1

Verbal Modifiers
Modifiers are single words or groups of words that describe or provide more detail about another word, be it subjects, verbs, objects, complements or other modifiers. Modifying words are mostly adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs modify adjectives, verbs and other adverbs. A noun too can be used as a modifier of another noun.

Auxiliary verbs Five tests for auxiliary verbs: 1. !. #. %. '. Auxiliaries must be used together with lexical verbs unless ellipsis occurs. Auxiliaries have little meaning. "nstead, they express tense and aspect. Auxiliaries invert in $uestions. Auxiliaries occur before n&t. Auxiliaries are used in tags.

a. (ine Modals can could may might shall should will would must

Modals do not have agreement or tense endings. Modals occur first in a se$uence of auxiliaries. Modals do not re$uire an affix on the verb that follows them.

b. )erfect Auxiliary have c. )erfect auxiliary * +ed affix ,x: have li-ed, had learned, has remained .here&s the affix on these lexical verbs/ ,x. has gone, have ta-en, has put

)rogressive Auxiliary be + progressive auxiliary * +ing affix ,x. was beginning, are getting on, were fighting, is doing

d. )assive Auxiliary be )assive auxiliary * +ed affix ,x. was pushed, be recogni0ed .here&s the affix on these lexical verbs/ ,x. was put, was bitten, were bid, was driven about, was made fun of

Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers Modifiers are usually placed next to the word they modify. )laced too far from the word it describes, the modifier can end up as misplaced modifier, which is explained later. Adjectives as modifiers come more often before the noun than after it. Adverbs as modifiers occur immediately before or after the verb, and before an adjective or another adverb. a. Adjective modifying noun "t was a dar- and stormy night.
12ar- is an adjective, so is stormy3 they both modify the noun night.4

5here was a red -ite in the cloudless s-y.

16ed and cloudless are adjectives, and they modify the nouns kite and sky.4

b. Adjective modifying pronoun 7e was happy with the way things went.
17appy as an adjective modifying pronoun he.4

5hey were tired after a hard day at the wor-site.

1Adjective tired modifies pronoun they.4

c.

Adverb modifying verb

7e often sees ghosts in his dreams.

1Adverb often modifies verb sees.4

7e did not feel hungry and ate sparingly.

1Adverb sparingly modifies verb ate.4

d. Adverb modifying adjective 5he water wasn&t hot enough to ma-e a drin-.
15he word enough is an adverb and it modifies the adjective hot4

8he felt her pulse seemed abnormally fast.

1Adverb abnormally modifies adjective fast.4

e. Adverb modifying adverb 7e now gets home more $uic-ly with his new car.
1More is an adverb and it modifies another adverb quickly.4

After her illness, she gets tired exceptionally easily.

1Adverb exceptionally modifies adverb easily.4 Verb 7e works on his own. 5hey dig to get at the roots. .e ate lots of food. Adjective "t was % a.m. and " was still awake. .e have been patient with him. "t was dark inside the cave. Adverb 7e finished his homewor- quickly. 8he ran fast in the race. 5he dog came immediately when he called. Adverb modifying verb 7e works efficiently on his own. 5hey dig deep to get at the roots. .e eat up lots of food. Adverb modifying adjective "t was % a.m. and " was still wide awake. .e have been quite patient with him. "t was completely dark inside the cave. Adverb modifying adverb 7e finished his homewor- very quickly. 8he ran amazingly fast in the race. 5he dog came almost immediately when he called.

5o be able to distinguish between an adjective and an adverb does help as the following show. 6eal is an adjective3 really is an adverb. Incorrect: 5he government is aware of the really problems that these people face.
1"t is incorrect because an adverb does not modify a noun. 5he word really is an adverb.4

Correct: 5he government is aware of the real problems that these people face.
15he word real is an adjective and it correctly modifies the noun problems.4

Incorrect: .e don&t -now what real happened.

1An adjective real does not modify a verb happened.4

Correct: .e don&t -now what really happened.

1An adverb really modifies a verb happened.4

9ertain is an adjective3 certainly is an adverb. Correct: (ot smo-ing has certainly made a real difference.
19ertainly is an adverb and it modifies the verb made.4

Incorrect: (ot smo-ing has certain made a real difference.

19ertain is an adjective and an adjective does not modify a verb made.4

Correct: Are you $uite certain about what happened/ Incorrect: Are you $uite certainly about what happened/ Comparatives and uperlatives as Modifiers

9omparatives and superlatives can act as modifiers as they are either adjectives or adverbs. 5he comparative form is restricted to comparing two things while the superlative form compares more than two things. Abu&s older camel died last wee-. 15his sentence says that Abu had two camels, one of which died last wee-. :lder modifies the camel that died.4 Abu has the oldest camel in the desert. 1:ldest modifies camel in this sentence.4 5he word very can be an adjective or an adverb. .e use it to modify an adjective or an adverb, but we cannot use it to modify comparatives and superlatives. Correct: Abu&s camel is very old.
;ery modifies adjective old.

Correct: Abu rides his camel very slowly.

;ery modifies adverb slowly.

