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5eptember2011 Volume:5 No:12
Red Carpet for Courage!
It was March, 1 81 5. Napol eon was
returni ng from hi s exi l e on the i sl and
of El ba. It i s amusi ng to see how
newspapers reported his return. Just
take a l ook at these headl i nes that
appeared i n a French newspaper:
March9 - The Monster has escaped
from his place of banishment.
March 10 - The Corsican Ogre has
landed at Cape Juan.
March13 The Tyrant is now at Lyon.
March19 Bonaparte is advancing by
forced marches, but it is impossible that
he can reach Paris.
March20- Napoleon will arrive under
the walls of Paris tomorrow.
March21 The Emperor Napoleon is at
Fontainebleau.
March 22 - Yesterday evening, His
Majest the Emperor made his public en
tr and arrived at the Tuileries. Nothing
can exceed the universal joy.
The newspaper was just reflecti ng
the attitude of a society that bowed
before the conqueri ng hero.
This i ssue ofTell Me Why hel ps you
to march with some such heroi c
commanders who made hi story
march behi nd th.
FROMTHEHOU5EOFMAGlCPOT,MANORAMA EARbOOK,VANl1 W.THCWEEK
ANDTHEMALAALAMANORAMADAlL
Why is the l i fe of Sargon the
Great shrouded in legend?
Sargon theGreat wasthe rul er
of the Akkadians, who conquered
the l and between the Euphra
tes and Ti gri s Rivers around
2300 BC Accordi ng to l egend,
Sargon's mother was a pri ncess,
and his father a poor gardener.
Hi s mother abandoned hi m, and
put hi m i n a reed basket whi ch
she then set float on the river.
However, he was rescued by a
gardener named Akki, and he
became a favourite of the God
dess I shtar.
With the goddess's bl essi ngs,
he came to the cour of the ki ng.
In ti me, he bui l t hi msel f a new
city at Akkad, and made hi msel f
4
its ki ng. He gradual l y con
quered al l the l and around hi m.
I n thi s way, he bui l t the first em
pire that we know of-the Akkadian
Empi re. Hi s empire was great i n
deed, extendi ng throughout
Mesopotami a. He sent expedi
tions i nto Asia Mi nor and
Southeast Arabi a, wi th varyi ng
degrees of success. I n the proc
ess, he spread not onl y the mi l i
tarywi sdom of hi s army but al so
the cultural wi sdom of Sumeria,
the ci vi l ization that he con
quered. Sargon ruledfor35 more
years, unti l hi s death in 2305.
But
the fact is that he l ived so
l ong ago that most of what we
know
about hi m is
based on
legend.
Tell MeWhy
Why is it said that
Hammurabi did somethi ng no
one had done before?
Hammurabi was an anci ent Babyl oni an ki ng.
He was the si xth ki ng of Babyl on, but expanded it
by uniti ng cities. He therefore became the first ki ng of
the empi re. He first conquered cities towards the south,
and then hi s conquest expanded. He respected al l the rel i
gi ons i n hi s empi re, and di d many thi ngs i n order to make Baby
lon a better place.
Hammurabi i s best remembered because he did somethi ng
that no one had ever done before. Usi ng a form of written l an
guage known as cuneiform, Hammurabi created the first written
set of laws cal led the Code of HammurabL l n Hammurabi's court, it
did not matter if you were ri ch or poor. I f you broke the law, and
were found gui lty, you woul d be puni shed. Si nce the laws were
cl early written down, everyone was expected to obey them.
Under Hammurabi , the Babyl oni an Empi re was very
strong, but under hi s chi l dren and grandchi l dren, the
empi re got weaker, unti l eventual l y it col l apsed
l i ke other West Asi an empi res.
Bl indness is
not an excuse, read
this or die . . .
Ancient World's Commanders 5
Thutmose H
Why i s Thutmose I II
consi dered a great war
rior pharaoh?
Thutmose I I I was an
Egypti an pharaoh who
l ived between 1 479 and
1 425 BC He possessed al l
the qual iti es of a great rul
er. A bri l l iant general who
never l ost a battle, he al so
excel l ed as an admi ni stra-
Luxor Temple
tor and statesman. He was an
ac
compl i shed horseman, archer,
ath
lete, and discri mi nati ng patron of
the arts.
Thutmose I I I found hi msel f faced
wi th many enemies when he came
1 k |
LuxorTempl e and
Amenhotep I I I
A
menhotep III was an Egyp
tian pharaoh who was a prolific
bui lder and a benevolent ruler.
His reign lasted al most 40
years, and was both stable and
prosperous. He was a brilliant
commander who led many
campaigns. However, he is
best known for the many
splendid temples, including
the magnificent LuxorTemple,
and the large lifelike statues of
himself that he built.
When hedied in 1 353
C, Egypt was at
the zenith of its
power.
Amenhotep H
to the throne. Un
daunted, Thutmose
i mmediately set out
wi th hi s army, crossed
the Si nai desert, and
marched to the city
of Gaza, which had
remai ned loyal to
Egypt. He quickl y
proved hi mself to be
a mi l itary geni us of
hi s ti me. He under
stood the val ue of lo
gi stics, suppl y l i nes,
the necessity of rapid
movement, and sud
den surprise attack.
He lead by exampl e,
and was al so proba
bly the first person i n
hi story to real l y uti
l ize sea-power to sup
por his campaigns.
Thutmose I I I
emerged victorious
in his battles, and
conducted sixteen
campai gns in Pal es
ti ne, Syria, and Nubi a.
Hi s treatment of the
conquered was al
ways humane. He i s
compared with Na
pol eon, but unl i ke
Napol eon, he never
lost a battle.
A Relief depicting
the Victor of Ramses I
RamsesI
Why was Ramses I I considered one
of the most successful rul ers of An
cient Egypt?
Ramses II was an extraordi nary rul er
of Anci ent Egypt. He rul ed for 67 years,
and l ived to beover 90years ol d. Hewas
around 30years of age when he became
pharaoh, and i n hi s fourth year as ruler,
Ramses was fighti ng i n Syria i n a series
of campai gns
agai nst the Hit
tites and thei r al
l ies. The Hittites,
however, were
very strong foes,
and the war l ast-
I want to
see my name
carved in your
home too!
Ancient World's Commanders 7
ed for twenty years. I n the end,
nei ther si de was victorious. Fi nal ly,
afer many years of war, Ramses
was obl i ged to make a treaty wi th
the pri nce of the Hittites. I t was
agreed that Egypt woul d not i n
vade Hittiteterritory, and l i kewise,
the Hittites woul dn't i nvade
Egypti an territory.
The mi l i tary geni us of Ramses "
hel ped to secure Egypt's borders
from forei gn i nvaders, and pi rates
al ong the Mediterranean Coast
and Li bya. He al so managed to
fend off i nvasi ons from the Nubi
ans. By formi ng peace treaties
wi th these empi res after warri ng
wi th them, Ramses " hel ped to so
l i dif Egypt's borders on al l si des,
al lowi ng for i ncreased i nternal
stabi l ity.
Ramses " spent the rest of hi s
l i fe bolsteri ng hi s i mage with
huge bui l di ng projects. Hi s name
i s found everywhere on monu
ments and bui l di ngs i n Egypt. Hi s
greatest works were the rock
hewn temples of Abu Si mbel . He
also added to the temple of Amen
hotep I I I at Luxor, and completed
the hal l of col umns at Karnak - sti l l
the l argest col umned room of any
bui l di ng i n the world.
These monuments are a constant
reminder of his great strength and
weal th.
8
I
k |
Tiglath Pil eser I I I
Tiglath Pileser I I I was
a capable king of Assyr

ia, mi l itary leader, and

the founder of the sec
ond Assyrian Empire.
He is considered one of
the most successful
generals in mi l itary his-
What do we know
about King Saul ?
I n the early days of thei r
hi story, the I srael ite tri bes
had lived in smal l , scattered,
settl ements. The first of
the ki ngs of I srael was Saul .
He consol i dated the tri bes,
and managed to defeat the
You are
appoi nted as our
David. Your main duty is
to ki l l al l demons!
Tell MeWhy
tory, as well as an energetic
and efficient ruler and reform
er. Tiglath Pileser l l l conquered
Syria and Palestine, and
merged Babylonia with Assyr
i a. He i ntroduced the policy of
transplanting subject popula
tions- that is, the defeated
people were moved away from
their homeland and forced to
settle in a new place.
Tiglath Pileser /II
Saul Attacking David - A 1'"Centur Painting
enemy of the I srael ite tri bes, the Phi l istines,
in battle. The Phi l isti nes came back, and sug
gested that the battle shoul d be resolved by
a person to person combat. Saul appointed
David, a young shepherd boy, whi l e the Phi l
isti nes were represented by a huge gi ant of a
man cal led Gol iath. Al though they appeared
unevenly matched, David ki l l ed Goliath with
a well ai med stone from his sl i ngshot, and
the Phi l i stines were once agai n defeated.
Ancient World's Commanders
Sadly, Saul be
came jeal ous of
David's popul arity
afer thi s encoun
ter, and tried to ki l l
hi m. Davidescaped,
and later joi ned the
Phi l i sti nes to meet
the I srael ites in bat
tl e. This ti mel the
Ph i l isti nesdefeated
the I srael ites, and
Saul was badl y
wounded by the
archers as he tried
to flee. He asked his
armour bearer to
ki l l hi m, but he re
fused, so Saul com
mitted suici de by
fal l i ng on his sword
and the armour
bearer fol l owed
hi m.
9
10
Why was Ashurbani pal considered to be the
l ast great ruler of Assyria?
Ashurbani pal was King of Assyria, and counted
as the l ast great rul er of the country. When his fa
ther di ed, he lef Ashurbani pal a ki ngdom that
stretched from Northern Egyptto Persia, but he al so
made his brother ki ng of
Babyl oni a.
Throughout hi s rei gn,
Ashurbani pal had mi l itary
probl ems, mai nly at the
borders of the empi re. He
attacked Egypt, and cam
pai gns i n 667 and 664 BC
led to the defeat of the
Egypti ans. The Assyri an
army i nvaded El am and
Babyl oni a. Babylon was
captured i n 648 BC, and
the fol l owi ng year, the
El amite ci ty of Susa was
destroyed.
A Relief depicting
Ashurbanipal
Hunting
Ashurbani pal is remembered as one of the most
cul tured rul ers of the ti me. He supported the es
tabl i shment of the first systematical l y organized l i
brary, whi ch contai ned tens of thousands of works,
in the shape of tabl ets. He was personal l y i nvolved
in the appoi ntments of governors and prefects,
and he functioned as the real general contractor
when bui l di ng state houses and structures.
After Ashurbani pal died in 631 BC, the Assyri an
ki ngdom started to fal l apart, but thi s i s not consi d
ered to be hi s fault. It was not weakness i nsi de As
syria, but conti nuous attacks from hosti l e nei gh
bours, that brought it down.
Tell MeWhy
Why is Nebuchadnezzar as
sured of a place i n hi story?
Nebuchadnezzar was the
mighty ki ng of the Babylonian
Empi re between 604 and 562
Be. I n 597, Nebuchadnezzar
captured Jerusal em. He al so
defeated the Ci mmeri ans and
Scythi ans. He then put down a
rebel l i on in Jerusal em, and took
the i nhabitants of Jerusal em as
pri soners. He brought them to
Babyl on, and thi s period i n Bi b
l i cal hi story i s referred to as the
Babyl oni an captivity.
The evidence of Nebuchadn
ezzar's bui l di ng projects i ncl ud
ed surroundi ng hi s capi tal city
with doubl e wal l 1 6 ki l ometres
l ong, with an el aborate entry
called the I shtar Gate. He al so
bui lt a port on the Persi an Gulf.
Nebuchadnezzar wi l l always
be remembered for The Hang
i ng Gardens of Babyl on, one of
the Seven Wonders of the An
ci ent Worl d. Accordi ng to ac
counts, the gardens were bui l t
to cheer up Nebuchadnezzar's
homesi ck wife. The gardens
did not actual l y ' hang,' but
consi sted of a seri es of terraces,
ezzar's mi l itary
successes is
seen in hi s
bui l di ng works
in Babyl oni a.
Al l thegreat ol d
ci ti es were ex
tensively re
bui l t. Most no
tabl e was the
devel opment
of Babyl on. He
restored ol d re
l i gi ous monu
ments, and i m
proved canal s,
as other Baby
l oni an ki ngs
had done.
Nebuchadn-
Nebuchadnezzar I
resti ng on pi l
l ars. They were
i ngeniousl y i r
rigated so as to
al low the mag
nificent pl ants
to grow and
flower i n spite
of the fact that
Babyl on re
Ancient World's Commanders
ceives very
l ittle rai n.
Wi t h o u t
doubt, they
were hi s
most spec
tacul ar con
t r i b u t i on
to pos
terity.
11
Why is Cyrus the Great con
si dered more than just an em
peror?
Cyrus the Great was the man
who created what we cal l the Per
si an Empi re by conqueri ng many
nei ghbouri ng l ands, and consol i
dati ng them al l i nto one, with
hi msel f as emperor.
Although Cyrus's mi l itary ac
compl i shments rank with those of
Jul i us Caesar and Genghi s Khan,
he al so was known as a master of
di plomacy and tact. He wel ded to
gether groups of peopl e as wi del y
different as Afghani tri besmen
and Turki sh farmers to create the
first far-fl ung empire known i n the
Western worl d.
Cyrus i s best remembered for hi s
unprecedented tolerance towards
The Tomb
of Cyrus the
Great
I won thi s
war! Now you can
go to rul e your
ki ngdom.
those he defeated. When he
conquered Babyl on, he di d
so to cheers from the Jewish
community, who welcomed
him as a l i berator- he al
lowed the Jews to return to
thei r own Promi sed Land.
He al so decl ared the first
Charter of Human Ri ghts
known to manki nd. He i s re
puted to have devised the
first postal system.
lman, I am Cyrus, son of
Cambyses, Who founded the
Empire of Persia and ruled over
Asia. Do not grudge me my
monument. gg
12
The inscription over the tomb of
Cyrus the Great.
Tell MeWhy
Why was Darius a great
commander?
Dari us the Great was a ki ng of
ancient Persia, whose reign l ast
ed from bL522 to 486. He took
the throne by force, and conti n
ued the conquests of hi s prede
cessors, subdui ng Thrace, Mac
edoni a, some Aegean I sl ands,
and l and stretchi ng tothe I ndus
val l ey. Dari us put down several
revolts, and he twice tried to
conquer Greece, but a storm
destroyed his fleet in 492 and
the Atheni ans defeated hi m.
Though Dari us was an excel
lent sol di er, and extended hi s
empi re East, North, and i nto
Europe, he saw hi msel f as a n
organizer HU |WgV0
Ancient World's Commanders
than as a mere conqueror. He
divi ded the empi re i nto 20 huge
provinces cal l ed satrapies, each
under a royal ly appoi nted gov
ernor cal l ed a satrap who had
admi ni strative, mi l i tary, fi nan
ci al , and j udici al control i n hi s
provi nce. To check on such
powerful subordi nates, Dari us
al so appoi nted the satrap's sec
ond-i n-command, havi ng hi m
report to the ki ng separately.
Dari us al so developed com
merce, and was responsi bl e for
a huge bui l di ng programme i n
cl udi ng a new capi tal at Perse
pol i s.
Darius the
Great
13
I |ACI
Miltiades
W
hen the Persians threatened
Ath

ens, Miltiades, an Athenian general, was chosen as one

of
the ten generals of the Athenian land forces. I n the summ
er
of 490 BC, the Persians landed at Marathon. Miltiades waite
d
for a favourable moment to attack, and
when the Persian army was off guard, he
struck. Charging one and a half kilometres
across the Marathon plain, Miltiades' forces
engaged the Persian infantry, killing some
6,400 men and capturing seven ships at a
cost of only 1 92 Athenian dead. The rest of
the Persian force quickly embarked, and
put out to sea. Sadly, Miltiades was later ac
cused of treason, and sentenced to death.
Who wrote the book 'The
Art of War'?
Hundreds of years before the
bi rth of Christ, there was a peri
od i n Chi na known as the Age of
l 4
'The Art of War -
in a Bamboo Book Format
Warri ng States. Thi s was an age
of great conflict and uncertai nty,
as seven states fought for sur
vival and control of Chi na. It was
duri ngthi sti methat therearose
a general from the state of Ch'i
known as Sun Tzu. To hand
down the wi sdom he had
gai ned from his years of battle,
Sun Tzu wrote a book, The Art
of War, whi ch became a cl assic
on mi l i tary strategy in Chi na.
Hi s book, whi ch detai l s a com
plete phi l osophy on how to de
cisively defeat one's opponent,
has given gui dance to mi l itary
theorists and general s through
out the ages.
Wi del y regarded as ' the ol d

