Fluid Flow Student Guide For Operations Training

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM
FLUID FLOW
STUDENT TEXT
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NOTICE: If you plan to use this material in a classroom setting, then please purchase the exam bank and answer key from the cribd store for !"#$$ or %isit marathon&ohnb at cribd# The exam is gi%en at the end of the course and has specific 'uestions for each chapter#
(O) T)*ININ+ , E ON-.

The uncontrolled information contained in these training materials is FOR TRAINING USE ON !. In no "a# should it $e inter%reted that the material contained herein ma# $e su$stituted for facilit# %rocedures or SO&s. 'hen co%ies of SO&s or %rocedures are given( the# are intended as e)am%les and information onl#( and the latest revision of the material in *uestion should $e o$tained for actual use. If #ou have an# *uestions( contact #our su%ervisor.
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Contents:///
Table of Contents:
NOTICE: If you plan to use this material in a classroom setting, then please purchase the exam bank and answer key from the cribd store for !"#$$ or %isit marathon&ohnb at cribd# The exam is gi%en at the end of the course and has specific 'uestions for each chapter##############################################################################ii Contents:///##########################################################################################################################iii Chapter 0 INT)O1,CTION TO (-,I1 ######################################################################02
Introduction ###########################################################################################################################################02 1escription of (luids##############################################################################################################################03 4umidity#################################################################################################################################################0" )elati%e 4umidity##################################################################################################################################0" 1ensity 56 and pecific 7olume 56#########################################################################################################0" 1ensity 1ifferences for Non/8ixable 5Non/8iscible6 (luids#############################################################09 pecific +ra%ity######################################################################################################################################0: ;ressure 5p6 ############################################################################################################################################20 ;ressure 8easurements#########################################################################################################################23 *bsolute, +age, and 7acuum ;ressure )elations###############################################################################3< =uoyancy#################################################################################################################################################32 4ydrostatic ;ressure#############################################################################################################################3" ;ascal>s -aw 5the law of hydraulics6####################################################################################################3$ ;ressure 1ifference for (luid (low######################################################################################################"0 Chapter 0 ummary##############################################################################################################################"3
Chapter 2 Compression of (luids######################################################################################"9

Compressibility######################################################################################################################################"9 The Combined +as -aw########################################################################################################################"9 Effects of ;ressure Changes on Confined (luids ###############################################################################"? Effects of Temperature Changes on Confined (luids########################################################################": (illing and 7enting################################################################################################################################":
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Chapter 2 ummary##############################################################################################################################90
Chapter 3 N*T,)*- CI)C,-*TION (-O@##############################################################93

Natural Circulation################################################################################################################################93 Conditions )e'uired (or Natural Circulation####################################################################################9" Chapter 3 ummary##############################################################################################################################9A
Chapter " 7O-,8ET)IC *N1 8*
(-O@ )*TE##################################################9?
7olume 576##############################################################################################################################################9? 7olumetric (low )ate 56########################################################################################################################9$ 8ass, 1ensity, and pecific 7olume#####################################################################################################A" 8ass (low )ate 56###################################################################################################################################AA The teady (low Condition###################################################################################################################A: Continuity of (low#################################################################################################################################A: Chapter " ummary##############################################################################################################################?9
Chapter 9 T.;E O( (-O@############################################################################################??

-aminar (low#########################################################################################################################################?? Turbulent (low#######################################################################################################################################?? (actors Influencing Type of (low#########################################################################################################?: Ideal (luid###############################################################################################################################################?$ Noise -e%el and (low )ate####################################################################################################################?$ Chapter 9 ummary##############################################################################################################################:<
Chapter A (O)8 O( ENE)+. BT4E +ENE)*- ENE)+. EC,*TION###########:0

+eneral Energy E'uation######################################################################################################################:0 ;otential Energy 5;E6############################################################################################################################:3 Dinetic Energy 5DE6##############################################################################################################################:" (low Energy 5(E6###################################################################################################################################:" Internal Energy 5,6################################################################################################################################:? 4eat, as an operator controlled input or output 5C6##########################################################################:: @ork, as an operator controlled input or output 5@6########################################################################:$ +eneral Energy E'uation######################################################################################################################:$ * pecial Case of the +eneral Energy E'uation: =ernoulli>s ;rinciple###########################################$2 implified =ernoulli>s E'uation############################################################################################################$" pecific Energies####################################################################################################################################$A Chapter A ummary:#############################################################################################################################$:
ENE)+. CON7E) ION IN I1E*- (-,I1 . TE8 ##########################################$$
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Energy Con%ersions in Ideal (luid ystems########################################################################################$$ Energy Con%ersions for Changes in Cross/ ectional *rea 5(low *rea6##########################################$$ Energy Con%ersions for Changes in Ele%ation##################################################################################0<2 Chapter ? ummary:###########################################################################################################################0<9
Chapter ? Energy Con%ersions in )eal (luid ystems##################################################0<?

(riction##################################################################################################################################################0<? (luid (riction########################################################################################################################################0<? 7iscosity################################################################################################################################################0<: Energy Con%ersion by (luid (riction in )eal (luids########################################################################0<: Energy Con%ersion by (luid (riction################################################################################################00< Open %ersus Closed (luid (low ystems###########################################################################################00A Energy Con%ersions in Closed ystems#############################################################################################00A E4eadE ###############################################################################################################################################02< 4ead -oss due to (riction###################################################################################################################029 Throttling##############################################################################################################################################02A O%ercoming 4ead -osses####################################################################################################################02? Centrifugal ;ump Operation##############################################################################################################02: ;ositi%e 1isplacement ;ump Operation############################################################################################02$ ,sing the +eneral Energy E'uation to *nalyse )eal (luids###########################################################03< pecific )ules ,sing *rrow *nalysis#################################################################################################039 The +eneral Energy E'uation and 1iagnosis using *rrow *nalysis#############################################03? Chapter : ummary:###########################################################################################################################0"$
Chapter : (luid (low 8easurement################################################################################090

(low 8easuring 1e%ices######################################################################################################################090 1ifferential ;ressure 8eters###############################################################################################################090 Orifice ;lates########################################################################################################################################090 (low NoFFles#########################################################################################################################################093 7enturi Tubes#######################################################################################################################################093 Other *pplications of the 7enturi ;rinciple#####################################################################################09" Chapter $ ummary:###########################################################################################################################09?
@ater 4ammer and ;ipe @hip######################################################################################09$

8echanisms of @ater 4ammer##########################################################################################################09$ Occurrence of @ater 4ammer 5and team 4ammer6#####################################################################09$ Ca%itation##############################################################################################################################################0A9 Ca%itation in Centrifugal ;umps########################################################################################################0A9
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Net ;ositi%e uction 4ead 5N; 46#####################################################################################################0A? Conditions Causing Ca%itation###########################################################################################################0A: 8inimiFing +as (ormation in -i'uid ;iping ystems#####################################################################0?< Other ;ump ;roblems#########################################################################################################################0?< ;ossible )esults of @ater 4ammer####################################################################################################0?0 8ethods of @ater 5and team6 4ammerG ;ipe Het B ;ipe @hip ;re%ention ##############################0?" Chapter 0< ummary##########################################################################################################################0?A
Chapter $ ,nintended iphoning#####################################################################################0??

Introduction##########################################################################################################################################0?? iphoning##############################################################################################################################################0?? Chapter 00 ummary##########################################################################################################################0:<
-ist of (igures:
(igure 0/0 Example of non/miscible fluids#######################################################################09 (igure 0/2 ;ressure caused by 8olecules#########################################################################22 (igure 0/3 (orce %ersus ;ressure######################################################################################22 (igure 0/" ;ressure cales#################################################################################################2" (igure 0/9 Typical ;ressure +age#####################################################################################2" (igure 0/A -i'uid upported by *tmospheric ;ressure#################################################29 (igure 0/? =uoyancy (orces on an Ob&ect########################################################################33 (igure 0/: )elationship between -i'uid -e%el and ;ressure#########################################3" (igure 0/$ ;ressure 7ersus 4eight####################################################################################39 (igure 0/0< tatic 4ead %ersus ;ressure##########################################################################3A (igure 0/00 4ead and ;ressure Illustration####################################################################3: (igure 0/02 ;ressuriFing a#################################################################################################"< (igure 0/03 4ydraulic ystem (orces###############################################################################"< (igure 0/0" * imple 4ydraulic ystem##########################################################################"0 (igure 3/09 *ir =aloon =uoyancy####################################################################################93 (igure 3/0A 4eat ource G 4eat ink#################################################################################9" (igure "/0? 7olume of an Ob&ect#######################################################################################9? (igure "/0: 7olume of ;ipe ection *##############################################################################9:
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(igure "/0$ 7olume of ;ipe ection =###############################################################################9: (igure "/2< 7olumetric flow )ate 7isual##########################################################################9$ (igure "/20 7olumetric (low rate =etween Two ;oints##################################################A< (igure "/22 7olumetric (low )ate Example 0##################################################################A0 (igure "/23 7olumetric (low )ate Example 2##################################################################A3 (igure "/2" 8ass (low )ate Example###############################################################################A? (igure "/29 Continuity of (low##########################################################################################A: (igure "/2A Continuity Example 2#####################################################################################?0 (igure 9/2? The Two =asic Types of (luid (low##############################################################?: (igure A/2: * 7isual of ;otential Energy##########################################################################:3 (igure A/2$ 7isual of Dinetic Energy################################################################################:" (igure A/3< (low Energy in Compressing ;iston#############################################################:9 (igure A/30 (low Energy in (luid (low through a ;ipe##################################################:9 (igure A/32 7isual of (low Energy###################################################################################:A (igure A/33 7isual of Internal Energy##############################################################################:? (igure A/3" 7isual of 4eat Energy#####################################################################################:: (igure A/39 7isual of @ork Energy###################################################################################:$ (igure A/3A (luid Energies >IN> %ersus >O,T>##################################################################$< (igure A/3? Energies *dded %ersus Energies )emo%ed##################################################$< (igure A/3: 7isual of the +eneral Energy E'uation########################################################$0 (igure A/3$ =ernoulli>s ;rinciple#######################################################################################$2 (igure A/"< ;ing ;ong =all (loating in *ir tream#########################################################$3 (igure A/"0 *ir ;assing *bo%e and =elow *irplane @ing #############################################$3 (igure A/"2 *ir ;assing by a Thrown =aseball################################################################$" (igure ?/"3 ;ipe ection with a )eduction in *rea########################################################0<0 (igure ?/"" ;ipe ection @ith Increase in *rea#############################################################0<0 (igure ?/"9 ;ipe ection with Increasing Ele%ation#######################################################0<3 (igure ?/"A ;ipe ection with 1ecreasing Ele%ation######################################################0<3 (igure :/"? traight ;ipe ection####################################################################################0<$ (igure :/": ;ipe ection with Changes in siFe and Ele%ation#######################################0<$ (igure :/"$ The ;ressure 1rop from a 0( Temperature )ise####################################000
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(igure :/9< ;ressure 1rop and (luid (riction###############################################################00" (igure :/90 Energy Con%ersions in a Closed ystem#####################################################00? (igure :/92 * imple Closed -oop ystem#####################################################################00$ (igure :/93 Closed -oop Example###################################################################################00$ (igure :/9" ;ressure is ;roportional to Column 4eight###############################################02< (igure :/99 ;ressures @ithin a (luid (low ystem 5exaggerated6###############################023 (igure :/9A Total tatic 4ead Examples#########################################################################029 (igure :/9? Typical 7al%e#################################################################################################02? (igure :/9: * Centrifugal ;ump######################################################################################02: (igure :/9$ ;ressures @ithin a Centrifugal ;ump########################################################02$ (igure :/A< ;ositi%e 1isplacement ;ump########################################################################03< (igure :/A0 +eneral Energy E'uation in 8ental (orm################################################03< (igure $/A2 * imple Orifice ;late##################################################################################092 (igure $/A3 * imple (low NoFFle###################################################################################093 (igure $/A" imple 7enturi Tube####################################################################################09" (igure $/A9 *uto Carburetor ,ses 7enturi ;rinciple####################################################09" (igure $/AA * Typical team Het######################################################################################099 (igure $/A? * imple Eductor##########################################################################################09A (igure 0</A: Case 0 7al%e Cuickly Closed#####################################################################0A2 (igure 0</A$ Case 2 7al%e Cuickly Opened####################################################################0A2 (igure 0</?< Case 3: Cold Condensate in team -ine##################################################0A3 (igure 0</?0 Case ": 4ot Condensate in team -ine####################################################0A3 (igure 0</?2 Case 9: =oiling###########################################################################################0A" (igure 0</?3 Ca%itation in a Centrifugal ;ump############################################################0AA (igure 0</?" Ca%itation and the Collapsing =ubble#####################################################0A? (igure 0</?9 ;ump )unout #############################################################################################0A: (igure 0</?A -ow uction ;ressure#################################################################################0A$ (igure 0</?? ;ipe )ocket G ;ipe Het#################################################################################0?2 (igure 0</?: ;ipe @hip####################################################################################################0?3 (igure 00/?$ Example of a iphon##################################################################################0?:
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-ist of Tables:
Table 0/0 1ensities of Common 8aterials#######################################################################09 Table 0/2 1ensities of Common (luids#############################################################################20 Table 0/3 Common ;ressure ,nits###################################################################################2A Table 0/" *bsolute, +age and 7acuum ;ressure############################################################3<
-ist of Terminal Ob&ecti%es:

