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Lecture Notes:
No. Lecture Course Info and Overview Review of Circuit Analysis Amplifier Models and Freq Response Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits Introduction to Semiconductors PN Junctions and Diode Circuits MOSFET Devices and Circuits Single-Stage MOSFET amps and High-Freq Model Bipolar Junction Transistor No. Lecture
1 2 3
Integrated Circuit 11 Design (Current Mirrors) 12 Differential Amplifiers 13 14 High-Gain Differential Amplifiers High-Frequency Analysis (OCT)
4 5 6 7 8 9
http://www.deas.harvard.edu/courses/es154/lectures.html11/12/2004 17:25:52
ES154
Lecture 1
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Course Objectives
The objective of this course is to provide you with a comprehensive understanding of electronic circuits and devices. The course presents a basic introduction to physical models of the operation of semiconductor devices and examines the design and operation of important circuits that utilize these devices. We will look at how to design circuits using discrete components and as integrated circuits. Due to the varying background of students in the class, we will start with a review of some basics (of circuit theory), review the operation and characteristics of semiconductor devices (namely, BJTs and MOSFETs), and build up to more advanced topics in analog circuit design. Due to time constraints, we will concentrate on analog circuits, amplifiers in particular. Digital CMOS circuits and VLSI design issues are covered more extensively in CS148.
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ES 154 - Lecture 1
Fall 2004
ES154
Lecture 1
Course Material
The lecture notes and the textbook, Electronic Circuit Design by Comer & Comer (C&C) will be the principle reference materials used in the class. The notes will cover specific material in the textbook that I find important and interesting. The notes will also include material (for more detail) not covered in the textbook. You are responsible for all of the material in the notes and sections in C&C that are assigned as reading. Assigned reading will be indicated at the beginning of each set of lecture notes. Supplementary reading may also be assigned. They will usually be in the form of supplementary web pages found on the course web site or sections in reference books that can be found in the Gordon McKay Library.
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Additional Reading
To provide additional information and/or an alternative explanation of the material in the notes and C&C, supplemental reading from other textbooks will be included in the notes. While these readings are not required, they are often helpful in understanding the material. References (found in G. McKay Library) Electric Circuits, Nilsson and Riedel, Prentice, 6th Ed., 2001. Electric Circuit Analysis, Johnson et al, Prentice Hall, 1997. The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, Cambridge, 1989. Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits, Gray et al, Wiley, 2001. The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, Lee, Cambridge, 1998. Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits, Muller and Kamins, Wiley, 1986. Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits, Franco, McGraw Hill, 2002. Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits, Razavi, McGraw Hill, 2001.
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ES 154 - Lecture 1
Fall 2004
ES154
Lecture 1
Course Information
Lectures Tues and Thurs 10 11:30AM in MD 221 Lecture notes will be handed out in class and will be available on the course web page (www.deas.harvard.edu/courses/es154) Homework Assigned on Tuesdays and due the following Tuesday in class You allotted a total of three late days that you can use throughout the semester. Lab Maxwell Dworkin B129 and B123 (in the basement) There will be several experimental laboratory assignments throughout the semester. You may be required to complete pre-lab assignments prior to going into lab. Lab write-ups due with homework assignments on Tuesdays Final Project There will be final project due at the end of reading period You have the option to work on anything that pertains to the material taught in this class, i.e., analog circuits Exams Take-home midterm Final exam
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ES 154 - Lecture 1
Homework Grading
One additional requirement that I have is for each of you to participate in at least one homework grading session. Several reasons why they are useful Forces you to revisit the homework assignment at least once Provides insight into alternate ways of thinking about a problem Shows you how difficult (and easy) it can be grade ones homework write-up Pizza and drinks! Organization We will provide the solutions and point distribution TF will schedule them
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ES 154 - Lecture 1
Fall 2004
ES154
Lecture 1
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Gu-Yeon Wei Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences Harvard University guyeon@eecs.harvard.edu
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ES154
Lecture 1
Overview
Reading C&C: Chapter 1 Supplemental Reading Lee: Chapter 1 A nonlinear history of radio Nilsson: Chapters 1-4 (basic circuit analysis) Background This lecture is intended to give you a brief overview of what you can expect to learn from this course. There are additional interesting tidbits of historical trivia sprinkled into the lecture for fun. At the end, we review basic circuit theory that you shouldve all seen before in a physics course or ES50. If not, do the Nilsson reading above. It should be pretty straight forward if you have seen the material before.