est mi l i tary treatise i n th

e
Tell MeWhy
Why was Leonidas, King
of Spara, famous?
Leoni das was a 5th century bL Spartan mi l itary
( ki ng, who bravely l ed a smal l force of Greeks agai nst a
much l arger Persi an army duri ng the Persi an Wars. A vast army
of Persi ans was on the march to conquer Greece. A smal l force of
Greeks had been al l that stood in thei r way. And yet, in a narrow
pass at Thermopylae, the i mpossi bl e al most happened. For three
days, just over seventy-one hundred Greeks, spearheaded by an
el ite unit of three hundred Spartans, gave
a savage beati ng to a Persi an army that
outnumbered them by perhaps 20-to-1 .
Leonidas, commander in chief of the
Greek resistance to Persi a at Thermopylae,
di ed in a heroic l ast stand. Led by Leonidas,
the three hundred Spartans

stood and fel l , and took the

pride of the Persian Empi re
down with them. A ki ng died i n
thi s battle, but a legend was
born, the legend of Leoni
world', this compact l ittle book,
written more than 2,500 years
ago, i s sti l l widely read today.
Ameri can officers duri ng Worl d
War I I read it closely. The Japa-
Ancient World's Commanders
das.
nese arm

st

(.U

(Ltt\

rk for
decade(it i)
centufY ...
<i
nese ofc e

sai d t
h
oooK by.
heart
AZ N6
The marathon
H
aven't you heard
of marathon, the
cross- country race?
Its story goes back
to a great battle
fought in Ancient
Greece, i n 490 Be.
The Greeks won the
battle of Marathon,
and a young soldier
named Pheidippi
des ran all the way
to Athens, 40 km, to
bring the happy
news. He gave his
report and then
dropped dead.
Marathon races
commemorate this
legendary race.
Why
was
Xere
s not able
to realize his
dream of con
quering the
Greeks?
Xerxes was a
Ki ng of the Per
si ans who l ived
from 520 - 465
Be. When he
came to the
Xerxes the Great throne, he
quel led a revolt
in Egypt, and then he deci ded to attack
Greece. He moved hi s massive army and
a fleet of shi ps by l and and sea, with the
fleet fol l owi ng the army, al ong the
coast. The army had to go through a
steep mountai n pass cal led Thermopy
lae, where they were hel d back by a
much smal l er Greek force. However, the
Persi ans found another route over the
mountai ns, and defeated the Greeks i n
thi s battle.
It was a costly victory, whi ch ended
with 300 Spartan warriors defi ng the
enti re Persi an army i n a l ast battl e to the
death. The Persi ans fi nal l y reached Ath
ens, and sacked the deserted city. But
the i nvasi on ended in di saster, when the
Persi an navy was routed by the Greek
fleet at Sal amis. Xerxes retreated to his
pal ace in Persepol i s, leavi ng behi nd an
occupyi ng army which was defeated by
the Greeks.
Tell MeWhy
/
Alcibiades
Ancient World's Commanders
Why was Alcibiades
considered a brilliant, but
unscrupulous general?
Al ci bi ades was an Atheni an pol i
ti ci an and general . He was not yet
twenty years ol d when the Archi da
mian War, whi ch was the first phase
of the Peloponnesian War, broke out.
Thi s was basi cal l y a war between
the Greek city states of Athens and
Sparta. By the ti me Al ci bi ades grew
up, Athens was begi nni ng to lose
the war. Even though he was a brilliant
general , he fel l out of favour, and
was forced to flee Athens. He went to
Sparta, and managed to turn the
course of the war agai nst his old city.
Eventual ly, however, he fel l out
offavour in Sparta as well, and was
forced to flee agai n. He was wel
comed back by the Atheni an troops,
and under hi s di recti on, the ti de of
war once agai n turned i n favour of
Athens, but onl y unti l Al ci bi ades
was exiled for a second time. Athens
eventual ly lost the war!
17
Who was Philip II?
Phi l i p II was Ki ng of Macedoni a.
He ruled from 359 - 336 bLWhen
he came to power, Macedoni a was
in political and mi l itary turmoi l ,
and Phi l i p i mmedi atel y set about
bri ngi ng the peopl e of Macedoni a
under hi s control.
Phi l i p made several mi l itary i n
novati ons that hel ped make Mac
edoni a a great power.
Phi l i p's mi l itary zenith was at the
battle at Chaeronea in August of
338 bL Phi l i p's army was greatly
outnumbered by the Atheni an
and Theban forces, yet they over
whel med the Atheni ans and The
bans. Athens and Thebes were
forced to become subjects of Phi l i p
and Macedoni a, leavi ng Sparta as
the onl y Greek state not under
Macedoni an control.
18
Oh my God,
am I dead I need to
conquer Persia!
llAn army of deer
led by a lion is more to
be feared than an ar
my of lions, led by a
deer.' ,
Philip of Macedonia
Phi l i p gave freedom and
autonomy to al l the Greek
city states that he con
quered, yet he establ i shed a
network of bureaucracies
that woul d be stabl e and
loyal to hi m.
Then, wi th the support of
al l Greece, Phi l i p decl ared
war on Persi a, and sent
1 0,000 troops i nto Asia Mi
norto begi n l i berati ng Greek
cities al ong the coast. How
ever, he died before he coul d
achieve thi s dream, and i t
was l eft to hi s son Alexander
the Great to real ize it.
Tell MeWhy
Why was Alexander
called 'the Great'?
Who has not heard of Al
exander the Great? He was
one of the mostfamous men
i n the hi story of the worl d.
The son of Ki ng Phi l i p" of
Macedonia, Alexander grew
up with a great respect for
the Greeks and thei r cul ture.
Alexander's father had con
quered most of the Greek
city-states before Al exander
came to power, i ncl udi ng
the city-state of Sparta.
When Al exander became
ki ng, even though he al
lowed the Greeks to manage
thei r own city-states, they
fought hi m at every turn.
The Greeks lost, and Al exan
der brought al l thei r out
posts and colonies under hi s
control as wel l . Al exander
conquered other cul tures i n
the Mediterranean rather
Alexander the Great
easi l y, i ncl udi ng Egypt. Before hi s
death, he had bui l t over 70 cities,
and had conquered the entire
known world in the Mediterranean
regi on. Hi s empi re stretched al l the
way to the I ndus River.
Everywhere he went, Alexander
i ntroduced Greek l iterature, myth,
dance, l anguage, money, medicine,
art, and theatre. He al so al l owed
conquered peopl e the opportunity
to run thei r own country as l ong as
they were l oyal to Al exander. Di d
you know that Alexander never
lost a battle? No wonder he was
known as Alexander the Great!
Ptolemy I
Ptolemy was a Macedonian general un
der Alexander the Great and founder of
the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. This fam
ily of fifteen kings - all of whom were
named Ptolemy - reigned over Egypt for
more than three hundred years.
Ancient World's Commanders
19
Why is Seleucus I also
known as Nicator?
Sel eucus I' was a dar
i ng Macedoni an general
who aided Al exander's
conquest of Persia and
Northern I ndi a, and
eventual l y united most
of Al exander's Asi an
empi re, except for Pal
estine, under hi s own
rul e. Afer Alexander's
death, he became Gov
ernor of Babyl oni a, but
was later forced to
abandon Babyl oni a,
and seek refuge wi th
Ptol emy, Alexander's
closest fri end. However,
he did manage to re-
Seleucus I
cl ai m Babylon, and after the truce of
3 1 1 BC, Sel eucus was l eft as master of
most Asi an provi nces, wi th the notabl e
exception of Phoeni ci a and
Killer Javelin
Antigonus I Monoph-
Coins Issued by Antigonus
thalmus was one of Alex-
ander the Great's most im
portant generals, and one of the most able of his successors.
His surname means 'one eyed'. He came closer than any of his
colleagues to reuniting Alexander's empire during the wars
among Alexander's successors. Antigonus died in battle, after
being struck by a javelin, in the eighty-first year of his life. He
died during the first battle he ever lost.
20
Palesti ne, whi ch
Ptol emy had an
nexed.
In 305 BC, sel eucus
took the ti tl e of Ki ng.
Overcomi ng hi s en
emies, he cl ai med al l
of Syria and the east
ern provinces of Asia
Mi nor. To sol i dify hi s
control of the Medi
terra nean territories,
he transferred hi s
capi tal from sel euci a
on the Tigris, to the
new city of Anti och.
For al most two dec
ades after thi s, se
l eucus was abl e to
concentrate on con
sol i dati ng hi s hol d
on hi s vast ki ngdom.
He al so l aunched an
i nvasi on of Europe,
but was ki l led before
he coul d return to
his homel and. Hi s
ashes were en
shri ned by hi s son at
sel euci a, where he
was worshipped
p
osthumousl y as
Zeus Nicator, an i n
carnati on of the
head of the Greek
pantheon.
Wh0 f0un0e0 the Mautyan Em
pte
Chandragupta Maurya was the
founder of the Maurya dynasty, whi ch
ruled Anci ent I ndi a for about 1 40 years.
Hi s troops conquered one northern I n
di an ki ngdom after another, and
cl ai med l ands that stretched as far as
west as Afghani stan. I n thi s way, Chan
dragupta united Northern I ndi a under
one rul erfor the first ti me i n history.
Before Chandragupta became a
powerful emperor, North Western I ndi a
A Symbolic
Statue of young
Chandragupta
Maurya in the
courtyard
of the Indian
Parliament
Ancient World's Commanders
was mai nly rul ed by smal l re
gi onal ki ngdoms that were
scattered here and there.
Chandragupta's empi re ex
tended from Kashmi r in the
north, to the Deccan pl ateau
in the south, and Assam in the
east, to Afghanistan in the
west. Such was the extent of
hi s empi re that not just I ndia,
but even the nei ghbouri ng
l ands of Afghani stan, Balo
chi stan and Nepal were part
of hi s ki ngdom.
A Mauran Ringstone
Chandragupta Maurya's
biggest achievements were
defeati ng Alexander's army
and taking over the Nanda
Empi re at the young age of
j ust 20 years. It is bel ieved
that duri ng the l ast days of
hi s l ife, Ki ng Chandragupta
Maurya gave up hi s throne,
and adopted asceti ci sm un
der the Jai n sai nt, Bhadrab
ahu.
22
Why i s King Porus greatly
admi red?
Ki ng Porus was the Ki ng of
Paurava, ananci ent statewithi n
the territory of Punjab. Porus
fought Al exander the Great in
the Battl e of the Hydaspes River
in 326 BC He brought war ele
phants with hi m that terrified
the Greeks and thei r horses.
Howeve duri ng a thunde
storm, Al exander's troops
crossed the Hydaspes, and the
I ndi an chariots were unabl e to
move through the rai n-soaked
mud.
Alexander managed to get
the upper hand, and the I ndi an
el ephants stampeded thei r
own troops. Nearly al l of the I n-
Tell MeWhy
Battle of the Hydaspes
-A Painting
di an caval ry were ki l l ed, though a
few i nfantry men managed to
flee. A wounded ki ng Porus sur
rendered onl y afer the destruc
tion of his entire army. When Al
exander asked hi m how he want
ed to be treated, he gave the fa
mous reply whi ch has become
cl assi c: "As a ki ng".
To this day, Porus' reply i s con
si dered to represent the hei ght of
di pl omatic ski l l .
The proud manner i n whi ch the
I ndi an l eader accepted hi s defeat
w
on Al exander's admi rati on, and
P
orus was reappointed as satrap
of hi s own ki ngdom.
Ancient World's Commanders
k |
Demetrius I
D
emetrius I was the King
of Macedon. The son of
Antigonus I, he proved
himself a very able com
mander in his father's wars,
particularly against
Ptolemy I. Though Ptole
my defeated him at Gaza
in 31 2 BC, Demetrius was
able to avenge his defeat
Demetrius I
later on. He defeated
Ptolemy of Salamis, and
took Cyprus. He besieged
the city of Rhodes with
great skill, and this earned
him the name Poliorcetes
or 'besieger of cities.' The
siege ended with a compro
mise peace, with Rhodes
agreeing to ally herself
with Antigonus against an
yone other than Ptolemy.
23
Why is Emperor Ashoka considered
one of the greatest of Indian rulers?
Emperor Ashoka was a ruler whose
empi re spread across the I ndian subcon
ti nent, coveri ng most of I ndia, South
Asia, and beyond. I t stretched from
present day Afghanistan and parts of
Persia in the west, to Bengal and Assam
in the east, and Mysore in the south. The
turni ng point in Ashoka' s l i fe occurred
when he pl anned to seize the territory of
Kal i nga, the present day Orissa. He led a
huge army, and fought a gruesome bat
tle with the army of Kal i nga. Though
Ashoka fi nal l y emerged vi ctori ous at the
end, the gruesome si ghts on the battle
field made his heart break with shame,
gui l t, and di sgust. He vowed never to
wage war agai n and sought refuge in the
teachi ngs of Lord Buddha.
Emperor Ashoka i s known as Ashoka
the Great, si nce he was one of the most
abl e rul ers who rul ed I ndi a. Under hi s
rule, the whol e of I ndia was united as one
si ngl e entity wi th smooth admi ni stra
tion. Ashoka was not j ust the first ruler to
uni f al l of I ndia - he was al so the first
Buddhi st ki ng who, after hi s conversion
to Buddhism, attempted to embrace
nonvi ol ence and Buddhist pri nci ples as
part of royal pol i ci es. Today, he i s consi d
ered as one of great I ndian Emperors.
The
Ashoka Chakra
The
Ashoka Pillar
What is Ashoka's I mperial
code of conduct?
Being a far-sighted rul er,
Ashoka was aware that if good
habits were to be i ncul cated i n
hi s subjects, he woul d have to
i nteract with them at thei r
mental level. He knew that hi gh
phi l osophical thoughts and
teachi ng woul d not be effective,
and so he formul ated a 'code of
conduct' for hi s subjects.
This code of conduct was
known as the 'Dhamma', and was
very broadl y based, so as to i n
cl ude peopl e of al l rel i gi ous de
nomi nati ons. I n thi s code,
Ashoka i nstructed peopl e to
follow the path of the Dhamma
by doi ng maxi mum work for
nobl e causes. He al so urged hi s
subjects to observe vi rtues such
as respect for el ders, fol l owi ng
a path of non vi ol ence, and be
i ng tolerant of other people's
bel iefs and i deas. These rules
were engraved on rocks and
pi l l ars erected throughout the
country.
Ashoka emphasized that evi l s
as rage, cruelty, anger, pri de and
envy are to be avoided, and vir
tues l i ke ki ndness, l i berty, truth
ful ness, gentl eness, self-control
and purity of heart, were to be
pursued vi gorously. Ashoka es
tabl ished hospital s for humans
and ani mals, and made l i beral
donations to the brahmans and
ascetics of different rel igious
sects. He appoi nted speci al cl ass
of offi ci al s cal led dharama
hamatras whose sol e responsi
bi l ity was to propagate the
Dhamma among the people.
Ashoka al so sent mi ssi ons to
fori gn countri es to propagate
the dhamma.
25
Why was Qui ntas Fa
bius Maximus called
'the shield of Rome'?
Qui ntas Fabi us Max
i mus was a Roman com
mander and pol i ti ci an
duri ng the Second Puni c
War. He knew from the
reports of Roman com
manders i n the fi el d that
it woul d be diffi cul t to
defeat Rome's arch ene
my Hanni bal , i n open
battle. So, Fabi us deci d
ed to fi ght a war of del ay
i ngtactics. Hedispatched
vari ous Roman forces i n
to the hi l l s of I tal y to tai l
Hanni bal as cl osel y as
Quintas
Fabius Maximus
Stop here!
We' l l eat fi rst and
send your king onl y
the l eftovers.
possi ble, without engagi ng hi m i n
battle, knowi ng that the caval ry woul d
be usel ess i n the hi l l s. These troops
constantly cut of Hanni bal 's suppl y
l i nes, and harassed hi m i ncessantly
and without mercy. Al though these
tactics were unpopul ar, and viewed as
cowardl y, they worked. Fabi us woul d
make hi s first and only offensive move
of the war i n 209 duri ng hi s fifth con
sul shi p, when he captured the city
of Tarentum, whi ch Hanni bal had
captured three years before.
Fabi us' cauti ous del ayi ng tactics
won him the ni ckname Cunctator,
meani ng 'del ayer'. He was al so cal led
'the,shiel d of Rome', because his tac
tics gave Rome ti me to recover its
strength, and take the offensive
agai nst the i nvadi ng Carthagi ni an ar
my of Hanni bal . Today, the word Fabi
ani sm has come to mean a gradual or
cauti ous pol i cy.
Tell Me
Why
Why is Hamilcar Barca considered a
fine general and statesman?
Hami l car Barca was a dari ng, i ntel l i gent
young Carthagi ni an general He was as
signed the command in Si ci ly in 247 i n the
Fi rst Puni c War. From mountai n bases he
made repeated rai ds on the Romans.
However, the Carthagi ni ans were defeat
ed, and Hami l car Barca negotiated the
terms of the peace that l ed to Carthage's
withdrawal from Si ci l y. Later, the Carthag
i ni an mercenaries revolted, but Hami lcar
defeated them i n 238. Afer that hi s popu
l arity made hi m a vi rtual di ctator. He then
set out to conquer Spai n as a new base
agai nst Rome, and had won consi derabl e
territory when he di ed. Hami l car was
probabl y the ablest general and states-
Hamilcar Barca
man that Carthage
ever had, unti l he was
succeeded by his son,
Hanni bal .
Why was Qi n Shi Huang cal l ed
'the

