NEC2S4u - FL0IB NECBANICS 1

"#$"%&'"() %"$*%)+




























Name anu Suiname:



Yeai:
Couise:
uioup:
Savien Buhagiai
Antonio Camilleii
Auiian Camilleii

2
B.Eng (Bons.) Nechanical Engineeiing
B2

1
&(,"#

The Falling spheie viscometei............................ 2

Aiiflow in pipes.................................. 1u

Stability of floating bouies............................ 2u










































The falling spheie viscometei
2
)-" ./00&(1 +$-"%" 2&+3*'")"%

,456 78 69:6;<=6>5
24
th
0ctobei 2u12

*?@6A5
The aim of this expeiiment was to finu the viscosity of (Castiol Nagna S2u) oil,
using the sinking time of small spheiical balls.

/::4;45BC
1. Electionic scale,
2. Niciometie sciew gauge,
S. Stopwatch,
4. Neasuiing cylinuei,
S. S small steel spheies, S meuium sizeu steel spheies anu S laigei steel
spheies,
6. Set-up containing laige measuiing cylinuei filleu with test oil,
7. Sucm Rulei,
8. Small beakei,
9. Syiinge anu,
1u. uoou lighting.

$;7A6DB;6
1. The uiameteis of all the steel spheies weie measuieu using the
miciometie sciew gauge.
2. The spheies' masses weie all measuieu using the mass balance.
S. Then, an amount of oil was pouieu into the cylinuei. The mass anu
iespective volume of the oil was noteu.
4. Two points weie maikeu upon the laige measuiing cylinuei containing
the oil, one towaius the fai bottom anu the othei consiueiably highei but
not too close to the fai top, to allow the spheie to ieach teiminal velocity.
S. The veitical uistance between these two points was measuieu using a
Sucm iule.
6. The 9 balls weie all slowly uioppeu into the set up, anu the timei was
manually staiteu upon ciossing the fiist maik, anu stoppeu at the instant
the ball ieacheu the lowei maik.
7. The tempeiatuie of the oil was iecoiueu via a theimometei.
8. All ieauings weie noteu anu tabulateu; calculations weie peifoimeu at a
latei stage.



The falling spheie viscometei
S
)4?E6 78 %6CBE5C

Biametei(u.uuuu1m) Small us Neuium um Laige ul
u1 mm 2.22 4.S2 6.62
u2 mm 2.21 4.29 6.62
uS mm 2.2S 4.S2 6.4S
Aveiage m usA u.uu22S umA u.uu4S1 ulA u.uu6S6

The mass of the small spheies was obtaineu by taking a ieauing foi the S spheies
togethei anu uiviuing the value by thiee since the balance is able to ieau only to
a minimum value of u.1g.
The total mass of the thiee spheies was u.2g
Theiefoie the mass of a single spheie was calculateu to be u.u67g

Nass (u.uuuu1kg) Small ms Neuium mm Laige ml
m1 g u.u67 u.S 1.S
m2 g u.u67 u.S 1.2
mS g u.u67 u.S 1.2
Aveiage kg msA u.uuuu7 mmAu.uuuSu mlAu.uu12u

Times s (u.u1s) Small ts Neuium tm Laige tl
t1 7.7S 2.99 1.1u
t2 7.9S S.uu 1.1u
tS 7.S6 2.9S 1.1u
Aveiage s tsA 7.74 tmA 2.98 tlA 1.1u

0thei ieauings
Length of fiee fallmu.uu1m u.2
Tempeiatuie
o
C1
o
C 26
Weight of oil samplekg
u.uuu1kg
u.u17
volume of oil samplem
S
u.1*1u
-
9
m
S

2x1u
-S


)F67;G

Symbol Piopeity 0nits
!s Bensity of spheie kgm
-S

!
!
Bensity of oil kgm
-S

! Nass of spheie kg
! volume of the spheie m
S
! Biametei of spheie m
! Bynamic viscosity of oil kgm
-1
s
-1
! velocity of spheie ms
-1

! Acceleiation uue to giavity ms
-2
!" Reynolu's numbei uimensionless
! Length of fiee fall m
The falling spheie viscometei
4
To finu the viscosity of oil fiist consiuei Aichemiue's piinciple uesciibeu in
equation |1j
!!! !"#$!! ! !"#!!"#$ ! !"#$
We woulu finu the uensity of the oil anu the spheie using equation |2j, we woulu
use the same electionic scale foi oil anu spheie altough the volume of the oil is
measuieu by means of a measuiing cylinuei anu that of the spheie by measuiing
its uiametei anu using equation |Sj.

! !
!
!
!!!

The volume of a spheie is founu by using equation |Sj
! !
!!
!
!
!!!

Substituting |Sj in |2j woulu yielu |4j, this woulu allow one uensity to be
establisheu foi each mateiial; oil anu steel;
! !
!!
!!
!
!!!

The magnituue of velocity woulu be founu out as shown by |Sj
! !
!
!
!!!

The ietaiuing foice acting on the spheie oi simply; Biag, B as it moves thiough
the fluiu was assumeu to obey stokes law; this comes with its own inheient
assumptions;
! ! !!"#$ !!!

Substituting |4j anu |6j into |1j, anu using W=mg woulu give equation |7j;

!!
!
!
!
!
! !
!!
!
!
!
!
! !!!"#$ !!!

Simplifying |7j woulu iesult in |8j;
!
!
! !
!
!!
!
! !"!" !!!


Simplifying fuithei woulu yielu equation |9j, ultimately thiee values foi the
viscosity woulu be obtaineu.
! !
!
!
!!!
!
!!
!
!
!"!
!!!

Reynolu's numbei Re given by |1uj. If this value woulu be within a ceitain iange
it woulu be safe to assume the spheie expeiienceu a laminai flow anu theiefoie a
coiiect value foi the viscosity of the Castiol magna S2u oil.
!" !
!
!
!"
!
!!"!


The falling spheie viscometei
S
To piove that viscosity is measuieu in Kgm
-1
s
-1
consiuei the L.B.S. of equation 9:
!
!
!!
!!
!"!
!!
!"
!!
!"
!"
!! !"!
!!
!
!!


34EABE45<7>C
!"#$%&' )* )%+

This was simply calculateu using equation |2j

Nass kg u.uuu1kg volume m
S
u.1x1u
-9
m
S
Bensity po kgm
-S

u.u17 2x1u
-S
8Su
#$%&'()*$(+ )$)!+,*,

0sing equation |2j

! !
!
!

