1.

INTRODUCTION
Embedded Systems: Embedded system is a combination of hardware and software, it is also named as Firm ware. An embedded system is a special purpose computer system, which is completely encapsulated by the device it controls. It is a computer-controlled system An embedded system is a specialized system that is a part of a lar er system or machine. As a part of a lar er system it lar ely determines its functionality. Embedded systems are electronic devices that incorporate microprocessors with in their implementations. !he main purpose of the microprocessors are simplify the system desi n and improve fle"ibility. In the embedded systems, the software is often stored in a read only memory #$A%& chip. Embedded systems provide several ma'or functions includin monitorin of the analo environment by readin data from sensors and controllin actuators.

Inputs (sensor)

Embedded System

Outputs (actuator)

F !ure " rea# t me system nteracts $ t% en& ronment

E'amp#es O( Embedded Systems:

Embedded systems are found in wide ran e of application areas. (ri inally they were used only for e"pensive industrial control applications, but as technolo y brou ht down the cost of dedicated processors, they be an to appear in moderately e"pensive applications such as automobiles, communication and office e)uipments and television *

!oday+s embedded systems are so ine"pensive that they are used in almost every electronic product in our life. Embedded systems are often desi ned for mass production. ,ome e"amples of embedded systems Automatic !eller %achines .ellular telephone and telephone switches .omputer networ/ e)uipment .omputer printers 0is/ drives En ine controllers and antiloc/ brea/ controllers for automobiles 1ome automation products 1andheld calculators 1ousehold appliances %edical e)uipment %easurement e)uipment %ultifunction wrist watches %ultifunction printers %obile phones with additional capabilities 2ro rammable 3o ic .ontrollers

)#oc* d a!ram: "T,-C./ %icro controll "T,-C./ DTMF HT9170B %icro controller unit

0O1ER SU0023

er uniDTMF
HT9170B 4O)I2E CONNECTOR t

4OTOR DRI6ER

DC 4OTOR

4O)I2E (5S4)

+ard$are Components: *. 2(5E$,62237 68I! #!$A8,F($%E$, 9:;< = 9:*4 $E>63A!($,, .A2A.I!($ *;;;mf& 4. :?.<4 %I.$(.(8!$(33E$ @. 0. %(!($ A. 638 4:;@ 0$IBE$ I. <. 0C ? .(88E.!($ D. %AE 4@4 I.

So(t$are: ,oft 5are developed for this pro'ect in Embedded F.G usin HEI3-@.

)#oc* d a!ram descr pt on: In t% s sect on $e $ ## be d scuss n! about comp#ete b#oc* d a!ram and ts (unct ona# descr pt on o( our pro7ect. "nd a#so br e( descr pt on about eac% b#oc* o( t%e b#oc* d a!ram. 0o$er supp#y: In this system we are usin <B power supply for microcontroller of !ransmitter section as well as receiver section. 5e use rectifiers for convertin the A... into 0.. and a step down transformer to step down the volta e. !he full description of the 2ower supply section is followin sections i.e. hardware components. 4 cro contro##er : In this pro'ect the micro-controller is playin a ma'or role. %icrocontrollers were ori inally used as components in complicated process-control systems. 1owever, because of their small size and low price, %icro-controllers are now also bein used in re ulators for individual control loops. well. !he purpose of this pro'ect wor/ is to present control theory that is relevant to the analysis and desi n of %icro-controller system with an emphasis on basic concept and ideas. It is assumed that a %icrocontroller with reasonable software is available for computations and simulations so that many tedious details can be left to the %icrocontroller. !he control system desi n is also carried out up to the sta e of implementation in the form of controller pro rams in assembly lan ua e ($ in .-3an ua e. In several areas %icro-controllers are now outperformin their analo counterparts and are cheaper as iven in this documentation in the

DT4F (Dua# Tone 4u#t Fre8uency): A

A 0!%F is used to decode the fre)uency and to ive the instructions to microcontroller. De& ces: 1ere devices or Appliances are interfaced with the micro controller .based on the input instruction the particular appliance is operated. Sc%emat c:

<

Sc%emat c E'p#anat on: !he main aim of this power supply is to convert the 4@;B A. into <B 0. in order to ive supply for the !!3. !his schematic e"planation includes the detailed pin connections of every device with the microcontroller. !his schematic e"planation includes the detailed pin connections of every device with the microcontroller. !he pin no 4@ and 4< are rounded in such a way that voice record and play bac/ will be possible. !he mobile will be connected to the spea/er pins. 3et us see the pin connections of each and every device with the microcontroller in detail.