il d beast of Qin'?
Qi n Shi Huang was the Fi rst Em
peror of a unified Chi na, who ruled
from 246 BC to 21 0 BC He was onl y
1 3 years ol d when he took the
throne, so hi s pri me mi ni ster Lu Bu
wei acted as regent for the first ei ght
years. When he took over the rei ns
of power, Qi n Shi Huang succeeded
in defeati ng al l the si x other warri ng
states. By doi ng so, Qi n Shi Huang
had unified Northern Chi na. Hi s army
woul d conti nue to expand the Qin
Empi re's southern boundaries
Qin Shi Huang
27
throughout hi s l ifeti me, drivi ng as
far south as what i s now Vietnam.
The ki ng of Qi n became the Em
peror of Qi n Chi na. As emperor,
Qi n Shi Huang reorganized the
bureaucracy, abol i shi ng the exist
i ng nobi l ity, repl aci ng them with
his appoi nted ofi ci al s. He al so
bui lt a network of roads, with the
capi tal of Xi anyang at the hub. I n
addi ti on, the emperor si mpl ified
the written Chi nese script, stand
ardized weights and measures, and
mi nted new copper coi ns. Qi n Shi
Huang ordered the construction
of an enormous defensive wal l to
keep out i nvaders from the north.
Thi s northern fortificati on formed
the fi rst section of what wou I d be
come the Great Wal l of Chi na.
Di dyou knowthat Qi n Shi Huang
was ofen described as a wi l d beast,
because he combi ned the promi
nent nose, l arge eyes and chest of
a bird of prey, with the voice of a
jackal , and the heart of a tiger?
A Modern Statue of
Qin Shi Huang
Why is Hannibal consid
ered one of the greatest
warriors of all time?
By 264 BC, Rome was a
force to be reckoned with.
The only power i n the region
XiangYu
Xiang Yu was the leader of uprisings in Ancient China, and a fa
mous militarist. He was tall and strong, with great ambition even
at a young age. During a peasant uprising, Xiang Yu killed a hun
dred guards byhimself, showing his excellent martial skills. Later,
he was gradually chosen as the leader of the risers. However, be
cause of his headstrong attitude and arrogance, Xiang Yu lost
the suppor of the common people. He committed suicide by
the
Wujiang River.
28
Tell Me
Why
m
that coul d match that of the Romans
was Carthage. Hanni bal was a young
Carthagi ni an general who won most
of hi s battl es by comi ng up with cl ever
i deas. Once, whi l e fi ghti ng at sea, Han
ni bal had hi s men dump barrels ful l of
l ive snakes onto the deck of an enemy
shi p. The enemy had not expected
Hanni bal to do thi s. They weren't pre
pared to fight snakes. Hanni bal won
that battle easi ly.
In 221 BC, Hanni bal tried to attack
Rome. Hanni bal's pl an was to march
90,000 foot sol diers, 1 2,000 cavalry,
and 37 el ephants from Spai n, through
Gaul , over the Al ps, i nto Italy, and then
Hannibal and his troops crossing
the Alps- A Painting
Don't be afraid
friends, you are my
weapons for today!
take Rome by force.
Hi s pl an di d not work
as expected. The route
was more rugged that
he had expected. He lost
nearly all his el ephants
and half his men on the
trip. So, Hanni bal came
up with a new pl an. I n
stead of marchi ng on
Rome, he drove Rome
crazy by attacking smal l
er outposts and steal i ng
food and weapons, i n
tended for Rome. Hanni
bal and hi s men stayed
on the I tal i an peni nsul a
for 1 5 years, causi ng
troubl e wherever he
coul d.
29
for a man to whom
fortune has never
proved false to re
flect upon its un-
certainties. jj
Hannibal
I n 203 BC, Rome at
tacked Carthage whi l e
Hanni bal was away. Be
fore Hanni bal coul d ar
rive, Carthage had
agreed to peace terms
with Rome. That di d not
stop Hanni bal , though.
He spent the rest of hi s
l i fe fighti ng the growi ng
power of Anci ent Rome.
To thi s day, Hanni bal
ranks as one of the most
magnificent mi l itary
mi nds i n the hi story of
the worl d.
30
Why i s Antiochus
III consid
ered
a great king of Seleucia?
Antiochus I I I was barel y 1 9 when
he became King of Seleucia. By a
show of force, and skilful di pl omacy,
he formed al l i ances with nei ghbour
ing rul ers. Once he had his nei gh
bours under hi s control, Antiochus
then turned hi s attenti on to Western
territories and formed an al l i ance
with Phi l i p V of Macedon agai nst
Egypt. In 200 BC, he defeated the
Egyptian forces, and cl ai med control
of Pal esti ne and Phoeni ci a.
Pressi ng hi s mi l itary advantage,
Antiochus i nvaded Egypt itself,
forci ng a peace treaty. But Antio
chus did not rest on that victory. He
later led his forces to regai n the cit
i es of Western Asia Mi nor that hi s
father had
l ost. Not con
tent with hav
i ng extended
S e l e u c i a ' s
control over
more territory
than anyofhi s
predecessors,
he crossed i n
to Europe, but
was defeated
by the Ro
mans and the
al l i es.
Antiochus I
Tell MeWh
y
Han Xin with an Old Lady
Who Helped Him in His Youth
Why is Han Xin considered the most
famous general in the Han dynasty?
Han Xi n was a very famous general who
l ived around two centuri es before Christ
at a ti me when Chi na's first empire, Qi n
was on the verge of col l apsi ng, because
of peasant upri si ngs. Hecamefroma poor
fami ly, but he studi ed hard and became
fami l iar wi th mi l itary strategy and tactics.
In 209 BC, rebel l ions broke out every
where i n Chi na. Han Xi n went to joi n the
rebel army of Xiang Liang, who founded
the nati on of West Chu. After Xi ang Li ang
Was ki l led i n a battle, hi s nephew Xi ang Yu
became the ruler of West Chu. However,
An
ci
ent World's Commanders
Han Xi n felt he was
not being treated
wel l , and lef Xi ang
Li ang's army to joi n
another rebel army
cal led Han under
Lord Liu Bang. It was
here that Han Xi n
soon proved that he
had a rare mi l itary
tal ent.
In May of 206 BC,
the Han army won a
major vi ctory agai nst
Lord Zhang Han's ar
my.Thi swasfol lowed
by a series of victo
ries. What is amazi ng
i s that Han Xi n started
as a l owl y guard for
Xi ang Li ang, and be
camea general under
Liu Bang. Moreover,
he achieved out
standi ng victories re
peatedl y withi n just
a few years. He was
the major figure i n
deciding the outcome
of the war between
Han and its enemies,
and was praised as
an al l -powerful mi l i
tary l eader and bri l
l i ant strategist.
31
How did Pi l i p
V become King
of Macedonia?
Phi l i p Vwas one
of the l ast great
Macedoni an sov
ereigns ruling from
221 to 1 79, whose
attempttoextend
Macedoni an i n
fl uence through
out Greece, re
Philip V
power, but it al so
saw an
even
greater expan
si on of the power
of Rome. Duri ng
hi s rei gn he was
p r e o c c u p i e d
with the vai n
struggl e to mai n
tai n the ol d Mac
edoni an su
premacy i n the
sulted i n hi s defeat by Rome.
Phi l i p became ki ng when his
father died i n 229 Be. He was
just ni neyears ol d then, and real
power l ay in the hands of hi s
cousi n, Anti gonus Dosun, the
regent. Antigonus later de
clared hi mself to be the ki ng
but he died when Phi l i p was
just seventeen. So i n efect,
Phi l i p became ki ng onl y i n 221 .
Phi l i p's rei gn wi tnessed an
expansi on of Macedoni an
Why was Publ i us Cornel i us
Scipio called Africanus'?
.
Publ i us Cornel i us Sci pi o was
born i nto one of the great aris
tocratic fami l i es of Rome. Even
as a boy, he proved his bravery
when, seeing hisfatherwounded
and cut of by the enemy duri ng
a battle, he charged forward, and
32
Bal kan Peni nsul a, whi ch be
came hopel ess afer the i nter
vention of Rome and the deci
sive Battle of Cynoscephal ae.
Phi l i pdevotedthe l ast decade
of his l i fe to consol i dati ng hi s
ki ngdom. He reorganized fi
nances, transpl anted popul a
ti ons, reopened mi nes, and i s
sued central and l ocal curren
cies. He was succeeded by hi s
eldest son, Perseus who rul ed
as the last ki ng of Macedon.
saved hi m. Sci pi o began hi s ca
reer as a mi l itary tri bune. In 21 0,
the Romans deci ded to send an
army to Spai n agai nst the
Carthagi nians, but it i s sai d that
no senior general woul d under
take the task, and that young
Sci pi o ofered hi mself as a can
di date, He was determi ne
d to
Tell Me
Why
Publius Corelius Scipio
hol d the Carthagi ni an armies at
bay, and prevent them from
sendi ng rei nforcements to Han
ni bal in Ital y. He was al so deter
mi ned to turn back the tide of
war, and to drive the enemy out
of the peni nsul a.
Sci pi o first defeated the
Carthagi ni an commander Has
drubal Barca in Spai n, and then
the other two Carthagi ni an ar
mies sti l l there, maki ng Roman
control of Spai n complete. How
ever, hi s greatest achievement
was undoubtedly his victor over
the Carthagi ni an leader Hanni
b
al
i n the great Battle of Zama
i n
A
frica, i n 202 BC, endi ng the
Second Punic War. For thi s he
Won the surname Afri canus.
AnCient World's Commanders
Why is it said that Gaius
Marius transformed the Ro
man army?
Gai us Mari us was a Roman
general and pol i ti ci an. He was a
strong and brave sol dier, and a
ski lful general , popul ar with hi s
troops, but he showed l ittle flai r
for pol itics, and was not a good
publ ic speaker.
Gai us was given command of
the Roman army i n Afri ca. I n re
crui ti ng fresh troops, Mari us
broke wi th custom, because of
a manpower shortage. He re
crui ted vol unteers from outside
the propertied cl asses. Thi s was
a bold step because ti l l then,
onl y those who owned property
M
Gaius Marius
33
The Defence of Carthage , in which
Hasdrubal Barca, took part.
coul d serve i n the army. Gai us' victory
i n Africa got hi m el ected consul agai n
he was consul seven ti mes- but he soon
had to go to war once more. This ti me,
he showed hi s foresi ght by ensuri ng
that hi s men were excellently' trai ned i n
commando tactics by gl adi atori al i n
structors. There i s no doubt that Gai us'
mi l itary reforms and great command
l ed to the growi ng i nvolvement of the
army i n pol iti cs, and the eventual col
l apse ofthe republ i can system.
34
I k |ACI
Hasdrubal Barca
Hasdrubal Barca,
brother of Hanni
bal, was the com
mander of the
Carhaginian Em
pire in Spain dur
i ng the Second
Punic War. When
Rome turned its
effors to attack
i ng Carhage's
empire in Spain,
in order to pre
vent reinforce
ments from get
ting to Hannibal
i n Italy, Hasdru
bal was involved
in all the battles.
In 207 BC, he
crossed the Alps
with reinforce
ments for Hanni
bal. However, his
army was defeat
ed, and Hasdru
bal hi mself was
kil led. The defeat
of Hasdrubal is
ofen considered
the decisive loss
for Carhage in
thewar.
Tell Me
What do we know about
Cornel i us Sulla?
Cornel i us Sul la came to promi
nence mai nly in the Soci al War,
that was fought from 91 -89 Be.
When i n 88 BC, Mi thri dates,
King of Pontus, attacked the Ro
man province in Asia, the senate
decided that Sul l a, who was
then one of the current consuls,
would be commander of the ar
my agai nst Mithridates. After
successful l y completi ng his cam
paign against Mi thri dates, Sul l a
returned to I taly, marched to
Rome, and took charge pol i ti
cal l y by force, as a dictator.
Sul l a i ntroduced a new judi
ci al device cal led 'proscri pti on'.
Thi s meant, the publ i cati on
of l i sts of any peo-
pie he deemed undesi rable. Re
wards would be made to those
who brought them in, be they
dead or al ive. I t goes without
sayi ng that Sul l a used this de
vice in order to wi pe out any
pol i ti cal opposi ti on. He i ntro
duced a l aw by which, any new
member to be admitted to the
Senate had to have at least to
have had some experience i n
an offi ci al positi on. Sul l a created
new courts for particular types of
crime. Only Senators coul d sit as
judges, and this strengthened
the Senate. Unusual ly for a ty
rant, Sul l a retired i n 79 Be.
|1
Active Retirement
fter withdrawing from
active political activities,
Sulla stared to write his
memoirs, which he finished in
78
Be. He died soon after. His
tory
says that Sulla died from
liv
er failure, or a gastric ulcer.
His epitaph read, 'No friend
ever served me, and no enemy
ev
er wronged me, whom I
have not repaid in full'.
An
cient World' s Commanders
5
How did Mithri-
dates VI Eupator seize
control of the king
dom of Pontus?
Mithridates became
king when he was only
twelve, and so, it was hi s
mother who actual ly
wielded power. How
ever, when he was sev
enteen, he had hi s
mother i mpri soned,
and seized power. He
al so ki l l ed off several of
hi s brothers to el i mi
nate any competiti on
for the throne!
Mithridates i nvaded
Bi thyni a, whi ch was a
Roman al ly, and thi s
Spartacus
36
brought hi m i nto conflict with Rome.
Later, Roman general SUl ia captured
Athens, and defeated Mi thri dates at the
Battle of Chaeronea
in 86 BC Mithridates
fought three wars
agai nst the Romans.
Eventually, he l ost hi s
kingdom, and died
after being over
thrown by one
of hi s sons.
Today, Mith
ridates VI i s re
membered as
Why i s Spartacus' l ife an
i nspiring one?
Spartacus was a Roman
sl ave and gl adiator, and
l eader of a famous sl ave re
volt. He was sol d i nto slav
ery, and trai ned at the
gl adiatori al school i n
Capua, north of Napl es. He
escaped i n 73 Be, and took
refuge on nearby Mount
Vesuvi us, where l arge
numbers of other escaped
slaves joi ned hi m. Leadi ng
hi s army of runaway sl aves,
whi ch has been esti mated
to have reached 1 00,000
men, Spartacus defeated a
Tell MeWhy
I k |1
_ Golden Death
Marcus Lucinius Crassus was a Roman
general and statesman who became one of the richest men in
Rome. He gained his wealth by sel l ing slaves,
and buying up the properties of those killed
by the Roman di ctator Sulla. He used hi s
wealth to buy power and i nfluence-
and fi nally, it is bel i eved that, he
one of
died by having molten gold
poured down his throat by
his enemies to quench his
the Ro
man Repub
thirst for gold!
l i c's most persist-
ent enemies, though
Marcus Lucinius
Crass us
he won onl y one major battle.
series of Roman attacks usi ng
tactics whi ch woul d now be
cal led guerri l l a warfare.
In 72 BC, Spartacus and hi s ar
my marched north towards
Hurry up!
He' l l wake up
soon!
Gaul . They fought off a series of
attacks from Roman forces, but
then turned south. The Roman
pol i ti ci an and general Marcus
Lici ni us Crassus l ed an army
south, and in the battle that fol-
lowed, Spartacus is bel i eved to
have been ki l l ed. Around 6,000
of hi s fol l owers, who escaped,
were hunted down and cruci-
i fied. Thousands of others were
ki l l ed by the army ofthe Roman
general Pompey. Though hi s
attempt to wi n freedom fai l ed,