TO 0#<+i%en the necessary fluid system parameters, O-7E for unknown fluid parameter %alues as system conditions are %aried###################################################02 TO 2#<+i%en the necessary fluid system parameters and using the Combined Ideal +as -aw, 1E C)I=E the compressibility or incompressibility of a fluid when a pressure is exerted#######################################################################################################"9 TO 3#<(or any natural circulation fluid system, 1E C)I=E the mechanism that allows for fluid flow#####################################################################################################93 TO "#<,sing fluid system %olumetric and mass flow rates, O-7E for unknown fluid parameters %alues to predict fluid system characteristics#######################################9? TO 9#<+i%en the necessary fluid system parameters, 1ETE)8INE the fluid flow type and the flow characteristics of that fluid system######################################################?? TO A#<+i%en a fluid system, I1ENTI(. the forms of energy using the +eneral Energy E'uation#######################################################################################################################:0 TO ?#<+I7EN an Ideal fluid system where no heat is transferred in or out, and no work is performed on or by the fluid, EI;-*IN the energy con%ersions that occur ############################################################################################################################$$ TO :#<+I7EN a )eal fluid system, 1E C)I=E the effects of fluid friction to predict energy con%ersions####################################################################################################0<? TO $#<EI;-*IN the energy con%ersions that occur as fluid flows through the 7enturi tube, flow noFFle, and orifice plate flow measuring de%ices #################################090 TO 0<#<I1ENTI(. the conditions and pre%ention methods for both Jwater hammerJ and Jpipe whipJ in fluid systems#############################################################################09$ TO 00#<I1ENTI(. the conditions and pre%ention methods of a fluid siphon for a fluid system#########################################################################################################################0??
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)eferences:
ARITHMETIC+ Student Te)t( TTFG,A&A.-0.0/( rev. / 0 'estinghouse Savannah River 1om%an#( Ai2en( S1 MATHEMATICS+ Student Te)t( TTFG,A.A.-0.03( rev. 3 0 'estinghouse Savannah River 1om%an#( Ai2en( S1 4a#( 5enise and -orton( Ro$ert 4.( Macmillan Physical Science( Teacher6s Edition( ,acmillan &u$lishing 1o.( Ne" !or2( 7.899:. 1line( ;ohn '.( Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow( 'estinghouse Savannah River 1om%an# - ' Fundamentals Training &rogram( 7.88<:. 5ris2ell( es.( Control Val e Selection and Si!in"( Instrument Societ# of America( North 1arolina( 7.89<:. 5ris2ell( es( Control#Val e Selection and Si!in"( Inde%endent earning ,odule( Instrument Societ# of America( &u$lishers 1reative Services Inc.( Research Triangle &ar2( North 1arolina( 7.89<:. 5urham( Fran2lin &.( Thermodynamics( /nd ed.( &rentice=-all( Inc.( Ne" ;erse#( 7.8>8:. Freeman( Ira ,.( Physics Made Sim$le( Revised Edition( 4antan 5ou$leda# 5ell &u$lishing Grou%( Inc.( Ne" !or2( 7.880:. Giancoli( 5ouglas 1.( Physics( <rd ed( &rentice -all( Ne" ;erse#( 7.88.:. Glasstone( Samuel and Sesons2e( Ale)ander( Nuclear Reactor Engineering( <rd ed.( ?an Nostrand Reinhold 1o.( Ne" !or2( 7.89.:. -eimler( 1harles -. and &rice( ;ac2 S.( Focus on Physical Science( Teacher6s Edition( 1harles E. ,errill &u$lishing 1o.( Ohio 7.893:. -e"itt( &aul G.( Conce$tual Physics%%%%a new introduction to your en ironment( <rd ed.( ittle 4ro"n and 1om%an#( Inc.( 4oston( 7.8@@:. -olman( ;. &.( Thermodynamics( 3th ed.( ,cGra" -ill( Inc.( Ne" !or2( 7.899:. ;ult#( Sam( How &our Car 'or(s( 4oo2 5ivision( Times ,irror ,agaAines( Inc.( Ne" !or2 7.8@3:. ,ur%h#( ;ames T.( BiAe"itA( &aul '.( and -ollon( ;ames ,a)( Physics Princi$les ) Pro*lems( 1harles E. ,errill &u$lishing 1o.( Ohio( 7.89C:. Ser"a#( Ra#mond A. and Faughn( ;err# S.( Colle"e Physics( /nd ed.( Saunders 1ollege &u$lishing( &hiladel%hia( 7.898:. U.S. 5e%artment of Energ#( +,E Fundamentals Hand*oo(, Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow( ?ols. . through <( U.S. 5e%artment of Energ#( 7.88/:. 'iedner( Richard T. and Sells( Ro$ert .( Elementar# 1lassical &h#sics( 1ollege &h#sics Series( ?ol. .( All#n and 4acon( Inc( 4oston( 7.8C>:.
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,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter 0/ Introduction to Fluids
Chapter 0 INT)O1,CTION TO (-,I1
This cha$ter introduces arious terms used to descri*e the characteristics of a fluid and some *asic flow characteristics of "i en fluids in a ty$ical a$$lication% It also $resents the relationshi$ *etween arious $arameters within a "i en fluid system under arious conditions
TO 0#<
!O "." !O ".( !O ".!O ".2 !O ".5
Given the necessary fluid system parameters, SOL ! for unknown fluid parameter values as system conditions are varied #!$%&! the following $luid $low terms to include their typical units' specific volume, density, and specific gravity !)*L+%& what will occur when two non-mi,able fluids are placed in the same container .+L./L+T! a fluid0s density, specific volume, or specific gravity when given any one of the other 1uantities #!$%&! the $luid $low term 3*ressure4 to include units Given the necessary fluid parameters, .+L./L+T!6.O& !7T absolute pressure, gage pressure, feet of head, or vacuum pressure for a fluid system !)*L+%& +rchimede0s *rinciple and relate it to the term 39uoyancy4 #!S.7%9! the relationship between the pressure in a fluid column and the density and depth of the fluid #!$%&! the $luid $low term 3<ead4 to include units !)*L+%& the concept of *ascal0s law, including its applications.
!O ".8 !O ".: !O ".; !O ".=
Introduction
Fluid flo" is an im%ortant %art of most industrial %rocessesD es%eciall# those involving the transfer of heat. Fre*uentl#( "hen it is desired to remove heat from the %oint at "hich it is generated( some t#%e of fluid is involved in the heat transfer %rocess. E)am%les of this are the cooling "ater circulated through a gasoline or diesel engine( the air flo" %ast the "indings of a motor( and the flo" of "ater through the core of a nuclear reactor. Fluid flo" s#stems are also commonl# used to %rovide lu$rication. Fluid flo" in the nuclear field can $e com%le) and is not al"a#s su$Eect to rigorous mathematical anal#sis. Unli2e solids( the %articles of fluids move through %i%ing and com%onents at different velocities and are often su$Eected to different accelerations.
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Even though a detailed anal#sis of fluid flo" can $e e)tremel# difficult( the $asic conce%ts involved in fluid flo" %ro$lems are fairl# straightfor"ard. These $asic conce%ts can $e a%%lied in solving fluid flo" %ro$lems through the use of sim%lif#ing assum%tions and average values( "here a%%ro%riate. Even though this t#%e of anal#sis "ould not $e sufficient in the engineering design of s#stems( it is ver# useful in understanding the o%eration of s#stems and %redicting the a%%ro)imate res%onse of fluid s#stems to changes in o%erating %arameters. The $asic %rinci%les of fluid flo" include three conce%ts or %rinci%lesD the first t"o of "hich the student has $een e)%osed to in %revious manuals. The first is the %rinci%le of momentum 7leading to e*uations of fluid forces: "hich "as covered in the manual on 1lassical &h#sics. The second is the conservation of energ# 7leading to the First a" of Thermod#namics: "hich "as studied in thermod#namics 7-eat Transfer:. The third is the conservation of mass 7leading to the continuit# e*uation: "hich "ill $e e)%lained in this module.
1escription of (luids
A fluid is an# su$stance that flo"s. The molecules of fluids are not rigidl# attached to each other. Essentiall#( fluids are materials "hich have no re%eating cr#stalline structure. Fluids include $oth li*uids and gases. -i'uids are fluids "hich have a definite volume and ta2e the sha%e of their container. +ases also ta2e the sha%e of their containerD ho"ever( the# "ill e)%and to com%letel# fill the container thus the# do not have a definite volume. Several %ro%erties of fluids are discussed in the -eat Transfer course. These include tem%erature( %ressure( mass( s%ecific volume and densit#. Tem$erature is defined as the relative measure of ho" hot or cold a material is. It can $e used to %redict the direction that heat "ill $e transferred. Pressure is defined as the force %er unit area. 1ommon units for %ressure are %ounds force %er s*uare inch 7%si:. Mass is defined as the *uantit# of matter contained in a $od# and is to $e distinguished from "eight( "hich is measured $# the %ull of gravit# on a $od#. The s$ecific olume of a su$stance is the volume %er unit mass of the su$stance. T#%ical units are ft< 0l$m. +ensit#( on the other hand( is the mass of a su$stance %er unit volume. T#%ical units are l$m0 ft< 5ensit# and s%ecific volume are the inverse of one another. 4oth densit# and s%ecific volume are de%endant on the tem%erature and some"hat on the %ressure of the fluid. As the tem%erature of the fluid increases( the densit# decreases( and the s%ecific volume increases. Since li*uids are considered incom%ressi$le( an increase in %ressure "ill result in no change in densit# or s%ecific volume of the li*uid. In actualit#( li*uids can $e slightl# com%ressed at high %ressures( resulting in a slight increase in densit# and a slight decrease in s%ecific volume of the li*uid.
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4umidity
-umidit# is the amount of li*uid va%or sus%ended in a gas 7or the amount of "ater in air:. The units of humidit# are "rains $er cu*ic foot% 7A grain is the "eight of a "heat seed.:
)elati%e 4umidity
Relative humidit# is the %ercentage of li*uid that a gas contains com%ared to $eing .00F saturated( 7"here it can hold no additional li*uid:. Units are $ercent% Relative humidit# is a %ercentage measurement of humidit# u% to and including saturation at .00F at an# %articular tem%erature. Since air holds more "ater "hen it is at a higher tem%erature( air that is saturated and then heated "ill have the ca%acit# to hold more "ater and "ill no longer $e termed GsaturatedG. The relative humidit# of air "ill then $e less than .00F if it6s tem%erature is increased. As a result( "ithout changing the amount of li*uid sus%ended "ithin a gas( and $# onl# changing the tem%erature( the relative humidit# can var# from saturated at .00F relative humidit# to something considera$l# less than saturated. A gas can not contain more than .00F of its li*uid holding ca%acit#. If the tem%erature of a .00F saturated gas is decreased then its ca%acit# to hold moisture decreases and the li*uid %reci%itates. This is "h# de" accumulates on leaves and grass "hen the tem%erature goes do"n in the earl# morning hours.
1ensity 5 6 and pecific 7olume 5 6