Incorrect: Abu&s camel is very older than his uncle&s camel.

;ery cannot modify comparative adjective older.

Incorrect: Abu rides his camel very more slowly.

;ery cannot modify comparative adverb more slowly.

Multiple!word modifiers
Modifiers can be more than one describing the same noun to ma-e it more precise or interesting. 5hey can be a phrase, or multiple+ word, or even just one word modifying a whole sentence. 5he modifiers must be easily identifiable with the words they modify.

5he meal in that restaurant was really delicious.

5he phrase in the restaurant modifies the meal. "t tells us where the meal is<was available, and really delicious also modifies the meal. "t tells us about the taste of the meal. 5he adverb really modifies the adjective delicious. "t tells us how delicious the meal was.

5hey were highly delighted at the court&s decision.

5he adverb highly modifies how they felt, that is delighted. 5he adverbial phrase at the court&s decision modifies the adjective delighted. "t tells us what made them delighted.

8uddenly, the ground shoo- and everyone rushed outdoors.

8uddenly modifies the whole sentence. :utdoors is an adverb and it modifies the verb rushed.

5he hungry+loo-ing vultures were perched high on the steep cliff overloo-ing the slightly choppy sea.
Adjective hungry+loo-ing modifies noun vultures3 adverb high modifies verb perched3 adjective steep modifies noun cliff3 lightly choppy modifies noun sea3 and adverb slightly modifies adjective choppy.

9overed by a thic- layer of fine dust, the top shelf had not been wiped for years.
Adjective thic- modifies noun phrase layer of fine dust3 adjective fine modifies noun dust3 adjective top modifies shelf3 and covered by a thic- layer of fine dust modifies top shelf.

"t was the ugly toothless old wic-ed witch, who cast a magical spell on the beautiful princess.
A whole string of adjectives = ugly toothless old wic-ed = modifies noun witch3 adjective magical modifies noun spell3 adjective beautiful modifies noun princess3 and who cast a magical spell on the beautiful princess modifies witch.

"ouns as Modifiers
A noun can modify another noun by coming immediately before the noun that follows it. As a modifier, the first noun tells us a bit more about the following noun. .hen a noun acts as a modifier, it is in its singular form.

5hey do not have vegetable soup, but they do have chic-en soup and tomato soup.
"n the sentence, the nouns vegetable, chic-en and tomato are modifiers. 5hey modify soup. .ithout the modifiers, we would not -now what soup they have or do not have. All we would -now is they have soup.

.e need to use a modifying word such as an adjective or a noun, attributively 1before a noun4 to add to the meaning of the noun being modified. For example, we -now what a ship is, but do we -now what type of ship it is or what it is used for/ >y using a word, especially a noun acting as an adjective, before the noun ship we get to -now what ship it is = a battleship, cargo ship, container ship, cruise ship, merchant ship, sailing ship, spaceship, or supply ship, or even an enemy ship or a pirate ship.

:ther examples: >usiness<girls&<language<village school = 8he is a teacher in a language school. 9orner<gift<pet<shoe shop = 5he gift shop offers a small selection of leather goods.

Family<farm<pet<police<sheep<sniffer<toy dog = 5he police dog was sniffing round the detainee?s heels. 9ouncil<country<dream<farm<mansion<tree<summer house = 5hey rented a council house when they got married.

.hen a noun used as a modifier is combined with a number expression, the noun is singular and a hyphen is used, as follow: 5hey built their own half+timbered house overloo-ing the river. 7e does a one+man show in an open+air theatre. < 7is one+man business is expanding fast. 5he pilot overshot the runway and crashed his two+seater aircraft. 5he three+day horse+riding event will ta-e place next wee-. 5hey lived in a four+bedroom house in the suburbs. 8he plays in a five+girl roc- band. 7e will have to serve a six+year sentence for burglaries. 7e got a seven+month contract to wor- on an offshore oilrig. 5he historic eight+room mansion stands in @A acres of par-land. 5he 1AA+year+old mansion stands in @A acres of par-land.

Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a word or phrase that is placed too far away from the noun that it is meant to modify, resulting in the wrong noun being modified, or that the noun it is to modify is not present in the sentence. .hen it happens, the sentence does not ma-e sense and at times appears silly in a humorous way. 5o correct it re$uires moving the modifier to the only right place, which is as close as possible to the word it is to modify, or to introduce into the sentence the noun that is to be modified.

7e bought a s$uirrel from a friend with a bushy tail.

5he phrase with a bushy tail is wrongly placed to modify friend. 5his says that the friend has a bushy tail.

Correct: 7e bought a s$uirrel with a bushy tail from a friend. 1with a bushy tail now correctly modifies squirrel.4 Five occupants of the burning building were reported burnt to death by the police. Correct: 5he police reported that five occupants of the burning building were burnt to death. ", sitting on the couch, reading a novel that was based on a true life story. Correct: 8itting on the couch, " read a novel that was based on a true life story. Boo-ing at the sea, a boat approaching shore was noticed. Correct: Boo-ing at the sea, " noticed a boat approaching shore. 7aving seen the movie once, there is no reason to see it again. Correct: 7aving seen the movie once, " have no reason to see it again. Cathering on the beach, the DF: was watched by a large number of people. Correct: Cathering on the beach, a large number of people watch the DF:. Correct: A large number of people gathered on the beach to watch the DF:.