Spartacus's struggl e has been
-an i nspiration to revol utionar

ies, pol i ti ci ans, and writers to
thi s day.
Ancient World's Commanders 37
Why is Gnaeus Pompey the
Great considered a key figure
i n Roman history?
Gnaeus Pompey was one of
the key figures in the Roman
revol uti on at the end of the pe
riod known as the Roman Re
publ i c. He rose to promi nence
servi ng Sul l a in the first major
Roman civi l war, defeati ng the
forces of Mari us in Afri ca. Pom
pey quickl y learned the pol i ti cal
power of an army behi nd hi m.
He l ed the Roman army agai nst
the rebels in Spai n, and re
turned to Rome in tri umph.
I n addi ti on to hi s early suc
cesses, brutal though they are
sai d to have been, Pompey was
responsi bl e for subdui ng the
rebel l ious Spartacus and hi s ar
my of slaves. This earned hi m
38
the enmity of Crassus, who had
al ready put down the mai n
force of the sl ave revolt, that
had terrorized Italy. Pompey
was awarded the task of riddi ng
the pirates from the Mediterra
nean. He conquered Mithri
dates, King of Pontus, Tigranes,
King of Armenia, and Antiochus,
Ki ng of Syria, and went on to
capture Jerusal em.
Returni ng to Rome, Pompey
formed a coal iti on with Jul i us
Caesar and Crassus, called the
First Tri umvirate. Later on, how
ever, Pompey led hi s forces in a
ci vi l war agai nst Caesar. Pom
pey's forces were defeated at
the Battle of Pharsal us in 48 Be.
Pompey hi mself sought the
safety of Egypt, where he was
murdered by order of the phar
aoh's mi ni sters.
Tell te Why
51 k |U1
r
rcs Brutus was one of
Julius Caesar's closest friends. He was a Roman
Republican, general and statesmen, and Caesar
had appoi nted hi m governor of Gaul. Yet, he
was one of the assassins who murdered Caesar,
for what he believed was the good of Rome.
Why is Jul i us
Caesar considered one
of the greatest figures
in hi story?
I n 60 BC, a young and
ambi ti ous general by the
name of Jul i us Caesar
stepped i nto pol i ti cal l ife.
He had been ver success
ful on the battlefi el d, and
had greatly expanded
Rome's borders, bri ngi ng
Julius Caesar
n
cient World's Commanders
Marble Bust of
pa rts of
Brutus
Gaul and Britai n
underthe control of Rome.
He conquered enemies i n Spai n
and Germany, and passed onto Greece.
Caesar marched i nto Egypt al so,
where he notched up another victory.
However, these victories made the
Roman Senate fear that Caesar woul d
use hi s army to over throw the repub
l i can government. I n an attempt to
protect thi s from happeni ng, the Sen
ate ordered Jul i us Caesar to return to
Rome, but to leave hi s armies north of
the Rubi con River.
Caesar refused to do as he had been
ordered. By crossi ng the Rubi con with
his armies, he commi tted treason
agai nst the Senate, and in effect, de
cl ared civil war. Caesar eventual l y de
feated opposi ng forces, and by 45 BC,
had taken over control of the enti re
Roman Empi re. Sadly, Caesar's rul e i n
Rome woul d be bri ef. The fol lowi ng
year, i n 44 BC, he was murdered by
members of the Senate.
39
Who is
Octavius? I am
Augustus!
How did Gaius Octavius
become Augustus, the ruler
of Rome?
Augustus Caesar's real name
was Gai us Octavi us . He was the
grand nephew of Jul i us Caesar.
In his wi l l , Caesar had adopted
Octavi us and made hi m hi s hei r,
so Octavi us changed hi s name
to Gai us Jul i us Caesar. Octavi an
was a shrewd, bri l l i ant, and as
tute pol i ti ci an. Upon his grand
uncl e's assassi nati on i n 44 BC,
Octavi us went to Rome. There,
on August 1 9th, at the age of 1 9,
Octavi us was el ected Consul .
I n November, Octavi us, Mark
Antony, and Aemi l i us Lepidus
formed the Second Tri umvi rate
and forced the Senate to grant
al l threeofthemconsul ar power
for five years. Later, Antony l eft
for Egypt, where he married the
Queen Cl eopatra, even though
he was sti l l married to Octavi
us's sister in Rome. This out
raged Octavi us. He had al ready
seized powerfrom Lepi dus, and
he now defeated Antony and
Cl eopatra i n a sea battle.
Roman Calendar-Before the Julian Reform
Roman Calendar
One of Julius Cae
sar's imporant reforms
was the revision ofthe
Roman calendar. He
established the 365
day year, with a leap
year every 4 years.
This calendar was
called the Julian calen
dar, and the month of
July was named after
Julius Caesar.
40
Tell Me Why
MatkAntony
ark Antony was a Roman statesman
and general. After Caesar defeated
Pompey, Antony became Caesar's sec
ond in command, and Caesar appoi nted
him as Consul of Rome. On Caesar's
death, Antony joined with Caesar's
nephew Octavian to defeat the con
spirators who had murdered Caesar.
Later however, Octavian became his
enemy when Antony married Cleopat
ra, Queen of Egypt. Octavian sent a fleet
that destroyed the navy of Antony and
The worl d over whi ch Rome
presi ded was now i n chaos. To
meet thi s chal lenge, Octavi an
strengthened the mi l itary. From
3 1 -23 BC, Octavi an had hi mself
el ected Consul . I n 27 Be, the Senate
gave him the ti tl e of Augustus. From
then on, Gaius Jul i us Caesar Octavi anus
- al so known as the Emperor Augustus
rul ed Rome unti l his death in 1 4 AD.
Why did Ariovistus's statusamongst
the
Ancient Romans changefromthat
of a friend to an enemy?
The first German l eader of whom we
have any record i s Ariovistus, who was
r
eig
ni ng i n 58 BC, the year Jul i us Caesar
e
ntered Gaul . Ariovistus was the l eader
of
a
Germani c tri be, the Suebi , and he
Was
constantly fi ghti ng wi th the Gaul s,
wh
om he defeated. The Romans consi d
er
ed
hi m a 'ki ng and friend of the Senate,'
bu
t
thi ngs changed when Gaul 's leaders
An
cient World's Commanders
Mark Antony
Cleopatra,andAntony
committed suicide.
Augustus Caesar
41
asked Caesar for protecti on agai nst
King Ariovistus. The Gaul s cl ai med
he had brought in 1 20,000 Germans
to settle on thei r l ands, and had al so
taken hostages.
Caesar agreed to speak with Ario
vistus but Ariovistus, refused thi s
request. Caesar's response was to
tel l hi m not to bri ng Germans i nto
Gaul , and to restore hostages taken.
However, Ari ovi stus, who had en-
The Defeat of Ariovistus by the
Romans in 58 Be
|
joyed mi l itary successes as i mpres
sive as Caesar's, saw no reason to
obey. Fi nal l y, Caesar attacked hi m
at the Battle of Vosges i n 58 BC The
Germans responded with vi gour,
but Roman tactics soon led to pani c
among them. As they fled, Caesar
led the pursuit. Ariovistus managed
to escape, but died not l ong after
wards.
42
Statue of
Arminius
Armi ni us
Arminius was a
German leader
who lived in the
1 st century. He
had lived in Rome
for sometime,
and understood
Rome's mil itary
strategy. When
the Romans in
vaded German
territory, Armini
us, along with
the leaders of the
other German
tri bes, used this
knowledge to
defeat the Ro
mans at the Bat
tle of Teutoburg
Forest.
B' R FAC
Orodes I I
Orodes I I was King of Parhia. He
had helped hi s brother Mithradates I I I murder their father.
When Mithradates occupied Seleucia and Babylon, Orodes
stormed those towns, i mmediately executing hi s brother,
and seizing total power. Orodes ruled from 57 to 38 BC.
Why is Vercingetorix so famous?
Verci ngetorix was a Gal l i c leader.
In fact, he was the best known, and
most, abl e l eader of the Gal l ic op
position to Caesar duri ng the Gal l i c
War of 58 -51 BC Verci ngetorix be
came the l eader of the great revolt
agai nst the Romans in 52 BC
Jul i us Caesar, upon heari ng of the
revolt, rushed to put it down. Verc
i ngetorix adopted the pol i cy of re
treati ng to heavy, natural fortifica
ti ons, and burni ng Gal l i c towns to
Vercingetorix Surrenders to Julius
Caesar-A Painting
keep the Roman sol diers
from l i vi ng off the l and.
Caesar and hi s chi ef l i eu
tenant Labi enus l ost mi nor
engagements, but when
Verci ngetorix shut hi mself
up in Al esi a and summoned
al l hi s Gal l i c al l ies to attack
the besiegi ng Romans, the
true bri l l iance of Caesar ap
peared. He defeated the
Gal l i c rel i evi ng force, and
took the fortress. Verci nge
torix was captured, and put
to death.
Why is the Roman commander
Gnaeus Jul ius Agricola associated
with Ancient Britai n?
Gnaeus Jul i us Agricol a was a Roman
statesman and sol di er. He became gov
ernor of Britai n, and conquered l arge ar
eas of Northern Engl and, Scotl and and
Wales. Agri col a began hi s career as a
mi l itary tri bune. Later, he commanded
a Roman l egion i n Bri tai n, and i n 78 AD,
he was made governor of Britai n.
Agricol a was successful i n establ i shi ng
Roman authority i n North Wal es. Hethen
moved to Scotl and, where he consol i
dated Roman mi l i tary control and mas
termi nded the bui l di ng of a stri ng of
forts across the country from west to
east. He confronted the Cal edoni an
tribes under Cal gacus at the Battle of
Mons Graupi us in 84AD.
Agri col a was a successful sol di er, and a
pol i ti cal l eader in Britai n. Agricol a di ed
peaceful l y at his estate in Italy. Did you
know that Agri col a was the first Roman
to realize that Britai n was an i sl and?
A Statue of Agricola
Germani cus Jul i us Caesar
m*
44
Germanicus was a popular imperial Roman
general. He stifled a rebel l ion i n the west on the
death of Augustus i n AD 1 4. Though urged to
take i mperial power, he deferred to Tiberius. In
the East, he came into conflict with Gnaeus
Calpurnius Piso, governor of Syria.His death may
have been due to poisoning ordered by Piso,
though Tiberius was al so suspected. He was im
mensely popular among the citizens of Rome.
Tell MeWhy
What is the Emperor
Domitian's place i n Roman
history?
Domi ti an was con
fi rmed as emperor by
the Roman Senate
on September
_t-
,
81 AD. Duri ng the
precedi ng twenty
years, Rome had
experienced two
great fires, and a
civi l war. Domitian
responded by erect
i ng, restori ng, or
completi ng some 50
structures. In order to
faci I itate th is recovery,
the provinces were
Why do you
hesitate?
Higher taxes are for
your safety!
Anci
ent World's Commanders
taxed more heavi ly. Whi l e Domi
ti an rai sed taxes i n most parts of
the Empi re, he al so took aggres-
sive steps to el i mi nate cor
rupti on and mi sman
A Bust oJ
Domitian
agement.
Rome was not se
ri ousl y threatened
by its enemi es dur
i ng Domi ti an's
reign. I n 88-89 eE,
A Small Silver Coin
oJDomitian
there was a revolt i n upper Ger
many. Domi ti an had the revolt
quickl y crushed, by usi ng the l e
gi ons of lower Germany.
By the l atter part of his rei gn, the
Emperor had taken al most al l
power away from the Roman Sen
ate. He became i ncreasi ngly para
noi d of plots and pl ans to remove
hi m. In 96 AD, a real plot agai nst
Domi ti an fi nal l y did succeed. He
died at age forty-four, and was the
last emperor of hi s dynasty - the
Fl avi an dynasty.
45
46
Hadrian
H
adrian was a Ro
man emperor
known for his many
building projects.
Hadrian spent most
of his period in of
fice travel l ing al l
over the empire. He
is most famous for
the wal l that he
built across Britain,
from Tyne to Sol
way, designed to
keepthebarbarians
out of Roman Brit
ain. Hadrian was a
capable adminis
trator and a good
soldier and leader,
and is known as one
of the 'five good
emperors' of Rome.
Why was Emperor Trajan greatly
loved by the peopl e of Rome?
Trajan was a sol di er who spent most
of his l ife i nvolved in campai gns. He
was adopted by the Roman Emperor
Nerva, but even after Nerva di ed, Tra
jan remai ned in Germany until he had
compl eted his campai gn. Trajan's
eventual entry i nto Rome in AD 99was
a tri umphant one. Jubi l ant crowds re-
joiced at hi s arrival .
The new emperor
entered the city on
foot. He embraced
each of the Sena
tors, and even
wal ked among the
ordi nary people.
Marble Bust 0/
Trajan
Trajan 's Column
A Memorial/or
Trajan 's Victor
Tell MeWhy
Under Trajan, he pro
gramme of publ i c works
was enl arged substanti al
ly. The road network i n It
al y was renovated, and
many bridges were bui lt.
Al so provi si ons for the
poor were al so made, es
peci al l y for chi l dren. Tra
jan was a bri l l i ant general ,
as shown by hi s mi l itary
achievements. Quite nat
ural ly, hewasverypopul ar
with hi s troops, especi al l y
due to hi s wi l l i ngness to
share in the hardshi ps of
hi s sol di ers.
Trajan's most famous
campai gn i s undoubtedly
that agai nst Dacia, a pow
erful ki ngdom north of
the Danube in modern
Romani a. Two wars were
fought agai nst it, result
ing i n its destruction and
annexation as a Roman
province i n AD 1 06. He
annexed Armeni a, and
spectacul arly conquered
the whole of Mesopota
mi a, i ncl udi ng the Parthi
an capi tal Ctesi phon.
Trajan died whi l e re
turni ng to I tal y from the
east on 9th August AD 1 1 7,
after sufferi ng a stroke.
Ancient World's Commanders
Queen Boudicca- A Painting
Why is Boudicca an exampl e
of woman power?
Boudi cca was queen of the I ceni
peopl e of Eastern Engl and. Her
husband had been rul er of the Ice
ni . The Romans had al l owed hi m
to conti nueto r ul e over hi s people,
even though they had defeated
hi m i n battle. However, when he
di ed, the Romans took over hi s
l ands, and stripped and flogged
Boudi cca. Thi s led to wi despread
fury and resentment agai nst the
47
Romans. The I ceni ,
led by Boudicca
who herself was a
feroci ous and
ski l led warrior, re
bel led, and they
were joi ned by oth
er tri bes too.
Boudicca's army
successful ly de
feated the Roman
Ni nth Legi on, and
destroyed the capi
tal of Roman Bri tai n,
then at Col chester.
They went on to
destroy London
and Verul ami um.
Boudi cca was even
tual ly defeated by
the Romans, but
she ki l led herself,
rather than be cap
tured.
She has been de
scribed as one of
the most i ntel l igent
women of her day.
Tal l , and sl i m, with
wai st l ength l ong
red hai r, she was an
i mposi ng figure
who conti nues to
i nspi re women
throughout the
centuries.
48
Decebalus
How did Dece-
bal us get hi s
name?
Decebal us was
King of Dacia, whi ch
i s today known as
Romania. Hi s name
means 'the brave
one'. He was cal led
by thi s name be
cause he proved to
be a formi dabl e op
ponent to Rome for over 20 years.
Decebal us rul ed the Dacians between
87 and 1 06, and i s famous for fighti ng
three wars agai nst the Roman Empi re,
Why is Septi mus Severus called a
soldier emperor?
Septi mus Severus
was the first of the
soldier emperors of
Anci ent Rome. He
rose i mprobabl y
from the ranks
of sol di ers to
become a
m i l i t a r y
refor mer .
Hewas the
fi rst of the
Severan em
perors of Rome.
Septimus Severus
Tell Me Why
and negotiati ng two peace treaties
without bei ng el i mi nated. Decebal us
was shrewd both i n hi s understand
i ng of warfare, and i n the wagi ng of
war. He judged wel l when to attack,
and chose the ri ght moment to re
treat. He was an expert in ambushes,
and a master in pitched battles,
He knew not onl y how to fol l ow up a
vi ctory wel l , but al so how to manage
wel l i n defeat. He fought agai nst the
Roman Emperors Domi ti an and Tra
jan, and when he was fi na l I y defeated,
he commi tted sui ci de. He is consi d
'
:- .
ered a nati onal hero i n Romani a to
thi s day.
Arrows are
not a probl em . . .
Zhou Yu