1ensity( ( is the amount of mass contained in one cu$ic foot of s%aceD units are mass $er unit Volume% pecific %olume( ( is the amount of s%ace occu%ied $# one %ound mass 7the force of one %ound converted to mass $# dividing $# g c :D units are Volume $er unit mass% S%ecific volume is the inverse of densit#D
1 1 & = .
= Density (Greek letter rho), lbm/ft3 or kg/m3 , etc. m = mass, lbm or kg, etc.
V = Volume, ft3 or m3, etc.
Where:
= Specific volume, ft3/lbm or m3/kg , etc.
4oth densit# and s%ecific volume measure the same %ro%ert#+ ho" close the molecules or atoms of a su$stance are to each other. Volume (V) is the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional figure. Volume is represented by length units cubed
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1 1 1 7 ft , in , m , etc%:. The s%ecific volume is the amount of s%ace occu%ied $# a unit of mass. S%ecific volume is the total volume V divided $# the total mass m of an o$Eect.
V m
Where:
= specific volume, ft3/lbm

V = volume, ft3 m = mass, lbm
A lo" value of densit# 7or high value of s%ecific volume: means the molecules or atoms in the su$stance are relativel# far a%art. This is true of gases 7h#drogen( o)#gen: and for va%ors such as steam. 1onversel#( a high value of densit# 7or lo" value of s%ecific volume: means that the molecules or atoms are relativel# close together. This is true of li*uids 7such as "ater: and solids such as ice. The density of a material will govern the way it behaves when put in contact with other materials. Table 1-1 lists the densities of some common materials. If a material that is very dense is placed into a container containing a less-dense liquid, the material will sink. For example, if a piece of iron is placed into a container of water, the iron will sink because it is more dense than water. If, however, that same piece of iron is placed in a liquid that is more dense, such as mercury, the iron will float. Even though iron is relatively dense, it is not as dense as the mercury.
5ensities of Some 1ommon ,aterials+ ,aterial h#drogen helium air St#rofoam "ood alcohol ice "ater sea "ater aluminum roc2 iron mercur# 5ensit#( g0cm 8.0 ) .0 / ) .0 => <
=3 =<
..< ) .0 0.. 0.@ 0.9 0.8/ ..0 ..0< /.@ < @ .<.C
Table 0/0 1ensities of Common 8aterials
1ensity 1ifferences for Non/8ixable 5Non/8iscible6 (luids

,isci$ilit# is the %ro%ert# of t"o su$stances( "hich ma2es them Gmi)a$leG. Salt and "ater are misci$le so "hen the# are mi)ed together the# ma2e salt "ater and sta# mi)ed until se%arated $# eva%oration. 4ut "hen
(igure 0/0 Example of non/miscible fluids
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t"o su$stances are non=misci$le 7not mi)a$le:( li2e oil and "ater( the "ater( $eing the highest densit# li*uid sin2s to the $ottom of the container( and the oil $eing less dense rises to the to%. The# Gunmi)G themselves ver# *uic2l#. Oil and vinegar salad dressing is an e)am%le of this. 'h# do some fluids Gunmi)G themselvesH ?inegar is more dense than olive oilD therefore( under the attraction of gravit# the vinegar moves to the $ottom of the container. The o$Eect "ith greater mass creates a greater %ressure around itself than an o$Eect "ith a smaller mass. As a result( the lighter o$Eects get I%ushedJ out of the "a#. This %ressure then forces the lighter oil molecules out of the lo"est regions and u%"ard "here the %ressure is lo"er. A la#ering effect is created in a salad dressing $ottle "here the denser vinegar( under the influence of earthKs gravitation( occu%ies the $ottom of a container "hile the less dense olive oil is forced to rest on to%. Some gases do not mix well with other gases. As an example, certain subterranean bunkers that contained poisonous chlorine gas used during the Second World War is still a potential health hazard for Europeans. Chlorine gas is a nerve agent and is heavier than air so it tends to pool in the lowest areas. It does not deteriorate nor dissipate, so it remains active, ready to permanently destroy the nervous system of anyone who may step into it. In this example it is good for one to know his or her density fundamentals. In industries today, there are an abundance of chemicals in fluid form (liquid or gas) that can be equally as dangerous to their surrounding areas. Like chlorine gas, phosgene gas and carbon monoxide are also heavier than air. Phosgene gas both suffocates and creates hydrochloric acid in the lungs. It is created in many industrial processes where foods may rot, or even where an animal decomposes near a confined space. It has the odor of new mown hay or green corn. Phosgene gas has killed and caused pneumonia in workers who entered unventilated confined spaces without wearing self contained breathing devices. Carbon monoxide exits from the exhaust pipe of a vehicle and migrates downward into confined spaces where it displaces the air. It suffocates a victim by displacing the oxygen in red blood cells. Radioactive tritium gas is a heav# form of h#drogen gas 7an isoto%e:. Tritium is man# times lighter than air so it esca%es u%"ard "hen released. Gas $u$$les of tritium in air act li2e $u$$les of air rising from the $ottom of a fish tan2. This light gas rises to occu%# a thin la#er in the highest regions of the gas envelo%e that covers the earth. A com%arison of the densities of t"o 7non=mi)a$le: items "ill allo" us to %redict "hich item "ill float and "hich "ill sin2. 1onsider the follo"ing e)am%les+
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Example: Using information from Ta$le .=.( 5ensities of 1ommon ,aterials( calculate the s%ecific volume of mercur#.
1 1 1 13.6 g cm 3 cm 3 g cm < " calculate its densit#.
=
=
= 0.0735
Example:
0.<@
An un2no"n material has a s%ecific volume of
. cm< 0.<@ " " = /.@0< < cm
Example:
ft < 0.0/00 l$m calculate its densit#. An un2no"n material has a s%ecific volume of
. ft < l$m
00/00 .
= >0
l$ m ft <
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pecific +ra%ity
S%ecific gravit# is the ratio of the densit# of a fluid or solid to the densit# of a standard fluid. 'ater is the standard of com%arison for li*uids and solids( and air is the standard of com%arison for gases. For a li*uid the ratio
liquid is the s%ecific gravit#. water gas For a gas the ratio is the s%ecific gravit#. air
S%ecific gravit# units are a dimensionless num*er and can $e re%orted "ithout units. 'hen s%ecific gravit# is calculated to $e a num$er greater than the num$er ..0 7one: the li*uid or gas is more dense than its standard so ma# tend to dro% to the $ottom of a container. 'hen s%ecific gravit# is calculated to $e a num$er smaller than the num$er ..0 7one: the li*uid or gas is less dense than its standard and ma# tend to rise to the to% of the container. S%ecific gravit# is a measure of the relative densit# of a su$stance com%ared to the densit# of "ater. It is the densit# of the su$stance divided $# the densit# of "ater. The densit# of %ure "ater at standard tem%erature and %ressure 7</oF and .3.@ %si: is a%%ro)imatel# C/.3 l$m0ft . Lno"ing the s%ecific gravit# of the su$stance %rovides a *uic2 "a# of determining if the su$stance "ill float or sin2 "hen %ut in "ater. Specific gravity is a unitless 1uantity since it is the ratio of two 1uantities having the same units. The equation for specific gravity SG is stated as follows:
<
S. =
'here+
su$stance standard
SG = specific gravity of substance
substance
= density of substance, lbm/ft3
standard
= density of the standard. For a liquid the standard is water at 0oC and 1 atmosphere of pressure, (the average pressure at sea level). For a gas the standard is air at 0oC and 1 atmosphere of pressure.
"ater 2 34%5
l$m ft
1
2 .
g cm
<
M .
2g 2g M .(000 < m
If the s%ecific gravit# of a li*uid is greater than .( it "ill sin2 in "ater. If the s%ecific gravit# is less than .( it "ill float in "ater. Also( if the s%ecific gravit# of a gas is greater than .( it "ill sin2 in air and occu%# lo" regions( and if it is less than . it "ill rise in air until it reaches an e*uili$rium height "here the densit# of air is e*ual to its o"n densit#. 1onsider the follo"ing e)am%les+
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Example: +i%en: "ater M densit# of "ater( ..0 g0cm oil M densit# of oil( 0.09< g0cm
< <
Example +i%en: "ater M densit# of "ater( ..0 g0cm mercur# M densit# of mercur#( .<.C g0cm
< <
Calculate the specific gra%ity of oil#
S. =
oil water
0.9<
Calculate the specific gra%ity of mercury#
S. =
mercury water
" cm < S. = " ..0 < cm

S. = 0.9< ..0
" cm < S. = " ..0 < cm .< .C

S. = .< .C ..0
SG M 0.9< Since the s$ecific "ra ity is less than 0, the oil will float%
SG = 13.6 Since the specific gravity is greater than 1, the mercury will sink.
Example +i%en: "ater M densit# of "ater( C/.3 l$m6ft ice M s%ecific volume of ice( 0.0.@3
<
= >@.3
S. M
ice water
l$ m ft<
ft <
l$m
Calculate the specific gra%ity of ice#
l$m ft < S. = l$m C/.3 < ft >@ .3

S. = >@ .3 C/ .3
= =
SG = 0.92 Since this is less than 1 it will float.
ft < 00.@3 . l$ m
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NNote+ +ases are compared to the density of air and not to the density of water. The standard of com%arison for all li*uids is "ater( and the standard for all gases is air. Ta$le .=/ com%ares the densities of common fluids( $oth li*uids and gases Densities of Common Fluids Fluid Acetone Air (at 1 atmosphere, 0C) Alcohol (methyl) Benzene Bromine Carbon tetrachloride Chlorine (gas) Coconut oil Sulfuric acid (fuming) Gasoline Glycerin Helium (at 1 atmosphere, 0C) Hydrogen (at 1 atmosphere, 0C) Kerosene Mercury Milk Water (fresh) Density lbm/ft3 49.421 0.0805 50.544 56.098 198.869 99.466 0.2005 57.72 114.70 42.432 78.624 0.0112 0.00561 50.544 848.64 64.272 62.4
Water (sea) 63.96 Table 0/2 1ensities of Common (luids
;ressure 5p6
All su$stances are made of molecules. A molecule is a chemicall# $onded grou% of atoms 7or elements:. ,olecules account for the general characteristics of all fluids( and 2no"ing these characteristics is a re*uirement of this course. The 2e# to understanding of these general characteristics of a fluid is found in com%rehending Eust three things a$out a fluid+ .: = massD /: = the internal energ# of a molecule( and <: = the attraction of each molecule for ever# other molecule.
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These 2e# characteristics either alone or ta2en together e)%lain all of the other characteristic of fluids of interest in this course. Stated another "a#D these three characteristics are the maEor source of the other general characteristics of ever# fluidO Therefore( 2no"ing the mass( the internal energ# of a molecule( and the attraction of molecule for molecule e)%lains( viscosit#( fluid friction( com%ression and decom%ression %ressures( atmos%heric %ressure( tem%erature( IheadJ %ressure( $uo#anc#( h#draulic %ressure( condensation and $oiling( and several other fluid characteristics.
&ressure is caused $# the collisions of the molecules of a fluid "ith the "alls of its container 7See Figure ../:. E)ce%t at a$solute Aero tem%erature( "here $# definition all internal energ# is Aero and all movement is sto%%ed( the molecules of an# su$stance are constantl# moving. In a solid( the molecules are tightl# $ound so that the# onl# vi$rate and rotate. In a li*uid or a gas( the# also have freedom to translate 7move around:. The molecules are continuousl# colliding "ith each other and "ith the "alls of their container. As $illions of molecules in each cu$ic inch of a fluid collide $illions of times each second "ith the "alls( the# e)ert forces that %ush the "alls out"ard. The forces resulting from these re%eated collisions $# these molecules add u% to the %ressure e)erted $# a gas on itself and on its surroundings. (igure 0/2 ;ressure caused by 8olecules &ressure is Gthe force %er unit of areaJ that a su$stance e)erts on itself and on its surroundings. In a confined fluid( %ressure is al"a#s e)erted e*uall# in all directions. 'e use the lo"er case $ for %ressure.
%ressure M
force area F A
10 in
$ 2
We need to draw a careful distinction between force and pressure. Consider the example in Figure 1.3. Two rectangular blocks, each with dimensions of 2 by 10 by 20 inches, and each weighing 500 lbf, are placed on a table. Each block exerts a downward force of 500 lbf on the
20 in
B
20 in
2 in
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(igure 0/3 (orce %ersus ;ressure
surface of the table, but because they apply that force over different areas, the pressures they exert on the table are different.
Block A applies 500 lbf over an area of 200 in2. It will exert a pressure given by:
pA =
500lbf 20 in 10 in lbf = 2.5 psi in2
pA = 2.5
Block B applies 500 lbf over an area of 20 in2. It will exert a pressure given by:
pB =
500 lbf 2 in 10 in lbf = 25 psi in 2
pB = 25
The pressure exerted by Block B is ten times that exerted by block A even though the applied force is the same. This is because the weight of block A is distributed over a larger area.
;ressure K (orce
;ressure 8easurements
&ressure is a force divided $# an area.
In the English system( "e measure %ressure in $ounds $er s7uare inch. In I( the %ressure unit is the $ascal% These t"o units are given as follo"s+
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. %si 2
.l$ f in4 = .2g m s/
. &a M
.N m
/
There are t"o standard methods used to measure %ressure+ The amount of %ressure a$ove a %erfect vacuum 7a$solute:( and The amount of %ressure a$ove or $elo" atmos%heric %ressure( 7gage:.
&ressures referenced to a %erfect vacuum are called a*solute %ressures. In the United States( "e use %si for our %ressure measurements. An a$solute %ressure then has the unit G%ounds %er s*uare inch = a$soluteG or %sia. The letter GaG is not a unitD it is a la$el. It sim%l# tells us "hat the reference %ressure is. Bero %ressure on the a$solute scale is the a$sence of all %ressure. Outer s%ace is nearl# a %erfect vacuum. Achieving a nearl# %erfect vacuum on earth is not difficult. The s%ace a$ove the mercur# column in a $arometer is a nearl# %erfect vacuum. Atmos%heric %ressure is the amount of %ressure e)erted on the earth6s surface $# the "eight of the air molecules in the atmos%here. The atmos%heric %ressure at sea level is .3.@ %sia. &ressure referenced to the earth6s atmos%heric %ressure is called "a"e $ressure( and is given as G%ounds %er s*uare inch = gageG or %sig. Again( the GgG is sim%l# a la$el telling us "hat the reference %ressure is. Figure ..3 sho"s the relationshi%s $et"een a$solute %ressure measurements and gage %ressure measurements. In doing %ro$lems( %sig "ill cancel "ith %sia since the units are %si even though the (igure 0/" ;ressure cales references are different. From Figure ..3 the follo"ing relationshi% can $e determined+
$a*solute 2 $atm 8 $"a"e

