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Some structural principles related to steel

The main types of force occurring are: Compression (C), Tension (T) Bending (B) Shear (S) and Torsion (To) - these may be resisted by elements and simple systems in various ways. Every complete structure system, including the soil below, must have adequate strength and stiffness to resist any applied vertical and horizontal loading combinations that may reasonably occur during the building's design lifetime. Equilibrium must always be maintained. Both the individual elements and the system as a whole must be capable of achieving strength, stiffness and stability.

Different combinations of tension and compression occur as the result of bending in beams, trusses and arches. The shape and size of these elements must allow for these. Horizontal trusses are a combination of compression and tension (C+T) elements Solid beams combine tensile and compressive capabilities to resist bending effects within a shallow depth. The greatest shearing (S) effects occur at the beam ends. Bending and deformation resistance depend on 2nd moment of area, I, a geometric sectional function. For a simply supported beam the value of applied bending moment (M) is half that for the same total load W concentrated centrally. Arch geometries will be subject to a combination of compression and bending (C+B).

Whilst bending elements will require calculation to ensure adequate strength and stiffness, estimates of sizing such as span/depth ratios and safe load tables can be used at design stages. With a simple "Post" and "Beam" structure system, the beams always have greater depth than the columns. A "bending" system always uses more material than one with direct compression and tension forces only. An initial preliminary assessment for the scale of various section types can be made from conservative "Rules of Thumb". These are adequate for uniformly distributed loading - heavy concentrated loads will need increased depth. Rules of Thumb are more difficult for "Columns" and a "Safe Load Table" can be useful here, this can be found in the blue book.

Elements behaving primarily in tension and compression have different structural considerations. A tension element with no internal bending stiffness takes up a funicular "hanging" form. Pure tension elements (i.e. those

that carry no compression or bending) can be very small rods, cables or wires A centrally loaded long "pin-ended" circular compression element can deform and eventually buckle. Note that sideways applied loading or an eccentric end load will always make the element deform more easily and a greater bending stiffness will be needed. The load carrying resistance can be improved by: Keeping the element as short as possible, or bracing laterally near mid-length with props. Increasing bending stiffness - use a larger 2nd moment of area I - or make "cigar" shaped longitudinally (for "pin end" directly loaded column). Using higher strength steel. "Fixing the ends". This reduces the "effective buckling length", but the end fixing must be resisted by the adjacent elements. Making such a rigid joint is more difficult.

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