"ominal Modification
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and predicate or a finite verb. 1A finite verb is a form of a verb that shows the tense, number and person.4 A clause can be a simple sentence or part of a sentence. 2ifferent elements = subject, verb, indirect object, direct object, complement, and adverbial = combined to form a clause as shown in the table that follows.
8ubject .e 5he robbers 5ime 5hey >ob 5he news Eane ;erb wal-ed. carried passes are playing gave made met his dog a biscuit. her her boyfriend angry. at the tennis club. guns. very slowly. outside their house. "ndirect object 2irect object 9omplement Adverbial

8ome guests have left.

5here are two -inds of clauses: main 1or independent4 clauses and subordinate 1or dependent4 clauses. 5he main clause is also referred to as the principal clause. #ypes of subordinate clauses a. Main 9lause 5he main clause is a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. "t is not a part of another clause, or dependent on another clause to form a sentence. "t can stand independently as it ma-es a complete statement. A sentence must have a main clause. ,ach of the following is a group of words that does not $ualify as a main clause as they are incomplete statements and so cannot stand on their own. 5hat you are my best friend. .hen all of us sat beneath a shady tree. My uncle who has a mongoose with a long body and tail. 5he following are complete statements and are therefore main clauses. Fou are my best friend. All of us sat beneath a shady tree. My uncle has a mongoose with a long body and tail. b. 8ubordinate 9lause A subordinate clause is a group of words, which include a finite or nonfinite verb. 5he subordinate clause cannot stand independently as it is not complete as a statement, and thus remains a dependent clause. it has to join the main or independent clause to complete a sentence. ,ach of the following shows a subordinate clause 1in bold4 that is a part of another clause, which is the main clause. >oth clauses together form a complete sentence. ,veryone says that you are my best friend. .hen it got hotter, all of us sat beneath a shady tree. My uncle, who has a mongoose with a long body and tail, is loo-ing for another mongoose. 5he subordinate clause comes in different forms as follow: 1. Adverbial 9lause !. (oun 9lause #. 6elative 9lause %. (onfinite 9lause 1. Adverbial 9lause

5he adverbial clause contains a subject and a verb. "t adds extra information about the time, place, manner, etc to a sentence, and modifies the verb. As a dependent clause, it cannot stand on its own and must connect to the main clause or an independent clause to form a complete sentence. 5he adverbial clause may come before or after the main clause. .hen it comes before the main clause, a comma is used to separate the two clauses. .hen it comes after the main clause, no comma is necessary. 5he adverbial clause usually begins with a conjunction. ,xamples of the adverbial clause 7e shoo- my hand before he died. 7e ate the whole, big pi00a although he said he was not hungry. 5he wife now sleeps in another room because the husband snores loudly. >ill and " once fought bravely against each other when we were classmates. 5he adverbial clause performs different functions. For example, it shows the time, place, etc that something happens.
Clauses of time = 5hese clauses show when something happens. 9onjunctions used include after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, since, so long as, until, when, whenever, while Boo- left and right before you cross the road. .hen she heard the news, she wept tears of joy. Clauses of place = 5hese clauses show where something is or happens. 9onjunctions used include anywhere, everywhere, where, wherever. .hy do you follow me wherever " go/ 5hat is the farm where " saw a lot of scorpions. Clauses of manner = 5hese clauses show the way something is done. 9onjunctions used include as, li-e As " have said a hundred times, put the cap bac- on the pen when finished using. 7e treats his dog li-e his own brother. Clauses of purpose = 5hese clauses show the purpose of doing something. 9onjunctions used include so that, in order that<to " hold my pet cat up so that everyone can see it. 7e added salt in order to ma-e the soup taste good, but the soup became too salty. Clauses of reason = 5hese clauses show why something happens. 9onjunctions used include as, because, now that, since As we are both tired, we agreed to stop playing. 8he got stung because she went too close to the wasp&s nest. Clauses of condition = 5hese clauses show a possible situation. 9onjunctions used include even if, if, in the event that, in case, only if, unless "f he were not such a heavy smo-er, he would be alive today. "&m going to ta-e away your television unless you pay me bac- the money. Clauses of contrast = 5hese clauses show clear differences: Gthis thing& is exactly the opposite of Gthat thing&. 9onjunctions used include whereas, while 5he wife is fat and short, while the husband is s-inny and tall. .hy good people die young, whereas bad ones live longer/ 5he adverbial clause usually comes at the end of the sentence. "t can also come at the beginning. " shall not go to the library with you unless you learn to -eep $uiet. Dnless you learn to -eep $uiet, " shall not go to the library with you. 5he little girl shot her father&s face with a water pistol while he was asleep. .hile her father was asleep, the little girl shot his face with a water pistol.