!!
!
!
!
!!
!
!"
!"
!
!
!!
!
!"
!"
!

wheie
!!
!
!"
!
!
!

anu
!!
!
!"
!
!!
!
!

! !!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!"
!
!
!!
!
!
!"
!


thus leauing to an unceitianty of; S.uukgm
-S
!"#$%&' )* $,-"."$

0sing equation |4j we calculateu the uensities of the spheies
Knowing the values foi mass anu uiameteis of the thiee sets of spheies (aveiage
mass anu uiametei), theii iespective uensities can be calculateu:

Spheie size Nass kg Biametei m ,6>C<5G H IJ=
KL

Small u.uuuu7 u.uu22S MMNLO
Neuium u.uuuSu u.uu4S1 PMNQ
Laige u.uu12u u.uu6S6 RMMR

#$%&'()*$(+ -$)!+,*,

0sing equation |11j,
!!
!
!
!
!"
!
!"
!"
!
!
!"
!
!"
!"
!

The falling spheie viscometei
6
Wheie
!"
!
!"
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!

Anu
!"
!
!"
! !
!"!
!"
!
! !
!!
!
!

Theiefoie,
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!"
!
! !
!!
!
!
!"
!
!" !!
!
! !"#$%&' !" !"##$!

Taking; !" ! !!!!!!!"!" anu !" ! !!!!!!!"!. The following unceitianties
shown in the table woulu iesult;

Spheie size !!
!
kgm
-S

Small 824S.6uS
Neuium 119S.7u6
Laige S4u.2812
/"+)0%&'
Consiuei equation foi spheie velocity equation |Sj:
! !
!
!


Spheie size Time s velocities ms
-1

Small 7.74 u.u26
Neuium 2.98 u.u67
Laige 1.1u u.182


We also know that l = u.2m.

#$%&'()*$(+ -$)!+,*,

0sing |Sj
!!
!
!
!"
!"
!"
!
!
!"
!"
!"
!

Wheie
!"
!"
!
!
!

Anu
!"
!"
!
!
!!
!

Theiefoie;
!!
!
!
!
!
!"
!
!
!
!!
!"
!
!!"!

We know that !" ! !!!!!!"! anu !" ! !!!!"!. By substituting these values anu
the velocities, length of fiee fall anu time taken of the thiee spheies, we get the
eiioi value in the thiee uiffeient sizes.
The falling spheie viscometei
7

Spheie Size 0nceitianty ms
-1

Small u.uuu1S
Neuium u.uuu4
Laige u.uu189

/%$0)$%&'

Consiuei equation foi viscosity |9j:

! !
!
!
! !
!
!!
!
!"!


We know that !
!
= 8Su kgm
-S
anu g = 9.81 ms
-2
. Combining the uiffeient
uiameteis, uensities anu velocities of the uiffeient spheie sizes, we get thiee
uiffeient viscosity values.

#$%&'()*$(+ -$)!+,*,

0sing equation |9j,
!!
!
!
!!
!"
!"
!
!
!!
!"
!
!"
!
!
!
!!
!"
!
!"
!
!
!
!!
!"
!"
!


Woiking out each paitial ueiivative;

!!
!"
!
!!" !
!
!!
!
!"!
!
!!
!
!
!!
!"
!
!
!
!
!
!"!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!
!!
!"
!
! !
!
!
!
!"!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!
!!
!"
! !
!
!
! !
!
!!
!
!"!
!
! !
!
!

Theiefoie,
!!
!
! !
!
!
!"
!
!
!
!!
!
!!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!"
!
!
!!"!

Recall that: !" = !u.uuuu1m
!"
!
!!"#$$ !"!!"!! = !824u.7kgm
-S

!"
!
!"#$%! !"!!"! = !119S.7kgm
-S

!"
!

!!"#$% !"!!"!! = !S4u.Skgm
-S

Spheie size u m v ms
-1
ps kgm
-S
po kgm
-S
! kgm
-1
s
-
1

Small u.uu22S

u.u26 17222 8Su 1.7
Neuium u.uu4S1

u.u67 71S6 8Su u.9S
Laige u.uu6S6

u.182 8118 8Su u.9S
The falling spheie viscometei
8
!"
!
= S.uu kgm
-S

!" !"#$$ !"!!"! = !u.uuu1Sms
-1

!" !!"#!"# !"!!"!! = !u.uuu4ms
-1

!" !!"#$% !"!!"!! = !u.uu189ms
-1


0sing these ueiiveu values, the table above anu miciosoft excel the unceitianties
weie founu anu shown in the table below;

Spheie size: kgm
-1
s
-
1
o kgm
-1
s
-1

Small spheie 1.7 1.S11
Neuium
spheie
u.9S u.18S
Laige spheie u.9S u.1SS

$;6A4B5<7>C
The ieauings that weie ieau off the measuiing cylinuei weie ieau at eye
level anu peipenuiculai to the scale to avoiu paiallax eiioi.
Seveial ieauings anu aveiages weie taken to ensuie accuiacy.
The elapseu time foi each ball to fall thiough a known height of the fluiu
was iecoiueu aftei they hau sunk a consiueiable maximum allowable
height, to allow them to supposeuly ieach teiminal velocity.
+7B;A6C 78 6;;7;S
Refeiiing to point S of piecautions, the height of the measuiing cylinuei
useu was too small to ensuie that each ball sunk a sufficient amount of
uistance to ieach teiminal velocity befoie the iecoiueu time of the
jouiney was taken.
Buman eiioi gieatly influenceu the ieauings, especially foi iecoiuing
time, since the stopwatch was hanuleu manually anu its values woulu
incluue the ieaction time, which vaiies fiom one peison to anothei.
The mass balance useu in this expeiiment was not appiopiiate as its
lowest possible uisplay was of u.1giams whilst one of the measuieu
masses appeaieu to be this same value. This in tuin leu to a highly
inaccuiate uensity ieauing foi the smallei steel ball.
0ne othei eiioi was neglecting the effect of tempeiatuie on viscosity.
Tempeiatuie inciease uecieases viscosity. This ielationship was not
consiueieu in any calculations.