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ES 154 - Lecture 1
Why Electronics?
Why use electronics Electrons are easy to move / control
Easier to move/control electrons than real (physical) stuff Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1898
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Lecture 1
Communication Alternatives
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Origins of Radio
Marconi generally regarded as the inventor of the radio in 1896 Used a spark gap transmitter (used by Heinrich Hertz to verify Maxwells prediction that electromagnetic waves exist and propagate with a finite velocity) and Eduardo Branlys coherer as the receiver.
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Lecture 1
Computing Alternatives
Abacus Babbage Difference Engine
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Lecture 1
Components were getting cheaper, more reliable but: There is a minimum cost of a component (storage, handling ) Total system cost was proportional to complexity
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Independently, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor had an idea for unitary circuits
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Lecture 1
Modern ICs
The IC industry has been able to continue to reduce the size of transistors and increase the number of devices that can be integrated onto a single device
3mm
Itanium 2 2002 1-GHz 130-W 4mm 0.18-um 221M transistors 421-mm2 (~20 x 21 mm)
Where Do We Start?
Ostensibly from the beginning. Volts and Amps (basic circuit analysis) Independent voltage sources and current sources Dependent sources Passive elements resistors, capacitors, inductors Operational Amplifier (op amp) A general purpose, closed-loop amplifier used to implement linear functions. Its performance and function are defined by the external components (feedback network or loop) surrounding it. First introduced in early 1940s Originally comprised of vacuum tubes Used for computation (i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.)
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Lecture 1
Feedback
Once weve looked at the frequency response of circuit operation, it becomes important to spend some time on basic feedback theory. At this point, we shouldve seen feedback at work in op amp circuits, but we didnt worry about frequency response and stability b/c we assumed an ideal amplifier. We will spend some time on open-loop and closed-loop response characteristics of circuits with feedback. Then, we will investigate stability and compensation techniques for extending the bandwidth of amplifiers
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CAD Tools
We will rely on two sets of tools to help us design and verify circuits in various homework and lab assignments. Circuit Simulations HSPICE an analog circuit simulator SUE Schematic User Environment is a graphical tool for drawing circuits and then creating a netlist from HSPICE MATLAB Mathematical tool for frequency response analysis and create pretty graphs
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i = C dv/d t Capacitor
v = L di/dt Inductor
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Lecture 1
Kirchhoffs Laws
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL): The algebraic sum of all of the currents at a node in a circuit equals zero. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of all of the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.
R1 is vs v1
i1 i2 v2 R2 KVL: v s - v 1 - v2 = 0 KCL: is - i1 = 0 i 1 + i2 = 0
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iB
iB V0
i2
R2
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Lecture 1
Resistive Circuits
Series vs. Parallel Resistors
R1 is v R4 v R2 R3 is R eq_series
R7
R6
R5
is v R1 R2 R3
is R eq_parallel
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Divider Circuits
Current and voltage divider circuits using resistors
i1 is R1 i2 v R2
i R1 vs R2 vo
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Lecture 1
Ammeter terminals
RA
Voltmeter terminals
d'Arsonval movement
Rb R unknown
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Lecture 1
Wheatstone Bridge
Used for precise measurements One example is to measure resistance of Runknown Adjust R3 until imeter = 0, then Runkown = R2R3/R1
R1
R2 imeter
R3
R unkown
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Source Transformations
Source transformations can be a useful way to simplify circuits Thevenin and Norton Equivalents Can represent any sources made up of sources (both independent and dependent) and resistors Converting to a Thevenin equivalent
Rs
vs
v = vs
Rs
vs
i = vs / Rs
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Lecture 1
Rs
vs
is
Rp
But, if I gave you two black boxes and said one is a Thevenin and one is Norton, could you tell them apart? What would you do?
