William Anderson Dr. Steven P. Black Hon. Anth. 1102 November 2013 Chan in Cranial !

eat"res in H"man #vol"tion $odern man% kno&n as the modern Homo sapien% has been 'ost"lated to have descended 'rimaril( )rom Homo erectus% &hich is descended )rom the reat a'es% &hich became distinct )rom other 'rimates aro"nd 23 million (ears a o *Black+. $ost ever(one is )amiliar &ith the 'rimates and reat a'es% &hich are 'rimaril( ,"adr"'ed% some o) &hich d&ell in trees% and have markedl( di))erent )acial )eat"res% as &ell as 'ost"ral )eat"res. -he 'rimates. brains are smaller% and their s'ines attach to their heads at a ver( di))erent an le than h"mans. -his attachment 'oint is called the )oramen ma n"m. Disc"ssin "'on the base 'res"''osition that &e are indeed descended )rom the 'rimates raises several ,"estions. Some o) the reatest distin "ishin )eat"res bet&een h"mans and 'rimates is brain si/e% 'ost"re% and )acial sha'e% and &e m"st ,"estion ho& these chan es &ere &ro" ht over milennia. -hro" h the timeline o) h"man evol"tion% a tendenc( and 'attern )or% s'eci)icall(% sk"ll bone 'ro'ortions and )eat"res to chan e in 'redominantl( t&o &a(s has emer ed. !irst% sk"ll bones and orientation have chan ed to increase the si/e o) the brain cavit(% and secondl(% chan es have occ"rred that have decreased the si/e o) the 0a&s% 0a& m"scles and teeth. -hese have chan ed the com'lete sha'e o) the sk"ll. All to ether% these chan es have 'rod"ced a taller% not so hori/ontall( 'ro'ortioned sk"ll% eliminated the hi h rid e on the verte1 o) the 'arietal bone )or m"scle attachment% 'rod"ced a smaller )ace &ith less 'rominent s"'raorbital rid es *e(ebro& bones+% and decreased e1tr"sion o) the cheek bones. -he 'osition o) the )oramen ma n"m has also chan ed% most likel( )rom a decrease in the need )or 'o&er)"l neck m"scles% &hich is closel( related to chan es in 'ost"re and locomotion *Ciochon% !lea le% 2002+. -hese mor'holo ical characteristics 'rod"ce a strikin resemblance in 'h(sical and osteolo ical areas bet&een 0"venile a'es and man *White% Black% !olkens% 2012+ 3n (o"n a'es% most o)

the ad"lt.s de)inin 'h(sical characteristics have not (et develo'ed% th"s makin them com'arable to the modern Homo sapien. -here is obvio"sl( a correlation bet&een increasin brain si/e and decreasin )ace si/e b"t this is not a sim'le com'arison% since the basic si/e and sha'e relationshi's bet&een ancestral Australopithecines and Homo erectus has broken do&n to an e1tent in modern man *White% Black% !olkens% 2012+. -he )irst marked distin "ishin )eat"re bet&een 'rimates and the )irst 'roto4h"mans &as a shi)t to bi'edalism% &hich ma( &ell have s'arked m"ch or all o) the cranial mor'holo ( mentioned above *Black+. Selection 'ress"res )or this drastic chan e to bi'edalism most likel( incl"ded a h" e chan e in 'aleoecolo ( and s"rvival needs aro"nd that s'eci)ic time 'eriod. -heories as to &hat s'eci)icall( co"ld have )orced this t('e o) chan e incl"de the savanna4based theor(% the locomotion4e))icienc( based theor(% and the 'ost"ral )eedin 5s"stenance carr(in model. Chan es in the 'rimar( characteristics o) dental micro&ear in Australopithecines seem to s"''ort a chan e in diet and there)ore ecolo ( aro"nd the time that bi'edalism &as )irst 'ost"lated to have develo'ed% s"''ortin a chan e in the climate% eo ra'h(% and 'erha's even the method o) eatin . 3n s'ecimens o) Homo neanderthalensis% the dental micro&ear e1hibited s" ests that the( &ere "sin their teeth as a r"dimentar( tool% to ri' leather% and 'ossibl( even h"nt% be)ore the advent o) &ea'ons *Williams+. Ho&ever% in s'ecimens o) Australopithecus robustus% 6A diet based mainl( on s"cc"lent )r"its and seasonal )allback reso"rces &o"ld be consistent &ith the b"ccal micro&ear 'atterns that &ere observed. *#sebaran/% $art e/% 7alban(% -"rb% P e/4P e/% 2008+ -his com'arison bet&een H. neanderthalensis and A. robustus s"''orts a marked chan e in the habits and overall li)e o) the t&o% sho&in more h"man4like characteristics in Neanderthals% and more animal4like )eedin and activit( in A"stralo'ithec"s. -he savanna4based theor( as to &h( bi'edalism emer ed is s"mmari/ed in the h('othesis that all o) the reat a'es lived in a reat )orest that covered m"ch o) the e,"atorial and s"b4e,"atorial #arth. -hen% the climate chan ed drasticall(% becomin drier and th"s )orcin the )orest to recede% and rass to ro& aro"nd and bet&een the trees. -he theor( is that some o) o"r ancestors took advanta e o) this%

