reducing cost and increasing available spans. Improves handling ability of product. Economy in formwork by repetitive use of a small number of superior, accurately made moulds which may be constructed of various permanent materials depending on the number of uses planned. Particular effects of form and colour. Speed of production from rationalisation and standardisation of design. Greater quality control in all facets of production, because work takes place under cover allowing optimum and shorter concrete curing conditions independent of climate. Shorter on-site times as factory production proceeds ahead of site construction. Partial elimination of wet trades. Dimensional accuracy. Precast elements may be prestressed to achieve greater strength requirement and load bearing capacity. 4. Limitations

There are also limitations, all of which are amenable to solution. Careful design, sensible handling procedures and proper factory to site coordination overcome virtually all constraints.

5. Precast Concrete 5.1 Finishes

Precast concrete is a versatile material in the hands of an imaginative designer. With skillful use of various surface finishes and colours available, the variety and appearance of precast concrete is almost unlimited. Surface finishes may range from rough textures - achieved by exposure of the aggregate - to high quality F5 finish. By using colour or exposed aggregates almost any colour combination is possible.

Surface texture and colour can be achieved by exposing selected aggregates such as quartz, granite, marble or various ceramic materials. Textured finishes can be achieved by the use of mould liners such as plywood, shaped plastic or polystyrene, rubber or rope. Applied finishes and high build paints are available in a wide range of colours and textures. These proprietary finishes may need specialist applicators.
6. Manufacture and Materials 6.1 General MASTER MOULD CONCEPT is based upon fabricating one master mould (with appropriate additional tooling) which allows a maximum number of casts per project. Units cast in the mould need not be identical provided changes in the units can be accomplished as preengineered mould modifications.

To meet the demands of the specification for reliably high quality production to fine tolerances, and to ensure economic production methods, precast concrete work has become a specialised field. If or when the precast units are in any way complex the designer should discuss his ideas with a manufacturer to achieve a rational, and thus economic, mould arrangement. Most manufacturers have standard products, e.g. Unispan. These will always be much more economical and satisfactory than special units if they can be used. The economic manufacture of precast concrete depends mainly on the full utilisation of factory methods and the employment of the minimum amount of skilled labour. Most plants employ production line methods with batch controlled concrete delivered to the moulds by the most economic means. The concrete is systematically placed and vibration compacted. Filled moulds are cured, usually with heat overnight, to develop early high strength and then the units are drawn from the mould to be stored awaiting transport to the building site. Twenty-four hour turn-round of moulds is essential.

This typical panel may become:

6.2 Tolerances and Quality

A rational approach must be taken to the determination of tolerances both for manufacturing and construction. The finer the tolerances required the more elaborate the mould must be and hence the. higher the cost of the finished unit. Tolerance costs for each unit could, in extreme cases, represent a major proportion of the total cost of the unit. Designers are recommended to consider "Guidelines for the Use of Precast Concrete in Buildings", Centre for Advanced Engineering, 1999 University of Canterbury, a handbook for manufacturers, designers and builders and bear in mind the principles

of modular coordination when establishing tolerances. Similarly, standards of quality of finish should be kept realistic. The specifying of fine finishes completely free of pin holes, for example, is impossible and unnecessary as the building is not going to be scrutinised close up, but viewed as a whole from a distance.
7. Drawing and Detailing

It is common for architects and engineers to tag their designs with notes as "the contractor shall check the accuracy of all dimensions on the job. "While this may prove satisfactory for in-situ work, it is not possible for precast work, which may be under way, and in production before there is even a set out or building frame on which to measure for these precast units. It should be the designers responsibility to cheek the feasibility of the design in manufacturing terms and to ensure the necessary degree of accuracy by appropriately detailing the positions of reinforcing, lifting points, tolerances, permitted deviations, overall dimensions. Few problems arise in the carting, handling and erection providing early consideration is given to sizes and the engineers design considers the handling and erection loads.

8. Cartage, Handling and Erection

Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual

Chapter 1 - Introduction

1.1 Objective
One of the major advancements in bridge construction in the United States in the second half of the twentieth century was the development and use of prestressed concrete. Prestressed concrete bridges, offer a broad range of engineering solutions and a variety of aesthetic opportunities. The objective of this Manual is to provide guidance to individuals involved in the installation or inspection of post-tensioning work for post tensioned concrete bridges including post-tensioning systems, materials, installation and grouting of tendons.

1.1.1 Benefits of Post-Tensioning


The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10% of its compressive strength. As a result, plain concrete members are likely to crack when loaded. In order to resist tensile stresses which plain concrete cannot resist, it can be reinforced with steel reinforcing bars. Reinforcing is selected assuming that the tensile zone of the concrete carries no load and that tensile stresses are resisted only by tensile forces in the reinforcing bars. The resulting reinforced concrete member may crack, but it can effectively carry the design loads (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 - Reinforced concrete beam under load

Although cracks occur in reinforced concrete, the cracks are normally very small and uniformly distributed. However, cracks in reinforced concrete can reduce long-term durability. Introducing a means of precompressing the tensile zones of concrete members to offset anticipated tensile stresses reduces or eliminates cracking to produce more durable concrete bridges.