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RT
vT
iL
RL
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Lecture 1
Superposition
A distinguishing characteristic of linear systems is the principle of superposition: Whenever a linear system is excited, or driven, by more than one independent source of energy, we can find the total response by finding the response to each independent source separately and then summing the individual responses. Mathematically, A system specified by T[] is linear if for all a1, a2, x1(n), and x2(n), we have:
Technique: short circuit voltage sources and open circuit current sources calculate for one source at a time and then sum
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Example of Superposition
R1 = 8 vs = 3 V i2 = ? R2 = 4 is = 2 A
R1 = 8 i2'' R2 = 4 is = 2 A
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Lecture 1
Next Lecture
We will continue to review basic concepts in electric circuits. In particular, we will review circuits containing inductors, capacitors, and resistors, and some analytical tools to deal with them in the frequency domain.
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Lecture 2
is
R i
vC
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ES154 Lecture 2
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Lecture 3
Overview
Reading Chapter 3 Background In this course, we will be spending a lot of time on looking at how to use and build amplifiers. So, it is important to understand what an amplifier basically is and what its characteristics are. This lecture will review some basic amplifier models and then see how we can characterize their operation across different frequencies by creating Bode plots.
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Lecture 3
Characteristics Amplify signals that vary about zero volts Powered by one or more DC voltages (power supply voltages) Requires proper DC biasing to operate Amplifies small incremental input signal and produces a magnified signal at the output with some gain
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Practical Example
DC bias voltage Vbias sets DC operating point and results in DC output bias VQ (quiescent voltage) Small input signal vin is amplified
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Lecture 3
DC Blocking
The DC operating point of the input signal may not be the same as the desired DC input voltage for the amplifier. May also be true for the output. We would like to set the DC operating point for the amplifier independently. Use coupling capacitors (or DC blocking caps), Cc1 and Cc2, to block out the DC component of input and output signals DC input and output operating points set by the amplifier We later see how this affects the amplifier gain vs. frequency
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Example
Example of a single-stage amplifier (using a transistor) C blocks DC component of signals from vin DC operating point of amplifier input is set by R1 and R2 (resistor divider) Equivalent circuit for the amplifier for small signals (small-signal model) for midband frequencies C is a short Model MOSFET as a voltagecontrolled current source
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Lecture 3
Gain Elements
There are different types of gain elements Voltage, current, transconductance, transimpedance Lets focus on voltage gain elements for now Characteristics Ideal voltage amplifier has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance
Real amplifiers have finite input and output impedance
Coupling caps used to isolate DC voltages of amplifiers input and output, but cause low-frequency gain rolloff Parasitic capacitances (inside amplifier circuitry) cause highfrequency gain rolloff
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Model amplifier with a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) VCVS has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance Gain is set by A
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Lecture 3
Still use VCVS to model amplifier, but add resistors and capacitors to model non-idealities Finite input impedance (Cin and Rin) Finite output impedance (Rout and Cout) Coupling caps (Cc1 and Cc2) are large (F range) while parasitic caps (Cin and Cout) are small (pF range) This allows us to create different (simpler) models depending on frequency of signals
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Midband Model
Rs vin Rin Rout A*vab c RL vout
a vab b
d For midband frequecies, model Coupling capacitors (Cc1 and Cc2) as short circuits Parasitic capacitors (Cin and Cout) as open circuits How do the parasitic resistors affect gain?
Usually, Rin >> Rs and Rout << RL (or what we would like)
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Lecture 3
Low-Frequency Model
At low frequencies Cannot ignore coupling caps Ignore parasitic caps How do the coupling caps affect gain?