Septi mi us Severus was born i n

Africa, at Leptis Magna, on Apri l
1 1
t
h, 1 45. He was of Carthag-
i ni an descent. Severus
was a successful sol
di er, and when hi s
p
redecessor, Em
peror Com modus
Zhou Yu was a gen
eral of Wu of the Three
Kingdoms of China over
di ed, Severus' troops pro
cl ai med hi m emperor. Un
der Severus, Mi ddl e East
ern provi nces were repre
sented in the Senate for
the first ti me. Severus
di ed in Britai n fighti ng
the Cal edoni ans, and was
su
cceeded by hi s son, Ca
ra
cal l a.
Ancient World's Commanders
1 700 years ago. He was
handsome,i ntel l i gent
and a famous mi litarist
and strategist. He
served Sun Ce dur
ing the late Han
Dynasty. After Sun
Ce's death, Cao
Cao led a massive
force southward.
Zhou Yu defeated
this force at the
decisive Battle
of Red Cl iffs
i n 208.
49
Why is Lu
Bu known as
'The Flying General'?
Lu Bu was a Chi nese Han
warlord, who l ived duri ng
Ho! Ho!
r om r,-,
Coo.
the Three Ki ngdoms period. He
was a master of horse ri di ng, ar
chery, and armed combat. He was
tal l and strong, and because of hi s
speed, ski l l and strength, he was ni ck
named 'The Fl yi ng General '. He had a
very fast movi ng horse cal led Red Hare.
Lu Buwasappoi nted caval ry commander
and I mperi al corps commander by Dong
Zhuo, a warlord from the Li ang province.
Dong Zhuo adopted Lu Bu as hi s son and, Lu
Bu became Dong Zhuo's cl osest bodyguard.
However, i n the end, he was responsi bl e for
Dong Zhuo's death.
Lu Bu was known to have no equal i n
battle, and was probabl y one of
the greatest warriors to ever
exist. Hi s onl y love was war,
and hi s onl y loyalty was to
hi mself. He was fi nal l y exe-
cuted by an enemy war
lord, Cao Cao.
Why has Cao
Cao become
popular i n Chi
nese folklore?
Cao Cao was
King of Wei,
Pri me Mi nister
of the Han, and
sel f styled war
lord of the Three
Ki ngdoms era of
Chi na. Modern
hi stori ans view
hi m as a bri l l iant
pol i ti ci an and a
ski l lful general .
Cao was i niti al l y a
mi nor garrison com
mander who rose to
promi nence as a general
when he suppressed the Yel
low Turban Rebel l i on. The Yel
lowTurbans were a Chi nese secret
Tell MeWhy
soci ety whose members' upri si ng, cal led
the Yel l ow Turban Rebel l i on threatened
the l ast years of Han rul e. The rebel l ion
weakened the country, and i s divided i t
i nto three ki ngdoms. Cao Cao took the
emperor with hi m, and moved the capital
to Xuxian. By i nvoki ng the emperor's
name, he took command of the other
generals, and gradual l y assumed al l i m
peri al powers. His domai n was known as
the Ki ngdom of Wei.
Cao became one of the most popul ar
fi gures of Chi nese l egend and fol kl ore,
with vari ous evi l magi c powers ascribed
to hi m.
Ancient World's Commanders
Sun Quan
Sun Quan was
the founder of
Wu during the
Three Kingdoms
period in Ancient
China. As a bril
liant politician, he
showed his talent
at an early age,
and followed his
elder brother Sun
Ce in battle when
he was 1 4. Afer
Sun Ce's death,
the 1 9 year-old
Sun Quan suc
ceeded his broth
er's throne. Sun
Quan promoted
the development
of the southeast
ern region. He
kept diplomatic
relations with
s u r r o u n d i n g
countries such as
India.
51
Why wi l l Aurel ian be re
membered always ?
Aurel i an was Roman emperor
from 270-275 AD. He was the
second in a succession of em
perors who were ori gi nal l y sol
di ers. These 'sol di er-emperors'
hel ped the Roman Empi re re
gai n its power, which had waned
considerably during the latter
part of the thi rd century, and to
wards the begi nni ng of the
fourth century.
Aurel i an was a highl y regard
ed general , who saw action i n
many wars. One of hi s most
noteworthy victories occurred
in the year 268 AD, when he
successful l y fought back the
wel l equi pped and wel l trai ned
Gothi c caval ry force i n the much
cel ebrated Battle of Nai ssus.
When the Emperor Cl audi us
di ed, the army supported Aure
l i an as Emperor. At that ti me,
external enemi es from al most
al l si des threatened the Roman
Empi re. There was the constant
threat of rebel l i ous upri si ngs
from withi n i ts own wal l s. The
economi c state of the empi re
was al so quite bad at that ti me,
Aurelian 's Wall- A Line of Cit Wall Built
During the Reign of Aurelian
with the agri cul tural and
the commerci al sectors i n
particul ar, sufferi ng under
the general pol i ti cal i n
stabi l ity.
One of the fi rst acts Au
rel i an undertook was to
recover the huge territo
ries that the empi re had
lost i n the previ ous years.
After fifeen years of up
risi ngs, and the devastat
ing losses of Rome's terri
tories, it was under Aure
l ian's rule, that the empi re
was fi nal l y ful l y united.
Hi story will forever re
member Aurel i an as the
emperor, who brought
an end to the cri si s i n
Rome duri ng the thi rd
century.
Hooray! King
Cl audius is dead. I am
the next ki ng!
Anci
ent World's Commanders
Why is Zhao Yun consid
ered a 'tiger general?'
Zhao Yun was an im
portant commander
Zhao Yun
of the ci vi l wars of
the late Han dynasty,
and the Three Ki ng
doms peri od of Chi
na. For most of hi s
career, Zhao Yun
served the warlord
Liu 8ei, playing a part
i ntheestabl i shment
of Shu Han.
I n 1 92, Zhao Yun
became a subordi nate of Li u Bei,
who was servi ng as a major under
Gongsun Zan. Then l ater, when Li u
Bei formed hi s own personal army,
Zhao Yun was hi s ri ght hand man,
and fol l owed hi m i n hi s battles. I n
208, Zhao Yun di sti ngui shed hi m
self atthe BattleofChangbanagainst
the forces of the powerful Cao Cao.
Afer this battle, Zhao Yun si ngle
handedl y saved Liu Bei's only i n
fant son, sl ayi ng numerous enemy
sol di ers al ong the way.
After the Battl e of Red Cl i ffs,
Zhao Yun played a major role i n
conqueri ng additi onal territories
for Liu BeL He gai ned fame as one
of the five tiger general s of the Shu
Ki ngdom- a term used to refer to
the five best mi l i tary general s serv
ing under one rul er.
53
What was Diocletian's most impor
tant step?
Diocletian was a Roman emperor at
the end of the thi rd century AD. He was
chosen emperor by hi s troops on the
1 7th of September 284. In order to re
store order i n Gaul , and to prevent
competition for the throne, he named
hi s friend Maxi mi an as co-regent, and
pl aced the western part of the empi re
under hi s rul e.
Di ocl eti an conti nued to di rectly gov
ern the Asiatic part of the empi re, and
Egypt. He secured the state borders,
and i mpl emented a new territori al par
tition of the empi re. He separated the
mi l itary from civi l i an admi ni stration,
and reconstructed the i nner organiza
tion ofthe army and state bureaucracy.
Diocleti an took away from the Senate
their former rights. Rome was no l onger
the capital . Then, i n AD 293, Diocletian
tooka nother huge step into
the unknown by found
i ng the 'Tetrarchy', the
rule offour. This new idea
of i mperial govern
ment meant that
four emperors