/CCB=:5<7>C
The use of stokes foimula foi uiag, came with its inheient assumptions;
we assumeu a peifectly laminai flow.
The uioppeu paiticles weie peifectly spheiical.
The falling spheie viscometei
9
They hau a peifectly smooth suiface.
The oil was homogeneous.
The human ieaction time foi staiting anu stopping the timei weie equal
anu theiefoie cancelleu out.
The teiminal velocities foi the spheies weie ieacheu befoie the timei was
staiteu.

,<CABCC<7>
The fiist foui assumptions ueal with the fact that Stokes' law was useu to ueiive
a value foi viscosity. To check whethei the flow is laminai oi tuibulent,
calculation of Reynolu's numbei is iequiieu. Foi the case of a spheie flowing tiue
a fluiu Reynolu's numbei is give as.
!" !
!
!
!"
!
!!"!

Calculating it foi all thiee values obtaineu foi viscosity we enu up with the table
below.

Spheie; Reynolu's numbei
Small u.u2899
Neuium u.2S8S7S1S8
Laige 1.u912172u4

Anothei assumption that coulu have significantly affecteu the iesult assumeu a
peifectly smooth spheie, this was not the case with the ones available since
small coiioueu spots coulu be seen on theii suiface.
0btaining the velocity foi the laige spheie pioveu uifficult since it falls ielatively
fast, a simple solution to this pioblem woulu be to use a longei beakei thus
uecieasing unceitainty.


37>AEBC<7>C
The Reynolu's numbei foi a laminai flow of a spheie tiough a fluiu is smallei
than u.1, this iules out the values foi viscosity founu foi the meuium anu the
laige spheies, this coulu be uue to the uifficulty in measuiing the falling time
timing equipment woulu iiu of this eiioi. 0n the othei hanu the unceitainty foi
finuing the mass of the small spheies was laigei. Baving a moie sensitive scale
oi moie spheies, which coulu be safely assumeu, to be iuentical woulu lessen the
unceitainty.

Aiiflow in pipes
1u
/&%.0*T &( $&$"+

,456
7th Novembei, 2u12

*?@6A5
This expeiiments aim was to measuie the velocity of aii flow acioss the
uiametei of a pipe anu plot a giaph to show the velocity uistiibution at one cioss
section.

/::4;45BC
1. Blowei,
2. pipe,
S. pitot tube,
4. baiometei,
S. theimometei
6. manometei.

+65KB: ,6CA;<:5<7>
The blowei was set up to pull aii thiough the long pipe to avoiu auueu
tuibulence uownstieam of the blowei, at a piessuie tapping a pitot tube was
inseiteu anu connecteu to a manometei, the pitot tube's position coulu be
aujusteu with a sciew thieau to take measuiements at uiffeient heights. These
piessuie ieauings woulu ultimately yielu the velocities of the fluiu at uiffeient
heights.

$;7A6DB;6S
1. The set up was fiist obseiveu anu unueistoou.
2. The spiiit level (of the manometei) upon the set up was coiiectly
aujusteu so as to be completely hoiizontal.
S. Next, the manometei was set to ieau zeio piessuie as a iefeience of no
aii flow.
4. The pitot tube was also set to zeio uivisions (i.e. at the bottom of the
cioss-section's uiametei) by aujusting the sciew.
S. The motoi opeiating the blowei was switcheu on anu some time was
given foi the system to ieach equilibiium conuitions.
6. The fiist inuiiect piessuie ieauing was ieau off the inclineu manometei.
7. The sciew was aujusteu to the fiist uivision, anu the next piessuie
ieauing was taken aftei allowing the manometei ieauing to settle.
8. The pievious step was iepeateu up to the 2u
th
anu last uivision.
9. The atmospheie conuitions weie also iecoiueu, the tempeiatuie was
ieau off the ioom's theimometei anu the atmospheiic piessuie was ieau
off the ioom's baiometei.
1u. All obseivations anu iesults weie noteu anu tabulateu
Aiiflow in pipes
11
$;6A4B5<7>CS
1. Buiing the expeiiment, it is impoitant to occasionally check if the
spiiit level of the manometei set up, is peifectly hoiizontal so as not to
affect the actual manometei ieauings.
2. The inlet anu exit valve of the blowei aie not to be obstiucteu at any
time foi safety ieasons anu also as to not affect any iesults.
S. All ieauings weie ieau off at eye level, peipenuiculai to the scale in
oiuei to avoiu paiallax eiioi.
4. It is impoitant to consiuei the iight scale conveisions, keeping in minu
that the uivisions of the piobe aie each equal to 4mm anu that the
manometei ieauings will neeu to be multiplieu by a factoi of u.2, uue
to its inclination.
)4?E6 78 %6CBE5CS

./&,& )'& (/& '&,0!(, '&%1'2&2 20'*$3 (/& &45&'*6&$(7
,<U<C<7>C 78 :<575 5B?6 H D<U<C<7>C &>AE<>6D '4>7=656; ;64D<>JH<>AF6C
78 V456; WXYZM<>[
u S.1
1 4.8
2 S.7
S 6.4
4 6.9
S 7.4
6 7.9
7 8.1
8 8.S
9 8.S
1u 8.6
11 8.S
12 8.S
1S 8.1
14 7.7
1S 7.S
16 6.8
17 6.S
18 S.6
19 4.6
2u S.1

/5=7C:F6;<A :;6CCB;6H == 78 -J
WXYZN[
%77= 56=:6;45B;6 H
7
3 WXYZN[
7S2.7S 24.S



Aiiflow in pipes
12
34EABE45<7>C 4>D 4>4EGC<C 78 ;6CBE5C
Befoie initiating calculations we hau to conveit the ieauings to usable uata in the
coiiect units.
0ne uivision on the sciew gauge of the pitot tube conveits to 4mm oi u.uu4m
The atmospheiic piessuie was simply conveiteu fiom mm of Bg to Pa anu ioom
tempeiatuie was conveiteu to Kelvin by auuing 27S, these iesults aie shown in
the fiist table.
The atmospheiic piessuie anu tempeiatuie weie neeueu to finu the uensity of
aii using equation |1j:
! !
!
!
!!
!
!!!
wheie: p: aii uensity in kgm
S

Pa: atmospheiic piessuie =1uuS67Pa
R: chaiacteiistic gas constant foi aii = 287}kgK
Ta: atmospheiic tempeiatuie = 297.SK
! ! ! !!!"# !"!!
!