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High-Frequency Model
Rs vin Cin Rin a vab b
At high frequencies Coupling caps are shorts Cannot ignore parasitic caps What happens to the gain?
Rout A*vab
c Cout d RL vout
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Lecture 3
The roots of the denominator are poles () and the roots of the numerator are zeros (). The poles and zeros can have both real and imaginary components and we can visualize them as points on a complex s-plane.
X-axis = real Y-axis = imaginary
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Bode Plots
Plotting the frequency response of H(s) can be a very useful tool for analyzing circuit behavior. A Bode plot is a graphical technique that gives a feel for the frequency response of a circuit. Later, we will use MATLAB to create accurate Bode plots from transfer function equations But, we should know the basics behind how Bode plots are created Lets start with a simple example assume real, first-order Poles and Zeros
To understand the response of H(s) or H(j), we need to look at its magnitude |H(j)| and phase (j) with respect to frequency .
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Amplitude Plots
Amplitude plot involves the multiplication and division of factors. To simplify, we present the amplitude in terms of a logarithmic value decibels (dB). Amplitude of H(j) in dB is
The best way to plot the effects of these poles and zeros is to plot them individually and then put it together. We will estimate the plots with straight line approximations each pole causes the plot to slope downward at 20dB/dec or (-6dB/oct) each zero causes the plot to slope upward at +20dB/dec or (+6dB/oct)
ES154
Lecture 3
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Lecture 3
(3) (1)
(4)
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Lecture 3
Phase Plots
We can again use the straight-line approximation for phase plots.
Some rules phase associated with constant = 0 phase associated with poles or zeros at origin (w=0) is +/- 90 degrees phase associated with first order poles or zeros not at origin is: < corner /10 phase = 0 > 10 * corner phase = +/- 90 degrees = corner phase = +/- 45 degrees NOTE: + for zeros and - for poles
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If < 1, then roots are complex. If 1, can factor into ( s+p1 )( s+p2 ) and plot as we did before. The complex poles and zeros come in pairs and so: Causes +/- 40dB/dec changes in slope in magnitude plots Causes +/- 180 degree phase shifts also.
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a can be a complex number but must come in conjugate pairs Bode plots work best for poles and zeros spaced apart by a 10 in frequency b/c then there is little interaction between them.
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Lets look at how the coupling capacitor (Cc1) at the input affects the lowfrequency response of the amplifier
This circuit has a single-pole response and the upper 3dB bandwidth (upper cutoff frequency) is at p
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If we now also consider Cout, the gain has the following form
If p1 << p2, then 3dB bandwidth is set by p1 (dominant pole) If p2 << p1, then 3dB bandwidth is set by p2 (dominant pole) If p1 p2, then solve for cutoff where the denominator = sqrt(2)
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Miller Effect
An impedance bridging the input and output nodes of an inverting amplifier can drastically affect the input impedance of an amplifier
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Lecture 3
Zy Av Av
Zy 1-Av Zy 1-1/Av
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Equivalent circuit
The Miller equivalent circuit is easier to solve Weve already solved this circuit
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Lecture 3
Multistage Amplifier
Often a single amplifier stage does not provide enough amplification Can achieve higher gain by cascading amplifier stages Must consider the effects of input and output impedances If coupling caps are used between stages, how do you calculate the lower cutoff frequency? With parasitic capacitances, how do you calculate the upper cutoff frequency? Later, we will see how cascading multiple amplifier stages can lead to wider overall bandwidth (higher upper cutoff frequency)
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Lecture 4
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Overview
Reading Chapter 4 Supplemental Reading Sedra&Smith: Ch. 2 Background Armed with our circuit analysis tools and basic understanding of amplifiers, lets now look at operational amplifiers (op amps). Op amps were initially constructed out of vacuum tubes, then discrete transistor components. With the advent of the integrated circuit, op amp ICs came out in the 60s (e.g., from Analog Devices Inc.). They are extremely useful because they are versatile and one can do almost anything with op amps. We will begin by looking at an ideal version of the op amp and see how they are useful. Then, we will investigate various non-idealities of real amplifier designs and how they affect op amp circuits.