0o$er Supp#y: In this process we are usin a step down transformer, a brid e rectifier, a smoothin circuit and the $2,. At the primary of the transformer we are ivin the 4@;B A. supply. !he secondary is connected to the opposite terminals of the Crid e rectifier as the input. From other set of opposite terminals we are ta/in the output to the rectifier. !he brid e rectifier converts the A. comin from the secondary of the

transformer into pulsatin 0.. !he output of this rectifier is further iven to the smoother circuit which is capacitor in our pro'ect. !he smoothin circuit eliminates the ripples from the pulsatin 0. and ives the pure 0. to the $2, to et a constant output 0. volta e. !he $2, re ulates the volta e as per our re)uirement. 4 crocontro##er: !he microcontroller A!:?,<4 with 2ull up resistors at 2ort; and crystal oscillator of **.;<?4 %1z crystal in con'unction with couple of capacitors of is placed at *:th = *?th pins of :?,<4 to ma/e it wor/ #e"ecute& properly. 4otor:

!he motor is one of the output devices. !his is connected to the port 2@.D of the %icrocontroller throu h the transistor circuitry as shown in the above schematic. De& ce: 1ere the device to be controlled is connected to the port p@.9 of the micro controller by usin relays. DT4F: !his is nothin but a 0ual !une %ultiple Fre)uency. !his receives the si nals from the mobile and sends it to the microcontroller.

/. 4ICRO CONTRO22ER ("T,-S./)

/.1 Introduct on
A %icro controller consists of a powerful .26 ti htly coupled with memory, various II( interfaces such as serial port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller, data ac)uisition interfaces-Analo to 0i ital converter, 0i ital to Analo converter, inte rated on to a sin le silicon chip. (ne of the ma'or differences between a %icroprocessor and a %icro controller is that a controller often deals with bits not bytes as in the real world application. Intel has introduced a family of %icro controllers called the %.,-<*.

/./ Features
.ompatible with %.,-<* 2roducts : Hbytes of In-,ystem $epro rammable Flash %emory Endurance- *,;;; 5riteIErase .ycles Fully ,tatic (peration- ; 1z to 4A %1z !hree-3evel 2ro ram %emory 3oc/ 4<D " :-Cit Internal $A% @4 2ro rammable II( 3ines !hree *D-Cit !imerI.ounters Ei ht vector two level Interrupt ,ources 2ro rammable ,erial .hannel 3ow 2ower Idle and 2ower 0own %odes

/.9 Descr pt on
!he A!:?.<4 provides the followin standard features- :Hbytes of Flash, 4<D bytes of $A%, @4 II( lines, three *D-bit timerIcounters, si"-vector twolevel interrupt architecture, a full duple" serial port, on-chip oscillator, and cloc/ circuitry. In addition, the A!:?.<4 is desi ned with static lo ic for operation down to zero fre)uency and supports two software selectable power savin modes. !he Idle %ode stops the .26 while allowin the $A%, timerIcounters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functionin . !he 2ower down %ode saves the $A% contents but freezes the oscillator, disablin all other chip functions until the ne"t hardware reset.

)#oc* d a!ram:

F !ure: )#oc* d a!ram o( "T,-C./

*;

0 n d a!ram:

/.: 0 n Descr pt on
J J

6CC ; ,upply volta e. 5ND ; >round.

0ort <: 2ort ; is an :-bit open drain bidirectional II( port. As an output port, each pin can sin/ ei ht !!3 inputs. 5hen *s are written to port ; pins, the pins can be used as hi h-impedance inputs. 2ort ; can also be confi ured to be the multiple"ed low-order addressIdata bus durin accesses to e"ternal pro ram and data memory. In **

this mode, 2; has internal pull-ups. 2ort ; also receives the code bytes durin Flash pro rammin and outputs the code bytes durin pro ram verification. E'terna# pu##; ups are re8u red dur n! pro!ram &er ( cat on. 0ort 1: 2ort * is an :-bit bidirectional II( port with internal pull-ups. !he 2ort * output buffers can sin/Isource four !!3 inputs. 5hen *s are written to 2ort * pins, they are pulled hi h by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, 2ort * pins that are e"ternally bein pulled low will source current #II3& because of the internal pull-ups. 2ort * also receives the low-order address bytes durin pro rammin and verification. Flash