The ieauings fiom the manometei weie conveiteu to the uiffeience between
stagnation anu static piessuie; Po-P, by conveiting the ieauing to meteis by
multiplying u.u2S4, multiplying by u.2 because of the inclination angle anu also
by the acceleiation uue to giavity anu the uensity of watei as shown by equation
|2j below. This woulu have the same iesult as; multiplying by a factoi of 49.8S,
i.e. u.u2S4 X u.2 X 9.81ms
-2
X 1uuukgm
-S
= 49.8SPa

!
!
!! ! !
!
!! !!!

wheie: p
m
: uensity of manometei fluiu (watei) = 1uuukgm
S

3: acceleiation uue to giavity = 9.81ms
2

/: manometei ueflection in m

0sing equation |2j anu the eneigy equation foi gasses equation |Sj;
!
!
! ! !
!
!
!!
!
!!!

The below expiession foi velocity is ueiiveu;
! !
!!
!
!!
!
!
wheie 8: velocity of aiiflow in ms
p: aii uensity =1.17S kgm
S









Aiiflow in pipes
1S
'4>7=656;
D68E6A5<7> H= 78
V456; WXYZYY\N][
%4D<4E :7C<5<7>
^ ;H=
$;6CCB;6 D<886;6>A6
W$7K$[ H$4
26E7A<5G 78 4<;8E7V
H =HC
u.u1S7 -u.u4u 1S4.u17 16.191
u.u244 -u.uS6 2S9.S64 2u.18S
u.u29u -u.uS2 284.49u 22.uuS
u.uS2S -u.u28 S18.82S 2S.296
u.uSS1 -u.u24 S44.SS1 24.2u9
u.uS76 -u.u2u S68.8S6 2S.uS7
u.u4u1 -u.u16 S9S.S81 2S.876
u.u411 -u.u12 4uS.191 26.197
u.u422 -u.uu8 41S.982 26.S4S
u.u4S2 -u.uu4 42S.792 26.8S8
u.u4S7 u 428.697 27.u1S
u.u4S2 u.uu4 42S.792 26.8S8
u.u422 u.uu8 41S.982 26.S4S
u.u411 u.u12 4uS.191 26.197
u.uS91 u.u16 S8S.S71 2S.SS2
u.uS71 u.u2u S6S.9S1 24.89u
u.uS4S u.u24 SS8.44S 24.uu2
u.uS2u u.u28 S1S.92u 2S.116
u.u284 u.uS2 278.6u4 21.777
u.u2S4 u.uS6 229.SS4 19.767
u.u1S7 u.u4u 1S4.u17 16.191

To uesciibe the velocity piofile the following mouels weie consiueieu anu then
compaieu to the actual iesults on a giaph.
Foi a laminai flow;
! ! !
!"#
! !
!
!
!
!!!
wheie 9: Laminai flow velocity
96)4= maximum velocity at centie = 27.u1Sms
':iauial position in the pipe in m
:: pipe iauius = u.u4m
Foi a tuibulent flow the velocity is calculateu as;
! ! !
!"#
! !
!
!
!
!!!
wheie $ is taken as
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!









Aiiflow in pipes
14
!"#$%"& ()*+, #,-
./&0/)1%2 ()*+
%34,5 6 #,-
./&0/)1%2 ()*+
%34,7 6 #,-
./&0/)1%2 ()*+
%34,8 6 #,-
./&0/)1%2 ()*+
%34,9 6 #,-
26.7428700 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
26.7941947 18.403743 19.440869 20.236892 20.913183
26.8401168 20.637303 21.464460 22.090298 22.389649
26.8806363 22.101733 22.744472 23.238761 23.630623
26.9137332 23.187263 23.698683 24.089640 24.398171
26.9434673 24.063847 24.466313 24.771030 23.010634
26.9697792 24.808338 23.111933 23.342049 23.322483
26.9886883 23.433987 23.671070 23.833096 23.963396
27.0021948 26.026822 26.163469 26.269939 26.331482
27.0102987 26.342790 26.609438 26.639370 26.698610
27.0130000 27.013000 27.013000 27.013000 27.013000
27.0102987 26.342790 26.609438 26.639370 26.698610
27.0021948 26.026822 26.163469 26.269939 26.331482
26.9886883 23.433987 23.671070 23.833096 23.963396
26.9697792 24.808338 23.111933 23.342049 23.322483
26.9434673 24.063847 24.466313 24.771030 23.010634
26.9137332 23.187263 23.698683 24.089640 24.398171
26.8806363 22.101733 22.744472 23.238761 23.630623
26.8401168 20.637303 21.464460 22.090298 22.389649
26.7941947 18.403743 19.440869 20.236892 20.913183
26.7428700 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000

Finuing Reynolu's numbei using;
!" !
! !
!"#$
!
!
!!!
wheie: :&: Reynolu's numbei
96&)$: Nean velocity
;7 uiametei of pipe =u.u8m
!: uynamic viscosity (obtaineu fiom table below) in kgms

Calculating the mean velocity 9mean foi the velocity piofile of n=
!
!
, which
appioximateu closest the actual iesult using the equation below ueiiveu fiom
calculating the mean value foi a function using calculus.

!
!"#$
!
!!
!"#
!! !!!!! !!!
!!!

! !
!"#$
! !!!!"# !!!

The viscosity of aii is uepenuent on the tempeiatuie. It incieases with
tempeiatuie inciease, as can be seen fiom the table. The ioom tempeiatuie was
Aiiflow in pipes
1S
ieau to be 298K, which we can appioximate to SuuK anu thus ieau of a value of
1.98Sx1u
-S
Kgms fiom the table below.

)4?E6 M K /D4:56D 8;7= F55:SHHVVVZ6>J<>66;<>J577E?79ZA7=H4<;K4?C7EB56KI<>6=45<AKU<CA7C<5GK
D_QYMZF5=E
)6=:6;45B;6 K )
W1[
,G>4=<A 2<CA7C<5G K 2
34567 $8 9 :;
<=

1uu u.6924
1Su 1.u28S
2uu 1.S289
2Su 1.488
Suu 1.98S
SSu 2.u7S
4uu 2.286
4Su 2.484
Suu 2.671

Reynolus numbei (Re) uesciibes the type of flow in pipes. Foi a laminai flow, the
Re<2Suu. 0n the othei hanu foi tuibulent flow Re>>2Suu.