!. (oun 9lause A noun clause is a group of words that include a subject and a verb, and it functions as a noun. A noun clause is a subordinate clause, which means it is not a complete statement. As a dependent clause, it must connect to an independent clause 1main clause4. (oun clauses usually begin with words such as how, that, what, whatever, when, where, which, who, whoever, and why. 5he most common word among them is that.

,xamples of noun clause .hy he said he would not get married, nobody -nows. 7e told me that he had shot someone. Fou can go if you do not like being here. As- him whether he has drun- from your glass or mine by mista-e. (oun clauses can be the subject, object, object of preposition, complement, etc. 5hat the brothers are triplets is ama0ing. 18ubject4 .e don&t -now what songs she often sings. 1:bject4 5he boo- is about where the dinosaurs laid their eggs. 1:bject of preposition4 7e is what we would call a misogynist. 19omplement4 A noun clause has its own subject and verb. 5hey -now where " often fly my -ites.
5he noun clause is where " often fly my -ites with I being the subject of the noun clause, and fly is the verb.

A noun clause must have a word to connect the noun clause to the rest of the sentence. 5he connecting word 1connector4 comes before the subject and the verb of the noun clause. 5he following examples use the connecting words that, who, and when. Most people -now that a spider has eight legs. 5he police were investigating who the serial -iller was. " don&t -now when the birds built their nest in the roof. 8ubjunctive in noun clauses
.e use subjective verbs in sentences to express or stress wishes, importance, or urgency. A subjunctive verb usually appears in a noun clause beginning with that, and it uses the simple form of a verb that does not have the present, past or future forms. 5he subjunctive verb is neither singular nor plural.

5he leader demands that we treat him li-e a god. .e insisted that he honour the terms of the agreement. 5he father recommended that she not go to the cinema alone. "t is important that everyone be told the truth. 7is mother suggested that he see<should see a doctor. #. 6elative 9lause
A relative clause is never a complete statement as it is a dependent clause. "t tells us something extra about the noun that it describes. 5he position of the noun is immediately before the relative clause. 5he relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun, which is one of the following: that, which, who, whom, whose.

,xample: My old uncle is a bachelor. Bet us have additional information about my old uncle. My old uncle is a bachelor. 7e showed me a photo of his new girlfriend. .e can now use a relative clause to combine the two sentences. My old uncle who showed me a photo of his new girlfriend is a bachelor. As the relative pronoun always replaces a noun or pronoun, we have used the relative pronoun who to replace the pronoun he in the last sentence above. "ot: My old uncle who showed me a photo of his new girlfriend he is a bachelor. As mentioned above, the noun uncle is positioned immediately before the relative clause who showed me a photo of his new girlfriend which is introduced by the relative pronoun who. Dncle is a person so we use who. .e use the pronouns who and that for people. 5here is my old bachelor uncle who<that showed me a photo of his new girlfriend.

8 We use pronouns which or that to start a relative clause describing things. " bought a pony which<that eats li-e a horse. 1H eats a lot4 " have a watch which<that nowadays tells different time. 1H not accurate4 We use whom for people .e use the relative pronoun whom for people when it is the object of the verb that follows. ,ven though whom is the object of the clause, it comes at the beginning of the relative clause just li-e the other relative pronouns which are subjects of the clause. 5he deceased was a close friend whom " have been thin-ing of for a long time. We often omit a relative pronoun, especially in speech when it is the object of the relative clause. 5he one thousand dollars, which he won in a lottery, lasted only a wee-. 5he one thousand dollars he won in a lottery lasted only a wee-. 7e is my only friend whom " have fought with. 7e is my only friend " have fought with. 5he pet rabbit that " bought yesterday died this morning. 5he pet rabbit " bought yesterday died this morning. But we cannot omit a relative pronoun when it is the subject of the relative clause. 5he tooth that caused him toothache the whole night has been extracted. "ot: 5he tooth caused him toothache the whole night has been extracted. 5he fire, which burnt down the row of wooden houses, was started from a cigarette butt. "ot: 5he fire burnt down the row of wooden houses was started from a cigarette butt. Prepositions used in relative clauses )repositions appear either at the beginning or at the end of relative clauses. 5his is the house, for which he paid a million dollars. 5his is the house, which he paid a million dollars for. 5hat is the roller coaster, on which we rode. 5hat is the roller coaster, which we rode on. "n that cottage lived my uncle with whom " stayed for a year. "n that cottage lived my uncle whom " stayed with for a year. When the preposition is at the end of a relative clause, we can replace which and whom with that. 5his is the house that he paid a million dollars for. 5hat is the roller coaster that we rode on. "n that cottage lived my uncle that " stayed with for a year. 8o far, we have been tal-ing about a relative clause describing a noun. .e can also use a relative clause to describe the whole main clause. Boo- at the two old men fighting, which is very childish. 2ad refused to lend me his car, which is very disappointing.