0ort /: 2ort 4 is an :-bit bidirectional II( port with internal pull-ups. !he 2ort 4 output buffers can sin/Isource four !!3 inputs. 5hen *s are written to 2ort 4 pins, they are pulled hi h by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, 2ort 4 pins that are e"ternally bein pulled low will source current #II3& because of the internal pull-ups. 2ort 4 also receives the hi h-order address bits and some control si nals durin Flash pro rammin and verification. 0ort 9: 2ort @ is an :-bit bidirectional II( port with internal pull-ups. !he 2ort @ output buffers can sin/Isource four !!3 inputs. 5hen *s are written to 2ort @ pins, they are pulled hi h by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, 2ort @ pins that are e"ternally bein pulled low will source current #II3& because of the pull-ups. 2ort @ receives some control si nals for Flash pro rammin and verification. 2ort @ also serves the functions of various special features of the A!:?,<4, as shown in the followin table.

*4

RST: $eset input. A hi h on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is runnin resets the device. !his pin drives 1i h for ?: oscillator periods after the 5atchdo times out. !he 0I,$!( bit in ,F$ A6E$ #address :E1& can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit 0I,$!(, the $E,E! 1I>1 out feature is enabled. "2E=0RO5: Address 3atch Enable #A3E& is an output pulse for latchin the low byte of the address durin accesses to e"ternal memory. !his pin is also the pro ram pulse input #2$(>& durin Flash pro rammin . In normal operation, A3E is emitted at a constant rate of *ID the oscillator fre)uency and may be used for e"ternal timin or cloc/in purposes. 8ote, however, that one A3E pulse is s/ipped durin each access to e"ternal data memory. If desired, A3E operation can be disabled by settin bit ; of ,F$ location :E1. 5ith the bit set, A3E is active only durin a %(BE or %(B. instruction. (therwise, the pin is wea/ly pulled hi h. ,ettin the A3E-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in e"ternal e"ecution mode. 0SEN: 2ro ram ,tore Enable #2,E8& is the read strobe to e"ternal pro ram memory. 5hen the A!:?,<* is e"ecutin code from e"ternal pro ram memory, 2,E8 is activated twice each machine cycle, e"cept that two 2,E8 activations are s/ipped durin each access to e"ternal data memory. *@

E"=600: E"ternal Access Enable. EA must be strapped to >80 in order to enable the device to fetch code from e"ternal pro ram memory locations startin at ;;;;1 up to FFFF1. 8ote, however, that if loc/ bit * is pro rammed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to B.. for internal pro ram e"ecutions. !his pin also receives the *4-volt pro rammin pro rammin . >T"21: Input to the invertin operatin circuit. >T"2/: (utput from the invertin oscillator amplifier. oscillator amplifier and input to the internal cloc/ enable volta e #B22& durin Flash

/.. Osc ##ator C%aracter st cs

E!A3* and E!A34 are the input and output, respectively, of an invertin amplifier which can be confi ured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Fi s 4.<.*. Either a )uartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. !o drive the device from an e"ternal cloc/ source, E!A34 should be left unconnected while E!A3* is driven as shown in Fi ure 4.<.4.!here are no re)uirements on the duty cycle of the e"ternal cloc/ si nal, since the input to the internal cloc/in circuitry is throu h a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and ma"imum volta e hi h and low time specifications must be observed.

F ! /...1Osc ##ator Connect ons

F ! /.../ E'terna# C#oc* Dr &e Con( !urat on

*A

9. DT4F (DU"2 TONE 4U2TI FRE?UENC3)

9.1 Introduct on
!he %-::9; is a full 0!%F $eceiver that inte rates both band split filter and decoder functions into a sin le *:-pin 0I2 or ,(I. pac/a e. %anufactured usin .%(, process technolo y, the %-::9; offers low power consumption #@< m5 ma"& and precise data handlin . Its filter section uses switched capacitor technolo y for both the hi h and low roup filters and for dial tone re'ection. Its decoder uses di ital countin techni)ues to detect and decode all *D 0!%F tone pairs into a A-bit code. E"ternal component count is minimized by provision of an on-chip differential input amplifier, cloc/ enerator, and latched tri-state interface bus. %inimal e"ternal components re)uired include a low-cost @.<9?<A< %1z color burst crystal, a timin resistor, and a timin capacitor. !he %-::9; provides a power-down option which, when enabled, drops consumption to less than ;.< m5. !he %-::9;-;4 can also inhibit the decodin of fourth column di its