Fiom the pievious foimula
Re=1S6u46.2u11! !!! !"!#$% !"!!"!#$ ! !"#$"%&'! !"#$
Aiiflow in pipes
16
-u.uS
-u.u4
-u.uS
-u.u2
-u.u1
u
u.u1
u.u2
u.uS
u.u4
u.uS
u S 1u 1S 2u 2S Su
;
4
D
<
4
E

:
7
C
<
5
<
7
>

U6E7A<5G =HC
26E7A<5G $;7`<E6
expeiimental piofile
laminai piofile
tuibulent at n=16
tuibulent at n=17
tuibulent at n=18
tuibulent at n=19
Aiiflow in pipes
17
a>A6;54<>5G 4>4EGC<C

Consiuei equation |1j
! !
!
!
!!
!


wheie PA = aii piessuie anu TA = aii tempeiatuie
!" !
!!
!!
!
!!
!
!
!!
!!
!
!!
!
!"#
!!
!!
!
!!
!
!
!
!!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!"#
!"
!!
!
!!
!
! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!!
!
! !
!
!
!
!!
!
!!!"!#$"!! !" !
!
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
!

Calculating foi values of p = 1.17Skgm
-S
, PA = 1uuS67 +- 67Pa anu TA = 297.S
+- u.SK:
!p = u.uu12kgm
-S
.

Consiuei equation |4j
! !
!!
!
!!
!

wheie pm = manometiic fluiu uensity
g = giavitational constant
h = manometei ueflection
p = aii uensity.
!" !
!"
!!
!! !
!"
!"
!"
!"#
!"
!!
!! !
!
!
!
!!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!! !
!
!
!
!"
!!
!"#
!"
!"
!" !
!
!
!
!!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!
!
!!
!
!
!" ! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!"
!!!"!#$"!! !" !
!
!
!
!"
!! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!" !
!
!
!
!"
!!! !
!!"
!
!



0sing excel the table below was constiucteu. Taking the following constants as;
pm = 1uuukgm
-1
g = 9.81m
-2

p = 1.17Skgm
-S

!! ! !!!!"#$ !
!" ! !!!!"# !"!
!!





Aiiflow in pipes
18
ManomeLer deflecLlon h /
m
!"/ ms
-1

ercenLage
uncerLalnLy
0.00137 1.11219 6.83
0.00244 0.89343 4.42
0.0029 0.81969 3.72
0.00323 0.77344 3.31
0.00331 0.74480 3.07
0.00376 0.71911 2.87
0.00401 0.69390 2.68
0.00411 0.68722 2.62
0.00422 0.67883 2.33
0.00432 0.67079 2.49
0.00437 0.66686 2.46
0.00432 0.67079 2.49
0.00422 0.67883 2.33
0.00411 0.68722 2.62
0.00391 0.70491 2.73
0.00371 0.72403 2.90
0.00343 0.73027 3.12
0.0032 0.77937 3.37
0.00284 0.82700 3.79
0.00234 0.91269 4.62
0.00137 1.11219 6.83

+7B;A6C 78 6;;7;
The uivisions of the pitot tube piobe weie hanuwiitten upon the scale which was
not peimanently stuck upon the set-up anu thus leauing to some unceitainty
which in tuin coulu not be calculateu oi incluueu into the unceitainty analysis
section.

,<CABCC<7>
The expeiiment's aim was to investigate the flow of aii acioss a pipe's ciiculai
cioss section; mainly the aveiage velocity piofile. It was inteiesting to use
appaiatus specific to fluiu mechanics, since theii meiely mentioneu in the
classioom. This expeiiments initiateu a hanus on expeiience. The uata gatheieu
was sufficient to plot the velocity piofile using a spieausheet piogiam foi
calculation anu plotting.
Anothei chaiacteiistic was investigateu; laminai veisus tuibulent flows. These
flows coulu be uesciibeu by imagining a stieak line; the locus of points of the
paiticles that have passeu continuously tiough a point in the past shown visually
by using uye oi smoke, not the actual tiajectoiy of a paiticle in the fluiu. A stieak
line in a laminai flow woulu be stiaight wheieas in a tuibulent flow it woulu be
iiiegulai, inteimeuiate flows uisplay limiteu iiiegulaiity. The type of flow
uepenus on the velocity fastei flows woulu iesult in moie iiiegulai stieak lines.
Aiiflow in pipes
19
These flows coulu also be uiffeientiateu by the velocity time giaphs of the fluiu at
any point laminai flow woulu have constant velocities whilst tiansitional anu
tuibulent woulu not.
Calculating the Reynolus numbei ievealeu we hau a tuibulent flow.
The expeiiment was caiiieu on a piessuie tap as fai away fiom the inlet as
possible, anu the pump placeu uownwinu fiom the inlet. The ieason foi this is to
fiistly allow the bounuaiy layei to covei all of the cioss section, neglecting the
affects of viscosity becomes a ieasonable assumption anu tuibulence intiouuceu
fiom the pump is eliminateu.

37>AEBC<7>
The expeiiment iesulteu in success since we weie able to plot the expecteu
tuibulent velocity piofile anu compaie it with velocity piofiles geneiateu by a
commonly useu equation foi tuibulent flows, while vaiying the paiametei n.
Stability of floating bouies
2u
+)/b&0&)c *. .0*/)&(1 b*,&"+

,456 78 69:6;<=6>5S
21
st
Novembei, 2u12

*?@6A5S
This expeiiment was caiiieu out to finu the metacentiic height 'Nu' foi a mouel
pontoon by consiueiing the position of the centie of giavity using two uiffeient
methous.

/::4;45BCS
1. Laige suspenueu spiing balance with a knife-euge
2. Plumb line suspenueu fiom stiing
S. Stanu holuing the spiing balance anu penuulum
4. The mouel pontoon
S. Attacheu angle scale anu moveable jockey
6. Watei ieseivoii
7. Netie Rule
8. Naikei (to maik positions upon pontoon)
9. Tape.
+65KB: ,6CA;<:5<7>S
The Nouel hau anothei suspenuing penuulum that was useu as a maik on a fixeu
piotiactoi. A moving jockey was also fixeu to a hoiizontal iail, with 1cm
inteivals maikeu on it. The jockey coulu be fixeu in position by using tape on the
iail.