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ES154
Lecture 4
Op Amp Terminals
V+ 1 3 2 2 Vop amp symbol with power supply connections 1 3
At a minimum, op amps have 3 terminals: 2 input and 1 output. An op amp also requires dc power to operate. Often, the op amp requires both positive and negative voltage supplies (V+ and V-).
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Ideal Op Amp
1
v1
v2
The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage signals applied to the two input terminals and then multiply it by some gain factor A such that the voltage at the output terminal is A(v2-v1). One of the input terminals (1) is called an inverting input terminal denoted by - The other input terminal (2) is called a non-inverting input terminal denoted by + The gain A is often referred to as the differential gain or open-loop gain We can model an ideal amplifier as a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
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Lecture 4
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i2
R2
R1
1 3 i=0 2
vI
i1
vO
Closed-Loop Gain G Defined, Assume A is infinite and the amp is trying to produce a finite voltage on terminal 3. Then, the voltage difference between terminals 1 and 2 should be very small, v2-v1 0 and A inf. By definition
So, we say there is a virtual short between the two terminals (1 and 2) and that terminal 1 is a virtual ground since terminal 2 is grounded.
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Lecture 4
i2
R2
R1
1 3 i=0 2
vI
i1
vO
We can adjust the closed-loop gain by changing the ratio of R2 and R1 If the input is a sine wave, then the output is a sign wave phase-shifted by 180 degrees The closed-loop gain is (ideally) independent of op amp open-loop gain A (if A is large enough) and we can make it arbitrarily large or small and of desired accuracy depending on the accuracy of the resistors. This is a classic example of what negative feedback does. It takes an amplifier with very large gain and through negative feedback, obtain a gain that is smaller, stable, and predictable. In effect, we have traded gain for accuracy. This kind of trade off is common in electronic circuit design as we will see more of later.
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Since infinite A is not physically possible, what happens when A is finite? Instead of a virtual ground, assume input terminal 1 has potential vO/A
R1
-vO A
1 i=0 2
vI
i1
vO
As A infinity, G -R2/R1 and the voltage at terminal 1 goes to 0 the virtual ground assumption we made earlier To minimize the effects of openloop gain on G, we want
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ES154
Lecture 4
Input Resistance
Assuming an ideal op amp (open-loop gain A = ), in the closed-loop inverting configuration, the input resistance is R1.
To make Rin high, need to make R1 high which is not practical What happens when A = finite? From the last slide
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Output Resistance
Now, lets look at the output resistance To solve for output resistance, zero out the input and figure out the resistance looking into the output terminal
R2 R1 v1 i2 v2 A(v2-v1) = -Av1 Roa i1 Rout vt
ES154
Lecture 4
RO= 0
vI
Rin= R1
-(R2/R1)vI
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Z1 Vi
Vo
Lets replace R1 and R2 in the inverting configuration with impedances Z1(s) and Z2(s). We can write the closed-loop transfer function as
By placing different circuit elements into Z1 and Z2, we can get interesting operations. Some examples Integrator Differentiator Summer UnityGain Buffer
12
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Lecture 4
Inverting Integrator
C
|Vo/Vi| (dB)
vC R vi Vi
2 1 -20db/dec
Vo
1/RC (log scale)
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Integrator contd
R2 C R1
Vi
2
Vo
While the DC gain in the previous integrator circuit is infinite, the amplifier itself will saturate. To limit the low-frequency gain to a known and reliable value, add a parallel resistor to the capacitor.
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Differentiator
R AdB C Vi
2 1
20dB/dec
Vo (log scale)
1/RC
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Weighted Summer
R1 v1 R2 v2
1
Rf
Rn vn
You can also building a summer.
vo
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Lecture 4
Non-Inverting Configuration
To avoid the inversion, shown is a non-inverting configuration
R1
1
Rf
vI
vo