9.1.1 Features
J 3ow 2ower .onsumption J Ad'ustable Ac)uisition and $elease !imes J .entral (ffice Kuality and 2erformance J 2ower-down and Inhibit %odes #-;4 only& J Ine"pensive @.<: %1z !ime Case J ,in le < Bolt 2ower ,upply J 0ial !one ,uppression

*<

0 n d a!ram:

)#oc* D a!ram:

*D

9.1./ 0 n descr pt on

3.2 Functional Description

!he 1!?*9;CI0 tone decoders consist of three band pass filters and two di ital decode circuits to convert a tone #0!%F& si nal into di ital code output. An operational amplifier is built-in to ad'ust the input si nal. !he pre-filter is a band re'ection filter, which reduces the dialin tone from @<;1z to A;;1z. !he low roup filter filters low roup fre)uency si nal output whereas the hi h roup filter filters hi h roup Fre)uency si nal output. A zero-crossin detector with follows each filters output hysteretic. 5hen each si nal amplitude at the output e"ceeds the specified level, it is transferred to full swin lo ic si nal. 5hen input si nals are reco nized to be effective, 0B becomes hi h, and the correct tone code #0!%F& di it is transferred.

*9

Steer n! contro# c rcu t: !he steerin control circuit is used for measurin the effective si nal duration and for protectin a ainst drop out of valid si nals. It employs the analo delay by e"ternal $. time-constant controlled by E,!. !he E,! pin is normally low and draws the $!I>! pin to /eep low throu h dischar e of e"ternal $.. 5hen a valid tone input is detected, E,! oes hi h to char e $!I>! throu h $.. 5hen the volta e of $!I>! chan es from ; to B!$! #4.@<B for <B supply&, the input si nal is effective, and the code detector will create the correct code. After 0;L0@ are completely latched, 0B output becomes hi h. 5hen the volta e of $!I>! falls down from B00 to B!$! #i.e. when there is no input tone&, 0B output becomes 3ow, and 0;L0@ /eeps data until a ne"t valid tone input is produced. Cy selectin ade)uate e"ternal $. value, the minimum acceptable input tone duration #tA..& and the minimum acceptable inter-tone re'ection #tI$& can be set. E"ternal .omponents #$, .& are chosen by the formula. tA..Mt02Nt>!2O tI$Mt0ANt>!AO 5here tA..- !one duration acceptable time !02- E,! output delay time #P3PP1P& !>!2- !one present time !I$- Inter-di it pause re'ection time !0A- E,! output delay time #P1PP3P& t>!A- !one absent time

*:

T m n! D a!ram:

*?

0 n D a!ram O( C4,,@<:

"pp# cat ons:

2ACE .entral office %obile radio $emote control $emote data entry .all limitin

!elephone answerin systems

4;

:.014
25% is a way of di itally encodin analo si nal levels. !hrou h the use of hi hresolution counters, the duty cycle of a s)uare wave is modulated to encode a specific analo si nal level. !he 25% si nal is still di ital because, at any iven instant of time, the full 0. supply is either fully on or fully off. !he volta e or current source is supplied to the analo load by means of a repeatin series of and off pulse. !he on time is the time durin which the DC supply is applied to the load and the off time is the periods durin which that supply is switched off. >iven a sufficient bandwidth, any analo value can be encoded with 014. %any micro controllers include 014 controllers. For e"ample, %icrochipGs 0IC1ACA@ includes two, each of which has a selectable on-time and period. !he duty cycle is the ratio of the on-time to the period. "d&anta!es o( 014: 014 is economical, space savin . !he si nal remains di ital all !he way from the processor to the controlled system. 8o di ital-to Qanalo conversion is 8ecessary. Cy /eepin the si nal di ital, noise immunity is yet another benefit of choos-in 014 over analo control and is the principal reason 014 is sometimes used for communication. "pp# cat ons o( 014: 014 is employed in a wide variety of applications, ran in from %easurement and communication to power control and conversion. As a concrete e"ample consider a 014controlled bra/e. !o put it simply, a bra/e is a device that clamps down hard on somethin in many bra/esO the amount of clampin pressure is controlled with an analo input si nal. !he more volta e or current thatGs applied to the bra/e, the more pressure the bra/e will e"ert. !he output of a 014 controller could be connected to a switch between the supply and the bra/e to produce more stoppin power, the software need only increase the duty cycle of the 014 output.