A %ressure gage is an instrument "hich measures %ressure. To clear u% an# confusionD a $ressure "a"e is a %iece of hard"areD a "a"e $ressure is a %ressure referenced to atmos%heric %ressure. &ressure gages indicate the amount of %ressure sensed T. ; IC* - ; ) E , ) E + * + E relative to a reference %ressure.
, EA SUR E5 &R ES SUR E
Figure ..> sho"s a t#%ical $ello"s t#%e %ressure detector. Other t#%es of %ressure detectors use similar arrangements to measure the difference $et"een an un2no"n %ressure and the reference %ressure. &ressure
4E S
O' R EF ER EN 1 E & R ESS UR E
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(igure 0/9 Typical ;ressure +age
gages referenced to atmos%heric %ressure indicate the amount of %ressure a$ove or $elo" atmos%heric %ressure. The units for these %ressure gages are %sig 7l$ f0in gage: for %ressure a$ove atmos%heric and %siv 7l$f0in vacuum: for %ressure or vacuum $elo" atmos%heric.
/ /
(igure 0/A -i'uid upported by *tmospheric ;ressure

..C i*uid Su%%orted 4# Atmos%heric &ressure
Finall#( %ressures and vacuums ma# $e e)%ressed in terms of the height of a li*uid column the %ressure "ill su%%ort. These include inches of "ater( feet of "ater( and inches of mercur#. ,illimeters of mercur# is also a common unit for measuring %ressure. ,illimeters of mercur# is also given the name torr. One torr e*uals one millimeter of mercur#.
Figure ..C sho"s that atmos%heric %ressure at sea level( .3.@ %sia( "ould su%%ort a mercur# column /8.8/ inches high or a "ater column <3.0 feet high 7309 inches:.
Ta$le .=< com%ares some of the common %ressure units to atmos%heric %ressure. Unless other"ise stated each of these %ressure units is assumed to $e an a$solute %ressure.
. atm . atm . atm . atm
.3.@ %sia 309 in. of - / O /8.8/ in -g @C0 mm -g
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. atm
@C0 torr
. atm .0. . .0> &a Table 0/3 Common ;ressure ,nits
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The follo"ing e)am%les utiliAe common %ressure units+ a. 1onvert .3.0 %sia to inches of "ater. 14.0 psia 1 atm 14.7 psi 408 in H20 1 atm = 388.571 in H2O
$.
1onvert .3.@ in of -/O to %sia: 14.7 in H2O 1 atm 408 in H2O 14.7 psia 1atm
= 0.5296 psia
c.
1onvert >0 in -g to in of -/O+ 50 in Hg 1 atm 29.92 in Hg 408 in H2O 1 atm
= 682 in H20
d.
1onvert <00 torr to &ascals+ 300 torr 1 atm 760 torr
.0. . .0> Pa
1 atm
= 39,868 Pa or 3.9868 x 10 4 Pa
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Referring to Table 1-3, estimate the following values. Then, using note paper (if needed), calculate each value in the assigned units. !,amples' >answers on the following page? a. 1onvert /@ %si+ Estimate in H2O in Hg mm Hg torr Pa $. 1onvert <30 torr+ Estimate in H2O in Hg mm Hg psi Pa c. 1onvert />C %si+ Estimate in H2O in Hg mm Hg torr Pa d. 1onvert 3>> in -/O+ Estimate in Hg mm Hg psi torr Pa Calculate in Hg mm Hg psi torr Pa Calculate in H2O in Hg mm Hg torr Pa Calculate in H2O in Hg mm Hg psi Pa Calculate in H2O in Hg mm Hg torr Pa
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+nswersa. 1onvert /@ %si+ Estimate a$out @>0 in -/O a$out >> in -g a$out .300 mm -g a$out .300 torr > a$out /).0 &a $. 1onvert <30 torr+ Estimate a$out .80 in -/O a$out .3 in -g a$out <30 mm -g a$out @ %si > a$out 0.3>).0 &a c. 1onvert />C %si+ Estimate a$out @000 in -/O a$out >00 in -g a$out .<(000 mm -g a$out .<(000 torr > a$out .@).0 &a d. 1onvert 3>> in -/O+ Estimate a$out <> in -g a$out 800 mm -g a$out .@ %si a$out 800 torr > a$out ../).0 &a 1alculate <<.<CC@ in -g 93@.>380 mm -g .C.<8<3 %si 93@.>380 torr > .../C<).0 &a 1alculate @.0>.<0C. in -/O >/..0>>9 in -g .<(/<>.<@3. mm -g .<(/<>.<@3. torr > .@.>98).0 &a 1alculate .9/.>/C< in -/O .<.<9>< in -g <30 mm -g C.>@C< %si > 0.3>.9).0 &a 1alculate @38.<9@9 in -/O >3.8>>. in -g .(<8>.8.93 mm -g .(<8>.8.93 torr > ..9>>.).0 &a
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*bsolute, +age, and 7acuum ;ressure )elations

A 2e# to understanding %ressure measuring is to understand "here these measurements originated. Gage %ressure is the normal "a# the $od# o%erates. Though there is atmos%heric %ressure on the $od# the $od# ignores itD so also "ith gage %ressure. ,ost o%erations can $e %erformed successfull# ignoring atmos%heric %ressure so man# gages read in Igage %ressure.J 1onverting a measurement of Aero %si gage %ressure is e*ual to a measurement of .3.@ %si a$solute. Al"a#s add .3.@ %si to change gage %ressure to a$solute %ressure. Su$tract .3.@ %si to convert a$solute %ressure to gage %ressure. A %um% does "or2 to %ut a %ressure on the fluids in a %i%ing s#stem( $ut ma# also $e re*uired to %roduce a vacuum to lift a fluid so the it ma# $e %um%ed. The %ressure %ushing the fluid is "or2 and the vacuum lift is also "or2D $oth must $e done $# the %um%. 4oth of these are seen as %ositive amounts of "or2 %erformed $# the %um%. ?acuum lift is considered to $e a %ositive amount and the vacuum gage reads %ositivel# under almost all situations. Al"a#s convert gage %ressure to vacuum %ressure 7and vice versa: $# ta2ing the same amount of %ressure and reverse the sign 7i.e. from %ositive to negative or negative to %ositive:. E*uations give the relationshi% $et"een a$solute %ressure( gage %ressure( and vacuum %ressure. 'e can convert them using these e*uations. A$solute %ressure 7%sia: is e*ual to the atmos%heric %ressure 7%sia: %lus the gage %ressure 7%sig:+
$a*solute 2 $atm 8 $"a"e

Absolute pressure (psia) is equal to atmospheric pressure (psia) minus vacuum pressure (psiv):
$a*solute 2 $atm # $ ac
Vacuum pressure is normally used for pressures below one atmosphere where it is a positive reading. Vacuum pressure starts with zero at one atmosphere and reaches its maximum value of 14.7 psiv at a perfect vacuum where absolute pressure is zero. The relationship between absolute pressure, gage pressure and vacuum pressure is illustrated in Table 1-4.
Absolute Pressure 19.7 psia 14.7 psia 0 psia
Gage Pressure Vacuum Pressure 5 psig Not Normally Used 0 psig 0 psiv -14.7 psig 14.7 psiv Table 0/" *bsolute, +age and 7acuum ;ressure
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Example: The %ressure indicated is /> %sig. 1alculate the a$solute %ressure. $a$solute M $atm P $gage $a$solute M .3.@ %sia P /> %sig $a$solute M <8.@ %sia Example: The %ressure indicated is /> %sia. 1alculate the gage %ressure. $a$solute M $atm P $gage $a$solute Q $atm M $atm Q $atm P $gage $gage M $a$solute Q $atm $gage M /> %sia Q .3.@ %sia $gage M .0.< %sig Example: The %ressure indicated is ./.> %siv. 1alculate the a$solute %ressure. $a$solute M $atm = $vac $a$solute M .3.@ %sia = ./.> %sig $a$solute M /./ %sia Example: The %ressure indicated is .0 %sia. 1alculate the vacuum %ressure. $a$solute M $atm = $vac $a$solute P $vac M $atm = $vac P $vac $a$solute = $a$solute P $vac M $atm = $a$solute $vac M $atm = $a$solute $vac M .3.@ %sia = .0 %sia $vac M 3.@ %siv
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Example: The %ressure indicated is @> %sig. 1onvert the %ressure to torr. Notice that torr is an a$solute %ressure. In order to do this conversion "e must first convert %sig to %sia. Once the %ressure is converted to %sia it is in an a$solute scale and can $e converted to torr
$a$solute M $atm P $gage $a$solute M .3.@ %sia P @> %sig $a$solute M 98.@ %sia
89.7 psia
1 atm 14.7 psi
760 torr 1 atm
M 3(C<9 torr
Example: The %ressure indicated is @> in of -/O. 1alculate the vacuum %ressure. $a$solute M $atm = $vac $a$solute P $vac M $atm = $vac P $vac $a$solute = $a$solute P $vac M $atm = $a$solute $vac M $atm Q $a$solute
75 in H2O
1 atm 408 in H2O
14.7 psia =2.702 psia 1 atm
$vac M .3.@ %sia = /.@0/ %sia $vac M ...889 %siv
=uoyancy
4uo#anc# is defined as the u%"ard force on an immersed o$Eect. 'e have all o$served the $uo#ant effects of a li*uid( $ut $uo#anc# also e)ists for gases. 'hen "e go s"imming( our $odies are held u% $# the "ater. 'ood( ice( and cor2 float on "ater. 'hen "e lift a roc2 from a stream $ed( it suddenl# seems heavier on emerging from the "ater $ecause it has $een $uo#ed u% "hile $eing su$merged in a fluid. 4oats rel# on this $uo#ant force to sta# afloat. A $alloon filled "ith a light gas rises in air( a heavier gas. This $uo#ant force occurs $ecause there is a %ressure inside of a fluid that e)erts a force on an# $od# touching that fluid. This fact causes the u%"ard force on the $ottom of a su$merged o$Eect to $e greater than the do"n"ard force on its to% surface. The amount of this $uo#ant effect "as first com%uted and stated $# the Gree2 %hiloso%her Archimedes. Archimedes found( "hen he got into his $ath tu$ "hich "as filled "ith "ater to the rim( that "ater "as dis%laced out of the tu$ and onto the floor. -e calculated that the volume of "ater dis%laced "as e*ual to
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the volume of his $od#. From these findings he determined that Ian# $od# com%letel# or %artiall# su$merged in a fluid is $uo#ed u% 7%ushed u%: $# a force e*ual to the "eight of the amount 7volume: of fluid dis%laced $# the $od#.J This is 2no"n as +rchimedes0 *rinciple. If a $od# "eighs more than the li*uid it dis%laces( it sin2s $ut "ill a%%ear to lose an amount of "eight e*ual to that of the dis%laced li*uid( as our roc2. If the $od# "eighs less than that of the dis%laced li*uid( the $od# "ill rise to the surface eventuall# floating at such a de%th that "ill dis%lace a volume of li*uid "hose "eight "ill Eust e*ual its o"n "eight. A floating $od# dis%laces its o"n "eight of the fluid in "hich it floats. If a diverKs $od# and diving e*ui%ment e*uals the "eight of the "ater that is dis%laced the diver hangs sus%ended at an# location or de%th li2e a fish. If a diver and e*ui%ment "eigh less than the "ater dis%laced the diver has a hard time su$merging and $o$s a$out on the surface li2e a $oat. 'ith a total "eight of more than the "eight of the "ater dis%laced( a diver sin2s to the $ottom. See Figure ..@. A cu$ic foot of "ater "eighs C/.3 %ounds( and if a one %ound $all dis%laces a cu$ic foot of "ater a %erson using the $all to aid them in floating is also $uo#ed u%. The more li*uid the $all dis%laces the greater the amount of force e)erted on the s"immer. 'hen the $all is totall# su$merged it "ill e)ert an u%"ard force of C/.3 %ounds and "ith its o"n "eight of one %ound of force do"n"ard canceling one of those %ounds "ill e)ert a force of C..3 %ounds u%"ard. This is true of an# immersed o$Eect that dis%laces a cu$ic foot of li*uid.
(igure 0/? =uoyancy (orces on an Ob&ect
Ever# $oat is s%ecificall# designed to dis%lace the amount of fluid "eight that is e*ual to or greater than its o"n "eight.
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4ydrostatic ;ressure
An#one "ho dives under the surface of the "ater notices that the %ressure on their eardrums at a de%th of even a fe" feet is *uite noticea$le and increases "ith de%th. ,easurements have sho"n that the h#drostatic 7Ih#droJ M "ater( IstaticJ M non=movingD therefore+ h#drostatic M Inon=moving "aterJ : %ressure "ithin a li*uid increases directl# "ith the de%th of the li*uid. The %ressure at an# de%th is the same in all directions. A li*uid molecule does not move "hen the %ressure is the same( $ut sta#s in one s%ot until a difference in %ressure causes it to move a"a# from the higher %ressure region to"ard the lo"er (igure 0/: )elationship between -i'uid -e%el and ;ressure %ressure region. Figure ..9 illustrates the relationshi% $et"een li*uid level and %ressure. If holes are %laced in the tan2( the li*uid in the tan2 "ill lea2 out. The lo"er in the tan2 the hole is %laced( the greater the velocit# of the li*uid as it lea2s from the tan2 due to the increased %ressure. The holes are 2no"n as Ideliver# %oints.J The greater the de%th( the greater the %ressure and the greater the s%eed and volume of the li*uid flo"ing out of the tan2.
P total = P atmospheric + Pelevation P total = P atmospheric + gz

