What is Decision Making? alternatives are limited.

The time constraint simply means that a

decision must be made by a certain time. The effort constraint reflects
the limits of manpower, money, and priorities. (You wouldn't want to
1. Decision making is the study of identifying and choosing
spend three hours and half a tank of gas trying to find the very best
alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision
parking place at the mall.) Since decisions must be made within this
maker. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to
constrained environment, we can say that the major challenge of
be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as
decision making is uncertainty, and a major goal of decision analysis is
many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (1)
to reduce uncertainty. We can almost never have all information
has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fits
needed to make a decision with certainty, so most decisions involve an
with our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on.
undeniable amount of risk.

2. Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing

uncertainty and doubt about alternatives to allow a reasonable
choice to be made from among them. This definition stresses the
information-gathering function of decision making. It should be noted
here that uncertainty is reduced rather than eliminated. Very few
decisions are made with absolute certainty because complete
knowledge about all the alternatives is seldom possible. Thus, every
decision involves a certain amount of risk.
Decision Making is a Recursive Process
A critical factor that decision theorists sometimes neglect to emphasize
is that in spite of the way the process is presented on paper, decision
making is a nonlinear, recursive process. That is, most decisions
are made by moving back and forth between the choice of criteria (the
characteristics we want our choice to meet) and the identification of
alternatives (the possibilities we can choose from among). The
alternatives available influence the criteria we apply to them, and
similarly the criteria we establish influence the alternatives we will
consider. Let's look at an example to clarify this.
The fact that decisions must be made within a limiting decision
environment suggests two things. First, it explains why hindsight is so
much more accurate and better at making decisions that foresight. As
time passes, the decision environment continues to grow and expand.
New information and new alternatives appear--even after the decision
must be made. Armed with new information after the fact, the
hindsighters can many times look back and make a much better
decision than the original maker, because the decision environment
has continued to expand.
The second thing suggested by the decision-within-an-environment
idea follows from the above point. Since the decision environment
continues to expand as time passes, it is often advisable to put off
making a decision until close to the deadline. Information and
alternatives continue to grow as time passes, so to have access to the
most information and to the best alternatives, do not make the decision
too soon. Now, since we are dealing with real life, it is obvious that
some alternatives might no longer be available if too much time
passes; that is a tension we have to work with, a tension that helps to
shape the cutoff date for the decision.

Suppose someone wants to decide, Should I get married? Notice that Delaying a decision as long as reasonably possible, then, provides
this is a decision whether. A linear approach to decision making would three benefits:
be to decide this question by weighing the reasons pro and con (what
are the benefits and drawbacks of getting married) and then to move
1. The decision environment will be larger, providing more information.
to the next part of the process, the identification of criteria (supportive,
There is also time for more thoughtful and extended analysis.
easy going, competent, affectionate, etc.). Next, we would identify
2. New alternatives might be recognized or created. Version 2.0 might
alternatives likely to have these criteria (Kathy, Jennifer, Michelle,
be released.
Julie, etc.). Finally we would evaluate each alternative according to the
3. The decision maker's preferences might change. With further
criteria and choose the one that best meets the criteria. We would thus
thought, wisdom, and maturity, you may decide not to buy car X and
have a scheme like this:
instead to buy car Y.

decision whether ... select criteria ... identify alternatives ... make
.
choice

Concepts and Definitions

However, the fact is that our decision whether to get married may
really be a contingent decision. "I'll get married if I can find the right
person." It will thus be influenced by the identification of alternatives,
which we usually think of as a later step in the process. Similarly,
suppose we have arrived at the "identify alternatives" stage of the
process when we discover that Jennifer (one of the girls identified as
an alternative) has a wonderful personality characteristic that we had
not even thought of before, but that we now really want to have in a
wife. We immediately add that characteristic to our criteria. Thus, the
decision making process continues to move back and forth, around
and around as it progresses in what will eventually be a linear direction
but which in its actual workings is highly recursive.
Key point, then, is that the characteristics of the alternatives we
discover will often revise the criteria we have previously
identified.
The Components of Decision Making
The Decision Environment
1. Information. This is knowledge about the decision, the effects of its
alternatives, the probability of each alternative, and so forth. A major
point to make here is that while substantial information is desirable, the
statement that "the more information, the better" is not true. Too much
information can actually reduce the quality of a decision. See the
discussion on The Effects of Quantity on Decision Making above.
2. Alternatives. These are the possibilities one has to choose from.
Alternatives can be identified (that is, searched for and located) or
even developed (created where they did not previously exist). Merely
searching for preexisting alternatives will result in less effective
decision making.
3. Criteria. These are the characteristics or requirements that each
alternative must possess to a greater or lesser extent. Usually the
alternatives are rated on how well they possess each criterion. For
example, alternative Toyota ranks an 8 on the criterion of economy,
while alternative Buick ranks a 6 on the same criterion.