4*

:./ Ser a# commun cat on bet$een 0C and m crocontro##er

5hen a processor communicates with the outside world, it provides data in byte sized chun/s. .omputers transfer data in two ways- parallel and serial. In parallel data transfers, often more lines are used to transfer data to a device and : bit data path is e"pensive. !he serial communication transfer uses only a sin le data line instead of the : bit data line of parallel communication which ma/es the data transfer not only cheaper but also ma/es it possible for two computers located in two different cities to communicate over telephone. ,erial data communication uses two methods, asynchronous and synchronous. !he synchronous method transfers data at a time while the asynchronous transfers a sin le byte at a time. !here are some special I. chips made by many manufacturers for data communications. !hese chips are commonly referred to as 6A$! #universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter& and 6,A$! #universal synchronous asynchronous receiver transmitter&. !he A!:?.<* chip has a built in 6A$!. In asynchronous method, each character is placed between start and stop bits. !his is called framin . In data framin of asynchronous communications, the data, such as A,.II characters, are pac/ed in between a start and stop bit. 5e have a total of *; bits for a character- : bits for the A,.II code and * bit each for the start and stop bits. !he rate of serial data transfer communication is stated in bps or it can be called as baud rate. !o allow the compatibility amon data communication e)uipment made by various manufacturers, and interfacin standard called $,4@4 was set by the Electronics industries Association in *?D;. !oday $,4@4 is the most widely used II( interfacin standard. !his standard is used in 2.s and numerous types of e)uipment. 1owever, since the standard was set lon before the advent of the !!3 lo ic family, its input and output volta e levels are not !!3 compatible. In $,4@4, a * bit is represented by -@ to -4<B, while a ; bit is represented N@ to N4< B, ma/in -@ to N@ undefined. For this reason, to connect any $,4@4 to a microcontroller system we must use volta e converters such as %AE4@4 to connect the !!3 lo ic levels to $,4@4 volta e levels and vice versa. %AE4@4 I.s are commonly referred to as line drivers.

44

!he $,4@4 cables are enerally referred to as 0C-? connector. In labelin , 0C-?2 refers to the plu connector #male& and 0C-?, is for the soc/et connector #female&. !he simplest connection between a 2. and microcontroller re)uires a minimum of three pin, !E0, $E0, and round. %any of the pins of the $,4@4 connector are used for handsha/in si nals. !hey are bypassed since they are not supported by the :;<* 6A$! chip.

IC% 2.I compatible computers based on ":D#:;:D, :;4:D, @:D, A:D and 2entium& microprocessors normally have two .(% ports. Coth .(% ports have $,4@4 type connectors. %any 2.s use one each of the 0C-4< and 0C-? $,4@4 connectors. !he .(% ports are desi nated as .(%* and .(%4. 5e can connect the serial port to the .(% 4 port of a 2. for serial communication e"periments. 5e use a 0C? connector in our arran ement. !he A!:?.<4 has two pins that are used specifically for transferrin and receivin data serially. !hese two pins are called !E0 and $E0 and are part of the port@ #2@.; and 2@.*&. !hese pins are !!3 compatibleO therefore they re)uire a line driver to ma/e them $,4@4 compatible. (ne such line driver is the %AE4@4 chip. (ne advanta e of %AE4@4 chip is that it uses a N<v power source which is the same as the source volta e for the at:?c<*. !he %AE4@4 has two sets of line drivers for receivin and transferrin data. !he line drivers for !E0 are called !* and !4 while the line drivers for $E0 are desi nated as $* and $4. !* and $* are used for !E0 and $E0 of the :?c<* and the second set is left unused. In %AE4@4 that the !I line driver has a desi nation of !* in and !* out on pin numbers ** and *A, respectively. !he !* in pin is the !!3 side and is connected to !E0 of the microcontroller, while !I out is the $,4@4 side that is connected to the $E0 pin of the 0C? connector. !o allow data transfer between 2. and the microcontroller system without any error, we must ma/e sure that the baud rate of the :;<* system matches the baud rate of the 2.Gs .(% port. 4@

.. RE5U2"TED 0O1ER SU0023

..1.1 Introduct on
!here are many types of power supply. %ost are desi ned to convert hi h volta e A. mains electricity to a suitable low volta e supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by bro/en down into a series of bloc/s, each of which performs a particular function. For e"ample a <B re ulated supply can be shown as below

Fig 3.10: Block Diagram of a Regulated Power Supply System ,imilarly, *4v re ulated supply can also be produced by suitable selection of the individual elements. Each of the bloc/s is described in detail below and the power supplies made from these bloc/s are described below with a circuit dia ram and a raph of their output-

../ Trans(ormer
A transformer steps down hi h volta e A. mains to low volta e A.. 1ere we are usin a center-tap transformer whose output will be sinusoidal with @Dvolts pea/ to pea/

4A

value.

