Discussionpaper:HowcanLandscapeEcologyhelpinformplanning,design,decision makingandtheimplementationofGreenInfrastructure? By:Dr.

JanetJackson(August2007)

ApplyingprinciplesofLandscapeEcologyto GreenInfrastructureplanning. PlanningNewLandscapes

Sincehumansettlementbegandecisionstobuildanddevelophavetogreateror lesserextentbeeninfluencedbytheavailabilityandaccessibilityofnatural resourcesincities,townsandruralcommunities.Currentplanningpolicies requireanEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)ondevelopmentsthatmeet certaincriteriaofrisk.However,actuallongtermandaccumulativeimpactsof developmentonindigenousflora,faunaatlocalandlandscapescaleandon ecologicalprocessesarerarelymonitoredandunderstood. Thisyear,attheIale WorldConference,severalpaperswereusingspatialtoolsandscientific principlesassociatedwithLandscapeEcologyandwereaskinghowurban developmentsinfluencedlocalwildlifeandecologicalprocesses.Theseincluded theemergenceof'Roadecology'(Forman,2007),beetleassemblagesacross urbanruralgradients(Niemel,2007)andresponseofbirdstoincreased urbanisation(Hepinstalletal.2007). Currentlyplanningprofessionalsare increasinglyrequiredtoestimatethesocial,economicandenvironmentalimpact ofdevelopmentonflooding,climatechangeandcarbonconsumptionanditis probablythemostopportunetimetopromotelandscapeecologyasadiscipline thatcantakethespatialandtemporalperspectiveonlanduse,biodiversityand thestrategicplanningofecosystemservices.

TheUrbanGrowthAgenda
Aterm'smartgrowth'appearedwithintheUSplanningarenainthe1980sandin thelate1990saspressurewasappliedagainsturbansprawlintoadjoining countrysidefromtownsandcities(Haeuber,1999Southerland2004).Smart growthinitiativeswerefavoured,buildingonbrownfieldsitesandundeveloped landwithinurbanlandscapes(Greenbergetal.2001).Urbandesign professionalsareincreasinglyapplyinghighdensitydesignprinciplesthat encouragecompacteddevelopmentthusreducing'landtake'andallowingmore spacefornatureoutsidethe'public(urban)realm'(e.g.newurbanrenaissance urbanismmovement(e.g.Carmona,1997,20012003,DETR2000Alexander, 2004). Currentlythereisagrowingmovementofurbandesignersandplannerswhoare nowadvocatinga'peoplecentred'andmore'sustainable'urbandesignforfuture developments(ThePrince'sFoundation,2007). Someurbandesigners, architectsandlandscapeprofessionalsareextremelysupportiveabout implementingtechnologically'green'solutionstoenvironmentalproblemssuch ascarbonemissions(offsetting),energyefficiency,waterresourcemanagement andwasteminimisation.Housebuildersareincreasinglybeingaskedtomeet tighterenvironmentalregulationsandmorearchitectsaredeveloping'green build'techniques. Alongsidethisimpetustoimprovetechniquesand sustainabilityintheconstructionofhomes,urbanplanninganddesign,thereis alsoarequirementontheseprofessionalsandpractitionerstodevelopan awarenessof'ecological'issues. However,thisisconceptuallychallengingasit ismoredifficulttoconsidermakingroomforbiodiverseandecologically(socially andeconomically)functioninggreenspacewithin'new'urbanenvironments

underthecurrenturbangrowthagenda. However,attheotherendofthe spectrumthereisagrowingglobalnetworkofecovillagesandecotowns(see http://gen.ecovillage.org)withmanynewdevelopmentsthatincludespacefor permaculture,communityfarms,andorchards,collectionofrainwaterand controlofsurfacedrainage,aquaticecosystemsandvariousformsofsemi naturalhabitat.