4. Goals. What is it you want to accomplish? Strangely enough, many

Every decision is made within a decision environment, which is defined
decision makers collect a bunch of alternatives (say cars to buy or
as the collection of information, alternatives, values, and preferences
people to marry) and then ask, "Which should I choose?" without
available at the time of the decision. An ideal decision environment
thinking first of what their goals are, what overall objective they want to
would include all possible information, all of it accurate, and every
achieve. Next time you find yourself asking, "What should I do? What
possible alternative. However, both information and alternatives are
should I choose?" ask yourself first, "What are my goals?"
constrained because the time and effort to gain information or identify
A component of goal identification should be included in every instance
of decision analysis.
5. Value. Value refers to how desirable a particular outcome is, the
value of the alternative, whether in dollars, satisfaction, or other
benefit.
6. Preferences. These reflect the philosophy and moral hierarchy of
the decision maker. We could say that they are the decision maker's
"values," but that might be confusing with the other use of the word,
above. If we could use that word here, we would say that personal
values dictate preferences. Some people prefer excitement to
calmness, certainty to risk, efficiency to esthetics, quality to quantity,
and so on. Thus, when one person chooses to ride the wildest roller
coaster in the park and another chooses a mild ride, both may be
making good decisions, if based on their individual preferences.
7. Decision Quality. This is a rating of whether a decision is good or
bad. A good decision is a logical one based on the available
information and reflecting the preferences of the decision maker.
The important concept to grasp here is that the quality of a decision is
not related to its outcome: a good decision can have either a good or a
bad outcome. Similarly, a bad decision (one not based on adequate
information or not reflecting the decision maker's preferences) can still
have a good outcome.
For example, if you do extensive analysis and carefully decide on a
certain investment based on what you know about its risks and your
preferences, then your decision is a good one, even though you may
lose money on the investment. Similarly, if you throw a dart at a listing
of stocks and buy the one the dart hits, your decision is a bad one,
even though the stock may go up in value.
Good decisions that result in bad outcomes should thus not be cause
for guilt or recrimination. If you decide to take the scenic route based
on what you know of the road (reasonably safe, not heavily traveled)
and your preferences (minimal risk, prefer scenery over early arrival),
then your decision is a good one, even though you might happen to get
in an accident, or have a flat tire in the middle of nowhere. It is not
justified to say, "Well, this was a bad decision."
In judging the quality of a decision, in addition to the concerns of logic,
use of information and alternatives, three other considerations come
into play:
A. The decision must meet the stated objectives most thoroughly and
completely. How well does the alternative chosen meet the goals
identified?
B. The decision must meet the stated objectives most efficiently, with
concern over cost, energy, side effects. Are there negative
consequences to the alternative that make that choice less desirable?
We sometimes overlook this consideration in our search for thrills.
C. The decision must take into account valuable byproducts or indirect
advantages. A new employee candidate may also have extra abilities
not directly related to the job but valuable to the company nonetheless.
These should be taken into account.
8. Acceptance. Those who must implement the decision or who will be
affected by it must accept it both intellectually and emotionally.
Acceptance is a critical factor because it occasionally conflicts with one
of the quality criteria. In such cases, the best thing to do may be to
choose a lesser quality solution that has greater acceptance.
For example, when cake mixes first were put on the market,
manufacturers put everything into the mix--the highest quality and
most efficient solution. Only water had to be added. However, the
mixes didn't sell well--they weren't accepted. After investigation, the
makers discovered that women didn't like the mixes because using the
mixes made them feel guilty: they weren't good wives because they
were taking a shortcut to making a cake. The solution was to take the
egg and sometimes the milk out of the mix so that the women would
have something to do to "make" the cake other than just adding water.
Now they had to add egg and perhaps milk, making them feel more
useful. The need to feel useful and a contributor is one of the most
basic of human needs. Thus, while the new solution was less efficient
in theoretical terms, it was much more acceptable. Cake mixes with
the new formula became quite popular.
Thus, the inferior method may produce greater results if the inferior
one has greater support. One of the most important considerations in
decision making, then, is the people factor. Always consider a decision
in light of the people implementation.
A decision that may be technologically brilliant but that is sociologically
stupid will not work. Only decisions that are implemented, and
implemented with thoroughness (and preferably enthusiasm) will work
the way they are intended to.
Approaches to Decision Making
There are two major approaches to decision making in an organization,
the authoritarian method in which an executive figure makes a decision
for the group and the group method in which the group decides what to
