Insulation aging and life models Let us consider a solid insulation system subjecte d to one (or more) stress

that causes irreversible changes of material properties with time, thus red ucing progressively the attitude of insulation in enduring the stress itself. This process is called aging and ends when the insulation is no more abl e to withstand the applied stress. The relevant time is the time-to-failure, alternatively called insulation life [1]. Insulation life modeling cons ists of looking for adequate relationships between insulation life and the values of the stress(es) a pplied to it. In the case of electrical insulation , the stresses most commonly applied in service are elec tric field (due to voltage) and temperature, but also other stresses, such as mechanical stresses ( bending, vibration) and environmental stresses (such as pollution, humidity) can be present. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy is a technique f or studying materials with unpaired electrons. The basic concepts of EPR are analogous to those of n uclear magnetic resonance (NMR), but it is electro n spins that are excited instead of the spins of a tomic nuclei. Because most stable molecules have a ll their electrons paired, the EPR technique is le ss widely used than NMR. However, this limitation also means that EPR offers great specificity, sinc e ordinary chemical solvents and matrices do not g ive rise to EPR spectra. Applications[edit] EPR/ESR spectroscopy is used in various branches o f science, such as biology, chemistry and physics, for the detection and identification of free radi cals and paramagnetic centers such as F centers. E PR is a sensitive, specific method for studying bo

th radicals formed in chemical reactions and the r eactions themselves. For example, when ice (solid H2O) is decomposed by exposure to high-energy radi ation, radicals such as H, OH, and HO2 are produce d. Such radicals can be identified and studied by EPR. Organic and inorganic radicals can be detecte d in electrochemical systems and in materials expo sed to UV light. In many cases, the reactions to m ake the radicals and the subsequent reactions of t he radicals are of interest, while in other cases EPR is used to provide information on a radical's geometry and the orbital of the unpaired electron. Ferromagnetic resonance Ferromagnetic resonance, or FMR, is a spectroscopi c technique to probe the magnetization of ferromag netic materials. It is a standard tool for probing spin waves and spin dynamics. FMR is very broadly similar to electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and also somewhat similar to nuclear magnetic res onance (NMR) except that FMR probes the sample mag netization resulting from the magnetic moments of dipolar-coupled but unpaired electrons whereas NMR probes the magnetic moment of atomic nuclei scree ned by the atomic or molecular orbitals surroundin g such nuclei of non-zero nuclear spin. Magnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a prope rty of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions during the proce ss of magnetization. The variation of materials's magnetization due to the applied magnetic field ch anges the magnetostrictive strain until reaching i ts saturation value, ?. The effect was first ident ified in 1842 by James Joule when observing a samp le of iron.[1] This effect causes losses due to frictional heatin g in susceptible ferromagnetic cores. The effect i s also responsible for the low-pitched buzzing sou nd that can be heard near transformers on alternat

ing current carrying pylons.[2] Internally, ferromagnetic materials have a structu re that is divided into domains, each of which is a region of uniform magnetic polarization. When a magnetic field is applied, the boundaries between the domains shift and the domains rotate; both of these effects cause a change in the material's dim ensions. The reciprocal effect, the change of the susceptib ility (response to an applied field) of a material when subjected to a mechanical stress, is called the Villari effect. Two other effects are thus rel ated to magnetostriction: the Matteucci effect is the creation of a helical anisotropy of the suscep tibility of a magnetostrictive material when subje cted to a torque and the Wiedemann effect is the t wisting of these materials when a helical magnetic field is applied to them. The Villari reversal is the change in sign of the magnetostriction of iron from positive to negative when exposed to magnetic fields of approximately 40,000 A/m (500 oersteds). On magnetization, a magnetic material undergoes ch anges in volume which are small: of the order 10-6 . Selective Coating an optical coating applied to the surface of an el ement of a solar energy device to reduce thermal r adiation losses. Both transparent and nontranspare nt selective coatings are used: the former are app lied to the surfaces of transparent (insulating) e lements, and the latter to radiation-absorbing ele ments. Nontransparent selective coatings have a high abso rptivity (~0.95) to radiation in the visible and n

ear-infrared regions of the optical spectrumthat is, in the spectral range of incident solar radiat ion. Their emissivitythat is, the ratio of the ra diation emitted by such a surface to the radiation emitted by a blackbodyis low (~0.05) in the farinfrared region, which is the spectral region of r adiation losses. Such losses consist in the therma l radiation of an absorbing surface heated to a te mperature of 100 to 300C. Transparent selective coatings are characterized b y a high transmissivity for solar radiation and a high reflectivity for long-wavelength infrared rad iation. Thin layers of metal oxides, a number of s emiconductor compounds, and some dyes have selecti ve properties. Selective coatings are applied by e lec-trodeposition, vacuum deposition, or painting. Selective coatings used to increase radiation loss es constitute a special group: such coatings absor b solar radiation weakly and have a high emissivit y. They are used to protect such structures as gas tanks and oil tanks located in the open air. The coatings reduce the heating of the structures in s unny weather. A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbi ng sunlight. A collector is a device for capturing solar radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrar ed (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface averages about 1,000 watts per square mete r under clear skies, depending upon weather condit ions, location and orientation. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to sola r hot water panels, but may refer to installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers; or basic installations such as solar air heaters. Solar power plants usually use the more complex c