$;7A6DB;6S
The set up shown above was well stuuieu anu unueistoou.




jockey '
1
b
Stability of floating bouies
21
>"&-)? :@ ./*, 6&(/12 *$81!8&2 (/& 0,& 1< (/& 6&),0'&6&$(, ()=&$ (13&(/&' >*(/
(/& <1'60!) !" !
!
!


1. The length (L) anu bieauth (b) of the pontoon weie measuieu by
simply using a metie iule.
2. Then, the moment of ineitia (I) was calculateu using ! !
!!
!
!"
,
assuming that the pontoon was peifectly iectangulai.
S. The weight of the pontoon was founu using the spiing balance
pioviueu.
4. While the pontoon was still hung to the spiing balance, the centie
of giavity was founu using the plumbline. When the pontoon anu
the plumbline stoppeu oscillating, a line was maikeu on the
pontoon, tangent to the stiing plumbline.
S. By iotating the pontoon, the pievious step was iepeateu to maik
the coiiesponuing line on the same siue, such that an inteisection
point between the two lines is foimeu.
6. This point of inteisection iepiesents the pontoon's %&$('& 1<
3')8*(+? which was measuieu fiom the base of the pontoon.
7. Thus the length '0u' was measuieu, wheie '0' is the centie of the
bottom bieauth of the pontoon.
8. The uepth of immeision (B) was founu by placing the pontoon in
watei anu maiking a point just above the suiface of the watei.
9. The volume of uisplaceu watei was founu using "v = L x b x B".
1u. The calculateu value of the volume was compaieu to the
theoietical volume, using the equation;
!
!!!"#$%&'$(
!
!
!"#$%%#
!"#$%&%$# !"#$!!
!"#$%

11. Foi both the actual anu theoietical volume, the BN coulu easily be
founu.
12. The centie point of the immeiseu uepth iepiesents the centie of
buoyancy. This was founu by uiawing two inteisecting uiagonals
of the immeiseu iectangulai poition of the pontoon.
1S. The length 0B was measuieu. This length is the uistance fiom the
base of the pontoon to the centie of buoyancy founu above.
14. The uistance Bu between the centie of buoyancy anu centie of
giavity coulu now be calculateu using "Bu = 0u - 0B".
1S. The @&()%&$('*% /&*3/( was founu by "Nu = BN - Bu", wheie BN
anu Bu weie pieviously founu.
16. All obseivations anu iesults weie noteu anu tabulateu.


Stability of floating bouies
22
>"&-)? A7 AB()*$&2 B+ 0,*$3 (/& )$3!& 1< (*!(? B+ ,/*<(*$3 (/& 51,*(*1$, 1< (/& C1%=&+
*$ D%6 *$(&'8)!,

1. The pontoon was put in the watei ieseivoii.
2. The jockey was moveu to the iight hanu siue of the iail, moving
1cm at a time anu noting the angle of tilt which the attacheu
penuulum maue with the attacheu angle scale foi each inteival.
The initial maik of the jockey was also noteu.
S. All iecoiueu values of uistance anu angle weie iecoiueu in a table.
4. Since !" !
! !
!
!
!
!"#!
, a giaph of u veisus tan coulu be
plotteu by aiianging the foimula in the foim + E 64 F %? yieluing:
!"#! !
! !
!
!
!
!"
G Nu was calculateu fiom the giaph's giauient.
(W ' is known value)
S. The value of Nu founu by both methous was compaieu.

$;6A4B5<7>CS
Any ieauings taken at eye level aie subject to paiallax eiioi.
In oiuei to obtain accuiate iesults when taking centie of giavity,
buoyancy anu the immeiseu uepth, two sets of ieauings weie taken one
at each bieauth.
When finuing the seconu moment of aiea (I) anu the volume of uisplaceu
watei, we have always assumeu that the pontoon is peifectly iectangulai.

)4?E6C 78 %6CBE5CS

@&(/12 D7








>"B$C."7"#& D"0).?"? /B+C" EF /B+C"
Weight of pontoon 2.68u(u.u1)Kg 26.29(u.u98)N
Length of pontoon SS.7cm (u.Smm) u.SS7(u.uuuS)m
Bieauth of pontoon 2ucm (u.Smm) u.2uu(u.uuuS)m
Centie of uiavity: face 1 S.Scm (Smm) u.uSS(u.uuS)m
Centie of uiavity: face 2 S.Scm (Smm) u.uSS(u.uuS)m
Biaught HGI%6 JKD66L MGMHIJKMGMMDL6
Centie of Buoyancy DGN%6JSmm) MGMDNJu.uuS)m
Stability of floating bouies
2S
@&(/12 O7

G)04"' ?%$,+B0"7"#& 6
7
H#5+" )* &%+&6
)

3I;JA=
)
8
H#5+" )* &%+&6.B?%B#$
3I;J;;KLM8
NB#O
u u.u u.uuuuu u.uuuu
u.u1 u.S u.uu87S u.uu87
u.u2 1.S u.u2618 u.u262
u.uS 2.S u.u4S6S u.u4S7
u.u4 S.u u.uS2S6 u.uS24
u.uS 4.u u.u6981 u.u699
u.u6 S.u u.u8727 u.u87S
u.u7 S.S u.u9S99 u.u96S
u.u8 6.S u.11S4S u.11S9

34EABE45<7>C 4>D B>A6;54<>5G 4>4EGC<C

! @&(/12D7

Following the uiagiam below, we may see that Nu=BN-Bu |1j:

Fiist, BN anu Bu must be calculateu, wheie; !" !
!
!
|2j
Wheie 'I' is the moment of ineitia anu 'v' is the volume uisplaceu by the pontoon

Fuitheimoie: ! !
! !
!
!"
|Sj
L is the length of the pontoon (u.SS7m) anu b is its bieauth (u.2m)
Thus by using the equation PHQ, I = 2.S8x1u
-4
m
4
.




R1> S1$,*2&'@ ! !
! !
!
!"
T*8&$U VEMGHWX6 )$2 !"EMGMMMW6
b=u.2uu m anu !" = u.uuuSm
Anu ! ! !!!"!!"
!!
m
4
jockey '
1
b
Stability of floating bouies
24
!" !
!"
!"
!" !
!"
!"
!"
!" !
!
!
!"
!" !
!!!
!
!"
!"
By multiplying fiist fiaction top anu bottom by L anu seconu fiaction top anu
bottom by b;
!" !
!
!
!" !
!!
!
!"