do.
1. Authoritarian. The manager makes the decision based on the
knowledge he can gather. He then must explain the decision to the
group and gain their acceptance of it. In some studies, the time
breakdown for a typical operating decision is something like this:
make decision, 5 min.; explain decision, 30 min.; gain acceptance, 30
min.
2. Group. The group shares ideas and analyses, and agrees upon a
decision to implement. Studies show that the group often has values,
feelings, and reactions quite different from those the manager
supposes they have. No one knows the group and its tastes and
preferences as well as the group itself. And, interestingly, the time
breakdown is something like this:
group makes decision, 30 min.; explain decision, 0 min.; gain
acceptance, 0 min.
Clearly, just from an efficiency standpoint, group decision making is
better. More than this, it has been shown many times that people
prefer to implement the ideas they themselves think of. They will work
harder and more energetically to implement their own idea than they
would to implement an idea imposed on them by others. We all have a
love for our own ideas and solutions, and we will always work harder
on a solution supported by our own vision and our own ego than we
will on a solution we have little creative involvement with.
There are two types of group decision making sessions. First is free
discussion in which the problem is simply put on the table for the
group to talk about. For example, Joe has been offered a job change
from shift supervisor to maintenance foreman. Should he take the job?
The other kind of group decision making is developmental
discussion or structured discussion. Here the problem is broken down
into steps, smaller parts with specific goals. For example, instead of
asking generally whether Joe should take the job, the group works on
sub questions: What are Joe's skills? What skills does the new job
require? How does Joe rate on each of the skills required? Notice that
these questions seek specific information rather than more general
impressionistic opinions.
Developmental discussion (1) insures systematic coverage of a topic Decision Making Procedure
and (2) insures that all members of the group are talking about the
same aspect of the problem at the same time.
As you read this procedure, remember our discussion earlier about the
recursive nature of decision making. In a typical decision making
Some Decision Making Strategies situation, as you move from step to step here, you will probably find
yourself moving back and forth also.
As you know, there are often many solutions to a given problem, and
the decision maker's task is to choose one of them. The task of 1. Identify the decision to be made together with the goals it
choosing can be as simple or as complex as the importance of the should achieve. Determine the scope and limitations of the decision.
decision warrants, and the number and quality of alternatives can also Is the new job to be permanent or temporary or is that not yet known
be adjusted according to importance, time, resources and so on. There (thus requiring another decision later)? Is the new package for the
are several strategies used for choosing. Among them are the product to be put into all markets or just into a test market? How might
following: the scope of the decision be changed--that is, what are its possible
parameters?
1. Optimizing. This is the strategy of choosing the best possible
solution to the problem, discovering as many alternatives as possible When thinking about the decision, be sure to include a clarification of
and choosing the very best. How thoroughly optimizing can be done is goals: We must decide whom to hire for our new secretary, one who
dependent on will be able to create an efficient and organized office. Or, We must
decide where to go on vacation, where we can relax and get some rest
from the fast pace of society.
A. importance of the problem
B. time available for solving it
C. cost involved with alternative solutions 2. Get the facts. But remember that you cannot get all the facts. Get
D. availability of resources, knowledge as many facts as possible about a decision within the limits of time
E. personal psychology, values imposed on you and your ability to process them, but remember that
virtually every decision must be made in partial ignorance. Lack of
complete information must not be allowed to paralyze your decision. A
Note that the collection of complete information and the consideration
decision based on partial knowledge is usually better than not making
of all alternatives is seldom possible for most major decisions, so that
the decision when a decision is really needed. The proverb that "any
limitations must be placed on alternatives.
decision is better than no decision," while perhaps extreme, shows the
importance of choosing. When you are racing toward a bridge support,
2. Satisficing. In this strategy, the first satisfactory alternative is you must decide to turn away to the right or to the left. Which way you
chosen rather than the best alternative. If you are very hungry, you turn is less important than the fact that you do indeed turn.
might choose to stop at the first decent looking restaurant in the next
town rather than attempting to choose the best restaurant from among
As part of your collection of facts, list your feelings, hunches, and
all (the optimizing strategy). The word satisficing was coined by
intuitive urges. Many decisions must ultimately rely on or be influenced
combining satisfactory and sufficient. For many small decisions, such
by intuition because of the remaining degree of uncertainty involved in
as where to park, what to drink, which pen to use, which tie to wear,
the situation.
and so on, the satisficing strategy is perfect.