Fig: 3.10.2 utput !a"eform of tra#sformer !he low volta e A. output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special A. motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothin capacitor. !he transformer output is iven to the rectifier circuit.

..9 Rect ( er
A rectifier converts A. to 0., but the 0. output is varyin . !here are several types of rectifiersO here we use a brid e rectifier. !he Crid e rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac volta e to dc volta e usin both half cycles of the input ac volta e. !he Crid e rectifier circuit is shown in the fi ure. !he circuit has four diodes connected to form a brid e. !he ac input volta e is applied to the dia onally opposite ends of the brid e. !he load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the brid e. For the positive half cycle of the input ac volta e, diodes 0* and 0@ conduct, whereas diodes 04 and 0A remain in the (FF state. !he conductin diodes will be in series with the load resistance $3 and hence the load current flows throu h $3. For the ne ative half cycle of the input ac volta e, diodes 04 and 0A conduct whereas, 0* and 0@ remain (FF. !he conductin diodes 04 and 0A will be in series with the load resistance $3 and hence the current flows throu h $3 in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. !hus a bi-directional wave is converted into unidirectional.

4<

F$%:&'e output wa"eform of t'e rectifier is s'ow# as (elow

!he varyin 0. output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothin capacitor. Smoot% n!: !he smoothin bloc/ smoothes the 0. from varyin ,moothin is also named as filterin . Filterin is fre)uently effected by shuntin the load with a capacitor. !he action of this system depends on the fact that the capacitor stores ener y durin the conduction period and delivers this ener y to the loads durin the no conductin period. In this way, the time durin which the current passes throu h the load is prolon !ed, and the ripple is considerably decreased. !he action of the capacitor is shown with the help of waveform. reatly to a small ripple. !he ripple volta e is defined as the deviation of the load volta e from its 0. value.

4D

Fig 3.10.).1&'e wa"eform of t'e rectified output after smoot'i#g is gi"e# (elow:

..: Re!u#ator
$e ulator eliminates ripple by settin 0. output to a fi"ed volta e. Bolta e re ulator I.s are available with fi"ed #typically <, *4 and *<B& or variable output volta es. 8e ative volta e re ulators are also available %any of the fi"ed volta e re ulator I.s has @ leads #input, output and hi h impedance&. !hey include a hole for attachin a heat sin/ if necessary. Rener diode is an e"ample of fi"ed re ulator which is shown here.

49

3.10.1 REGULATOR

Trans(ormer B Rect ( er B Smoot% n! B Re!u#ator-

4:

A.U2N DC 4OTOR DRI6ER

638 is mainly suited for interfacin between low-level circuits and multiple peripheral power loads, !he series 6384;EE hi h volta e, hi h current 0arlin ton arrays feature continuous load current ratin s. !he drivin circuitry in- turn decodes the codin and conveys the necessary data to the stepper motor, this module aids in the movement of the arm throu h steppers.

4?

!he driver ma/es use of the 6384;;@ driver I., which contains an array of 9 power 0arlin ton arrays, each capable of drivin <;;mA of current. At an appro"imate duty cycle, dependin on ambient temperature and number of drivers turned on, simultaneously typical power loads totalin over 4@;w can be controlled. !he device has base resistors, allowin direct connection to any common lo ic family. All the emitters are tied to ether and brou ht out to a separate terminal. (utput protection diodes are includedO hence the device can drive inductive loads with minimum e"tra components. !ypical loads include relays, solenoids, stepper motors, ma netic print hammers, multiple"ed 3E0, incandescent displays and heaters. T%e ma n (eatures o( U2N/<<9 are as (o##o$s: ,even 0arlin ton per pac/a e @;

(utput current <;;ma per driver #D;;ma pea/& (utput volta e <;v Inte rated suppression diodes for inductive loads (utputs can be paralleled for hi h current !!3I.%(,I0!3 compatible inputs Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify layout. !ransient protected outputs 0ual In-3ine plastic pac/a e or small-(utline I. pac/a e.