1.1.2 Principle of Prestressing


The function of prestressing is to place the concrete structure under compression in those regions where load causes tensile stress. Tension caused by the load will first have to cancel the compression induced by the prestressing before it can crack the concrete. Figure 1.2 (a) shows a plainly reinforced concrete simple-span beam and fixed cantilever beam cracked under applied load. Figure 1.2(b) shows the same unloaded beams with prestressing forces applied by stressing high strength tendons. By placing the prestressing low in the simple-span beam and high in the cantilever beam, compression is induced in the tension zones; creating upward camber. Figure 1.2(c) shows the two prestressed beams after loads have been applied. The loads cause both the simple-span beam and cantilever beam to deflect down, creating tensile stresses in the bottom of the simple-span beam and top of the cantilever beam. The Bridge Designer balances the effects of load and prestressing in such a way that tension from the loading is compensated by compression induced by the prestressing. Tension is eliminated under the combination of the two and tension cracks are prevented. Also, construction materials (concrete and steel) are used more efficiently; optimizing materials, construction effort and cost.

Figure 1.2 - Comparison of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Beams

Prestressing can be applied to concrete members in two ways, by pretensioning or post-tensioning. In pretensioned members the prestressing strands are tensioned against restraining bulkheads before the concrete is cast. After the concrete has been placed, allowed to harden and attain sufficient strength, the strands are released and their force is transferred to the concrete member. Prestressing by post-tensioning involves installing and stressing prestressing strand or bar tendons only after the concrete has been placed, hardened and attained a minimum compressive strength for that transfer.

1.1.3 Post-Tensioning Operation


Compressive forces are induced in a concrete structure by tensioning steel tendons of strands or bars placed in ducts embedded in the concrete. The tendons are installed after the concrete has been placed and sufficiently cured to a prescribed initial compressive strength. A hydraulic jack is attached to one or both ends of the tendon and pressurized to a predetermined value while bearing against the end of the concrete beam. This induces a predetermined force in the tendon and the tendon elongates elastically under this force. After jacking to the full, required force, the force in the tendon is transferred from the jack to the end anchorage. Tendons made up of strands are secured by steel wedges that grip each strand and seat firmly in a wedge plate. The wedge plate itself carries all the strands and bears on a steel anchorage. The anchorage may be a simple steel bearing plate or may be a special casting with two or three concentric bearing surfaces that transfer the tendon force to the concrete. Bar tendons are usually threaded and anchor by means of spherical nuts that bear against a square or rectangular bearing plate cast into the concrete. For an explanation of post-tensioning terminology and acronyms, see Appendix A. After stressing, protruding strands or bars of permanent tendons are cut off using an abrasive disc saw. Flame cutting should not be used as it negatively affects the characteristics of the prestressing steel. Approximately 20mm ( in) of strand is left to

protrude from wedges or a certain minimum bar length is left beyond the nut of a bar anchor. Tendons are then grouted using a cementitious based grout. This grout is pumped through a grout inlet into the duct by means of a grout pump. Grouting is done carefully under controlled conditions using grout outlets to ensure that the duct anchorage and grout caps are completely filled. For final protection, after grouting, an anchorage may be covered by a cap of high quality grout contained in a permanent non-metallic and/or concrete pour-back with a durable seal-coat. Post-tensioning and grouting operations require certain levels of experience, as outlined in Appendix B.

1.1.4 Post-Tensioning Systems


Many proprietary post-tensioning systems are available. Several suppliers produce systems for tendons made of wires, strands or bars. The most common systems found in bridge construction are multiple strand systems for permanent post-tensioning tendons and bar systems for both temporary and permanent situations. Refer to manufacturers' and suppliers' literature for details of available systems. Key features of three common systems (multiple-strand and bar tendons) are illustrated in Figures 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5.

Figure 1.3 - Typical Post-Tensioning Anchorage Hardware for Strand

Tendons

Figure 1.4 - Typical Post-Tensioning Bar System Hardware. (Courtesy of Dywidag Systems International)

Figure 1.5 - Typical Post-Tensioning Bar System Hardware. (Courtesy of Williams Form Engineering Corporation)

1.2 Permanent Post-Tensioned Applications

1.2.1 Cast-in-Place Bridges on Falsework


Bridges of this type have a superstructure cross-section of solid or cellular construction.

They are built on-site using formwork supported by temporary falsework (Figure 1.6). Formwork creates the shape of the concrete section and any internal voids or diaphragms. Reinforcement and post-tensioning ducts are installed in the forms and then the concrete is placed, consolidated and cured. When the concrete attains sufficient strength, post-tensioning is installed and stressed to predetermined forces.