Also as part of your collection of facts, consult those who will be

3. Maximax. This stands for "maximize the maximums." This strategy
affected by and who will have to implement your decision. Input from
focuses on evaluating and then choosing the alternatives based on
these people not only helps supply you with information and help in
their maximum possible payoff. This is sometimes described as the
making the decision but it begins to produce the acceptance necessary
strategy of the optimist, because favorable outcomes and high
in the implementers because they feel that they are part of the decision
potentials are the areas of concern. It is a good strategy for use when
making process. As Russell Ackoff noted in The Art of Problem
risk taking is most acceptable, when the go-for-broke philosophy is
Solving, not consulting people involved in a decision is often perceived
reigning freely.
as an act of aggression.

4. Maximin. This stands for "maximize the minimums." In this strategy,

3. Develop alternatives. Make a list of all the possible choices you
that of the pessimist, the worst possible outcome of each decision is
have, including the choice of doing nothing. Not choosing one of the
considered and the decision with the highest minimum is chosen. The
candidates or one of the building sites is in itself a decision. Often a
Maximin orientation is good when the consequences of a failed
non decision is harmful as we mentioned above--not choosing to turn
decision are particularly harmful or undesirable. Maximin concentrates
either right or left is to choose to drive into the bridge. But sometimes
on the salvage value of a decision, or of the guaranteed return of the
the decision to do nothing is useful or at least better than the
decision. It's the philosophy behind the saying, "A bird in the hand is
alternatives, so it should always be consciously included in the
worth two in the bush."
decision making process.

Quiz shows exploit the uncertainty many people feel when they are not
Also be sure to think about not just identifying available alternatives but
quite sure whether to go with a maximax strategy or a maximin one:
creating alternatives that don't yet exist. For example, if you want to
"Okay, Mrs. Freen, you can now choose to take what you've already
choose which major to pursue in college, think not only of the available
won and go home, or risk losing it all and find out what's behind door
ones in the catalog, but of designing your own course of study.
number three."