The total %ressure measured at the $ottom of the tan2 is due to the %ressure of the atmos%here 7.3.@ %si at sea level: %lus the %ressure due to the height of molecules stac2ed one a$ove another in the tan2. This last %ressure is due to $oth the densit# 7 : of the li*uid( gravitational %ull of the earth on ever# molecule 7g:( and the height of the stac2 of molecules in the tan2 7A:. 7IhJ re%resents several other %ro%erties so "e use IAJ to re%resent height.: Oftentimes it is necessar# to o$tain the li*uid level in a vessel $# the e*uivalent %ressure that is measured. A di%tu$e( 7a hollo" tu$e usuall# constructed of metal:( is inserted do"n the entire measura$le de%th of the vessel. The di%tu$e is onl# a fraction of the diameter of the vessel in "hich the %ressure is measured. The actual diameter of the di$tu$e or of the vessel itself is not needed. The height of the li*uid in the vessel( and an# %ressure that is e)erted on to% of the li*uid is the onl# re*uired %arameter to o$tain the vessel level. The follo"ing e)am%le hel%s e)%lain "h# the tu$e siAing 7or tu$e diameter: is not im%ortant and does not effect the measurement.
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Example:
(igure 0/$ ;ressure 7ersus 4eight Recall that %ressure is the measure of an a%%lied force of a given area.
&r essure =
V " Force 'ei"ht m" = = = Area Area A A

V = A h
where:
The volume is e*ual to the cross=sectional area 7A: times the height 7h: of li*uid. Su$stituting this into the a$ove e*uation #ields+
&r essure =
V "
A
7 A h: "
A
= h"
The a$ove e*uation tells us that the %ressure e)erted $# a column of "ater is directl# %ro%ortional to the height of the column and the densit# of the "ater and is inde%endent of the cross=sectional area of the column. The pressure thirty feet below the surface of a one inch diameter standpipe is the same as the pressure thirty feet below the surface of a large lakeL
Notice the vertical column of "ater sho"n on the left side in Figure ..8 that e)tends from the $ottom of the tan2. This column rises almost to the <0 foot height. This illustrates that a %ressure that is e*uivalent to <0 feet of "ater can shoot a column of "ater <0 feet high. 'hen dealing "ith flo"ing s#stems( engineers fre*uentl# refer to %ressure in terms of feet of head 7static head:. 4ead is the pressure that "ill su%%ort a height 7usuall# in feet: of a column of li*uid.
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tatic head is the measure of the vertical distance from the "ater surface to the deliver# %oint and this distance has a direct relationshi% to the %ressure caused $# the "eight of "ater e)tending a$ove that %oint. The calculations of the %ressure at .0 ft( /0 ft( and <0 ft due to the "ater in the tan2 sho"n in Figure ..8 follo" a straight line "hen %laced on a gra%h li2e figure ...0. At .0 feet the %ressure is 3.<< %si 7%ounds force %er s*uare inch: %si. %si At /0 feet the %ressure is 9.C@ At <0 feet the %ressure is .<.0
(igure 0/0<
tatic 4ead %ersus ;ressure
4ead is a measure of %ressure. Also( the %ressure in a container of fluid is directl# %ro%ortional to the densit# of the fluid as "ell as to the de%th. &ressure increases "ith de%th 7or static head:( so at a s%ecific de%th t"o fluids of different densities "ill have different %ressures. Therefore( the higher the densit# of a fluid the higher the %ressure at a de%th due to the "eight of the fluid a$ove. If the depth is increased 7"hile other factors do not change: the pressure increases. If the depth is decreased 7"hile other factors do not change: the pressure decreases. If the density is increased 7"hile other factors do not change: the pressure increases. If the density is decreased 7"hile other factors do not change: the pressure decreases. Example: At <0 feet of de%th a %ressure of .< %si 7gage %ressure: is measured. Therefore the relationshi% $et"een .< %si and <0 feet "ill allo" us to %redict the relationshi% $et"een an# other %ressure and the de%th that created it. T-US= In other "ords the ratio $et"een <0 feet of head and the .< %si it creates in a tan2 is exactly the same as the ratio $et"een the num$er of feet of head that can created .3.@ %si.
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This is an alge$ra %ro$lem that can $e solved $# multi%l#ing $oth sides of the e*uation $# the same num$er in the attem%t to eliminate ever#thing on the right side of the e*uation e)ce%t for R Solving for R+
1anceling li2e=num$ers and li2e=units 7dimensions: in numerators and denominators have+
So at .3.@ %si 7one atmos%here of %ressure: there is an e*uivalent de%th of li*uid of <<.8/ feet 7<3 feet effectivel#: in a tan2 "ere "e to create the same amount of %ressure $# %utting %ure "ater into a tan2. This is referred to as 15 feet of head, reco"ni!in" that the $ressure 9head: is created *y the de$th 9or hei"ht: of 15 feet of $ure water in a li7uid column.
30ft 33.92ft = 13psi 14.7psi
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Example: (igure 0/00 4ead and ;ressure Illustration
Using Figure 1-11, Fill in the table below: (answers are on the following page)
M . / < 3 > C @
depth < ft .0 ft
Estimated psig
Calculated psig ..< %sig
Estimated psia
Calculated psia .C %sia
.3 ft
.C ft @ ft
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Answers to head and $ressure illustration/

M depth Estimated psig . / < 3 > C @ < ft .0 ft .3 ft .3 ft .3 ft .C ft @ ft a$out ..> %sig a$out 3.> %sig a$out C %sig a$out C %sig a$out C %sig a$out @ %sig a$out < %sig Calculated psig ..< %sig 3.<< %sig C.0C %sig C.0C %sig C.0C %sig C.8< %sig <.0< %sig Estimated psia a$out .C.> %sia a$out .8 %sia a$out /. %sia a$out /. %sia a$out /. %sia a$out /..@ %sia a$out .@.@ %sia Calculated psia .C %sia .8.0< %sia /0.@C %sia /0.@C %sia /0.@C %sia /..C< %sia .@.@< %sia
Estimate accurac# comes "ith e)%erience. An Estimate that is "ithin .0F of the calculated value is good and gives a mental chec2 on the calculation.
;ascal>s -aw 5the law of hydraulics6

4ecause li*uids are essentiall# incom%ressi$le( "hen "e %ressuriAe a li*uid( its densit# does not change. In Figure .../( "e a%%l# a force F to the %iston on a confined li*uid. This results in an increase of %ressure throughout the li*uid. This %ressure increase is the same ever#"here in the li*uid. &ascal6s %rinci%le sa#s+ The pressure applied to a fluid confined in a container is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid and acts in all directions#
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(igure 0/02 ;ressuriFing a Confined -i'uid
Conditions and Results: a %ressure is a%%lied to a fluid the fluid is enclosed the %ressure is transmitted "ithout loss the %ressure is measured the same in ever# direction the fluid and the "alls of the vessel receive the same measure of %ressure
This %rinci%le a%%lies to all li*uids and to man# gas=filled s#stems as "ell. It is the fundamental %rinci%le of h#draulics( and is im%ortant for a%%lications in h#draulics( such as h#draulic valve o%erators or h#draulic Eac2s. This %rinci%le is also im%ortant in maintaining a static %ressure on a totall# contained s#stem. Suite often( an e)ternal %ressure is a%%lied to a s#stem to maintain the entire s#stem at a minimum %ressure. 7e)am%les+ a %ressuriAer that hel%s to sto% cavitation $# increasing the %ressure in an enclosed loo%( or a storage tan2 "ith a $ag 7$alloon: that maintains the %ressure on a "ater s#stem "hen the %um% is tem%oraril# off.: A force a%%lied to even a ver# small surface area is transmitted at the s%eed of sound 7s%eed of %ressure in a fluid: throughout the fluid. An# e*ual area an#"here "ithin the fluid "ill IfeelJ the same amount of force over its surface. Referring to Figure .=.<( this %rovides an o%%ortunit# to use a Imechanical advantageJ. i2e a lever( a small amount of force a%%lied at one location can %roduce an enormous amount of force at another location.
(igure 0/03 4ydraulic ystem (orces
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Example: The h#draulic s#stem in Figure ...3 consists of a small %iston at A( a large %iston at 4( and a fluid=filled reservoir connecting the t"o c#linders. The area of %iston A is . in ( and the area of %iston 4 is . ft . If "e a%%l# a force of 30 l$f to the to% of %iston A( ho" much force can "e generate at %iston 4H Pascal;s $rinci$le says that the $ressure at A $A is e7ual to the $ressure at < $<% Then,
/ /
(igure 0/0" * imple 4ydraulic ystem
$A 2 $4 FA 2 F4 areaA area 4 F A area 4 F4 2 areaA

FB =
40lbf 1 ft 2 144 in2 1 in2 1 ft 2
FB = 5,760 lbf
So the %roduct of F x d is the same for $oth %istons. In order to move >(@C0 l$f u% a short distance( "e have to e)ert 30 l$f do"n a long distance. This is ho" h#draulic s#stems "or2.
;ressure 1ifference for (luid (low