%. (onfinite 9lause 5here are three types of nonfinite clauses.

a4#o!infinitive clause$ "n this clause, the verb comes after the word to. 7e gave up his job to travel the world. b4%ing clause$ "n this clause, we use the verb * = ing. 7e is a thoroughly spoilt child being the only one in the family. Fou are the only one capable of solving the problem. >efore becoming a ban- robber, he was a police officer. c4 &ast participle clause$ "n this clause, we use the past participle form of the verb. 5aught acrobatics since young, she has ama0ed audiences with her superb s-ills. 7e would li-e to be a ban- robber when as-ed what he would li-e to be when he grew up.

entence Modifiers 8entence modifiers add description, vary structure, emphasi0e details, and increase readability. 1. )articipial )hrases

7ere are some successful sentences with parts deleted: Iuic-ly he builds a small fire and then s-ins the rat. My parents were still at the table. " followed people in my sights as they wal-ed or drove along the street.

(ow compare the above sentences with the originals below. Fou&ll find that the use of participial phrases, which are underlined, allows the writers to combine related ideas efficiently and effectively. Iuic-ly he builds a small fire and then s-ins the rat, shaving off the s-in a strip at a time. ++ ennifer !oth My parents were still at the table, drin-ing coffee. ++"nnie #illard (udging the shade aside with the rifle barrel, " followed people in my sights as they wal-ed or drove along the street. ++!obias Wolff )articipial phrases often begin with an J+ingK form of a verb. As you can see from the examples above, they can open the sentence 1e.g., example no. #4 and they can end the sentence 1e.g., examples no. 1 and !4. Additionally, some can interrupt the subject L verb: )rofessor Ma0an, wearing a spotlessly white tropical suit and a wide+brimmed hat, was the first ashore ++"rthur $. $larke

!. Appositive )hrases 7ere are some successful sentences with parts deleted: 7e wal-s behind a raised bun-er. "t was a helter+s-elter stampede. 5he dura is dar- pin-, almost red.

(ow compare the above sentences with the originals below. Fou&ll find that the use of appositive phrases, which are underlined, allows the writers to combine related ideas efficiently and effectively. 7e wal-s behind a raised bun-er, a ten+foot+high concrete wall that once served as a rest and tool shacfor trac- maintenance wor-ers. ++ ennifer !oth "t was a helter+s-elter stampede, a headlong rush in circles. ++Paul "uster A thin, tough, leathery membrane that encases the brain , the dura is dar- pin-, almost red.++#avid %oonan

Appositive phrases identify or rename an adjacent noun or pronoun. 5hey can open the sentence: 1e.g., example no. # above4 and they can end the sentence 1e.g., examples no. 1 and ! above4. Additionally, they can interrupt the subject L verb: At her >roo-lyn public school, a -aleidoscope of teen+age rage, 9rystal&s teachers see a young girl with an attitude. ++ $atherine &anegold

#. Absolute )hrases 7ere are some successful sentences with parts deleted: .e wor-ed out until " had the moves down cold. N6ight or left/N " yell into the dar-ness. 7is head is shaved.

(ow compare the above sentences with the originals below. Fou&ll find that the use of absolute phrases, which are underlined, allows the writers to combine related ideas efficiently and effectively. Feet s$uea-ing on the floor, we wor-ed out until " had the moves down cold.++!obias Wolff N6ight or left/N " yell into the dar-ness, my fright verging on panic. ++ ennifer !oth 7is head is shaved, his eyes and nose taped shut.++#avid %oonan

10

Absolute phrases resemble a compete sentence with a missing auxiliary verb: O:urP feet OwereP s$uea-ing on the floor. My fright OwasP verging on panic 7is eyes and nose OareP taped shut.

5hey can open the sentence: 1e.g., example no. 1 above4 and they can end the sentence 1e.g., examples no. ! and # above4. Additionally, they can interrupt the subject L verb: Arthur, fists flailing, came after me in a mad rush. ++!obias Wolff

&'"C#'A#I(" 1. Full 8top<)eriod 1.4

A full stop is placed at the end of each sentence to indicate the end of the sentence, which can be a statement, re$uest or command. A full stop is not used at the end of a phrase or subordinate clause. 2oing so does not create complete sentences.

,QAM)B,: .hen " saw her yesterday, she was wearing a flowery hat. "(#: .hen " saw her yesterday. 8he was wearing a flowery hat. 1N.hen " saw her yesterdayN is an adverb clause, which is not a complete sentence = a full stop should not be used to end it.
!he period is used after most abbreviations' ,QAM)B,: Mr., Mrs., Ms., 2r., 6ev. .ed., :ct. &ost short versions of specific e(pressions end in a period. ,QAM)B,: A.M.<a.m., ).M.<p.m., p.a., e.g. !he trend today is towards writing abbreviations without a period. ,QAM)B,: ":D, F>", D8, DM. )nly one full stop is used if a sentence ends with an abbreviation. ,QAM)B,: 7er biggest ambition is to successfully complete her M.A. !he period is used to show the shortened form of a word. ,QAM)B,: :pp., mo. 1.ritten abbreviations of ?opposite?, ?month?4 " full stop is always placed inside quotation marks, whether or not it is part of the quotation. ,QAM)B,: Eohn said, N5hat runaway horse is not mine.N "(#: Eohn said, N5hat runaway horse is not mineN.