4. Rate each alternative. This is the evaluation of the value of each

Example: I could put my $10,000 in a genetic engineering company,
alternative. Consider the negative of each alternative (cost,
and if it creates and patents a new bacteria that helps plants resist
consequences, problems created, time needed, etc.) and the positive
frost, I could make $50,000. But I could also lose the whole $10,000.
of each (money saved, time saved, added creativity or happiness to
But if I invest in a soap company, I might make only $20,000, but if the
company or employees, etc.). Remember here that the alternative that
company goes completely broke and gets liquidated, I'll still get back
you might like best or that would in the best of all possible worlds be an
$7,000 of my investment, based on its book value.
obvious choice will, however, not be functional in the real world
because of too much cost, time, or lack of acceptance by others.
Example: It's fourth down and ten yards to go on your twenty yard line.
Do you go for a long pass or punt? Maximax would be to pass;
Also don't forget to include indirect factors in the rating. If you are
Maximin would be to punt.
deciding between machines X, Y, and Z and you already have an
employee who knows how to operate machine Z, that fact should be
considered. If you are choosing an investigative team to send to Japan
to look at plant sites and you have very qualified candidates A, B, and
C, the fact that B is a very fast typist, a superior photographer or has
some other side benefit in addition to being a qualified team member,
should be considered. In fact, what you put on your hobbies and
interests line on your resume can be quite important when you apply
for a job just because employers are interested in getting people with a
good collection of additional abilities.
5. Rate the risk of each alternative. In problem solving, you hunt
around for a solution that best solves a particular problem, and by such
a hunt you are pretty sure that the solution will work. In decision
making, however, there is always some degree of uncertainty in any
choice. Will Bill really work out as the new supervisor? If we decide to
expand into Canada, will our sales and profits really increase? If we let
Jane date Fred at age fifteen, will the experience be good? If you
decide to marry person X or buy car Y or go to school Z, will that be the
best or at least a successful choice?
Risks can be rated as percentages, ratios, rankings, grades or in any
other form that allows them to be compared. See the section on risk
evaluation for more details on risking.
6. Make the decision. If you are making an individual decision, apply
your preferences (which may take into account the preferences of
others). Choose the path to follow, whether it includes one of the
alternatives, more than one of them (a multiple decision) or the
decision to choose none.
And of course, don't forget to implement the decision and then
evaluate the implementation, just as you would in a problem solving
experience.
One important item often overlooked in implementation is that when
explaining the decision to those involved in carrying it out or those who
will be affected by it, don't just list the projected benefits: frankly
explain the risks and the drawbacks involved and tell why you believe
the proposed benefits outweigh the negatives. Implementers are much
more willing to support decisions when they (1) understand the risks
and (2) believe that they are being treated with honesty and like adults.
Remember also that very few decisions are irrevocable. Don't cancel a
decision prematurely because many new plans require time to work--it
may take years for your new branch office in Paris to get profitable--but
don't hesitate to change directions if a particular decision clearly is not
working out or is being somehow harmful. You can always make
another decision to do something else.
Words are powerful. They can drive us to our knees and bring us to
tears. They can raise us above our mortal bodies and make us more
than we ever dreamed we could be. Words move us, shape us, and
define the whole of the world we live in. They constrain our every
thought, yet enable our very being.
The Shannon-Weaver Model
Source
The source of communication is the initiator, or origin, that puts the
model into action. It is an individual or group that has a specific reason
to begin the communication process. That is, there is a message that
they wish another to receive.
Encoder
Once the purpose of the source has been decided, there must be a
specified format for the message to take. This is what the
communication encoder does; it takes the concept that the source
wants sent out, and puts it into a suitable format for later interpretation.
Message
The information, idea, or concept that is being communicated from one
end of the model to the other is the message. Most of the time, in
human communication, the message contains a distinct meaning.
When the model was created, Shannon and Weaver were not
concerned whether the message had substance, but rather that it was
being transmitted.
Channel
It is essential for meaningful communication that a suitable means to
transmit the message be selected. The channel is the route that the
message travels on, be it verbal, written, electronic, or otherwise.
Noise
It is inevitable that noise may come into play during the communication
process. Noise could be considered an interference or distortion that
changes the initial message; anything that can misconstrue the
message may be noise. Noise can be physical, as in an actual sound
that muffles the message as it is being said, or it can be semantic, like
if the vocabulary used within the message is beyond the knowledge
spectrum of its recipient. In order for communication to be effective,
noise must be reduced.
Decoder
Before the message reaches the intended recipient, it must be
decoded, or interpreted, from its original form into one that the receiver
understands. This is essentially the same interaction as that of source
and encoder, only in a reversed sequence.
Receiver
In order for communication to be executed, there must be a second
party at the end of the channel the source has used. The receiver
takes in the message that the source has sent out.
Feedback
For meaningful communication to come to fruition, it is vital that the
receiver provides feedback to the source. Feedback relates to the
source whether their message has been received, and most
importantly, if it has been interpreted accurately. Without feedback, the
source would never know if the communication was successful.
Ongoing communication is made possible by the cyclical route
feedback allows; if more communication between the two parties is
necessary, they can follow the model indefinitely.
The Shannon-Weaver Communication Model can appropriately and
effectively be applied to the stated communication problem. The S-W
model is a straightforward model of communication and information
transmission. It is an intuitive process or system of communication. It
easily connects the message from the sender to the recipient and
allows for essential feedback to determine that the message was
indeed understood or if further information or clarification is necessary.
Communication is a process of transmission of information in any
format, in any mode of transmission, be it electronic, telephone
conversation, face to face or by the written word to name the obvious.
Communication
No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they
misunderstood others. - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe
Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result
of people failing to communicate. Faulty communication causes the
most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail.
Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from
one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a
receiver. Effective communication occurs only if the receiver
understands the exact information or idea that the sender intended to
transmit.
Barriers to Communication
Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood. - Freeman
Teague, Jr.
Anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to
communication. Many physical and psychological barriers exist:

o Culture, background, and bias - We allow our past

Studying the communication process is important because you coach,
coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise through this process. It is
the chain of understanding that integrates the members of an
organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side to side.
The Communication Process
Communication
That is what we try to
Speak to those near us
o Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the sender.
This can be a concept, idea, information, or feelings.
o Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or
other symbols.
o Decoding: lastly, the receiver translates the words or symbols
into a concept or information that he or she can understand.
During the transmitting of the message, two elements will be received:
content and context. Content is the actual words or symbols of the
message which is known as l a n g u a g e - the spoken and written
words combined into phrases that make grammatical and semantic
sense. We all use and interpret the meanings of words differently, so
even simple messages can be misunderstood. And many words have
different meanings to confuse the issue even more.
Context is the way the message is delivered and is known as
p a r a l a n g u a g e - it is the non verbal elements in speech such as
the tone of voice, the look in the sender's eyes, body language, hand
gestures, and state of emotions (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence,
etc.) that can be detected. Although paralanguage or context often
cause messages to be misunderstood as we believe what we see
more than what we hear; they are powerful communicators that help us
to understand each other. Indeed, we often trust the accuracy of
nonverbal behaviors more than verbal behaviors.
Some leaders think they have communicated once they told someone
to do something, "I don't know why it did not get done. I told Jim to it."
More than likely, Jim misunderstood the message. A message has
NOT been communicated unless it is understood by the receiver
(decoded). How do you know it has been properly received? By two-
way communication or feedback. This feedback tells the sender that
the receiver understood the message, its level of importance, and what
must be done with it. Communication is an exchange, not just a give,
as all parties must participate to complete the information exchange.
experiences to change the meaning of the message. Our
culture, background, and bias can be good as they allow us to
use our past experiences to understand something new, it is
when they change the meaning of the message that they
interfere with the communication process.
o Noise - Equipment or environmental noise impedes clear
communication. The sender and the receiver must both be
able to concentrate on the messages being sent to each other.
do
o Ourselves - Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other
person can lead to confusion and conflict. The "Me
Generation" is out when it comes to effective communication.
Some of the factors that cause this are defensiveness (we feel
someone is attacking us), superiority (we feel we know more
that the other), and ego (we feel we are the center of the
activity).
o Perception - If we feel the person is talking too fast, not
fluently, does not articulate clearly, etc., we may dismiss the
person. Also our preconceived attitudes affect our ability to
listen. We listen uncritically to persons of high status and
dismiss those of low status.
o Message - Distractions happen when we focus on the facts
rather than the idea. Our educational institutions reinforce this
with tests and questions. Semantic distractions occur when a
word is used differently than you prefer. For example, the word
chairman instead of chairperson, may cause you to focus on
the word and not the message.
o Environmental - Bright lights, an attractive person, unusual
sights, or any other stimulus provides a potential distraction.
o Smothering - We take it for granted that the impulse to send
useful information is automatic. Not true! Too often we believe
that certain information has no value to others or they are
already aware of the facts.
o Stress - People do not see things the same way when under
stress. What we see and believe at a given moment is
influenced by our psychological frames of references - our
beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences, and goals.
These barriers can be thought of as filters, that is, the message leaves
the sender, goes through the above filters, and is then heard by the
receiver. These filters muffle the message. And the way to overcome
filters is through active listening and feedback.
Active Listening
Hearing and listening are not the same thing. Hearing is the act of
perceiving sound. It is involuntary and simply refers to the reception of
aural stimuli. Listening is a selective activity which involves the
reception and the interpretation of aural stimuli. It involves decoding
the sound into meaning.
Listening is divided into two main categories: passive and active.
Passive listening is little more that hearing. It occurs when the receiver
of the message has little motivation to listen carefully, such as when
listening to music, story telling, television, or when being polite.
People speak at 100 to 175 words per minute (WPM), but they can
listen intelligently at 600 to 800 WPM. Since only a part of our mind is
paying attention, it is easy to go into m i n d d r i f t - thinking about