By inseiting !! !! !" !"# !" we get !" ! !!!"!!"
!!
!
!
=u.uuuuu2m
4


Thus: ! ! !! !!!"#$ !!! !!!!!" !
!
! !! !"#$!
!!
! !"#!
!!
!
!


Also the volume is founu by applying
v= L x b x B, |4j

wheie L is the length
b is the bieauth
B is the pontoon's immeiseu uepth (u.uS6m).

By substituting values into |4j we obtain a value of v = 2.S7x1u
-S
m
S

S1$,*2&'7 2 d 0 9 ? 9 , uiven U ;EMGMHI6 )$2 !" ! !!!!!"!
)$2 9D E OGWX4DM
YH
6
H

!" !
!"
!"
!" !
!"
!"
!" !
!"
!"
!"

!" ! !"#$ ! !"#$ !!"#$

By multiplying top anu bottom of fiist fiaction by L, seconu fiaction by b anu
thiiu fiaction by B we obtain;
!" !
!
!
!" !
!
!
!" !
!
!
!"

By inseiting !! !! !! !"! !" !"# !" we get !!
!
! !!!"!!"
!!
!
!
= u.uuuu4m
S


Thus !
!
! !! !!"#$ !!! !!!!" !
!
! !! !"#!"
!!
! !"!"
!!
!
!


R1(&7 We can also veiify this value by applying anothei foimula foi volume;
!
!!!"#$%&'$(
!
!
!"#$%%#
!"#$%&%$# !"#$!!
!"#$%
|Sj

wheie: the weight is 26.29N
the specific weight is a fixeu known value of 981uNm

Thus equation |Sj ietuins a value of 2.68x1u
-S
m
S
, which in tuin is quite close to
the pieviously calculateu value foi volume

Stability of floating bouies
2S


R1> S1$,*2&'7 the othei volume equation: ! !
!
!"#$%&%$# !"#$!!


We know; specific weight = S.W=981uNm (a constant)
Weight of pontoon= 26.29N anu !" =u.u98N
-$2 9O E OGIN4DM
YH
6
H


!" !
!"
!"
!"
!" !
!
!! !!
!"

By multiplying top anu bottom by w we get;
!" !
!
!
!"

By inseiting ! !"# !" we get !!
!
! !!!!!!"
!!
!
!
! !!!!!!"!
!


Thus !
!
! !! !!"#$ !!! !!!!" !
!
! !! !"#!"
!!
!!"!"
!!
!
!


Thus we can now finu BN by inseiting the calculateu vales of |Sj anu |4j into
equation |2j
.
.
. BN1=u.u9261m 0R by using theoietical volume BN2=u.u8881m





S1$,*2&'U !" !
!
!
uiven: != 2.S8x1u
-4
anu !" ! !!!"
!!

v1= 2.S7x1u
-S
anu !!
!
! !!!"
!!

v2= 2.68x1u
-S
anu !!
!
! !!!"
!!

BN1 = 92.61x1u
-S
m anu BN2=88.81x1u
-S
m

!"# !
!"#
!"
!" !
!"#
!"
!"
!"# !
!
!
!" !
!
!
!
!"
!"# !
!"
!
!" !
!"
!
!"

Thus by inseiting !"! !! !
!
!" !
!
! !" !"# !!!
!
!" !!
!
! we get:
!"!
!
! !!!ux1u
-S
m anu !"!
!
! !!!"x1u
-4
m

+7e !!
!
! !! !"#$% !!! !!"# !! !!"! !"#!"
!!
!!! !"#!"
!!
!!

*% !!
!
! !! !"""# !!! !!!" !! !!!! !"#!"
!!
!!! !!"!"
!!
!!

Stability of floating bouies
26

Now that we have founu BN we iequiieu finuing Bu. Fiom the pieviously
sketcheu uiagiam we can obseive that;
Bu = 0u - 0B |6j

The values of 0u=u.uSSm anu 0B=u.u18m aie iecoiueu in the table of iesults.
Thus fiom |6j
Bu=u.uSSm

S1$,*2&'U Bu = 0u - 0B
We know that: !"# ! !"# ! !!!!!"!
!"# ! !"# ! !"#
!"# ! !!!!!" ! !!!!!" ! !!!!"!

)F6;687;6f !" ! !!! !"# !!! !!"! !


Finally by iefeiiing back to equation |1j, '1 d YZYNPQ=
0i by theoietical volume '1dYZYNLR=

S1$,*2&'U Nu = BN-Bu
uiven; !"# ! !!!!"!
!"!
!
! !!!ux1u
-S
m
!"!
!
! !!!"x1u
-4
m

!"# ! !"#!!"#
!"!
!
! !!!!"#!
!"!
!
! !!!!"#$!

So: !!
!
! !! !"#$ !!! !!"# !
!!
!
! !!! !"#$ !!! !!"#$!!

(The aveiage of these two is YZYNNP=)
















Stability of floating bouies
27

! @&(/12 O7
Since; !" !
! !
!
!
!
!"#!


wheie: u is the jockey uisplacement,
is the angle of tilt,
w is the weight of the pontoon
w' is the weight of the jockey

By manipulating this foimula into the foim y=mx+c, we obtain;
!"#$ !
!!
!!!"!
! compaieu to: Y= m(x) + c

Thus a giaph of 'u' against 'tan' will iesult in a stiaight line which passes
thiough the oiigin with a giauient of
!!
!!!"!
. Anu thus by making Nu
subjecteu, we can finu a value foi the metacentiic height.

Consiuei the function useu tan. Anu fiom the table of iesults we know
that !" ! !!!!!"#$ !"#$"%&. The unceitainty analysis is as follows:

!"#$% !
!"#$%
!"
!"

!"#$% ! !"#
!
! !"