would rule the

empire. But, this

system eventu
al ly coll apsed, lead
ing to civi l war.
Bust of Diocletian
Why was Queen
Zenobia known as
'the warrior queen'?
Zenobi a ruled the
desert country of
Pal myra i niti al l y wi th
her husband Ode
nathus. She was one
of the great beauties
of her day and was
hi ghl y educated. She
spoke several l an
guages-Egypti an and
Greek among them
and al so wrote the
first complete hi story
of her country. She
was an expert i n hun
i ng, and in the use of
weapons.
Tell MeWhy
Queen Znobia -7 Painting
Though Pal myra was under Rome,
it enjoyed a great degree of i nde
p
endence. Zenobi a and her hus
band acqui red for Rome the vast
ter
ritories of Syria, Mesopotami a,
and West Armeni a. After the tragi c
death of her husband, Zenobia, won
even more territories which she
claimed as rightful l y hers. Powerful
and daring, she stared mi nting her
own coins, with her l i keness on it, as
a sovereign ruler. This, together with
Ancient World's Commanders
her growi ng i nfl uence, made
Rome decl are war on her.
Zenobi a stood up to the
most powerful army of her
ti me, and personal l y di rected
her armies agai nst the Ro
mans. Sadly, shewas betrayed
by her nei ghbours, and de
feated. Her beautiful city of
pal ms was turned to rui n, and
sacked by the Roman army.
Zenobi a wi l l always be re
membered as 'the warrior
queen' - brave, intelligent, level
headed, practi cal and ful l of
a sheer, devi l -may-care atti
tudethat i nspi res admi rati on
tothi s day.
A Statue oJ
Zenobia
A Public Bath Built by Constantine
What is the Emperor Con-
Bust of
stantine best known for? Constantine
Constanti ne is perhaps best
known for bei ng the first Chris
ti an Roman emperor. Constan
ti ne defeated the emperors
Maxenti us and Lici ni us duri ng
ci vi l wars. He al so fought suc
cessful l y agai nst the Franks,
Al amanni, Vi si goths, and Sar
matians duri ng hi s rei gn. He
transformed the anci ent Greek
colony of Byzanti um i nto a new
i mperi al resi dence, Constanti
nopl e, whi ch woul d bethe capi
tal of the Eastern Roman Empi re
for over 1 000 years.
Constanti ne played a cruci al
rol e i n the devel opment and
spread of Chri sti anity. Previ-
The Milvian Bridge Where .
Constantine Fought the Battle of
The Milvian Bridge
ously, it had been agai nst the
l aw to bel i eve i n Christi anity,
and Chri sti ans had ofen been
tortured or ki l l ed. On the eve of
a cruci al battle, Constanti ne
had a vi si on of a cross that ap
peared in the sky. He heard a
voice decl ari ng, ' under thi s si gn
you wi l l wi n'.
Constanti ne had hi s soldi ers
pai nt the cross on thei r shi el ds
and they di d wi n the battle!
Constanti ne was i mpressed by
the power of the Chri sti an God,
and he became a supporter of
Chri sti anity. He legal ly ended
the persecution of Christi ans.
Constanti ne's embrace of Chris
ti anity eventual l y led him to be
baptized in 337 AD.
Picture of Marcus Aurelius
Cams on Coin
Marcus
Aurelius Carus
Marcus Aurelius Carus
had an extensive and suc
cessful mil itary career
under the Emperor Pro
bus. In 282 AD, when he
was inspecting troops in
preparation for Probus'
campaign agai nst the
Persians, the discontent
of the soldiers with their
emperor boiled over, and
they hai led Carus the new
ruler.
During his short reign,
Carus fought the Ger
manic tribes and Samari
tans al ong the Danube
frontier with success.
Hecampaigned agai nst
the Sassanid Empire
and sacked their
capital, but died
shortly thereafer.
Why is the life of Emperor Ju
l i an an i nteresti ng one?
Fl avi us Cl audi usJul i anus, known
to hi story as 'Jul i an the Apostate',
was one of the most i nteresti ng
Roman Emperors. He was the
nephew of Constanti ne the Great,
and was brought up as a Chri sti an.
However, he was educated i n
Greece, and thi s made hi m a sup
porter of the pagan rel i gi on of
Hel l eni sm, even though Christi an
ity had been establ i shed as a major
world rel i gi on. Jul ian attempted to
stop the growth of Christi anity,
and to restore Hel l eni sm through
essenti al l y non-vi ol ent means.
Jul i an was al so a ski lful general .
He took over the command of al l
Roman forces i n Gaul , and carried
rai ds across the Rhi ne River. He
became emperor fol l owi ng the
death of Constanti ne i n 361 . How
ever, he was ki l l ed just two years
later, fighti ng agai nst the Persi ans.
He wi l l be remem-
bered as a great
general , a man of
l earni ng, and a fi ne
writer, possessi ng
many of the qual i
ties of a wise and
energetic rul er.
Emperor
Julian
57
Whywas Samudragupta known
as 'the king of ki ngs'?
Samudragupta ( 330- 380 AD) was
a great emperor bel ongi ng to the
Gupta dynasty who ushered i n the
Gol den Age i n I ndi a. He was a be
nevol ent rul er, a magnificent warri
or, and a patron of arts. He was the
son of Chandragupta I , and i nherit
ed a fai rly smal l ki ngdom. However,
once he came to the throne,
Samudragupta began dramati cal ly
expandi ng hi s fronti ers. He di d not
rest unti l he conquered al most the
whole of I ndi a. Hi s rul e in fact, may
be described as a vast mi l i tary cam
pai gn. His territories extended from
the Hi mal ayas i n the north, to the
Ri ver Narbada i n the south, and
from the Brahamaputra Ri ver i n the
58
Our
next target is
this area ..
But Lord,That's
our own province!
A Coin o/Gupta Period
Depicting Samudragupta
east, to the Yamuna River i n
the west. Hi s greatest
achievement can be de
scri bed as the pol i ti cal uni
fication of most of I ndi a.
Samudragupta was not
j ust a great general - he was
a great human bei ng too.
He was compassionate to
wards those whom he de
feated, and gave various
tri bal states autonomy un
der hi s protecti on. Hi s court
was ful l of poets and schol
ars. He had a keen i nterest
in musi c and arts as wel l . I s
it any wonder that he was
known as both 'the Napo
leon of I ndi a,' and 'the ki ng
of ki ngs'?
Tell MeWhv
Why is Theosius's rle signifcnt?
Theodosi us was Roman Emperor
from 378 to 395. He was the l ast em
perorto rule over both the eastern and
the western halves of the Roman Em
pi re. He establ i shed Christi anity as the
state rel i gi on, and successful l y de
fended it agai nst pagani sm, and the
rel i gi on known as Ari ani sm. He found
ed a dynasty whi ch rul ed i n the east
and west unti l 450 and 455 respective-
Saint Ambrose and Emperor
Theodosius-A Painting
Theodosius
I y. Theodosi us brought
peace to the east with
di pl omacy, and defend
ed thi s wi th a rebui lt
mi l itary.
Theodosi us carried on
a successful war with the
Goths, whom he encour
aged to become the al
l ies of the Romans. The
Eastern Empi re was
strengthened with the
creation of separate mi l i
tary commands report
i ng di rectly to the Em
peror. Duri ng hi s rei gn,
Theodosi us successful ly
fought two brutal ci vi l
wars agai nst usurpers
Maxi mus and Eugeni us.
As the defender of Chri s
tianity, Theodosi us de
feated pagan forces i n
394. Thi s i s consi dered
by many to be hi s great
est achi evement.
59
|
Chandragupta II
Chandragupta I I
(380-41 5 AD) was the
son of Samudragupta.
He defeated the Sakas,
and annexe Gujarat and
Sourashtra. He was also
known as Vikramadit
ya, which means 'one
who is equal to the Sun
God in valour and
strength'. It was during
Chandragupta's time
that the Chinese Pilgrim
Fa-Hien visited India,
and wrote a detailed
account on India.AnAr
ab merchant
Sulaiman and
a Venetian
traveler, Marco
Polo, have both
recorded that
Chandragupta
II was an ideal
ruler.
The Iron Pillar
of Delhi,
Eected by
An Ivor Carving of Stilicho and His
Wie Serena and Son Eucherius
Who was Flavius Sti licho?
Fl avi us Sti l icho was one of the most
powerful men in the Roman Empi re
duri ng the rei gns ofTheodosi us I and
Honori us. When Theodosi us died i n
395, he left the empi re divided be
tween hi s two young sons, the West
goi ng to Honori us, with Sti l i cho as
Regent.The Empi re was i mmedi ately
threatened by the Vi si goths, under
Al aric, who l ed them i nto Greece.
Sti l i cho forced them to withdraw.
In 400, Al ari c i nvaded I taly. Sti l i cho
cal l ed to hi s ai d the Roman l egi ons
from Gaul and Britai n, and the Vi si g
oths were driven out i n 403. I n 405, a
barbari an horde that poured i nto I tal y
from the north was al most wiped out
by Sti l i cho's forces.
Later, a mi nisterof Honori us'named
Olympi us convi nced the young em
peror that Sti l i cho wanted to depose
him, and put his own son on the
throne. Honori us bel i eved thi s, and
ordered for Sti l icho's arrest. He later
beheaded Sti l icho. Al aric i mmediate
ly i nvaded Italy agai n, and captured
Rome.
Tell MeWhy
Why was Alaric, the King of the
Visigoths very famous?
Al ari c was a Gothi c pri nce, born i nto
a tribe that had settled south of the
Danube i n Romanterritory. He became
Ki ng of the Vi si goths i n 394. Upon
gai ni ng command of the Visigoths,
Al ari c i mmedi ately overran Greece.
The Eastern Roman Emperor was too
weak to resist hi m, and cal led upon
Sti l i cho, the general i n charge of the
Western Empi re, to ai d hi m i n dri vi ng
out Al aric.Then, Al ari c escaped to a
provi nce of Greece that lay on the east
si de ofthe I oni an Sea.
Al ari c next l aunched an i nvasi on of
I taly. In fact, the rest of hi s days woul d
be spent fighti ng and negotiati ng wi th
emperors of Rome for hi s people's
livel i hood, or attacki ng Roman territo
ries when negotiations fel l through. I n
41 0, duri ng hi s thi rd attack on Italy,
Al aric led the Vi si goths
i n a sack of the city of
Rome. Thi s event i s
someti mes consi dered
the begi nni ng of the
Mi ddl e Ages.
King ALaric
The BuriaL ofALaric
A Novel about
Attila and Flavius
Why does Flavius Aetius have an
i mportant place i n Roman history?
Fl avi us Aeti us was a gifted sol di er,
who di d more than any one man to
hel p sl ow the i nevitabl e fal l of the
Roman Empi re, to the barbari an na
ti ons i n the West, duri ng the rei gn of
Val enti ni an I I I . Aeti us l earned the arts
of war wel l and at a young age, he
could hold his own with grown men.
I con
protect my
country . .
I k |1
The Huns
T
he Huns were a war
l ike people from the
A Hunnish Camp
steppes of North Central Asia, north
of China. They were excel lent horse
men, and their use of the stirrup
gave them an advantage over their
enemies. Stirrups are loops hung
from a saddle that support a horse
rider's feet, and these loops let the
Huns brace themselves on their
horses while wiel di ng swords, or
shooting arrows. Their bows were
also far superior to those found i n
Western Europe, because they were
flexi ble enough to fully draw yard
long arrows. The Huns also used the
@ lasso very effectively.
Tell MeWhy
He l earned how to fight, whi l e ridi ng
on a horse from the Huns who had
hel d hi m hostage duri ng hi s youth.
Thi s combi ned with hi s knowl edge
of standard Roman i nfantry tactics
ena bl ed hi m to come up with dead I y
strategi es for deal i ng with al most
any enemy.
Some of the battles fought by Ae
ti us became famous, whi l e others
are known onl y to schol arsofhi story.
When Gaul was attacked repeatedly,
Aetius protected it. He drove back
the Visigoths and the Franks, and
won Hi s famous vi ctory i n 45 1 over
Atti l a at Chal ons. Duri ng the rei gn of
Val enti ni an I I I , Aeti us made hi msel f
rul er of the Roman Empi re, but
eventual l y he was murdered by the
emperor hi msel f.
ATTILA. . . ?
Anci
ent World's Commanders
Flavius Aetius
Why was At
tila the Hun called
'the scourge of god'?
Atti l a was ki ng and gen
eral of the Hun Empi re
from 433 to 453 AD. The
Huns were a Mongol oi d
peopl e who began i nvad
i ng the Roman Empi re i n
the 300's. Atti l a united hi s
subjects for the purpose
of creati ng one ofthe most
formi dabl e and feared ar
mi es the ancient world had
ever seen. He was so fero
ci ous i n hi s attacks, that he
was cal led 'the scourge of
god,' by hi s enemies.
63
Feast of Attila, A Painting
From 435 to 439, Atti l a conquered,
pi l l aged, and attacked hi s way
through Eastern and Central Europe.
The success of thi s i nvasi on em
bol dened Atti l a to conti nue hi s
westward expansi on. Passi ng un
hi ndered through Austria and Ger
many, Atti l a pl undered and devas
tated al l in his path. He sufered a
setback i n 451 when he was de
feated by the combi ned forces of
the Romans and the Vi si goths.
I n 452, Atti l a and hi s horsemen
crossed the Alps to i nvade Italy. Pope
Leo I had to pay hi m money to stop
hi m from sacki ng and destroyi ng
Rome. He devastated the western
hal f of the Roman Empi re, and
controlled a regi on from the Dan
ube River to the Baltic Sea, and from
the Rhi ne River to the Caspi an Sea.
64
The Death of Attila
After hi s return from
Italy, Attila married a
young girl . The mar
riage took place in
453, and was celebrat
ed with a grand feast,
and plenty of alcohol.
After di nner, the new
couple retired to the
wedding chamber. At
tila did not show up
the next morning, so
his nervous servants
opened the chamber
door. The king was
dead on the floor
'covered with blood',
and his bride was hud
dled in a corner in a
state of shock. No one
really knows whether
he died of a nose
bleed, or whether he
was murdered by his
wife, or whether he
died of alcohol poi
soning.
Tell MeWhy
Why was Charl emagne a
much-loved ki ng?
Charl emagne was ki ng of the
Franks i n 768 AD, and one of
Europe's most successful mon
archs. The Franks were l egen
dary fighters. Usi ng the
strength a nd l oyal ty ofh i s army,
combi ned wi th hi s own l eader
shi p abi l ities, Charl emagne
soon defeated most of the oth
er barbari an tri bes in Western
Charlemagne (lef) and
Pippin the Hunchback
A
ncie
nt World's Commanders
Europe. He expanded the
Franki sh Empi re to i n
cl ude Germany, al l of
France, most of Italy, and
even secti ons of Northern
Spai n.
One ofthe most i mpor
tant thi ngs Charl emagne
di d for the worl d was to
turn hi s castle i nto a
l earni ng centre i nvi ti ng
schol ars from al l over the
world to take up resi
dence there. He al so i n
troduced many admi ni s
trative reforms, and a jury
system that ensured a
fai rer way of ensuri ng
justice.
Charl emagne hel d his
ki ngdom together by the
sheer force of his person
al ity. He was over six feet
tal l , and had bl onde hai r
that seemed to gl ow i n
the sun. He fought heroi
cal l y in battles, and per
sonal l y vi sited l ocal ad
mi ni strators, creating
new l aws to protect hi s
peopl e. Charl emagne
was brave and fair, and
hi s peopl e adored hi m
for these qual i ti es.
65
Whywas the rei gn of Otto
the Great good for Germa
ny?
Otto I (Otto the Great) i s
consi dered by many hi stori
ans to be the founder of the
Holy Roman Empi re. He con
vinced Pope John XI I to crown
hi m emperor, and over the
course of his reign, Otto de
feated revolts by hi s hal f
brother, h i s younger brother,
and hi s son, and expanded
the boundaries of his empi re
through constant war. He
extended the frontiers of the
German ki ngdom, wi nni ng
territory from the Sl avs i n the
east, forci ng the Bohemi ans
to pay tri bute, and gai ni ng
i nfl uence i n Denmark and
' Burgundy. I n 951 Otto became
Ki ng of the Lombards, and
married the queen of I taly.
Otto del i berately made
use of the bi shops to
strengthen his rul e and by
doi ng so, he provided a sta
ble and l ong-l asti ng frame
work for Germany. By his vic
tori ous campai gns, he gave
Germany peace and security
from forei gn attack.
Though warfare was fre
quent, Germany was stabl e
under Otto's rul e, and a
smal l cul tural renai ssance
fl ouri shed. He al so extended
h is authority overthe church,
and promoted mi ssi onary
activity i n l ands he had con
quered. By hi s death, Otto
had created the most pow
erful state i n Western Eu
rope, and l ai d the founda
ti on for the later Hol y Roman
Empi re. Otto 1 was born i n
91 2 and di ed i n 973 AD.
OUo the Great
Who establ i shed the great Seljuk Empire?
Toghri l Beg was the founder of the Selj uk dy
nasty, whi ch rul ed i n I ran, I raq, Syri a, and Anatol i a
duri ng the 1 1 th_ 1 4th centuries. He bel onged to a
tribe cal l ed the Selj uks, who came from Central
Asi a. Toghri l Beg was crowned tri bal sultan i n
1 038, and began bui l di ng an empi re at once. By
1 040, Toghri l Beg had conquered al l of the Per
si an Pl ateau, defeati ng every Arab or Persi an
force sent agai nst hi m. He al so con-
quered Armeni a, a Roman territo-
ry. He was smart enough to
study the Persi an admi nis
tration, and employ the
same procedure to gov
ern his empi re.
I n 1 055, Toghri l Beg
and hi s army entered the
city of Baghdad. He took
over the city, and freed
the Cal i ph who was be
ing held a pri soner by a
local strongman. Togh
ri l Beg was then
nized i n Baghdad
'Soverei gn of the East
and West'. He wi l l al
ways be remembered
as the rul er who
changed the hi story of
the Mi ddl e East by es
tabl i shi ng the great
Selj uk Empi re.
Toghril Tower
Ancient World's Commanders 67
William /hcConqueror invades England
How did Wi l l i am become ki ng of
England?
Engl and's first Norman ki ng, Wi l l i am I ,
was born i n France, and was the Duke of
Normandy. He was a cousi n of the Eng
l i sh ki ng, Edward the Confessor.
68
t-..my
crown!
Earlyi n 1 066, Edward
died, and Harol d, Earl
of Wessex was
crowned ki ng. Wi l l i am
was furious, clai mi ng
that i n 1 05 1 , Edward
had promi sed hi m the
throne, and that Ha
rol d had later sworn to
support that cl ai m.
Wi l l i am bui l t a fleet,
and l aunched an i nva
sion of Engl and. Trav
el l i ng by ni ght, the
Normans l anded at
Pevensey Bay and es
tabl i shed thei r camp
near Hasti ngs. On 1 4
t
h
October, Harol d'sarmy
met Wi l l iam's. I t was a
cl ose-fought battle
l asti ng all day, but Ha
rold was ki l led, and hi s
army col l apsed. Wi l
l i am was victorious,
and on Christmas Day
1 066, he was crowned
king in Westmi nster
Abbey.
A Norman aristocra
cy became the new
governi ng cl ass, and
many members of the
Engl i sh ari stocracy i n
cl udi ng bi shops, were
replaced with Normans.
Tell MeWhy
William's Reign
The first years of
William's reign
were spent crush
ing resistance and
securing his bor
ders, which he did
with ruthless effi
ciency. He
brought about
many changes
too. A complete
census was or
dered, anda
record kept in
what was called
the Domesday
Book. William
built many cas
tles, including the
Tower of London,
and had the lan
g
uage of the court
changed to Nor
man French.
Ancient World's Com
Why wi l l Enrico Dandol o always be
admi red by Venetians?
Enrico Da ndol o was the Doge, orel ected
chi ef magi strate of the former republ i c of
Veni ce. Dandol o had served Veni ce i n
di pl omatic, and perhaps mi l itary roles for
many years, wi th at least two expedi ti ons
i nvolvi ng the Byzanti ne Empi re based at
Constanti nopl e. He lost hi s si ght i n a bat
tle with his city's Byzanti ne rivals, but thi s
di d not prevent hi m from maki ng Venice
the greatest naval power in the Medi ter
ranean. He di d thi s by bui l di ng shi ps for
the Crusaders to transport thei r armi es.
The Crusaders were mi ssi ons organized
by the Church to recapture Christi an l ands
that had been i nvaded by others.
The Veneti ans lent shi ps to the Crusad
ers, and suppl i ed thei r armies wi th food
and fodder for the horses for a staggeri ng
fee. The ori gi nal pl an ofthe Crusaders was
Dandolo Preaching the Crusade
to l and an army in Egypt.
However, Venice had a
trade relationshi p with
Egypt, and did not wish
for this relati onshi p to be
threatened. When the
Crusaders coul d not pay
the amount that was due
to Venice, Dandol o con
vi nced the Crusaders to
assist Venice in conquer
i ng the city of lara, whi ch
was nowunderHungari an
control. lara fel l i n No
vember of 1 202. Despite
the pl under and econom
i c gai n of lara, the wealth
gai ned was sti l l i nsuffi
cient for the Crusaders to
breakfreefromthei r debt.
So, Dandol o hel ped the
Crusaders gai n complete
control over Constanti no
pie on Apri l 1 3th, 1 204. I n
the days that fol lowed,
the Crusaders pi l laged
the city.
Venice flouri shed under
Dandol o. His forei gn pol i
cy ensured Veni ce gai ned
excl usive tradi ng rights
throughout the Mediter
ranean Sea. Hi stori ans of
ten refer to hi m as the
'founder of the Veneti an
Col oni al Empi re'.
/0
Saladin After the Battle of Hattin
Why was Saladin a remarkable
leader?
Sal adi n was a famous mi l itary
hero. Hi s real name was Sal ah al
Di n Yusuf. He was Kurdish, hai l i ng
from Tikrit i n Northern I raq. He
came to Egypt i n 1 1 68 as an assi st
ant to hi s uncle, who was a general .
After Sal adi n's uncl e di ed the next
i gs Do Not Kil Kings
Saladin was a brave and virtu
ous leader. On one occasion,
when fighting against the Cru
saders, Saladin had blocked the
Crusaders access to water.
When the Crusaders, led by
King Guy, tried to fight their
way through, Saladin coul d
have easily captured and kil l ed
King Guy. I nstead, he let him
go, asking only for his promise
not to bear arms, with the words
'kings do not kill kings'.
Tell Me Why
G . at 5ladin
Saladin was truly great at hear. Despite
the fact that thousands of his men had
been brutally murdered by the Crusaders,
Saladin granted free passage to all his ri
vals whenever he captured a city. He gave
most of his money away as charity, and
when he died, there was not enough
money in the Royal Treasury to pay for his
funeral!
year, Saladin tok pwer. In the late ' 2'
century, he succeeded in uniting various
parts of the Middle East and Mesopotamia,
and in overtaking the Christian armies of
the early crusades through a combination
of shrewd diplomacy and decisive action.
In 1 1 87, Saladin recaptured Jerusalem at
the Battle of Hattin. When his soldiers en
tered the city of Jerusalem, they were not
allowed to kill civilians, rob people, or
damage the city.
Statile OjSlIlldi"
in Dumust"14s
Saladin's capture
of Jerusalem
prompted King Ri
chard to launch
the Third Crusade.
Though he came
close, Jerusalem
eluded Richard.
After a year's stale
mate, Rr m
a truce with Sala
din, and started
his journey home.
In 1 1 93, Saladin
died in Damascus.
Saladinhadearned
himself a remark-
able place in
history.
71
How di d Temuji n become
Genghi s Khan?
There have been many pow
erful general s who conquered,
expanded thei r nati on's bor
ders, and i nfl uenced mi l l i ons of
people by spreadi ng thei r cul -
Genghis Khan- An Ilustration
fom a 15'" Centur Manuscript
ture. Few general s, however,
matched the efectiveness and'
cunni ng that was possessed by
Genghi s Khan of the Mongol s.
Genghi s Khan's real name
was Temuj i n. When hi s father
di ed, he was sti l l a chi l d, and his
father's enemies had the fami l y
72
exi l ed, bel ievi ng that wi thout a
cl an, and the protecti on it of
fered, they woul d di e. However,
i nstead of gi vi ng up, the re
sourceful Mongol fami l y l ived
of the l and, and prospered.
Temuj i n became stronger and
stronger, and took control of
the fami l y. As he conti nued to
grow, other tri bes feared that
he was becomi ng too strong,
and devised a pl an to capture
Temuj i n. He was then tied wi th
a wooden yoke that restricted
his movement. However, he es
caped one ni ght by knocki nq
hi s guard i n the head.
After escapi ng, Temuj i n start
ed to make al l i ances with other
tri bes, and was eventual l y as
si mi l ated i nto the tribe of hi s
wife. Soon after thi s event, the
camp was raided, and hi s wife
was captured. Temuji n rescued
his wife. Many men started to
fol l ow hi m, and Temuj i n was
starti ng to become a Khan.
Over next several years,
Temuj i n gai ned several more
fol l owers, and started trai ni ng
hi s men for battle. The scattered
Mongol peopl e united, and be
came a si ngl e nati on. Temuj i n,
after el i mi nati ng al l hi s rival s,
became the supreme Khan, or
Genghi s Khan.
Tell MeWhy
Why is Genghi s Khan one of Mongo
l ia's greatest heroes?
After uni fi ng the Mongol s, Genghi s
Khan went on to conquer al l of Chi na. He
breached the Great Wal l , l ai d waste
many cities al ong the way, and captured
the capital . However, Genghi s Khan was
not a tyrant. He let the Chi nese l ive as
they had - there was no pressure to
change thei r customs or persecuti on of
thei r rel i gi on.
Nowthat theChi nesewereconquered,
Genghi s Khan turned his attenti on to
trade. When the Sul tan of Persia ki l l ed
hi s ambassadors and refused to trade,
Genghi s Khan went to war yet agai n. He
conquered al most al l of West Asi a, ex
pandi ng the boundaries of the Mongol
Empi re unti l i t covered al most al l of Asi a.
After restori ng the trade route i n the
west, Khan returned to hi s home i n East
Asia, only to fi nd the peopl e in Chi na had
revolted. He stopped the revolt, and was
fi nal ly returni ng home when he fel l i l l
and di ed. Thus ended the rei gn of Geng
hi s Khan, one of the greatest rul ers the
worl d has ever seen.
Portrait of Genghis Khan on a Hill Side
It's my
style of bowl i ng!
Genghi s Khan's
I mporance
What makes
Genghis Khan so
important?
Khan's impor
tance lies in the
fact that for the
first time, he
united the east
and the west.
Couriers and car
avans crossed
his Empire from
border to bor
der- from east to
west and west to
east, peacefully.
Ideas and goods
travel led freely.
All these result
ed in expanding
the horizons of
cultural areas.
Why is Joan of
Arcthe national
heroine of
France?
Julius Caesar's
battle cry was 'Venus
Victrix', But he is better
known for hi s remark
her di vi ne mi s
si on to free her
country from
the Engl i sh, and
hel p the Dau
phi n. Joan con
vi nced the Dau
phi n's forces, and
By 1 429, the
Engl i sh had oc
cupied Paris, and
al l of France north
of the Loi re. They
had met wi th very
l ittle resistance, due
to l ack of l eadershi p .
then the Dauphi n
hi msel f, that she
was a messenger of
God. She cut her hai r,
'Veni,vidi,vici' (I came,l
saw,l conquered), ut
tered after victory
over Mithridates's
son Pharnaces at
Zela, Asia Mi-
nor.
Henry V of Engl and was
cl ai mi ng the French throne,
and the heir to the French
throne, the Dauphi n, was not
al lowed to be crowned. It was
at this time that a young gi rl
named Joan changed the
course of hi story.
Joan had an ordi nary chi l d
hood. when she was 1 2, she be
gan to hear 'voices' of the sai nts.
These voices tol d her that it was
Joan a/Arc
wore men's clothes, and
armed herself. Joan was given
troops to command and the
rank of captai n. At the battle of
Orleans, Joan led the troops to a
mi racul ous victory over the
Engl i sh. Later, Joan persuaded
the Dauphi n that he should be
crowned Charles VI I , and per
sonal ly escorted him safely to
his coronati on. At the corona
ti on, she was given a pl ace of
honour next to the ki ng.
Sadly, Joan was l ater captured
by the Engl i sh, tried, and con
vi cted of bei ng a wi tch. She was
burnt at the stake. But, i n 1 456,
a second tri al was held, and she
was pronounced i nnocent.
Joan was then recognized by
the Church to be a sai nt- St.
Joan of Arc. Today, she is the
patron sai nt of France, and i s
thei r nati onal heroi ne.
Tell MeWhy
Why was Mehmed I I's victo
ry at Constantinople a turn
ing point in history?
Mehmed II was a sultan of the
Ottoman Empi re. He extended
the empi re from Southeastern
Europe to the Danube, and from
Anatol i a to the Euphrates River.
However, he i s most famous for
hi s siege of Constanti nopl e,
and hi s victory over the Byzan
ti ne Emperor, Constanti ne.
When, at the age of
twenty-one, Me-
hmed II sat on the
throne of the Ottoman sul tans,
hi s first thoughts turned to tak
ing over the Byzanti ne capi tal
of Constanti nopl e. He began
hi s attack by taki ng control of
the Strait of Bosphorus so as to
cut off Constanti nopl e from the
Black Sea. Worki ng to i mprove
Constanti nopl e's defences, the
Byzanti neEmperorConstanti ne
The Entr oj
Crusaders into Constantinople
ensured that the massive wal l s
were repai red and strength
ened. To prevent a naval attack,
Constantine directed that a large
chai n be stretched across the
mouth of the harbour to block
Ottoman shi ps from enteri ng.
Approachi ng the city wi th
80,000- 1 20,000 men, Mehmed
was supported by a l arge fleet
in the Sea of Marmara.On Apri l
gt-
, 1 453, Mehmed arrived with
the l ast of his men. He began
batteri ng at the wal l s of Con
stanti nopl e, but wi th l ittle ef
fect. The i mmense cannon that
he had brought was so huge
that i t requi red three hours to
reload. This meant that between
shots, the Byzanti nes were abl e
to repai r the damage that had
been caused. Mehmed's fleet
was unabl etoenterthe harbour
because of the chai n stretched
across its mouth. Mehmed or
dered his men to begi n di ggi ng
tunnel s to mi ne beneath the
Byzantine defenses, but this too,
Tell MeWhy
Why is Francisco de Al meida
famous i n I ndi a?
Franci sco de Al mei da was
a sol di er and expl orer, who es
tabl i shed hi s reputati on as a
bri l l i ant commander in the wars
Francisco de
Almeida
was unsuccessful. Mehmed now
decided that a massive assaul t
woul d be l aunched on the ni ght
of May 28
t
h after a period of rest
and prayer. Thi s ti me, he was
successful , and the Turks poured
i nto the city, pl underi ng its
riches for three days.
Ancient World's Commanders
agai nst the Moors of Granada.
He was made the first Portu
guese Viceroy of I ndi a in March
1 505 by the Ki ng, Manuel I. I n
stead of sai l i ng di rectly to I ndia,
he spent a year sai l i ng up the
eastern coast of Africa, bui l di ng
forts, and conqueri ng Arab
tradi ng towns al ong the way.
This provided the shi ps whi ch
fol l owed wi th safe ports and
provi si ons on the l ong journey.
On hi s arrival in I ndia, he es
tabl i shed his base at Cochi n,
and wi th hi s son Lourenzo, ex
pl ored the Mal abar Coast and
the i sl and of Sri Lanka. He
fought Arab, Egypti an, and I n
di an united fleets at every op
portunity. Al mei da set sai l for
Portugal in 1 509. Whi l e restock
i ng at the Cape of Good Hope,
in Tabl e Bay, he di ed in a ski r
mi sh wi th the Hottentots, on
March 1 '\ 1 5 1 0.
A turni ng poi nt in Western
hi story, the fal l of Constanti no
pl e is seen as the end of the
Mi ddl e Ages, and the begi n
ni ng of the Renai ssance. For
Mehmed, the capture of the city
earned hi m the title 'The Con
queror'.
77
Why i s Francisco
Pizarro's story as
sociated with Lima,
the capital of Peru?
Franci sco Pizarro
wasa Spani sh sol di er
and explorer. Al
though he was born
i nto a poor fami ly, Piz
arro settled in Panama
City on the Pacific Coast, and
became known as one of its
most famous and richest citi
zens. However, rumours about
a very weal thy I nca Empi re were
ci rcul ati ng at the ti me, and
cravi ng more wealth and excite
ment, Pizarro set out in 1 524 i n
search of thi s empi re. He
78
Francisco Pizarro's
Home
Francisco Pizarro
traveled through
much of the Pacific
Coast of America
al ong Peru, and after
many years of fai l ed at
tempts, Pizarro fi nal l y ' di s
covered' the I ncan Empi re.
Pizarro conquered the I ncas
brutal l y and qui ckly, and stole
i mmense hoards of gol d, si lver,
and other treasures. He looted,
and general l y destroyed the I n
can capi tal of Cusco, and then
founded Li ma, whi ch i s the
capi tal of modern Peru.
Tell MeWhy
1
Ki l l ed by Gold