@. DC 4OTOR
0. motors are confi ured in many types and sizes, includin brush less, servo, and ear motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent ma netic field stator. !he ma netic field is maintained usin either permanent ma nets or electroma netic windin s. 0. motors are most commonly used in variable speed and tor)ue. %otion and controls cover a wide ran e of components that in some way are used to enerate andIor control motion. Areas within this cate ory include bearin s @*

and bushin s, clutches and bra/es, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and resolves, Inte rated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion components, linear position sensin , motors #both A. and 0. motors&, orientation position sensin , pneumatics and pneumatic components, positionin sta es, slides and uides, power transmission #mechanical&, seals, slip rin s, solenoids, sprin s. %otors are the devices that provide the actual speed and tor)ue in a drive system. !his family includes A. motor types #sin le and multiphase motors, universal, servo motors, induction, synchronous, and ear motor& and 0. motors #brush less, servo motor, and ear motor& as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and starters. In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electroma netism. A current-carryin conductor enerates a ma netic fieldO when this is then placed in an e"ternal ma netic field, it will e"perience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the stren th of the e"ternal ma netic field. As you are well aware of from playin with ma nets as a /id, opposite #8orth and ,outh& polarities attract, while li/e polarities #8orth and 8orth, ,outh and ,outh& repel. !he internal confi uration of a 0. motor is desi ned to harness the ma netic interaction between a current-carryin ma netic field to enerate rotational motion. 3et+s start by loo/in at a simple 4-pole 0. electric motor #here red represents a ma net or windin with a S8orthS polarization, while reen represents a ma net or windin with a S,outhS polarization&. conductor and an e"ternal

Every 0. motor has si" basic parts -- a"le, rotor #a./.a., armature&, stator, commutator, field ma net#s&, and brushes. In most common 0. motors #and all that Ceamers will see&, the e"ternal ma netic field is produced by hi h-stren th permanent ma nets*. !he stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casin , as well as two or more permanent ma net pole pieces. !he rotor #to ether with the a"le and attached commutator& rotates with respect to the stator. !he rotor consists of windin s # enerally on a core&, the windin s bein electrically connected to the commutator. !he @4

above dia ram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator #field& ma nets. !he eometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windin s are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the ener ized windin and the stator ma net#s& are misali ned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost ali ned with the stator+s field ma nets. As the rotor reaches ali nment, the brushes move to the ne"t commutator contacts, and ener ize the ne"t windin . >iven our e"ample two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current throu h the rotor windin , leadin to a SflipS of the rotor+s ma netic field, and drivin it to continue rotatin . In real life, thou h, 0. motors will always have more than two poles #three is a very common number&. In particular, this avoids Sdead spotsS in the commutator. 7ou can ima ine how with our e"ample two-pole motor, if the rotor is e"actly at the middle of its rotation #perfectly ali ned with the field ma nets&, it will et Sstuc/S there. %eanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply #i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously&. !his would be bad for the power supply, waste ener y, and dama e motor components as well. 7et another disadvanta e of such a simple motor is that it would e"hibit a hi h amount of tor)ue rippleS #the amount of tor)ue it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor&.

,o since most small 0. motors are of a three-pole desi n, let+s tin/er with the wor/in s of one via an interactive animation #Tava,cript re)uired&-

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7ou+ll notice a few thin s from this -- namely, one pole is fully ener ized at a time #but two others are SpartiallyS ener ized&. As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the ne"t, one coil+s field will rapidly collapse, as the ne"t coil+s field will rapidly char e up #this occurs within a few microsecond&. 5e+ll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windin s+ series wirin -

!here+s probably no better way to see how an avera e dc motor is put to ether, than by 'ust openin one up. 6nfortunately this is tedious wor/, as well as re)uirin the destruction of a perfectly ood motor. !his is a basic @-pole dc motor, with 4 brushes and three commutator contacts

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,. 0ROCECT CODE
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-. CONC2USION
!he speed control of 0. %otor has been achieved successfully usin microcontroller unit. !he circuit has been tested and verified. 5e used 0. %(!($ control to achieve various speed of the %otor, for this fi"ed numberin is pro rammed by usin the microcontroller. And the pro ram has been successfully tested and verified for several specified loads.

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