GreenInfrastructureandLandscapeEcology
Termssuchas'GreenCorridors','Ecologicalnetworks','GreenWedges', 'Greenways'andwithinurbanenvironmentshavebeenwidelyusedinthe researchliteratureforexamplerecentlyintheUK:(Turner,2004,Mason2006), inEurope:MrtbergandWallentinus(2000),Jongmanetal.(2004),US:Lindsey (1999),Fbos(2004),Canada:Ruddetal.(2002)BalramandDragievi(2005) andSouthAfrica:Mugavin(2004).ThetermGreenInfrastructurehasappeared tohavegainedacceptancemorerecently(Weberetal.,2006)andhasbeen includedingovernmentconsultationandplanningdocumentsintheUK,for example: o CreatingSustainableCommunities:GreeningtheGateway:AGreenspace StrategyfortheThamesGateway,2004, o GreenInfrastructureintheMiltonKeynesandSouthMidlandsSub RegionalStrategy,2004, o NorthNorthamptonGreenInfrastructureStrategy,2005. SomeprinciplesofLandscapeEcologyarefilteringintotheinternationalplanning andurbandesignsector. ThreerecentpublicationsfromtheUSA(Girlingand Kellett2005BenedictandMcMahon,2006)andAustralia(Lowetal.2005) illustratehowplanners,landscapearchitectsandurbandesignersarewillingto takeonnewideastomeetthe'greenecological'agenda:drivenbyapolitics, consensusandconsumerethics. Theseauthorshavebeenstronglyinfluenced byprominentlandscapeecologists,Forman(1995),andDramstadetal.(1996). ThesectionbelowisaflavourofhowLowetal.(2005)bravelycommunicates someLandscapeEcologyconceptsforawideraudience: "Someanimalsarespecialistsandothersaregeneralistsinterms of habitat: some species require very specific types of habitat while others, generalist species, benefit most from having a varietyofhabitatsandconnectionsbetweenhabitats.Specialist species are more susceptible to disturbance at the local scale generalist species are more susceptible to changes at the landscapescale"(pp.87). Ecologicalprinciplesandenhancementofbiodiversityarebeingpromotedby plannersandlandscapearchitects(e.g.Williamson,2003andTCPA2004). BenedictandMcMahon(2006)justifyGIandsuggesttohowitcanbeapplied: "We define (GI) as an interconnected network of natural areas andotheropenspacesthatconservesnaturalecosystemvalues and functions, sustains cleanair and water and provides awide arrayofbenefitstopeopleandwildlife"(pp.1). Theyarguethatgreenspaceisofteninterpretedaspassiveundevelopedareas withinabuiltenvironment,yetgreeninfrastructuresuggestsmanyconnected areasthatrequireprotectionandmanagement. Inmanyareastheavailabilityof detailedenvironmentalandecologicaldataispatchybutintheUKdata

managementisimprovingparticularlywiththedevelopmentofnationaland localBiodiversityActionPlansandBiologicalRecordCentres. BennedictandMcMahon(2006)usedprinciplesofLandscapeEcologyasameans toexplainhowGreenInfrastructuremaylookandfunction. "Green Infrastructure uses planning, design and implementation approaches similar to those used for roads, water management systems and other community support facilities.....at multiple scales...across political boundaries" (pp.2). Theyhaveecologicalfocusandsuggestthat: "Together, the fields of Landscape Ecology and Conservation Biology provide Green Infrastructure with the scientific knowledge and tools to plan for viable plant and animal populationsoverthelongterm" ThepotentialroleofLandscapeEcologyintheUK,fordevelopingintegrated planningatlargescaledlandscapeswasclearlysetinHawkinsandSelmen (2002). Selman(2006)alsoprovidedausefulinsightintothecomplexnatureof theplanningprofessionandrequirementstocomplywithchangingand fragmentingplanningpolicyguidanceandstatementsfromtheUKGovernment, theEuropeanUnionandinternationalagreements. Therearemanypracticalapplicationscurrentlyusinglargescaledplanningtools toperformlandresourceevaluationandhabitatmappingwhichareregularly usingGeographicalInformationSystems(WeberandWolf,2000).These systemsarealsobeingusedastoolstostrategicallyidentifyingexistinggreen infrastructure:forexampleinBeijinginpreparationforthe2008Olympics(Li,et al.2005)andaRegionalParkinitiativein,Northamptonshire,UK,whichis focussedaroundlandscapecharacterisationandGreenInfrastructure(RNRP 2006). Thecurrentgrowthagendamayhopefullyrequiretheidentificationand targetingoflandfornewgreeninfrastructures.Alongwithfindingpoliticaland economicmechanismsforlandacquisitionwithinandaroundgrowingurban environments,soundecologicaldecisionswillneedtobemadeatalandscape scale.Therewillalsobeaneedtoprotect,enhanceandmanageexistingand newgreenspaces.Managinggreeninfrastructureswillalsobeproblematicand mayalsorequireplanningmechanismstosetupsustainableeconomicallyviable environmentalmicrobusinessesandhabitatmanagementcompanies.

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