-
During the Aztec revolt in Tenochtit-

Ian, the Spanish were attacked in their palace.

They tried to escape by using a portable bridge to
cross the canals. However, they were spotted bya woman
drawing water from a canal. She raised an alarm, and
Aztec troops paddled up in canoes. The Spanish sol-
diers tried to swim to safety, but were weighed
down by the gold they had looted,
Hernan Cortes
and they drowned!
Why is Hernan Cortes associ
ated with Mexico?
I n 1 5 1 9, an expl orer by the name
of Hernan Cortes l eft hi s home i n
Cuba i n order to explore Mexico.
The major ci vi l ization in the regi on
was that of the Aztecs, l ed by Mon
tezuma I I . Cortes and over 500 men
arrived in Mexico, and began trav
el l i ng towards the Aztec capital of
A Monument of Hernan Cortes
in Mexico City
Tenochtitl an. It i s
thought that .Cortes's
arri val coi nci ded with
an Aztec prophecy
about a white-ski nned
god arri vi ng from the
east. So, at first, Mon
tezuma wel comed
Cortes and gave him
l avish gi fts. However,
relations quickl y dete
riorated and, feari ng
an attack, Cortes took
Montezuma hostage,
demandi ng a huge
ransom from hi s peo
pl e.
After Montezuma
was ki l led duri ng a re
volt in Tenochtitl an,
Why was Ivan IV
called The Terrible?
When Russia had a
royal fami ly, the em
peror was cal l ed the
Tsar. Tsars rul ed Russi a
from 1 547 to 1 91 7.
The first Russi an rul er
to use thi s ti tl e was
Ivan I V, al so known as
I van the Terri bl e.
I van the Terri bl e as
sumed the throne i n
1 547 at the age of sev-
80
Oh,
dear God! Save
my peopl e!
Cortes l ai d si ege to the city, whi ch fel l af
ter three-months. A new settl ement,
Mexico Ci ty, was bui l t on the rui ns, and
settled wi th Spani sh col oni sts, becom
i ng the centre of Spani sh Ameri ca. Cortes
secured control over Mexico, and i n
1 523, was named governor and captai n
general of New Spai n.
enteen. Hi s rei gn was peppered with
battles wi th forei gn i nvaders, and by a
rul e of terror never before seen in Rus
si an hi story. I van suspected conspi racies
everywhere, and eventual l y announced
he woul d abdi cate because of the lack of
loyalty around hi m. He was onl y wi l l i ng
to coni nue to rul e if he coul d deal with
al leged deserters at his di screti on.
Hi s terms were accepted, and I van
l aunched hi s rei gn of terror. He hi red a
l arge personal army, the Oprichni ki , and
al l potenti al traitors were cruel ly execut
ed. Peopl e were i mpal ed and muti l ated,
Tell MeWhy
The Death of Ivan
Ivan's death has been a point of
controversy, as there are several
versions, some of which assume
that he di ed a natural death, while
accordi ng to others, he was mur
dered.
It is said that Ivan died while play
ing chess with one of his close asso
ciates. However, in the 1 960's, afer
Ivan's tomb was opened and his re
mains exhumed, it was discovered
that they contai ned high amounts
of mercury which led to specula
tions that he was poisoned. Another
theory is that, Ivan was strangled
by one of his enemies .
Pankaj Khanna
A Portrait ofIvan
whi l e whi ppi ng, and torture
were common. Ivan bui lt a pal
ace i n Moscow, and the dun
geons were supposedl y ful l of
pri soners, of which at l east
twenty were tortured to death
everyday in front of the l augh
i ng Tsar. Thousands were
hanged, drowned, or deported,
whi l e the bui l di ngs and coun
tryside were pl undered and de
stroyed.
Despite hi s cruel ty, I van i m
proved Russi a's governmental
admi ni strati on, and contri but
ed to the nati on's cul ture. I van
was al so a good writer, wi th a
tal ent for bi ti ng sarcasm. He
was eager to mai ntai n pol i ti cal
rel ati ons wi th Europe, and was
a devout adherent of the Or
thodox Church. I van alternated
between periods of savagery
and piety, ofen sendi ng great
memori al payments and treas
ures to monasteries- yet noth
i ng coul d wi pe out hi s reputa
tion of bei ng truly 'terri bl e'!
Ancient World's Commanders 8l
Batle ofAzukizha
Why is Tokugawa Leyasu revered
i n Japan?
Tokugawa Leyasu was a warri or,
statesman, and founder of the Toku
gawa dynasty of shoguns. At the ti me
of hi s bi rth, Japan was torn by ci vi l war,
with vi ol ent feuds between territori al
lords whi ch had l asted for nearl y a
century. Leyasu's father's death had
l eft hi m as l eader of the cl an known as
Matsudai ra.
I n 1 567, he al l i ed with Oda Nobuna
ga, a powerful nei ghbour, and spent
the next decade-and-a-half campaign
ing with Nobunaga whi l e expandi ng
hi s own i nfl uence and weal th. He had
by now gai ned a consi derabl e mi l itary
reputati on. When Nobunaga was as
sassi nated in 1 582, Leyasu acqui red
more territory, and al l i ed with Nobu
naga's successor, Hi deyoshi .
The l eadi ng mi l itary figures i n Japan
now began to scheme agai nst each
82
Tokugawa Leyasu
other, and ci vi l war agai n
broke out. I n 1 600, Le
yasu defeated hi s ene
mi es i n the Battle of
Sekigahara, thereby
achievi ng supremacy i n
Japan. I n 1 603, Emperor
Go-Yzei, the ruler onl y i n
name, gave Leyasu the
hi storic title of Shogun or
mi l itary governor. Japan
was now united under
Leyasu's control. He
worked hard to restore
stabi l ity to Japan, and
encouraged foreign trade.
Leyasu died on 1 7th April
1 61 6 and his mausol eum
at Ni kko has become one
of the most i mportant
shri nes i n Japan.
Tell MeWhy
Why is Vi Sun-si n honored in Korea?
Vi Sun-si n was a famous Korean naval
commander. When the Japanese, under
Toyotomi Hi deyoshi, i nvaded Korea i n
God!
It's only U turtle,
not turtl e shi p!
1 592, Korea woul d have fal l en if it weren't

for the leadershi p of Admi ral Yi . He al one

was responsi bl e for turni ng the ti de of

.
thi s i mportant era of Asi an hi story.

Admi ral Yi is famous for the turtl e shi ps

that he desi gned. These were the fi rst..

..
i roncl ad warshi ps, and played a si gnifi
cant part i n the war agai nst the Japanese
i nvaders. On September 1 6th, 1 597, Admi
ral Yi led 1 2 turtl e shi ps agai nst 1 33 Japa
nese shi ps i n the Myeongnyang Straits.
Yi Sun-sin
.`
L

Pt

N
'
\
,
The Koreans sank 3 1
enemy shi ps, and
sent the others flee
i ng in thi s battle. On
November 1 9th, 1 598,
Admi ral Yi was shot
duri ng the fi nal battle
of the war. He com
manded that his body
be hi dden by a shi el d
so hi s enemi es coul d
not see that he had
fal l en. He was onl y 54
years ol d when he
di ed.
There have been
many great mi l itary
l eaders honoured for
thei r service to thei r
countries- and wi th
out doubt, Admi ral Yi
Sun-si n of Korea i s
one ofthem.
83
Maurice o/Nassau
Why was Mauri ce of Nassau a
respected mi l itary figure?
Maurice of Nassau was a Dutch
general and statesman. I n 1 585, he
was made the chief executive of
the northern provinces of the Neth
erl ands. Maurice consol i dated the
power of the provinces agai nst
Spai n, and made them trade and
shi ppi ng centres. Under hi s gui d
ance, the power and wealth of the
republ ic rapi dl y i ncreased, and the
Dutch East I ndi a Company was
formed.
Maurice used mi l itary pl anni ng
and si ege warfareto defeat Spani sh
forces. He made the Dutch army
the most modern i n Europe. He cre
ated a system of proper mi l itary
trai ni ng for offi cers, parti cul arly i n
the techni cal branches. On the
death of hi s el der brother Phi l i p
Wi l l i am, i n 1 6 1 8, Maurice became
the Pri nce of Orange. He was now
supreme in the state, and efectively
the King ofthe Netherl ands.
84
Turle Shi p
The turtle ship, also
known as the kobukson,
was designed by Admi ral
Vi. lt was the first i ron clad
ship in the world. This
armed warship played a
significant par in Korea's
victory over Japanese na
val forces. Vi Sun-sin used
overlapping iron plates
l i ke the carapace (hard
shell) of a turtle, to give
stronger protection
against enemy arrows and
gun shots. Cannons were
placed to give all round
offensive fire, i ron spi kes
guarded the ship, and a
dragons head at the prow
blew out frightening
pl umes of smoke.
How di d Peter
the Great make
Russi a a major
Eurpan pwer?
her majorsea port,
and Peter made it
hi s capital.
Peter the Great
was a very capabl e
Russi an emperor,
who possessed
excepti onal abi l i
ti esasa statesman,
organizer, and re
former. He engi
neered a series of
reforms that put
Russi a among the
Peter the Great
Peter was an ex
perienced army
officer, navy admi
ral , and a ski lful
shi pbui l der. It has
to be sai d that Pe
ter was al so very
cruel. Several coup
attempts agai nst
him ended with
mass executi ons.
major European powers. Peter
opened Russi a to the west. He
i nvited the best European engi
neers, shi pbui l ders, archi tects,
craftsmen and merchants to
come to Russi a. Hundreds of
Russi ans were sent to Europe to
get the best educati on, and
l earn diferent arts and crafts.
One of Peter's mai n goal s was
to regai n access to the Bal ti c
Sea and Bal ti c trade. I n 1 700, he
started the Northern War with
Sweden, whi ch l asted for 21
years. I n the course of the war,
St. Petersburg was founded. I n
thi s war, Russi a was victorious,
and conquered the vast l ands
on the Bal ti c Coast. Russi a
gai ned access to European
trade. St Petersburg became
Ancient World's Commanders
Nevertheless, Pe
ter's personal ity and massive
reforms have i nspi red genera
tions of hi storians, writers, and
ordi nary peopl e.
Why is Jean Bap
tiste de Gribeauval
credited with revol u
tionizing the French
arti l l ery?
Jean Baptiste de
Gribeauval was a French
mi l itary oficer and en
gi neer, whose develop
ments ofFrench arti l l ery
contri buted to the bri l
l i ant mi l itary successes
of Napol eon in the late
Why does Robert
Cl i ve occupy an im
portant position i n
both I ndi an and Brit
ish hi story?
The young Robert
Cl ive was an uncon
trol l abl e teenager who
terrorized the peopl e
of hi s hometown i n
Britai n. Fi nal ly, Cl ive's
l ong-sufferi ng father
coul d stand no more,
and the young man
was packed off to I ndia,
at the age of 1 7, as a
clerk i n the East I ndia
Company in Madras. I n
1 746, Madras was cap
tured by the French,
and Cl ive and several
86
1 8th
, and
earl y 1 9th
centuries. Hejoi ned
the French army i n
1 732, and was pro
moted to the rank of
oficer withi n three
years. Duri ng the
Seven Years' War,
Jean Baptiste de
whi ch lasted from
Gribeauval
1 756 unti l 1 763,
Gri beauval was at
tached to the Austri an army as a general
of arti l l ery. Returni ng to France as a l ieu-
others escaped to Fort St. George, 20
mi l es away. Here he joi ned the East I ndi a
Company's private army, and found hi s
role i n l i fe-that of sol di er, i mperi al states
man and pol i ti ci an.
Cl ive qui ckl y began to bui l d a reputa
ti on for courage and ski l l in battle in the
wars agai nst the French. With a force of
just 200 Europeans and 300 native sol
di ers, backed up with a handful of guns,
Cl ive took the central fort of Argot, and
Robert Clive 's Meeting with Mir Jafar
afer the Battle of Plassey-
A Painting
Do you
want to r
-that. . .
tenant general , he attempted to use
the knowl edge he had gai ned i n Aus
tria to i mprove hi s country's obsolete
arti l l ery system.
I n 1 776, Gri beauval was

assi gned to the posi ti on

of general of arti l l ery. He

trai ned younger offi cers,
including Napoleon Bonapare, and was
abl eto i mpl ement hi s arti l l ery reforms
on a broad scal e. He al so i ntroduced
many reforms that made the French
d

army a l eader i n the use of arti l l ery.