other things while listening to someone. The cure for this is a c t i v e
l i s t e n i n g - which involves listening with a purpose. It may be to
gain information, obtain directions, understand others, solve problems,
share interest, see how another person feels, show support, etc. It
requires that the listener attends to the words and the feelings of the
sender for understanding. I t t a k e s t h e s a m e a m o u n t o r
m o r e e n e r g y t h a n s p e a k i n g . It requires the receiver to
hear the various messages, understand the meaning, and then verify
the meaning by offering feedback. The following are a few traits of
active listeners:
o Spend more time listening than talking.
o Do not finish the sentences of others.
o Do not answer questions with questions.
o Are aware of biases. We all have them. We need to control
them.
o Never daydreams or become preoccupied with their own
thoughts when others talk.
o Let the other speakers talk. Do not dominate the
conversations.
o Plan responses after the others have finished speaking, NOT
while they are speaking.
o Provide feedback, but do not interrupt incessantly.
o Analyze by looking at all the relevant factors and asking open-
ended questions. Walk others through by summarizing.
o Keep conversations on what others say, NOT on what
interests them.
o Take brief notes. This forces them to concentrate on what is
being said.
Feedback
When you know something, say what you know. When you don't
know something, say that you don't know. That is knowledge. -
Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius)
The purpose of feedback is to alter messages so the intention of the
original communicator is understood by the second communicator. It
includes verbal and nonverbal responses to another person's
message.
Providing feedback is accomplished by paraphrasing the words of the
sender. Restate the sender's feelings or ideas in your own words,
rather than repeating their words. Your words should be saying, "This
is what I understand your feelings to be, am I correct?" It not only
includes verbal responses, but also nonverbal ones. Nodding your
head or squeezing their hand to show agreement, dipping your
eyebrows shows you don't quite understand the meaning of their last
phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing it hard shows that you are
also exasperated with the situation.
Carl Rogers listed five main categories of feedback. They are listed in
the order in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations.
Notice that we make judgments more often than we try to understand:
o Evaluative: Making a judgment about the worth, goodness, or
appropriateness of the other person's statement.
o Interpretive: Paraphrasing - attempting to explain what the
other person's statement means.
o Supportive: Attempting to assist or bolster the other
communicator.
o Probing: Attempting to gain additional information, continue
the discussion, or clarify a point.
o Understanding: Attempting to discover completely what the
other communicator means by her statements.
Imagine how much better daily communications would be if listeners
tried to understand first, before they tried to evaluate what someone is
saying.
Nonverbal Behaviors of Communication
To deliver the full impact of a message, use nonverbal behaviors to
raise the channel of interpersonal communication:
o Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of
communication. It signals interest in others and increases the
speaker's credibility. People who make eye contact open the
flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth,
and credibility.
o Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits
happiness, friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile
frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm
and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and people will
react favorably. They will be more comfortable around you and
will want to listen more.
o Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking you may be
perceived as boring and stiff. A lively speaking style captures
the listener's attention, makes the conversation more
interesting, and facilitates understanding.
o Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous
messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and
leaning forward communicates to listeners that you are
approachable, receptive and friendly. Interpersonal closeness
results when you and the listener face each other. Speaking
with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should
be avoided as it communicates disinterest.
o Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for
interaction with others. You should look for signals of
discomfort caused by invading the other person's space.
Some of these are: rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze
aversion.
o Vocal: Speaking can signal nonverbal communication when
you include such vocal elements as: tone, pitch, rhythm,
 timbre, loudness, and inflection. For maximum teaching
effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice.
One of the major criticisms of many speakers is that they
speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of
speaker as boring and dull.
something else? The trouble with these extra signals is that we do not
always have the full context. What if the person emailed me and I
replied great (while frowning). Would it evoke the same response?
Emotions