Applying this into the following table yielus:

/>JE6 78 5<E5H;4D<4>C
WXYZYY]LQ[
)4>g !"#$% !"#$ ! !"#$%
u.uuuuu u.uuuu u.uu4S6 u.uuuu u.uu4S6
u.uu87S u.uu87 u.uu4S6 u.uu87 u.uu4S6
u.u2618 u.u262 u.uu4S6 u.u262 u.uu4S6
u.u4S6S u.u4S7 u.uu4S7 u.u4S7 u.uu4S7
u.uS2S6 u.uS24 u.uu4S7 u.uS24 u.uu4S7
u.u6981 u.u699 u.uu4S8 u.u699 u.uu4S8
u.u8727 u.u87S u.uu4S9 u.u87S u.uu4S9
u.u9S99 u.u96S u.uu44u u.u96S u.uu44u
u.11S4S u.11S9 u.uu442 u.11S9 u.uu442


The giaph is plotteu on the next page using Niciosoft Excel. A best stiaight line
fit was maikeu in blue ovei the actual plotteu iesults. The giaphs equation was
wiitten in excel as y = 1.4u27(x), wheie the giauient has a value of 1.4u27m
-1
.
The unceitainty calculateu fiom tan is also inseiteu as eiioi bais onto the
giaph. The max point anu minimum point cieateu by the eiioi bais is joineu the
Stability of floating bouies
28
foim a ieu line of gieatest slope, whilst a gieen line of smallest giauient is also
plotteu onto these eiioi bais as can be seen on the following page.

The giauient of these two lines is founu by using the two points useu into:
! !
!!
!!


Foi the max giauient line, ! !
!!!!!"#$! !!!!!"#$!
!!!!"!!!
! !!!""!!
!!


Foi the min giauient line, ! !
!!!!"#$%! !!!!"#$!
!!!!"!!!
! !!!"#$!
!!


The change in giauient is eithei;
mmax-m = u.1Su8
oi: m-mmin = u.u887

Thus as an unceitainty, it is best to take the gieatei value;
m= (1.4u27u.1Su8) m
-1




























Stability of floating bouies
29
1;4:F MS )4>g U6;CBC @7AI6G D<C:E4A6=6>5 V<5F C:6A<8<A 6;;7; ?4;C
-u.uu4S6
u.118S2
u.uu4S6
u.1u948
lineai giaph equation: y = 1.4u27x
-u.u2
u
u.u2
u.u4
u.u6
u.u8
u.1
u.12
u.14
u u.u1 u.u2 u.uS u.u4 u.uS u.u6 u.u7 u.u8 u.u9
)4>g
h7AI6G D<C:E4A6=6>5H=
actual iesults
Nax eiioi line
Ninimum eiioi line
Lineai (actual iesults)
Stability of floating bouies
Su
By manipulating the pievious equation we can finu the metacentiic height:
!" !
!!
!!!"#$%&'(!


Substituting the value of the giauient, the weight of the pontoon=26.29N anu the
weight of the jockey given to be 1.72N

We obtain a value of '1dYZY]QQ=

S1$,*2&'7 !" !
!!
!!!"#$%&'(!


We know: giauient=1.4u27m
-1
anu !" ! !!!"#$!
!!

W=26.29N anu !" ! !!!"#!

!"# !
!"#
!"
!"!
!"#
!"#$%&'()
!"#$%&'()

!"# ! !
!
!
!"#$%&'(! !
!
!"!
!!
!! !"#$%&'!
!
!"#$%&'()


!"# ! !
!"
!
!"!
!"
!"#$%&'(
!"#$%&'()

Theiefoie; !"# ! !!!!"#!!"
!!
! = -u.uu4Sm

Thus '1 d WYZY]QQXYZYY]N[=

The uiffeience between the two values is 16%, which is quite high.
Bowevei, since the two values aie obtaineu fiom two uiffeient methous, having
uiffeient unceitainties anu assumptions, this uiffeience is expecteu. The moie
accuiate iesult is piobably the one just obtaineu (i.e. that of methou 2), since the
unceitainty came one oiuei of magnituue less than that of methou 1 (since
methou 1 involveu much moie human eiiois when taking ieauings).

+7B;A6C 78 6;;7;
The ueteimination of the centie of giavity is not so accuiate, since the
methou auopteu was not piecise because the plumbline anu pontoon uiu
not completely stop moving. Thus, the point of inteisection was not
exactly founu.
Instability of the pontoon in the watei uiu not peimit us to maik exactly
the immeiseu uepth of the pontoon in watei.




Stability of floating bouies
S1
,<CABCC<7>
Buoyancy is best uefineu as the ability oi tenuency of a bouy to float in
liquiu oi iise in a gas. By Aichimeues piinciple, the foice of buoyancy on the
bouy is equal anu opposite to the weight of the uisplaceu fluiu volume uisplaceu
by the bouy.
We shoulu also note that the mass uistiibution of the bouy's geometiy
has a gieat effect on the stability of the floating bouy. This will then ueteimine
whethei the bouy iemains stable oi if it oveituins. The centie of giavity of the
immeiseu bouy anu the centie of buoyancy uo not noimally coinciue, implying
that hyuiostatic equilibiium may exist in the absence of mechanical equilibiium
of the bouy.
A moment foice will thus be cieateu uue to the uistance between these
two centies, that tenus to iotate the bouy in stable equilibiium. When
equilibiium is stable, the centie of giavity anu centie of buoyancy lie in the same
veitical line, anu so, the centie of giavity will be above the centie of buoyancy.
When the pontoon is tilteu at an angle, the centie of buoyancy changes
whilst the centie of giavity maintains its position (pioviueu that the angle of tilt
is not too laige). This change in centie of buoyancy will foice the pontoon to
cieate a iestoiing moment.
The metacentie is only a point of inteisection between two lines. 0ne of
these lines will be the line passing thiough the centie of buoyancy of the
immeiseu poition of the bouy in equilibiium, whilst the othei will be the veitical
line passing thiough the centie of buoyancy when the bouy is in its tilteu
position. The point of inteisection of these two lines shows the metacentie of the
bouy in the tilteu position. The bouy's stability is inuicateu by the height of this
metacentiic point above the centie of giavity. The gieatei this height the moie
stable a bouy appeais to be. 0n the othei hanu, a veiy laige metacentiic height
iesults in a laigei fiequency of oscillation of the bouy.

37>AEBC<7>
It can be establisheu fiom the theoiy uiscusseu above anu using the
appiopiiate calculations that the position of the centie of buoyancy was founu to
be veitically below the centie of giavity. The geometiy of the pontoon was also
in a stable equilibiium. The value of the metacentiic height, which is the uistance
between the centie of giavity anu the metacentie point, was also seen as
ieasonable when compaieu to the geometiy of the pontoon. The seconu methou
can be saiu to be moie accuiate than the fiist since the seconu pioceuuie
iequiieu less measuiements which incluueu human eiiois.