Fluids flo"( if a difference in %ressure e)ists( and a natural flo" ta2es %lace from a high %ressure area to a lo" %ressure area( 7Eust as heat flo"s if a different tem%erature e)ists flo"ing from the higher tem%erature area to the lo"er tem%erature area:. T"o common methods of creating high %ressure to cause fluids to flo" are $# using gravit# 7feet of head in tan2s of li*uid: and %um%s. 4oth methods "ill create high %ressures and instead of causing the li*uids to com%ress the# cause them to flo". The term IheadJ is a reference to an amount of I%ressureJ and head is measured in Ifeet.J
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Gravit# and &um%s $oth %rovide I-eadJ or &ressure
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Chapter 0 ummary
pecific %olume = amount of s%ace occu%ied $# unit of mass. = 1ensity = amount of mass in a unit of volume.
1 V or = m
m 1 or = V
pecific gra%ity = the ratio of the densit# of a fluid to the densit# of a standard fluid
SG =
liquid gas and SG = water air
T"o non=mi)a$le 7non=misci$le: fluids "ill se%arate "hen %laced in the same container. The fluid "ith the highest densit# "ill sin2 to the $ottom. &ressure is a force acting over an area. . atm . atm . atm . atm . atm . atm M M M M M M .3.@ %sia 309 in. of - O /8.8/ in -g @C0 mm -g @C0 torr &a
$ 2
F A
$a$s M $atm P $gage $a$s M $atm = $vac From these findings he determined that Ian# $od# com%letel# or %artiall# su$merged in a fluid is $uo#ed u% 7%ushed u%: $# a force e*ual to the "eight of the amount 7volume: of fluid dis%laced $# the $od#.J This is 2no"n as Archimedes= Princi$le% =uoyancy is the u%"ard force on an immersed o$Eect. The pressure of a liquid is directly proportional to the depth of the liquid. The area of a container of liquid has no effect on the pressure; the depth and density of the liquid determines the pressure at the bottom of the container. Head is a measure of pressure in units of feet since it defines the depth at which a pressure is measured. When converting pressure units change first to number of atmospheres. &ascal6s la" states in effect that a %ressure a%%lied to a contained fluid is transmitted "ithout decreasing throughout the container. It is e)%erienced $oth in the fluid as "ell as u%on the "alls of the container no matter in "hat direction the measurement is ta2en.
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,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter 4/ Com$ression of Fluids
Chapter 2 Compression of (luids
Com$ressi*ility is the measure of the chan"e in olume a su*stance under"oes when a $ressure is e>erted on the su*stance% This cha$ter co ers the fundamental conce$ts of the Com*ined Ideal .as ?aw and the com$ressi*ility and incom$ressi*ility of fluids%
TO 2#<
Given the necessary fluid system parameters and using the .ombined %deal Gas Law, #!S.7%9! the compressibility or incompressibility of a fluid when a pressure is e,erted ST+T! the .ombined %deal Gas Law SOL ! for fluid parameter using the .ombined %deal Gas Law #!S.7%9! when a fluid may be considered to be incompressible #!S.7%9! the effects of a pressure or temperature change on a confined fluid !)*L+%& how to prevent over pressuri@ation accidents caused by gas or li1uid confinement.
!O (." !O (.( !O (.!O (.2 !O (.5
Compressibility
1om%ressi$ilit# is the measure of the change in volume a su$stance undergoes "hen a %ressure is e)erted on the su$stance. i*uids are generall# considered to $e incom%ressi$le. For instance( a %ressure of .C(300 %sig "ill cause a given volume of "ater to decrease $# onl# >F from its volume at atmos%heric %ressure. Gases on the other hand( are ver# com%ressi$le. The volume of a gas can $e readil# changed $# e)erting an e)ternal %ressure on the gas
The Combined +as -aw

The com$ined gas la" relates to the %ro%erties of a 7non=e)istent: so=called ideal or $erfect "as. An ideal gas has the same %ro%erties at ever# %oint throughout its mass and is not influenced $# chemical or e)ternal forces. To $e mathematicall# correct( the com$ined gas la" can onl# $e used on gases of lo" densities that do not undergo a change to solids or to li*uids. In addition( a$solute tem%eratures and %ressures must al"a#s $e used during these calculations or the calculations "ill $e incorrect. 7See e)am%le on follo"ing %age: The com$ined gas la"( as its name im%lies( is a com$ination of t"o la"s of nature o$served $# the %h#sicists( 1harles and 4o#le. 1harles determined that at constant lo" %ressures( the volume of a gas( V ( is directl# %ro%ortional to the a$solute tem%erature( T ( of the gas. At an# time the ratio of volume to a$solute tem%erature remains the same(
V1 V2 = ( T1 T2
"here V1 and T1 are the initial volume and a$solute tem%erature( and V 2 and T2 are the final volume and a$solute tem%erature. 4o#le determined that at lo" %ressures the %roduct of volume and %ressure of constant tem%erature gas is al"a#s the same.
P1V1 = P2 V 2
These t"o la"s are com$ined to $e stated as+ $or a given mass of any gas, the product of the absolute pressure and volume occupied by the gas, divided by its absolute temperature, is a constant. 1om$ined Gas a"+ 'here+ a IconstantJ. &. M initial a$solute %ressure( ?. M initial volume T. M initial a$solute tem%erature( in a$solute terms TR or L 7degrees Ran2ine( or Lelvin : &/ M final a$solute %ressure ?/ M final volume T/ M final a$solute tem%erature( TR or L This means that the ratio of a$solute %ressure times volume "hen com%ared to a$solute tem%erature al"a#s #ields a num$er that does not change. The ratio does not change "ith an# change in an# varia$le. Example: 9usin" the En"lish System in de"rees Ran(ine: .30TF air is charged into a tan2 until its %ressure is .C0 %sia 7I%siaJ is the designation for a$solute %ressure:. Over the course of the da# the air tem%erature cools so the gas in the tan2 slo"s do"n( has less energ# and therefore e)erts less %ressure on the "alls of the tan2 as time goes on. 'hat "ill $e the tem%erature of the air( in degrees Fahrenheit( "hen the %ressure in the tan2 reaches .>0 %siaH Assume no air is added or removed from the tan2 during this time.
olution: The ratio of the a$solute &ressure times ?olume divided $# the a$solute Tem%erature is an unchanging constant num$er for a s%ecific gas that sa#s that the ratio at an# time "ill $e e*ual to the ratio at an# other time for the same gas. The com$ined gas la" is+
PV P1V1 = 2 2 = 1onstant( T1 T2
and "e can choose to eliminate the IM 1onstantJ %art of the e)%ression. To ma2e things even sim%ler( the tan2 volume is constant( so ?. and ?/ are e*ual. This allo"s us to see that ?. and ?/ are constant and ma# $e eliminated from the e*uation( allo"ing us to "rite the e*uation as+
P1 P2 = T1 T2 T1 P2 . P1
T/ "ill $e the final tem%erature and T. the initial tem%erature. 'e then decide to solve the e*uation for final tem%erature T/+ T2 =
1onverting the initial tem%erature to a$solute+ 7add 3C0TF to an# Fahrenheit tem%erature to ma2e it Ran2ine= a$solute: T. M 3C0T P .30TF M C00TR Su$stitute and solve for final tem%erature+
T2 =
(600 R )(150 psi ) = 562.5 R 160 psi T2 = 562.5 R 460 F = 102.5 F
1onverting $ac2 to F +
Effects of ;ressure Changes on Confined (luids

Fluids ma# $e classified as com%ressi$le or incom%ressi$le. Gases are highl# com%ressi$le. A fluid is considered incom%ressi$le "hen it is a li*uid( $ecause its volume and densit# remain essentiall# constant "ith changes in %ressure. It is this incom%ressi$ilit# that allo"s a h#draulic s#stem to o%erate. Although li*uids are generall# considered to $e incom%ressi$le( in realit#( li*uids reall# do com%ress( $ut the# com%ress so little that the# are still considered to $e Iincom%ressi$leJ. A ver# large %ressure must $e a%%lied to see a significant change in volume and densit#. For e)am%le( a %ressure of .C(300 %si "ill cause a volume of "ater to decrease $# onl# > %ercent from its volume at atmos%heric %ressure. The fact that li*uids donKt com%ress can have significance in our o%erations. For e)am%le( if "e enclosed a tan2 and fill it "ith "ater "ithout venting it "e can e)ceed %ressure limits %ossi$l# to the %oint of ru%turing the tan2( valves( or vents. @orst Case Expected+ &ressure U% = -#draulic $ursting 0 &ressure 5o"n Q crum%le the tan2( or 7if the fluid %laced in the container is hot: u%on release of %ressure an e)%losion.
Gases( on the other hand( are ver# com%ressi$le. If a fluid increases its densit# significantl# "hen %ressure is a%%lied( then the fluid is considered com%ressi$le. This occurs "ith fluids of ver# lo" densities( such as gases. The volume of a gas can $e readil# changed $# a%%l#ing an e)ternal %ressure on the gas. Gases ma# $e com%ressed until the# $ecome li*uids $ut at that %oint further attem%ts to reduce volume ma# have catastro%hic results. @orst Case Expected+ &ressure U% Q Tan2 $ecomes a roc2et( or e)%losion 0 &ressure 5o"n Q 1rum%le the tan2 7im%losion:. Gasses are 1O,&RESSI4 E. i*uids are IN1O,&RESSI4 E. If "e %ut %ressure on them and the# canKt flo" a"a# the# ma# $urst the confining vesselOO
Effects of Temperature Changes on Confined (luids

An increase in temperature will tend to decrease the density of many fluids as the molecules become more active and bump into each other more often driving the molecules further away from one another. If the fluid is confined within a container of fixed volume, the effect of a temperature change will depend on the compressible nature of the fluid. If the fluid in a closed container is a Icom%ressi$leJ gas( it "ill res%ond to a tem%erature change in the same manner %redicted $# the ideal gas la". A > %ercent increase in a$solute tem%erature "ill cause a corres%onding > %ercent increase in a$solute %ressureD a > %ercent decrease in a$solute tem%erature "ill cause a corres%onding > %ercent decrease in a$solute %ressure. @orst Case Expected+ Tem%erature U% Q Tan2 $ecomes a roc2et( or e)%losion 0 Tem%erature 5o"n Q 1rum%le the tan2 7im%losion:. If the fluid is an Iincom%ressi$leJ li*uid in a closed container( changes in tem%erature cause a much more dramatic effect. If a container is filled "ith a li*uid as the tem%erature increases the li*uid attem%ts to e)%and and change into a gas 7a decrease in densit#:. Since the li*uid is confined "ithin the container( the "alls of the container are I$um%ed into more oftenJ so %ressure increases. This results in a tremendous increase in %ressure for a relativel# minor increase in tem%erature. This has a greater %otential of causing an e)%losion. @orst Case Expected+ Tem%erature U% Q Tan2 $ecomes a roc2et( or e)%losion( or $urst tan2 0 Tem%erature 5o"n Q FreeAe( and if "ater+ $urst tan2 since "ater e)%ands u%on freeAing:
(illing and 7enting