!. 9omma 1,4
A comma is used in the middle of, and never at the end of a sentence. 5his is done to ma-e the sentence clearer, especially to separate items in a list. 7owever, overusing commas can complicate a sentence, or render it meaningless. A comma is important to avoid any possibility of misunderstanding a sentence as the following example shows:

.hile my father was eating, my mother was drin-ing. .hile my father was eating my mother was drin-ing. .ithout the comma, it appears my father was cannibali0ing my mother.

A comma is used: to separate words in a list ,QAM)B,: .e saw mon-eys, porcupines, lions and tigers in the 0oo. to show a pause in a sentence. ,QAM)B,: Festerday, as " was jogging in the par-, " saw a blac- baboon. before inverted commas of actual words spoken. ,QAM)B,: 7e told us, N" believe the world is flat.N to separate the name of the person spoken to. ,QAM)B,: NEane, let me show you how to do it.N to separate items in dates, that is day of week from the date, and day of month from the year. ,QAM)B,: 7e is marrying on 5uesday, 1st April.

11 ,QAM)B,: 5he explosion happened on 1st Eanuary, !AAA. to separate e(clamations and e(pressions from the rest of the sentence. ,QAM)B,: :h no, it can?t be true. ,QAM)B,: .ell, all " can say is it?s a waste of money. after such words or phrases * of course, therefore, for e(ample,however, moreover, etc. * when we begin a sentence. ,QAM)B,: :f course, you are always right. ,QAM)B,: Moreover, the rent is high and the location is not perfect. to separate parts of an address. ,QAM)B,: RRR, 2owning 8treet, Mingston. to separate cities and states+provinces, states+provinces and countries. ,QAM)B,: Montana, D8A. to separate numbers that e(ceed three digits. ,QAM)B,: !,AAA < !A,AAA to separate greetings and closings in letters, ,QAM)B,: 2ear )rincess 2iana, < Fours sincerely. to separate more than one adjective that modifies a noun. ,QAM)B,: 5he short, puny man was a comedian. to separate relative clause from the rest of the sentence. ,QAM)B,: 5he man, who lives next door, is a circus clown. to separate two independent clauses which together form a compound sentence. ,QAM)B,: Eac- is washing the car, and Eill is washing the dishes.

#. Iuestion Mar- 1/4

" question mark is placed at the end of a sentence to ask a question. ,QAM)B,: .ho?s that man wearing a cowboy hat/ < 9ould you wait here for me, please/ ,QAM)B,: 2id you see the movie entitled N5he three legged man/N " full stop+period or comma is not used after a question. ,QAM)B,: N2o you understand what " have been saying/N Eennifer as-ed me. (:5: N2o you understand what " have been saying/N, Eennifer as-ed me. " question mark is used after a question that ends with an abbreviation. ,QAM)B,: Fou said you saw the DF: at about S p.m./ When a question is being reported and not directly asked, a period, not a question mark, is used. ,QAM)B,: 8he as-ed, N.hat are you loo-ing at/N 1direct $uestion with $uestion mar-4 ,QAM)B,: 8he as-ed what " was loo-ing at. 1indirect $uestion with no $uestion mar-4

%. ,xclamation Mar- 1T4

An exclamation mar- is used after interjections or commands. 1An interjection is a word or phrase used to express a strong feeling.4 "t expresses an emotion such as surprise, anger, fear, pain or pleasure. ,QAM)B,: .hat a complete waste of my timeT < 8it over there and be $uiet for an hourT ,QAM)B,: 7e?s hereT 7e?s hereT < .e wonT .e wonT < IuietT

'. 9olon 1:4

" colon is used before a list and usually after ,as follows., ,QAM)B,: 5his box contains the following items: bandages, plasters, lotion, medicines and a pair of scissors. It is used to separate the hour from the minutes when telling time ,QAM)B,: 11:'R A.M., 11:'R ).M. -se a colon after an independent clause when introducing a list. ,QAM)B,: 5he catering facility offers the following entrees: fried catfish, grilled chic-en, pan+seared salmon, and sirloin stea-. -se a colon after an independent clause when introducing a quotation.

12 ,QAM)B,: My teacher&s remar- on my final essay was very complimentary: J5his essay coherently analy0es musical trends of the late !Ath century.K -se a colon between two independent clauses when you want to emphasi.e the second clause. ,QAM)B,: " don&t understand why everyone shops at that store: everything there is so expensive.

@. 8emicolon 134
" semicolon is used to join two sentences, independent clauses or a series of items which are closely connected in meaning. ,QAM)B,: 7e gives up smo-ing3 obviously, he fears contracting one of the smo-ing+related diseases. -se semi/colons between items in a list that already involve commas. ,QAM)B,: " have lived in 9hicago, "llinois3 Mansas 9ity, Missouri3 and :maha, (ebras-a. ,QAM)B,: 5he sweaters " bought today were purple, blue, and green3 yellow, white, and red3 and pin-, blac-, and grey.