and vent"red )arther o"t into the rassland than others *Ciochon% !lea le% 2002+ -his &o"ld e1'lain &h( the reat a'es as &e kno& them toda( and the )irst 'roto4h"mans s'lit )rom a common ancestor. -he theor( o) 'ost"ral )eedin 4based bi'edalism 'ro'oses that as climatic chan es came to be% bi'edalism develo'ed )rom a necessit( to reach hi her to )eed% and develo'ed )rom there into a com'lete biolo ical chan e% res"ltin in the evol"tion o) hominins. 7eolo ical evidence sho&s that climate chan es d"rin the $iocene 'eriod 'robabl( thinned o"t )orests in #ast A)rica% a)ter e1'ansion d"rin the Plio4Pleistocene 'eriod. -he rich tro'ical )orests became o'en savannah &ith trees scattered in cl"m's thro" ho"t. Some o) the 'rimates in this chan in climate sta(ed in the trees% and the members o) this ro"' became the 'robable ancestors o) the ibbons and siaman s. $an( hominoid s'ecies% ho&ever% co"ld have le)t their arboreal homes )or the ro"nd in order to )ora e. -hese s'ecies% the earl( 'roto4h"mans% &o"ld have been 'ress"red to evolve so as to be able to )ora e &ith both hands &hile movin % and this evol"tionar( chan e led to "'ri ht movement. #ven tho" h this theor( e1'lains &h( earl( hominins co"ld have be "n &alkin on t&o le s% it does not e1'lain ho&. Australopithecus% the )irst 'rimate &ith "'ri ht bi'edal locomotion% lacked man( o) the mor'holo ical ada'tations necessar( )or e))icient bi'edal movement. -he 'elvis% sacr"m% and )em"r o) the Australopithecine resemble those o) modern h"mans% b"t it also sho&s man( arboreal characteristics% s"ch as lon % slender a''endices and a )"nnel sha'ed rib ca e. As time 'assed% Australopithecus ada'ted to li)e on the ro"nd% and be an to move more and more "'ri ht% "ntil the rise o) the en"s Homo *9rba% :et. al.;% editors+. <lder h('otheses abo"t bi'edal ori ins incl"de the abilit( to carr( )ood or other 'ortable items over lon er distances= the )reein o) )orelimbs )or )ora in % tool "se% or 'rotection= movin more ener (4e))icientl( than other )orms o) 'rimate ,"adr"'edalism= and the develo'ment o) lon distance r"nnin % to catch the )irst meat 're(. Another 'ossible e1'lanation )or bi'edalism is as an ada'tation to e))icientl( cool the bod( in hot tem'erat"res% kno&n as thermo4re "lation. 3n a hot savanna environment a tall% lean% "'ri ht 'ost"re e1'oses less s"r)ace area to the s"n heat overhead% &hile

also 'romotin heat loss b( e1'osin the reatest amo"nt o) s"r)ace area *i.e. the sides o) the bod(+ to coolin &inds and air. Des'ite a lack o) consens"s abo"t the ori ins o) bi'edalism% man( i) not most or all o) these 'ro'osed h('otheses are not m"t"all( e1cl"sive. Some combination o) di))erent selection 'ress"res most likel( &as res'onsible )or drivin bi'edal evol"tion *9rba% :et. al.;% editors+. All the 'h(sical chan es in sk"ll anatom( observed and disc"ssed can be 'ost"lated to have ro&n )rom the da&n o) bi'edalism in 'rimates and hominins% )rom 'ositive )eedback loo's bet&een o"r brains and a''enda e de1terit(. An "'ri ht 'ost"re hel's &ith movin ,"ickl( on land &hile kee'in the "se o) hands% makes &adin in &ater easier and sa)er% can be hel')"l in )i hts% and can hel' &ith )indin )ood in vario"s 'laces. -hro" h these advanta eo"s chan es% o"r )aces and bodies became as &e kno& them toda(. <"r )aces and sk"lls% the )eat"res that &e "se )or identi)ication% co"ld ver( likel( have com'letel( become 'ossible thro" h the en ineered miracle o) habit"al bi'edalism.

Works Cited, Referenced, & Studied

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-alks &ith Dr. !rank >.#n le Williams% Chair% Anthro'olo ( De't.% 7eor ia State Fniversit(

9ario"s in)ormation dra&n )rom class notes and lect"res b( Dr. Steven Patrick Black