ollectors to generate electricity by heating a flu id to drive a turbine connected to an electrical g enerator. Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space hea ting. Heat collectors[edit] Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or c oncentrating. In the non-concentrating type, the c ollector area (i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). In these types the whole solar panel absorbs light. Concen trating collectors have a bigger interceptor than absorber. Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are used to collect heat for space heating, domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller. Flat-plate collectors, developed by Hottel and Whi llier in the 1950s, are the most common type. They consist of (1) a dark flat-plate absorber, (2) a transparent cover that reduces heat losses, (3) a heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and (4) a heat ins ulating backing. The absorber consists of a thin a bsorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers, alumi num, steel or copper, to which a matte black or se lective coating is applied) often backed by a grid or coil of fluid tubing placed in an insulated ca sing with a glass or polycarbonate cover. In water heat panels, fluid is usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the absorber to an in sulated water tank. This may be achieved directly or through a heat exchanger. Most air heat fabricators and some water heat manu facturers have a completely flooded absorber consi sting of two sheets of metal which the fluid passe s between. Because the heat exchange area is great

er they may be marginally more efficient than trad itional absorbers.[1] Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heat s up, changing solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipe s attached to the absorber plate. Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," wh ich absorb and retain heat better than ordinary bl ack paint. Absorber plates are usually made of met altypically copper or aluminumbecause the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive , but is a better conductor and less prone to corr osion than aluminum. (See: Copper in solar water h eaters). In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approxima tely one-half to one square foot per gallon of one day's hot water use. Applications[edit]

The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a lar ge impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or a situation in w hich the hot water demand is excessive due to freq uent laundry washing. Commercial applications incl ude laundromats, car washes, military laundry faci lities and eating establishments. The technology c an also be used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilitie s with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot wate r. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools. Because these coll ectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as plastic o r rubber. They also do not require freeze-proofing because swimming pools are generally used only in warm weather or can be drained easily during cold weather

superconductor A magnet levitating above a high-temperature super conductor, cooled with liquid nitrogen. Persistent electric current flows on the surface of the supe rconductor, acting to exclude the magnetic field o f the magnet (Faraday's law of induction). This cu rrent effectively forms an electromagnet that repe ls the magnet. Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fi elds occurring in certain materials when cooled be low a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onn es on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is characterize d by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the sup erconductor as it transitions into the superconduc ting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be underst ood simply as the idealization of perfect conducti vity in classical physics. The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, th is decrease is limited by impurities and other def ects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a super conductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero w hen the material is cooled below its critical temp erature. An electric current flowing through a loo p of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.[1] In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perov skite ceramic materials have a critical temperatur e above 90 K (-183 C).[2] Such a high transition

temperature is theoretically impossible for a conv entional superconductor, leading the materials to be termed high-temperature superconductors. Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K, and superconduction at hi gher temperatures than this facilitates many exper iments and applications that are less practical at lower temperatures. In conventional superconducto rs, electrons are held together in Cooper pairs by an attraction mediated by lattice phonons. The be st available model of high-temperature superconduc tivity is still somewhat crude. There are currentl y two main hypotheses the resonating-valence-bon d theory, and spin fluctuation which has the most support in the research community.[3] The second h ypothesis proposed that electron pairing in high-t emperature superconductors is mediated by short-ra nge spin waves known as paramagnons.[4][5] Thermionic emission is the heat-induced flow of ch arge carriers from a surface or over a potential-e nergy barrier. This occurs because the thermal ene rgy given to the carrier overcomes the binding pot ential, also known as work function of the metal. The charge carriers can be electrons or ions, and in older literature are sometimes referred to as " thermions". After emission, a charge will initiall y be left behind in the emitting region that is eq ual in magnitude and opposite in sign to the total charge emitted. But if the emitter is connected t o a battery, then this charge left behind will be neutralized by charge supplied by the battery, as the emitted charge carriers move away from the emi tter, and finally the emitter will be in the same state as it was before emission. The thermionic em ission of electrons is also known as thermal elect ron emission. The classical e emission of vacuum (also uum tube. The example of thermionic emission is th electrons from a hot cathode, into a known as the Edison effect) in a vac hot cathode can be a metal filament,

a coated metal filament, or a separate structure of metal or carbides or borides of transition meta ls. Vacuum emission from metals tends to become si gnificant only for temperatures over 1000 K. The s cience dealing with this phenomenon has been known as thermionics, but this name seems to be gradual ly falling into disuse. The term "thermionic emission" is now also used to refer to any thermally-excited charge emission pr ocess, even when the charge is emitted from one so lid-state region into another. This process is cru cially important in the operation of a variety of electronic devices and can be used for electricity generation (e.g., thermionic converter, electrody namic tether) or cooling. The magnitude of the cha rge flow increases dramatically with increasing te mperature.

Ben answered 3 years ago Doping: In semiconductor production, doping is the process of intentionally introducing impurities into an e xtremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic) semi conductor to change its electrical properties. The impurities are dependent upon the type of semicon ductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductor s are referred to as extrinsic. A semiconductor do ped to such high levels that it acts more like a c onductor than a semiconductor is referred to as de generate. Alloying: An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution o f one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Compl ete solid solution alloys give single solid phase micro structure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribu tion depending on thermal (heat treatment) history . Alloys usually have different properties from th

ose of the component elements. Alloys' constituents are usually measured by mass.