S. Apostrophe 1?4
An apostrophe is used: to form contractions by showing the numbers or letters that have been left out. ,QAM)B,: ?U@ H1RU@ ,QAM)B,: " am H "?m < we are H we?re < he will H he?ll < they would H they?d <do not H don?t<" have H "?ve. to form the possessive of a noun. Add ?s to a single noun or name: uncle?s pipe3 Ceorge?s girlfriend3 dog?s tail3 5homas?s car. Add ?s to singular noun that end in =s: actress?s role3 princess?s lover3 rhinoceros?s s-in. Add ?s to plural nouns that end in =s: boys? bicycles3 friends? houses3 boo-s? covers Add ?s to other plural nouns: children?s toys3 women?s clothes3 men?s boots. Add ?s to a person?s office or shop: "?ll buy the por- at the butcher?s. < "?ll be visiting 5om?s. Add ?s only after the second name: Eac- and Eill?s pail3 >onnie and 9lyde?s loot. to form the plural of abbreviations' many #r.,s0 many &.#.,s0 many Ph.#.,s. for the plural of a number or letter' your p,s0 your c,s0 your 1,s are too big.

U. 7yphen 1+4
" hyphen is used to join two words or more to form compound words. ,QAM)B,: good+loo-ing, pro+American, forty+one, mother+in+law.

R. Iuotation Mar-s 1N...N4

" quotation mark is used to show the beginning and end of reported speech. ,QAM)B,: N8top loo-ing at my hair.N she said to me. -se a quotation mark to show a quoted word, phrase or title. ,QAM)B,: N.ar and )eaceN is a novel by Beo 5olstoy. "ll punctuation marks that belong to a quote are enclosed inside the quotation marks of the quote. ,QAM)B,: 8he as-ed, N2o you li-e me/N 19orrect4 ,QAM)B,: 8he as-ed, N2o you li-e meN/ 1"ncorrect4 If there is a quote within a quote, it should be enclosed by single quotation marks. ,QAM)B,: 7e said to me, N" have read twice ?.ar and )eace? by Beo 5olstoy.N " comma is used before the last quotation mark to separate the quote from the rest of the sentence. ,QAM)B,: N5hose horses are mine,N said Eohn .ayne. " full stop is put before the last quotation mark when this quote is the last part of the sentence. ,QAM)B,: Mum said to me, N,at your lunch $uietly.N 2uotation marks are used to enclose a word or phrase when it is used. ,QAM)B,: .hat does ?anthropophagi? mean/ < 7e habitually says ?money cannot buy love.?

1A. 2ash 1=4

" dash is sometimes used instead of a colon or a semi/colon. ,QAM)B,: NIuic-T Co now = the police are coming for youTN

13 When dashes are used in a sentence, commas are not used to separate interrupting phrases. ,QAM)B,: 8he loo-ed at the dresses = a few of them = deciding on the one she should buy. (:5: 8he loo-ed at the dresses, = a few of them, = deciding on the one she should buy.

C(()*I"A#I(" A"* &A)A++,+ #)'C#'), A parallel structure is used when the writer has two or more elements in a sentence that are e$ual in importance. 5o show that the elements are e$ual, the elements are usually joined by the coordinating conjunctions or the correlative conjunctions and should be structured grammatically the same. ,xample: ;ideo games are beneficial to children by helping them in future jobs, for health reasons, and in developing challenges.
5he above sentence was a thesis statement of a student?s essay. "n thesis statements there is a need for parallel structures if the writer is using a forecasting thesis statement, one that gives the major points.

,xample of a simple nonparallel structure: 5he $uarter horse s-ipped, pranced, and was sashaying onto the trac-. .ords or groups of words lin-ed together with a coordinating conjunction are often doing the same job and need to be parallel. 1. 1(ouns4 )aul and 2iane went to the 8tyx concert. !. 1)ast tense verbs4 9indy learned 8panish and practiced spea-ing it. #. 1Article * adjective * noun4 >ridget bought a blue sweater, a cowboy hat, and a popular novel. %. 15wo gerund phrases4 (either opening the window nor turning off the heat will cool off this classroom All clauses in the same sentence should be consistently in active or passive voice. )::6: Barry too- a picture of his sister, and then his mother was photographed by him. >,55,6: Barry too- a picture of his sister, and then he photographed his mother. >,55,6: Barry too- a picture of his sister and then photographed his mother.

C("-'"C#I("
9onjunctions join related words, phrases, or clauses. A conjunction can be a word 1and, because, but, or, etc4 or a phrase 1as though, as well as, in order that, so that4. 5here are three groups of conjunction: coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses, and subordinating conjunctions join only clauses. 9orrelative conjunctions are paired conjunctions.