Figure 1.6 - Cast -In-Place Post-Tensioned Construction in California

Longitudinal post-tensioning typically comprises multi-strand tendons smoothly draped to a designed profile. In continuous spans, the tendon profile lies in the bottom of the section in the mid-span region and rises to the top of the section over interior supports. In simple spans and at the expansion ends of continuous spans, post-tensioning anchors are arranged vertically so that the resultant of the tendon anchor force passes close to the centroid of the section. A draped profile of this type provides the most effective distribution of internal prestress for this type of construction.

External and Internal Prestressing

When external steel wires known as tendons are placed on the outer section of the region being stressed, then the technique is called external prestressing. The tendons lie outside or inside the hollow space of a box girder and forces are only transferred at the deviations or anchorage blocks. External prestressing requires a great deal of accuracy in planning, executing and maintenance; therefore, it is not very common. The technique is suited for strengthening buildings and constructing bridges. On the other hand, internal prestressing is achieved by placing the tendons within a structure. Prestressing applications use internal technique because it is easy to achieve a greater degree of accuracy.

Pre-Tensioning or Post-Tensioning

Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning are the two common techniques of prestressing. In pre-tensioning, the tension is applied to the tendons before the casting of the concrete. The prestressed tendons are transferred to the hardened concrete through a bond. The tendons can be of individual wires or a sevenwire strand and are often used in precast beams. Post-tensioning is when prestressing is done against the hardened concrete. When the concrete has been hardened, the prestressed tendons are passed through ducts cast into the concrete and locked with mechanical anchors. The tendon force is thereby transferred to the structure through the anchorage wedges.

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Linear or Circular Prestressing

Linear prestressing is a type of prestressing used in straight, bent or flat structures. The technique can even be used on curved structures as long as the tendons don't go round in circles because they are linearly prestressed. For example, prestressing of poles, slabs and beams can be done using the linear prestressing technique. In contrast, curved or circular structures employ the circular prestressing technique. The tendons are wound in circles. Examples include pipes, silos and tanks.

Full or Partial Prestressing

The technique where no restrictions are placed on concrete tensile stresses under service conditions is called partial prestressing. The part under tension is reinforced using additional mild steel bars to control the cracks and hence the crack width is within allowable limit. Deviations from the set prestressing can cause deformation, cracking and fatigue on the structure; therefore, when using this technique during construction, you must always monitor the prestressing force carefully. On the other hand, full prestressing is a technique where no tensile stress is allowed in concrete under service loads. The area of prestressing steel is more than the area needed for safety at ultimate state, therefore leading to inefficient use of prestressing.

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PRE-TENSIONING AND POST-TENSIONING IN PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN The prestress in a structure is influenced by either of the two processes: 1. Pre-tensioning, and 2. Post-tensioning Pre-tensioning can be further classified into two categories: 1. Linear pre-tensioning 2. Circular pre-tensioning PRE-TENSIONING Pre-tensioning is accomplished by stressing wires or strands, called tendons, to predetermined amount by stretching them between two anchorages prior to placing concrete as shown in fig.1. the concrete is then placed and tendons become bounded to concrete throughout their length. After concrete has hardened, the tendons are released by cutting them at the anchorages. The tendons tend to regain their original length by shortening and in this process transfer through bond a compressive stress to the concrete. The tendons are usually stressed by the use of hydraulic jacks. The stress in tendons is maintained during the placing and curing of concrete by anchoring the ends of the tendons to abutments that may be as much as 200m apart. The abutments and other formwork used in this procedure are called prestressing bench or bed.

Fig.1: Section for Pre-tensioning

Most of the pre-tensioning construction techniques are patented although the basic principle used in all of them is common and is well known. POST-TENSIONING The alternative to pre-tensioning is post-tensioning. In a post-tensioned beam, the tendons are stressed and each end is anchored to the concrete section after the concrete has been cast and has attained sufficient strength to safely withstand the prestressing force as shown in fig.2. in posttensioning method, tendons are coated with grease or a bituminous material to prevent them from becoming bonded to concrete. Another method used in preventing the tendons from bonding to the concrete during placing and curing of concrete is to encase the tendon in a flexible metal hose before placing it in the forms. The metal hose is referred to as sheath or duct and remains in the structure.

Fig.2: Section for Post-tensioning After the tendon has been stressed, the void between the tendon and the sheath is filled with grout. Thus the tendons become bonded to concrete and corrosion of steel is prevented. Post-tension prestressing can be done at site. This procedure may become necessary or desirable in certain cases. For heavy loads and large spans in buildings or bridges, it may be very difficult to transport a member from pre-

casting plant to a job site. On the other hand, pre-tensioning can be used in pre-cast as well as in cast-in-place construction. In post-tensioning it is necessary to use some types of device to attach or anchor the ends of the tendons to the concrete section. These devices are usually referred to as end anchorages. There are a large number of patents for different types of anchorages. They may also differ n the details of construction. Some of the popular methods are: 1. Freyssinet system 2. Magnel system 3. Leonhardt system 4. Lee-McCall system 5. Gifford-Udall system

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