&ro%er filling and venting techni*ues can %revent serious %ro$lems caused $# gas tra%%ed in closed s#stems "hich ma# degrade s#stem %erformance. Air in %um%s can cause gas $inding. Air in heat e)changers reduces the heat transfer ca%a$ilit# $ecause air effectivel# creates an insulation $arrier. Tan2 e)%losions ma# occur "ith over %ressuriAation. A steam incident death at -anford could have $een %revented if the o%erator had $een a$le to use %ro%er steam line draining0venting measures.
Gas and li*uid filled tan2s and lines are %ressure tested $# filling "ith cold li*uid onl#( since an h#draulic over %ressuriAation "ill sim%l# $urst the container. If a hot li*uid or a gas "ere used the container might e)%lode and the e)%anding gas released might %ro%el shra%nel on the e)%anding "ave front at a rate faster than the s%eed of sound. 'hen to $e 1oncerned (illing a NclosedO li'uid filled systemP pre%iously drained: Over=%ressuriAation accidents ma# $e eliminated $# o%ening high %oint vents to allo" gas to $e forced from the s#stem. 'hen a stead# stream of li*uid issues from the vents( the high %oints are then closed. After filling a s#stem( the %um% ma# $e Eogged to circulate the li*uid for a fe" seconds to attem%t to move gas in the lines to the high %oints "here the vents are again o%ened to release an# gas that ma# have $een tra%%ed. 7See a%%endi)D 1ro"der e)%eriences: 1raining a NclosedO li'uid filled system: It is also im%ortant to o%en vent valves to allo" gas to enter "hen draining a s#stem. If vent valves are not o%ened( all the li*uid ma# not $e a$le to drain from the s#stem. ater during maintenance activities the tra%%ed and %erha%s heated or contaminated li*uid ma# $e released and cause harm to %eo%le and e*ui%ment. 4eating a NclosedO li'uid filled system: If a confined li*uid is heated it "ill attem%t to e)%and and %ressure "ill $uild ver# ra%idl#. If %ressure e)ceeds the limits of the "ea2est %ortion of the containment s#stem it "ill ru%ture or e)%lode violentl#. Safet# or relief valves must $e maintained in %ro%er o%erating condition to %rotect the s#stem. Cooling and confining an NopenO li'uid/filled system: An o%en s#stem containing a heated li*uid "hich is then confined and cooled ma# also e)ceed design limits and $# de%ressuriAation cause the s#stem to im%lode. Also draining a .0(000 gallon tan2 "ith the vents closed can *uic2l# turned it into a <(000 gallon tan2.. LEE& ?ents O&EN "hen draining and coolingO @arming up a gas filled system: Example: Steam line- All lines must be warmed up slowly and have no liquid present. Splitting of metal or explosion can result from these. *ccident ;re%ention: ;roper filling, %enting, draining, and temperature control# Indicators of gas disturbance in a closed li'uid filled system: Some maEor indicators of gas in a li*uid filled s#stem could $e+ U Fluctuating %um% discharge %ressures
U Fluctuating flo" rates U Fluctuating motor currents U Increased noise levels U E)cessive e*ui%ment vi$ration U -igher than normal heat e)changer tem%eratures 7air $lan2et causing decease in heat transfer: U 4u$$les %resent in sight flo" indicators U Increasing levels in surge tan2s 7as li*uid is dis%laced $# gas:
Chapter 2 ummary
.ombined %deal Gas Law' For a given mass of an# gas( the %roduct of the a$solute %ressure and volume occu%ied $# the gas( divided $# its a$solute tem%erature( is a constant To use the com$ined Ideal gas la"( a$solute tem%eratures and a$solute %ressures must $e used during the calculations.
PV P1V1 = 2 2 = 1onstant T1 T2
1om$ined Ideal Gas a"
i*uids are considered incom%ressi$leD gases are com%ressi$le. Effects of a %ressure( tem%erature( or volume change on a confined fluid+ A %ressure or tem%erature increase of a confined gas 7com%ressi$le fluid: "ill increase internal %ressure( and ru%ture or e)%losion ma# occur $ut are not li2el#. A %ressure or tem%erature decrease of a confined gas 7com%ressi$le fluid: "ill decrease internal %ressure( and ru%ture or im%losion ma# occur $ut are not li2el#. A %ressure or tem%erature increase of a confined li*uid 7incom%ressi$le fluid: "ill increase internal %ressure dramaticall#( and "ill li2el# cause ru%ture or e)%losion. A %ressure or tem%erature decrease of a confined li*uid 7incom%ressi$le fluid: "ill decrease internal %ressure dramaticall#( and "ill li2el# cause ru%ture or im%losion.
&ro%er filling( venting( draining and tem%erature control can %revent %ressuriAation accidents.
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,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter 1/ -atural Circulation Flow
Chapter 3 N*T,)*- CI)C,-*TION (-O@
It is $ossi*le to desi"n some fluid systems in a manner that does not re7uire the $resence of $um$s to $ro ide circulation% This cha$ter descri*es the mechanism for natural circulation flow of a fluid
TO 3#<
!O -." !O -.(
$or any natural circulation fluid system, #!S.7%9! the mechanism that allows for fluid flow L%ST the conditions necessary for natural circulation to occur !)*L+%& how fluid flows in natural circulation fluid systems
Natural Circulation
The head 7or %ressure: re*uired to com%ensate for the head losses is created $# densit# gradients and elevation changes. Flo" that occurs under these circumstances is called natural circulation. Natural circulation is circulation of a fluid "ithout the use of mechanical devices( such as %um%s. The driving force for natural circulation flo" is the difference in densit# $et"een t"o $odies or areas of fluid. Thermal dri in" head is the force that causes natural circulation to ta2e %lace. It is caused $# the difference in densit# $et"een t"o $odies or areas of fluid. In the figure $elo" this force causing the $alloon to rise is a result of a difference in densit# $et"een the hot air inside the $alloon and the cooler air surrounding it. This is an e)am%le of *uoyancy.
W arm A ir Co ld Air Cold A ir
(igure 3/09 *ir =aloon =uoyancy
-eat added to the air in the $alloon ma2es it less dense or lighter than the surrounding air. Since the air in the $alloon is less dense( gravit# has less effect on it. The result is that the gas in the $alloon "eighs less than the surrounding air. Gravit# tends to %ull cooler air do"n into the s%ace occu%ied $# the $alloon.
This do"n"ard movement of cooler air ma# force the $alloon out of the s%ace it occu%ied and the $alloon ma# rise if the "eight of the material of the $alloon is light enough. i2e a $u$$le in "ater the gas $u$$le 7$alloon: tends also to rise in air.
Conditions )e'uired (or Natural Circulation

Natural circulation "ill onl# occur if the correct conditions e)ist. Even after natural circulation $egins( removal of an# one of these conditions "ill sto% natural circulation. The conditions for natural circulation are+ Tem%erature difference 7-eat sin2M"here the heat goesD -eat sourceM"here the heat comes from: -eight difference Fluids are in contact "ith each other
Cooler air
Ele%ation
Hot air rises
(igure 3/0A 4eat ource G 4eat ink
There must $e t"o $odies of fluid at different tem%eratures. This could also $e one $od# of fluid "ith areas of different tem%eratures. The difference in tem%erature is necessar# to cause a densit# difference in the fluid. The densit# difference is the driving force for natural circulation flo". The difference in tem%erature must $e maintained for the natural circulation to continue. Addition of heat $# a heat source must e)ist at the high tem%erature area. 1ontinuous removal of heat $# a heat sin2 must e)ist at the lo" tem%erature area. Other"ise( the tem%eratures "ould e*ualiAe and no further circulation "ould occur. The "arm area must $e at a lo"er elevation than the cool area. As seen $# the e)am%les of the $alloon and the closed loo%( a "armer fluid is less dense and "ill tend to rise and a cooler fluid is more dense and "ill tend to sin2. To ta2e advantage of the natural movement of "arm and cool fluids( the heat source and heat sin2 must $e at the %ro%er elevations.
The hot and cold areas must $e in contact so that flo" $et"een the areas is %ossi$le. If the flo" %ath is o$structed or $loc2ed( then natural circulation cannot occur. A va%or $u$$le ma# $e caught at one %oint causing a va%or loc2 7"here a gas $u$$le is created at a hot s%ot and sto%s the li*uid from "hich it "as created from flo"ing:( or a valve ma# $e closed.
Chapter 3 ummary
Natural circulation flo" is the circulation of a fluid "ithout the use of mechanical devices 7i.e. %um%s. etc.:. The driving force for natural circulation is the difference in the densities $et"een t"o $odies or la#ers of fluid. For natural circulation to occur the s#stem must have all the follo"ing conditions+ Tem%erature difference 7causing densit# difference: -eight difference 7heat source located $elo" the heat sin2 = cooling: Fluids are in contact 7flo" %ath e)ists $et"een the "arm fluid and cold fluid: Natural circulation "ill occur "ith the conditions state a$ove $ecause+ -otter fluids tend to $ecome less dense and rise 1older fluids tend to $ecome more dense and sin2
Student .uide/ Fluid Flow
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Cha$ter 5/ Volumetric and Mass Flow Rate
Chapter " 7O-,8ET)IC *N1 8*
(-O@ )*TE
@nderstandin" the 7uantities measured *y the olumetric flow rate and mass flow rate is crucial to understandin" other fluid flow to$ics% This cha$ter calculates the olumetric and mass flow rates of fluids to determine arious fluid $arameters%
TO "#<
/sing fluid system volumetric and mass flow rates, SOL ! for unknown fluid parameters values to predict fluid system characteristics #!$%&! the fluid flow terms ABass $low 7ate0 and A olumetric $low 7ate0 to include their typical units Given the necessary fluid parameters, #!T!7B%&! the mass flow rate or the volumetric flow rate of a given fluid system #!$%&! the fluid flow term ASteady-State0 !)*L+%& the Law of .onservation of Bass and !nergy as pertains to a fluid flow system Given a steady-flow system, +**LC the .ontinuity !1uation to determine fluid system parameters
!O 2." !O 2.( !O 2.!O 2.2 !O 2.5
7olume 576
?olume is the amount of s%ace occu%ied $# a fluid or an o$Eect. ,athematicall#( volume is the length of an o$Eect times its cross=sectional area. See Figure 3...
V =len" th area
V O LU M E
Space O ccu pied B yA T !ee"D i# e$%i&$ a' O ()e c*
Vrectan"le 2 l w h
1 !
'
Fluids are usuall# in %i%es or c#lindrical tan2s. 'e "ill focus on c#linders. The area A of a c#linder is+
+ A 2 r 2 4
4
+4 5
Vcircle 2
rh
U N ITS + LEN G T, U B ED +
I$. / 0* . / #.
(igure "/0? 7olume of an Ob&ect
The volume of a c#linder is+
l +4 + . V 2 l r 2 l 2 4 5
4
Example: 1onsider the follo"ing sections of %i%es+
?en"th 2 A in
Area 2 3 in4
Area 2 A in 4
7olume Q ": in3

(igure "/0: 7olume of ;ipe ection *
?en"th 2 3 in
3 7olume Q ": in
(igure "/0$ 7olume of ;ipe ection =
In $oth of the a$ove %i%e sections( A of fig 3=/ and 4 of fig 3=<( the volumes of each %i%e section are e*ual. Recall the mathematical e)%ression for the volume of the given sha%e( a right c#linder( is+ 2&'u#e + c!&%%"%ec*i&$a' a!ea x 'e$3* W e* e! * e exp!e%%i&$ i% 6 x 8 OR 8 x 6/ * e p!&duc* i% %*i'' 48. 1ommon units of volume are gallons( liters( cu$ic inches( and cu$ic feet.
7olumetric (low )ate 5 V 6

?olumetric flo" rate 7 V : is the volume of fluid that flo"s %ast a fi)ed %oint %er unit of time. Since volumetric flo" rate is a measure of volume "ith res%ect to time( its units must also $e "ith res%ect to time. E)am%les of units for volumetric flo" rate include gallons %er minute 7g%m:( cu$ic feet %er second 7ft<0sec:( cu$ic inches %er second 7in<0sec:( and liters %er hour 7 0hr:. The volumetric flo" rate of a fluid through a %i%e can $e determined if the cross=sectional area of the %i%e and the velocit# of the fluid are 2no"n. ?olumetric flo" rate V is given $#+

(igure "/2< 7olumetric flow )ate 7isual
V 2
V lA 2 t t
For a round %i%e 7"hich is a c#linder:(
V2
l r4 l +4 2 t 5t .
This e*uation for V can $e rearranged to loo2 li2e a velocit# times an area+
V 2
l r4 l +4 2 t 5t
l V 2 r4 t
'e 2no" that r is the cross=sectional area A of the %i%e 7assume circular %i%e area:. 'e recogniAe that In fact(
l as the dimensions of a velocit# or s%eed. t
flo".
l is the Flow elocity( e)%ressed as t 'e can re"rite the volumetric flo" rate as+
V 2
'here+
flo"
A flo"
V M volumetric flo" rate( m<0s or ft<0s

flo"
M flo" velocit#( m0s or ft0s

/ /
Aflo" M flo" area+ the cross=sectional area of the %i%e( m or ft
@e find the %olumetric flow rate V from the pipe siFe and the fluid %elocity#
Example: Figure 3.> sho"s "ater "ith a flo" velocit# %oint !.
flo"
of / feet0sec.( moving from %oint V through
(igure "/20 7olumetric (low rate =etween Two ;oints
To find volumetric flo" rate+ The inside area of the %i%e is < ft/. 'ater flo"ing through the %i%e "ill fill the %i%e( occu%#ing the entire cross=sectional area of < ft/D therefore( the area at %oint V is < ft/. The velocit# of the "ater is / ft0sec. This means that in one second( "ater "ill travel / feet do"n the %i%e. If "ater is allo"ed to flo" %ast %oint V for one second( a length of "ater / feet long "ill have %assed %oint V. The volume of the "ater is e*ual to the length 7 / ft : times the area 7 < ft/ :( "hich e*uals C ft<. ?olume of a c#linder M 7 ength of c#linder: 7cross=sectional Area of c#linder:+ ? M A.
? M / feet in length ) < s*uare foot cross=sectional area e*uals C cu$ic feet of volume+ / ft < ft/ M C ft< 7si) cu$ic feet: If the fluid is allo"ed to flo" freel# at / ft0sec( C ft < "ill flo" %ast %oint V each second. Therefore the volumetric flo" rate "ould $e C ft< %er second. Example:
VFLOW =
5 ft s
D = 3 ft
(igure "/22 7olumetric (low )ate Example 0 The inside diameter of the %i%e is < feet and the velocit# of the fluid is > ft0sec. 'hat is the volumetric flo" rate of the fluidH Refer to Figure 3.C. 'e use the e*uation for volumetric flo" rate+
VM
flo"Aflo"
The area of the %i%e is not given( so "e first find the cross=sectional area of the %i%e. The area of a circle A M r . The radius is e*ual to one=half the diameter.
/
+ A 2 r4 2 4
Su$stituting values+
1 ft A 2 4 A 2
B 4 ft 5
A 2 C%D3A3 ft 4
Su$stitute the values for area and fluid velocit# into the volumetric flo" rate formula+
V M @.0C9C ft/U> ft0s