C(()*I"A#I". C("-'"C#I(" /0A"1(2 % 0or3 And3 "or3 1ut3 (r3 2et3 o4 9oordinating conjunctions imply that two things deserve e$ual attention. >A8"9 6DB,8 1. .hen a comma is re$uired, it always comes before the FA(>:F. !. 9ompound sentences may be connected with a comma and a FA(>:F. >ill went to .al+Mart, and Eane stayed home. #. A comma is necessary when using JandK to connect a list of items. " li-e to shop at .al+Mart, 7obby Bobby, and E.9. )enney. %. :therwise, no comma is needed. >ill and Eane went to the store. '. Avoid illogical coordination. 5wo ideas MD85 be e$ual and related. "(9:66,95: " have two children, and " was late for wor-. @. Avoid overusing FA(>:F8. )::6: " li-e to go to the la-e, and " li-e to Eet 8-i, and " li-e to ta-e picnic lunch, and " li-e to eat it in the shade '1()*I"A#I(" C("-'C#I(" /5,1AI# ! 56en3 w6ile3 ,ven3 1ecause3 Alt6oug63 as3 If3 #6oug63 ince4 8ubordinating conjunctions establish a relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. 5he two parts are no longer of e$ual importance. 1i.e. :ne thing depends on the other somehow.4 >A8"9 6DB,8 1. 5he least important idea belongs to the subordinate clause. .e didn&t have class because the teacher was absent.

14

!. >ecause we didn&t have class, the teacher stayed home.!. 2o not use a comma to set off a dependent clause that is absolutely necessary to the mean of the sentence. Mary only li-es to eat pi00a when it is hot. Eonathan went to college because his mother expected him to go. #. Dse a comma if the dependent clause only provides extra information. .hen it is too hot, pi00a might burn your tongue. My sister teaches music, while " am tone deaf. Although it will be difficult, " should be finished with my essay on time. 8ince Creg was going to the gym anyway, he offered to give Melissa a ride. %. Avoid illogical subordination. Ma-e sure the least important point follows the subordinating conjunction. "BB:C"9AB: Eennifer ran out of mil- because she went to 7y+;ee. B:C"9AB: Eennifer went to 7y+;ee because she ran out of mil-. '. 2on&t overuse subordination. #)A" I#I("A+ C("-'"C#I(" /7(# #A00 % 7owever3 (t6erwise3 #6erefore3 econd3 #6ird3 Also3 0irst3 0urt6ermore4 5ransitional conjunctions help us move smoothly from one topic to the next. >A8"9 6DB,8 1. "f a 7:585AFF is the first word in a sentence, put a comma after it. First, " need a recipe for lasagna. !. "f the 7:585AFF joins two independent clauses in a compound sentence, use a semicolon * conjunction * comma. " would li-e to ma-e lasagna3 however, " don&t have the recipe. #. "f the 7:585AFF is merely an interrupter, put commas on either side of it. Melanie, however, said " could borrow her lasagna recipe. %. 2on&t overuse 7:585AFF, especially however and therefore. 5he purpose is to get the reader&s attention. "f the writer cries wolf too often, the readers will stop caring. C()),+A#IV, C("-'"C#I(" ! paired conjunctions + eit6er 8 or9 neit6er 8 nor9 bot6 8 and9 not only 8 but also3 and w6et6er 8 or$ >A8"9 6DB, .hen using either V or or neither V nor, ensure that the verb agrees with the subject closer to it.
,ither Eohn or Eohnny plays as goal-eeper in the match. (either he nor his brother wants to be the goal-eeper. ,ither the boys or the girls have to perform first. (either the children nor their parents were late for the performance.

C("",C#I". C("-'"C#I(" = connects the same parts of speech, words, phrases, and clauses ,QAM)B,8:
8he is tall and beautiful. 1Adjective to adjective4 Corillas and chimpan0ees are primates. 5he fisherman is carrying a buc-et full of fish and wal-ing cheerfully along the beach. .e went closer. .e were able to see it better. HW .e went closer and were able to see it better.

,xercises 6ead the following sentences and revise any that does not follow the parallel structure. 1. " would rather eat potatoes than to eat rice. !. Clobal warming affects humans, the environment, and is scary. #. "t?s harder to do long division than dividing with a calculator. %. )irates ransac-ed the mansion, but they didn&t steal all the silver.

15

'. Merchants receive either money or trade goods with their clients. Fill in the blan-s with these words: although, and, because, but, or, since, so, unless, until, when. 1. 5hings were different XXXXXXXXXX " was young. !. Bet us wait here XXXXXXXXXX the rain stops. #. .e were getting tired XXXXXXXXXX we stopped for a rest. %. .al- $uic-ly XXXXXXXXXX you will be late. '. 2o you -now XXXXXXXXXX she will arrive/ Eoin these sentences with Nand or ?but. @. 5he naughty boy too- a stone XXXXXXXXXX threw it at a bird. S. 7e ran very fast in the race XXXXXXXXXX slipped and fell. U. " went to the grocery store XXXXXXXXXX it was closed. R. 5he naughty boy too- a stone XXXXXXXXXX threw it at a bird. 1A. 7e opened his wallet XXXXXXXXXX too- out some money. Eoin the following pairs of sentences with the help of the given words: and 3 both....and 3 neither....nor 3 but 3 not only....but also 3 either....or 3 or 11. 2o you -now if Michael is wor-ing or on leave today/

1!. 5he audience stood up and clapped their hands.

1#. Fou must give me more time or " shan?t be able to complete the job.

1%. Bina would li-e to study abroad but she cannot afford it.

1'. Alfred got up late this morning and missed the bus. < Alfred not only got up late this morning but also missed the bus.