Speaking Hints
Speak comfortable words! - William Shakespeare
o When speaking or trying to explain something, ask the
listeners if they are following you.
o Ensure the receiver has a chance to comment or ask
questions.
o Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes - consider the
feelings of the receiver.
o Be clear about what you say.
o Look at the receiver.
o Make sure your words match your tone and body language
(Nonverbal Behaviors).
o Vary your tone and pace.
o Do not be vague, but on the other hand, do not complicate
what you are saying with too much detail.
o Do not ignore signs of confusion.
On Communication Per Se (a few random thoughts)
On Discussing Communication
Trying to speak of something as messy as communication in
technical terms seems to be another form of the "math and
science" argument, that is, math and science and technology are
the answer to all of our problems. - Anonymous
But what forms of human behavior are not messy? Learning is not
"antiseptic," yet it is discussed all the time - we do not leave it to the
academics, such as Bloom, Knowles, Dugan, or Rossett. Leadership
and management seems to be even messier, yet we categorize it, build
models of it, index it, chop it and slice it and dice it, build pyramids out
of it, and generally have a good time discussing it. But when it comes
to "communication," we call it too messy to play with and leave it up to
Chomsky, Pinker, and others to write about so that we can read about
it. Yet we all communicate almost every single day of our lives, which is
much more than we will ever do with learning or leadership.
Trust your instincts. Most emotions are difficult to imitate. For example,
when you are truly happy, the muscles used for smiling are controlled
by the limbic system and other parts of the brain, which are not under
voluntary control. When you force a smile, a different part of the brain
is used - the cerebral cortex (under voluntary control), hence different
muscles are used. This is why a clerk, who might not have any real
interest in you, has a "fake" look when he forces a smile.
Of course, some actors learn to control all of their face muscles, while
others draw on a past emotional experience to produce the emotional
state they want. But this is not an easy trick to pull off all the time.
There is a good reason for this - part of our emotions evolved to deal
with other people and our empathic nature. If these emotions could
easily be faked, they would do more harm than good (Pinker, 1997).
So our emotions not only guide our decisions, they can also be
communicated to others to help them in their decisions - of course their
emotions will be the ultimate guide, but the emotions they discover in
others become part of their knowledge base.
References
Butler, Gillian, Ph.D. and Hope, Tony, M.D. (1996). M a n a g i n g
Y o u r M i n d . New York: Oxford University Press.
Mehrabian, Albert and Morton Wiener, 1967, "Decoding of inconsistent
communications," J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y a n d S o c i a l
P s y c h o l o g y 6:109-114
Mehrabian, Albert and Susan R. Ferris, 1967, "Inference of attitudes
from nonverbal communication in two channels," J o u r n a l o f
C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l o g y 31:248-252.
Pearson, J. (1983). I n t e r p e r s o n a l Communication.
Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foreman and Company.
Pinker, Steven (1997). H o w t h e M i n d W o r k s . New York: W.
W. Norton & Company.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcom.html

Paul Ekman

In the mid 1960s, Paul Ekman studied emotions and discovered six
facial expressions that almost everyone recognizes world-wide:
happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise. Although they
were controversial at first (he was booed off the stage when he first
presented it to a group of anthropologists and later called a fascist and
a racist) they are now widely accepted. One of the controversies still
lingering is the amount of context needed to interpret them. For
example, if someone reports to me that they have this great ideal that
they would like to implement, and I say that would be great, but I look
on them with a frown, is it possible that I could be thinking about