proceeded to hold it agai nst al l the
odds. Hi s expl oits won him the name
Sabut Jung, or 'the dari ng i n war'.
Later, Cl i ve became Li eutenant
Col onel and Deputy Governor of Fort
St. Davi d. He was i nvolved in several
key battles. One was the battle of
Calcutta in February 1 757. This i nspired
a series of victories that led to the
decisive wi n at the Battle of Pl assey
a battle that strengthened Bri ti sh
control of I ndi a. Thus, Robert Cl ive
had al most si ngl e-handedl y secured
the begi nni ng
of the Bri ti sh
Empi re, and
broughtabout .
the uni que o
mi x between

Bri ti sh and I n-
di an cultures. ~
Ancient World's Commanders
Death of Clive
On 22nd November,
1 774, Cl ive was found
dead at his home. He
may have shot him
self, taken an over
dose, or slit his throat
- accounts vary. How
ever, it is generally
accepted that he
stabbed himself with
a penknife, overcome
by the depression to
which he was prone.
87
Why is George Washington
a national hero i n the United
States of America?
George Washi ngton was the
first Presi dent of the United
States of Ameri ca. He served as
Presi dent from Apri l 30th, 1 789,
unti l March 4th, 1 797. As a young
man, Washi ngton joi ned the
Virgi nia mi l iti a. After many he
roic battles, Washi ngton be
came a col onel , and the l eader
of Vi rgi nia' s mi l iti a. I n the
American Revol uti onary War
between Britai n and her colo
ni es in America, Washi ngton
was unani mousl y named Com
mander-i n-Chief of the United
States Army. He led them to
significant victories, such as the
capture of Boston al ong with
major defeats, i ncl udi ng the
loss of New York Ci ty. However,
Washi ngton's moral strength
kept the Ameri can army in a
fighti ng mood, despite many
tri al s and setbacks.
On Jul y 4th, 1 776 the United
States government publ i shed
the Decl arati on of I ndepend
ence, but the war conti nued.
However, by 1 781 , the United
States had won several big bat
tles. In October, the Engl i sh ar
my surrendered to George
Washi ngton. That was the end
of the Revol uti onary War, and
Washi ngton, who was i m
mensel y popul ar as a war hero,
was an obvious choice as the
first Presi dent of the United
States of Ameri ca.
George Washington
Why was Si mon Bol i var known as 'The
Li berator'?
Si mon Bol i var was a patriot, statesman and
l i berator of five South American republ i cs.
Hi s l i fe was dedi cated to the i ndependence
of the then Spani sh col onies, and the dream
of Lati n Ameri can unity.
In 1 81 0, he fought agai nst the Spani sh dur
i ng a revolt i n Venezuela and was forced to flee
the country. Bol ivar agai n i nvaded Venezuela
agai n i n 1 81 7. He establ i shed a revol uti onary
government at Angostura, and he was el ected
president of Venezuel a. In 1 81 9, Bol ivar's army
defeated the Spanish at Boyaca. Several
months l ater, he became president of the
newly formed republ ic of Colombia, consi st
i ng of Venezuela and New Granada.
I n 1 824, Bol ivar l ed the revol uti onary forces
of Peru in thei r fi ght for i ndependence. He
was el ected presi dent of Peru i n
1 825, and later organized i n
Southern Peru a new repub
l ic, which was named Bol i vi a
i n hi s honour. Today he i s
known as 'The Li berator'
His i ntegrity, hi gh mor
ai s, and perseverance
in the face of over-
whel mi ng odds
have made
hi m a role
model for
many.
Simon Bolivar
Ancient World's Commanders
Why i s Benedict
Arnold consid
ered both a hero
and a traitor?
Benedict Arnol d
was a mi l itary hero
for both si des i n the
same war between
Britai n and the
Ameri cans. He be
gan hi s career as an
Ameri can Patriot i n
Benedict Arold
bec, the capi tal of
British Canada.
Even though the
effort ended i n di s
aster, he fought
bravely and hon
ourably. For the
next five years, Ar
nol d served the Pa
triots si de with dis
ti ncti on in one bat
tle after another.
May 1 775, and led the bri gade
that captured Fort Ticonderoga
on Lake Champl ai n. Arnol d's
heroics conti nued in Septem
ber, when he led an expedition
of 1 , 1 50 ri fl emen agai nst Que-
Bolivia
livia was named after of the
Commander i n Chiefofthe
Liberation Army,
Simon Bolivar. He was the first
president of Bolivia
after the country gai ned its
independence in 1 825.
His surname comes from
La Puebla de Bolibar,
a village in Biscany, Spain .
SnehaRao
No general was more i magi na
ti ve than Arnol d, no fi el d officer
more dari ng, no soldier more
courageous.
Yet Arnold has gone down in
hi story not as a hero, but as a
mi l itary traitor who, as com
mander of the Ameri can fort at
West Poi nt, New York, in 1 780,
schemed to hand it over to the
Briti sh. Why di d he
do thi s? I t i s sai d that
afer so many sacri
fices, he became
di si l l usi oned with
the war's progress.
Perhaps even more
i mportant, he grew
deepl y mi strustful
of the cause's ci vi l
i an l eaders and, ulti
matel y, Arnold hi m
self felt betra

ed.
He began to feel
that Bri ti sh rul e
woul d perhaps be
best for hi s country
but the fact is that
he wil l be remem
bered as both a hero
and a traitor to hi s
country!
Bolivia
Why is Horatio Nelson a national
hero i n Britain?
Horatio Nel son was a Bri ti sh naval
commander and nati onal hero, famous
for hi s naval victories agai nst the French
duri ng the Napol eoni c Wars. When Brit
ai n entered the French Revol uti onary
Wars i n 1 793, Nel son was given com
mand of the Agamemnon. He served i n
the Mediterranean, hel ped capture Cor
sica, and saw battle at Calvi, where he
lost the si ght in his right eye. He woul d
later lose hi s ri ght arm at the Battle of
Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1 797.
Nel son led hi s fleet to many victories
agai nst the Spanish of Cape Vi ncent i n
1 797. At the Battle of Copenhagen, four
years l ater, he ignored orders to cease
action by putti ng his telescope to hi s
bl i nd eye and cl ai mi ng he coul dn't see
the si gnal to withdraw! Nel
son's most famous engage
ment was at Cape Trafal
gar,wherehesaved Britai n
from the threat ofi nvasi on
by Napol eon. He was ki l l ed
by a French sni per a few
hours later, whi l e l eadi ng
the attack. I s it any
wonder that he i s
consi dered one
of the world's
greatest naval
leaders?
A Real Hero
When soldiers are
wounded in war, they
generally retire hon
ourably, but not Hora
tio Nelson! In 1 794, he
received a wound, at
the battle of Calvi, that
blinded him in one eye
but he continued lead
ing his fleet, going
from victory to victory.
In 1 797, he lost an arm
in a daring, but unsuc
cessful- attempt to
capture a Spanish city,
but a year later, he was
back fighting. One eyed
and one armed, he gal
lantly continued lead
ing his men until he was
killed i n action, like the
real hero that he was.
NomdoDb
Napoleon Crossing the Alps
Why were Napol eon Bonaparte's
mi litary achievements remarkable?
Napol eon Bonaparte was one of
the worl d's greatest mi l itary l eaders,
and Emperor of France. He was a
compl ex man, who at the start of hi s
career was constructive, and took
France to new hei ghts of power, but
by the end, had brought her years of
war and destruction.
I n 1 796, Napol eon was made com
mander of the French army i n Ital y,
where he forced Austria and its al l ies
to come to the negoti ati ng
tabl e. Two years later, he
conquered Ottoman-rul ed
Egypt. I n1 799, Napoleon
became first Consul when
the existi ng government in
France was overthrown. I n
1 803, Britai n resumed war
with France, later joi ned by
Russi a and Austria. Britai n
i nflicted a naval defeat on
the French, so Napol eon
abandoned pl ans to i nvade
Engl and. However, he con
ti nued his conquests that
gave hi m control of Europe.
The Peni nsul ar War be
gan in 1 808. Costly French
defeats over the next five
years drai ned French mi l i
tary resources. Napoleon's
i nvasi on of Russi a resul ted
i n a di sastrous retreat. I n
March 1 81 4, Pari s fel l, and
Napol eon went i nto exi l e
nothi ng; but to live
defeated and
i ngl orious is to die
dai ly. j
on the Mediterranean i sl and of El ba.
Later, the Battle of Waterloo ended
hi s brief second rei gn, and the Brit
ish i mpri soned hi m on the remote
Atl anti c i sl and of St Hel ena, where
he died on b'May, 1 82 1 .
The Little Corporal
Napoleonissometimes
described as being 5 foot
2 i nches tal l . However,
there is a strong argu
ment that this is wrong,
and that Napoleon was
actual ly 5 foot 7 inches
tall. I n any case, he was
affectionately cal led 'the
Little Corporal'- maybe
because he was often
surrounded by much
l arger bodyguards, giv
ing the i mpression of
him being smal ler.
Arhur Wellesl ey
Duke of Wel l tngton
Arthur Wellesley,
the Fi rst Duke of
Wellington, was
born in Dublin on
29th April 1 769. At
first, he studied at
Eton and later, he
joined a mi l itary
college in France. He
was at first ADC to
the Lord Lieutenant
of Ireland and
joined the 33,d
Highlanders, be
coming a captain
and a l i eutenant
colonel.
After a long serv
ice in I ndia, he re
turned to England in
1 805. He led the
British army agai nst
the French. He was
created a Duke, and
promoted to field
marshal . After Na
poleon's return
from Elba in 1 81 5,
he combined with
the Prussian Army
under Bl ucher to de
liver a fi nal crushing
defeat to the French
at Waterloo.
N. T. Nayar
94
Why i s Carl
von Cl ause
witz known as
a phi losopher
of war?
Carl Von
C l a u s e wi t z
was a Prussi an
sol di er and
German mi l i-
tary theori st
Carl VOHClausewitz
who stressed
the moral and pol i ti cal aspects of
war. He entered the Prussi an army i n
1 792. Cl ausewitz became one of the
l eaders of Prussi an army reform, but
later resi gned from the Prussi an army
and entered Russi an service.
Cl ausewitzdi sti nguished hi msel fas
a Russi an staf oficer. After several
successful campaigns, he returned to
Pruss ian service, and served as chief
of staf of an army corps duri ng the
Waterloo campai gn. I n 1 8 1 8, he be
came a general and was appoi nted
admi ni strative head of the War Col
lege.
Duri ng the next 1 2 years, Cl ause
witz used much of the l ei sure that
thi s posi ti on provided i n writi ng hi s
hi stori cal studi es and hi s major work
on strategy, 'On War'. It i s on this that
his fame rests. He l ef hi s i mpri nt on
German mi l i tary thought, and be
came known as a 'phi l osopher of war.
Tell MeWhy
Why was Wi nfi el d Scott
known as 'Ol d Fuss and
Feathers'?
Wi nfield Scott i s general l y
consi dered the greatest
Ameri can general in the ti me
between George Washi ng
ton and Robert E. Lee. He was
the Mexi can War supreme
commander ofthe U.b.army,
and led the southern expedi
tion in a successful mi l itary
Winfeld Scott
at the Battle of
Veracruz
campai gn from Vera Cruz to
Mexico Ci ty.Though he was
wounded several ti mes, the
6-foot 5-i nch, 230-pound of
ficer showed such judgment
and courage that he was
promoted to bri gadi er gen-
Ancient World's Commanders
eral , and won
several other
honours too.
Wi nfield Scott
became a sol
dier at a ti me
when the U.b.
Army was very
Winfeld Scott
i nefective. By
hard work, he
made hi mself the best mi l itary
man in the country. Moreover, he
was a negotiator who avoided war
on several occasi ons.
I n 1 852, the Whi g presi denti al
nomi nati on went to Scott, but he
was defeated easi ly. Three years
later, the US Congress recognized
hi s accompl i shments by nami ng
hi m a l ieutenant general . He was
known as Ol d Fuss and Feathers
because of his attention to detai l ,
and love for gaudy uniforms.
Don' t be
afrai d! have
better medi cine
to cure thi s . .
95
Sam Houston
Houston struck by
an arrow shot by a
Creek Indian at
the Battle oj
Horseshoe Bend
96
Why was Sam Houston considered one
of the most col ourful figures i n Texas hi s
tory?
Sam Houston was one ofthe most col ourful
and controversial fi gures in Texas hi story. He
spent much of hi s youth, i n the mountai ns of
Tennessee where he became acquai nted with
the Cherokee I ndians, wi th
whom he spent a lot of hi s ti me.
Wi th the outbreak of the sec
ond war wi th Engl and, Houston
enl i sted as a private sol di er, and
was made sergeant of a com
pany. He excel l ed i nthe mi l itary,
and qui ckl y won the admi rati on
of hi s men and hi s superiors.
Houston dabbl ed in l aw and
pol i ti cs, and was el ected del e
gate from Nacogdoches to the
Conventi on of 1 833 whi ch met
at San Fel i pe. From that ti me
onwards, Houston emerged as
a promi nent pl ayer i n the affai rs
of Texas. Later, Houston was
el ected commander-i n-chi ef of
the armi es of Texas, and i mme
di atel y took control of the Texas
forces. On April 21 `,1 836, his forces
managed to secure l ong sought
i ndependence for Texas.
In the fal l of that year, Hou
ston was el ected the first Presi
dent of the Republ icofT exas. Afer
Texas became a state in 1 845,
Houston was el ected Senator
from Texas to the Congress of
the United States- and then, i n
1 859, Houston was el ected to
serve as Governor of the State
of Texas. Houston died at hi s
home i n Huntsvi l l e on Jul y 26th,
1 863. Theci tyofHouston, Texas,
was named after hi m.
Ancient World's Commanders
l^H!\L^JIS
CRRIL1!C!S

Tt is our policy to correct errors,

and present dif ering views and
clarifcations about the contents
in previous issues. Please send in
your feedback, mentioning the
title and page number.
Ms. Swathi Ural , a software
engi neer from Bangal ore, has
sent us some add - on informa
tion on our July issue, Great
Women.
She writes about two great
women, Kittur Rani Chennam
ma and Rani Abbakka. Kittur
Rani Chennamma ( 1 778-1 829)
was the first women rul er to
fight agai nst British rul e i n I n
di a and Rani Abbakka of Ul l al
( 1 544- 1 582) is the first woman
ruler to fight against a col oni al
power - the Portuguese.
Rani Chennamma fought
bravely to defend Kittur from
British. She had some i ni ti al
victories too. However, she
was defeated and kept i n the
fort of Bai l hongal for l ife,
where she died i n 1 829.
Rani Abbakka Devi was the
rul er of the temple town of
Moodabi dri . The port town of
Ul l al served as thei r subsi di ary
capital. She fought agai nst
the Portuguese.
/un| yOu /:. :Au|/|, |O/
yOu/vu|uu||c|ccd|uc|
/d/|O/
97
Aren't there many little things you have wondered about, but didn't know whom to
ask? Send us your Questions, and we will give you the fascinating reasons behind the
incredible mysteries of life.
Why do the Moon and pl anets not twinkle l i ke stars?
The first thi ng to understand i s that stars unstabl e. Because
even stars do not actual l y twi nkl e - we see the faraway stars
they just appear to do so! This i s be- as mere poi nts l i ght, they
cause of turbul ence in the Earth's at- seem to dance around. This
Uncl e,
won't twi nkl e!
mosphere. Thi s
makes the l i ght rays
comi ng from the
stars i rregul ar. How much these vari
ati ons occur, depends on the l ocal
condi ti ons. For i nstance, i n cities,
there would more heat rising i nto the
ni ght sky. Such condi ti ons wi l l make
the l i ght comi ng from the faraway
i s what we cal l twi nkl i ng.
The Moon and pl anets
are far closer, and thus don't
appear as mere poi nts of
l i ght. So, changes i n the
fal l of the l i ght rays do not
have so pronounced an
efect. If you l ook through
a telescope, however, the
efects of the turbul ence
can be seen as a quivering
around the edge of the disc
of the Moon and pl anets.
Sci enti sts have l earned
the tri ck to cancel out the
effects of turbul ence, and
get a true i mage of a star.
This techni que i s cal l ed
'adaptive optics'.
Aw/ndhdI
MANORAMA TELL 0WHY - ANCIENT WORLD'S COMMANDERS
Editor: Ammu Mathew Editor-in-Charge: N.M. Mohanan*
Printed and Published by N. Sajeev George, on behalf of M .M. Publications Ltd,
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and Malayala Manorama Press, Kottayam - DD3Vand published from
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