Solve for volumetric flo" rate+
V M <>.<3< ft<0s M <> ft<0s *nytime the cross/sectional area of a pipe and the %elocity of the fluid are known, the %olumetric flow rate can be determined#
Remem$er+ ?olumetric flo" rate( V M Time
Volume
Area Length M Area Velocity Time
-ote/ All olumetric flow rates and mass flow rates hereafter will ha e a dot a*o e the letter to se$arate them from the normal sym*ols for olume and mass, 9i%e% V , m :
Also recall that+ ?elocit#( M
Length Time
So( mathematicall#+ 7Area ?elocit#:

?olumetric Flo" Rate
'here+
< V M volumetric flo" rate( ft 0sec A M cross=sectional flo" area( ft/
M fluid velocit#( ft0sec Example: The inside diameter of the %i%e is . foot and the velocit# of the fluid %assing through the %i%e is > ft0sec. 'hat is the volumetric flo" rate of the fluidH
> ft0sec
. foot diameter
(igure "/23 7olumetric (low )ate Example 2 Use the e*uation for volumetric flo" rate+ V M
7Area ?elocit#:
The area of the %i%e is not given( so first find the cross=sectional area of the %i%e. The area of a circle is e*ual to W 7"e "ill use <..3: times the s*uare of the radius or one half of the diameter. V M A 7Area ?elocit#:
V M 2
Su$stitute values+
1ft 2 ft (1ft )2 ft = 3.14 2 5 5 V M 3.14 2 sec 2 sec
12 ft 2 ft 1 ft 2 ft V M 3.14 2 2 5 sec = 3.14 4 5 sec
The volumetric flo" rate is+ V = 3.93
ft 3 sec
This is the volume of fluid that flo"s %ast a %oint in the %i%e ever# second.
Summation+ ?olumetric flo" rate( V M Time
Volume
D can ta2e four forms+
V=
V t
V = A
d V = 3.14 2 2
V = 3.14r 2
'here+
d r
7
t *
is volumetric flo" rate in cu$ic feet %er second is inner diameter of a %i%e in feet is inner radius of a %i%e in feet is fluid velocit# in feet %er second is volume in cu$ic feet is time in seconds is area in s*uare feet
8ass, 1ensity, and pecific 7olume

,ass is the amount of matter in a su$stance. The densit# of a material relates mass to the volume it occu%ies. The amount of mass in a volume is determined $# multi%l#ing the densit# of the material times the volume it occu%ies.
In e*uation form+
'here+ m M mass in g( 2g( or l$m M densit# in g0cm ( 2g0l( or l$m0ft V M volume in cm ( l( or ft

< < < <
Rearranging the e*uation one can solve for densit#. The values of densit# for "ater can $e found $# using the steam ta$les to loo2 u% s%ecific volume. 5ensit# is the inverse of s%ecific volume +
Example:
. . . m m 2 2 2 V . V V m
The densit# 7 : of "ater at @0 F is C/.3 l$m0ft<. This means that . ft< of "ater at @0 F "ill contain C/.3 %ounds mass of "ater molecules. The amount of mass in a volume is determined $# multi%l#ing the densit# of the material times the volume it occu%ies+
m = V
'here+
m M mass 7l$m: 7units are I%ounds massJ:

= densit# 7l$m0ft<: 7units are I%ounds mass %er cu$ic feetJ: V M volume 7ft<: 7units are Icu$ic feetJ: 5ensit# 7 : is the inverse of s%ecific volume 7 : D = S%ecific volume is the inverse of densit#D =
1 .
1 .
8ass (low )ate 5 m 6

,ass flo" rate 7 m : is the amount of mass that flo"s %ast a fi)ed %oint %er unit time. Since mass can $e defined in terms of volume and densit#( mass flo" rate can $e defined in terms of volumetric flo" rate and densit#. The mass flo" rate is the densit# of the fluid times the volumetric flo" rate.
'here+
m M mass flo" rate 7l$m0sec: 7units are I%ounds mass %er secondJ: M densit# 7l$m0ft<: 7units are I%ounds mass %er cu$ic feetJ:
< V M volumetric flo" rate 7ft 0sec: 7units are Icu$ic feet %er secondJ:
7-ormal units for mass flow rate include l*m6hr and l*m6sec%: Since volumetric flo" rate can $e defined in terms of area and velocit#( ( values of area and velocit# ma# $e su$stituted for volumetric flo" rate and the follo"ing e*uation is also true for mass flo" rate+
or
,ass Flo" Rate
'here+
m M mass flo" rate 7l$m0sec: 7units are I%ounds mass %er secondJ:
M densit# 7l$m0ft<: 7units are I%ounds mass %er cu$ic feetJ:

A M cross=sectional flo" area 7ft/: 7units are Is*uare feetJ:
M fluid velocit# 7ft0sec: 7units are Ifeet %er secondJ:
Example: If the volumetric flo" rate of the fluid in a %i%eline is 3.0 ft<0sec( and the densit# of the fluid is C/.3 l$m0ft<( "hat is the mass flo" rate of the s#stemH Use the e*uation "hich relates mass flo" rate and volumetric flo" rate+
m =V
Su$stituting values of densit# and volumetric flo" rate+
m = V = 62.4 m = 249.6
lbm ft 3 4.0 ft 3 sec
lbm sec
Example: Refer to Figure 3.9. If the velocit# of the fluid is >.0 ft0s( the %i%e diameter is <.0 ft( and the densit# of the fluid is C/.3 l$m0ft ( "hat is the mass flo" rate of the s#stemH
<
V FLOW =
5 ft s
D = 3 ft
lbm p = 62.4 ft3
(igure "/2" 8ass (low )ate Example
Using the e*uation relating mass flo" rate and volumetric flo" rate+
Su$stituting values of densit# and volumetric flo" rate+
m M /(/0>.3 l$m0s The teady (low Condition

'hen the flo" velocit# vflo" at ever# %oint is constant "ith time( "e sa# that the fluid motion is at a stead#=state. At an# given %oint in a stead# flo" s#stem( the velocit# of each %assing fluid %article is al"a#s the same. At a different %oint in the s#stem( the fluid velocit# ma# $e different from the velocit# at the first %oint. 4ut the velocit# at $oth %oints is constant over time.
Continuity of (low
1ontinuit# of flo" states that the same mass flo" e)ists ever#"here in a %i%e "hen the %i%e is full and there are no lea2s into or out of the %i%e 7i.e. closed s#stem:. If a %um% is %ushing .00 l$m0hr of fluid into a full %i%e( the flo" from the outlet at the other end of the %i%e must $e .00 l$m0hr. I'hat goes in must come out as fast as it "ent inJ( or said another "a#( I#ou can not create or destro# matter $# %um%ing it through a %i%eJ.
mass flow rate R point 0 Q 0<< lbmGhr
mass flow rate R point 2 Q 0<< lbmGhr
mass flow rate is the same throughout system
(igure "/29 Continuity of (low
The same mass flow exists throughout the pipe system, regardless of changes in the configuration of the pipe# This statement su%%orts the la" of conser%ation of mass and energy "hich states+ neither mass nor ener"y can *e created nor destroyed, only altered in form% 1ontinuit# of flo" is commonl# re%resented $# the continuit# e*uation. The continuit# e*uation states that the mass flo" rate at one %oint is e*ual to the mass flo" rate at an# other %oint. ,atter doesnKt Eust a%%ear nor disa%%ear for no reason so the volume %assing one %oint e*uals the volume %assing an# other %oint.
This is onl# true if the s#stem is closed 7i.e. does not have an# lea2s in or out:.
Mass Flow Rate does not equal Velocity!!

Continuity E'uation: 'here+ m1 M mass flo" %ast a %oint . 7l$m0hr: 7%ounds mass %er hour:
m2 M mass flo" %ast a %oint / 7l$m0hr: 7%ounds mass %er hour:

Su$stituting the mass flo" rate e*uation( ( on $oth sides %roduces the continuit# e*uation+
1ontinuit# E*uation
'here+
1 M densit# at %oint . A1 M area of %i%e at %oint . v1 M average fluid velocit# at %oint .
2 M densit# at %oint / A2 M area of %i%e at %oint / v2 M average fluid velocit# at %oint /
7l$m0ft<: 7ft/: 7ft0sec:
The continuity e1uation can be applied to the flow of any fluid, li1uid, or vapor.
In a%%l#ing it to the flo" of li*uids( it can $e assumed that the densit# does not change significantl# even though there are changes in the cross=sectional area of flo". As stated earlier li*uids are considered incom%ressi$le. If then not onl# does mass $ut also %olumetric
flow rate in Q mass flow rate out(
flow rate in Q %olumetric flow rate out#
The continuit# of flo" e*uation can $e sim%lified+
In a full# filled enclosed s#stem( changes in %i%e area "ill cause changes in the fluid velocit# to ensure that s#stem mass flo" rate remains constant. Example: Refer to Figure 3..0 on the ne)t %age The average velocit# of "ater flo"ing in a C=inch %i%e is /> feet %er second. If the mass flo" rate is constant( "hat "ould $e the velocit# of the "ater if the siAe of the %i%e decreases to 3 inchesH 7The cross=sectional area of the C=inch %i%e is 0./0 s*uare feet( and the cross=sectional area of the 3=inch %i%e is 0.08 s*uare feet.:
(igure "/2A Continuity Example 2
Using the sim%lified continuit# e*uation+ Rearranging the e*uation to solve for velocit# at %oint /+ Su$stituting values for area and velocit# at %oints . and /+
1alculating0 Sim%lif#ing+ 1om%aring the velocities for the C=inch %i%e 7/> feet %er second: and the 3=inch %i%e 7>>.>C feet %er second:( a si"nificant increase in fluid elocity occurs as the $i$e si!e decreases% This effect can $e seen $# the increase in velocit# of "ater from a garden hose if the flo" area is reduced $# %lacing a finger over the end of the hose. If mass flow rate is constant and area decreases, flow %elocity must increase# If mass flow rate is constant and area increases, flow %elocity must decrease# Another "a# to see this change "ithout actuall# doing the mathematics is called arro" anal#sis+ Refer to Figure 3..0 again. Using the sim%lified continuit# e*uation+ 'here+ A. re%resents the cross=sectional area at %oint .D
the fluid velocit# at %oint .D = and = A/ re%resents the cross=sectional area at %oint /D / re%resents the fluid velocit# at %oint /. A/ is less than A.. In order to 2ee% the e*uation e*ual( the velocit# on the right side 7 /: must $e greater than .. In other "ords( to 2ee% $oth sides e*ual the velocit# on side / must increase to com%ensate for the decrease in cross=sectional area. This can $e sho"n "ith arro"s in the e*uation( ( "here the arro"s indicate the decrease in area and the increase in velocit#.
. re%resents
So "ithout actuall# doing the mathematics a %rediction can $e made that the velocit# "ill increase "hen the area decreases.
Calculations of 7elocity, *rea and 7olumetric (low )ate in a cylindrical pipe# Use the e*uations and 7"hen needed:
(ill in the empty spaces in the table: 7ans"ers on follo"ing %age:
V
7olumetric (low )ate
* *rea 0#9 ft 2
% 7elocity
r )adius
<#9 ft 2
<#29 ft 2
ft sec ft 0< sec ft 2#9 sec ft 0: sec ft 02 sec ft 3< sec

09
<#9 ft
#29 ft
2#2 ft
*nswers:
V
7olumetric (low )ate
* *rea 0#9 ft 2 <#?$ ft 2 <#9 ft 2 <#2 ft 2 <#29 ft 2 09#2 ft 2
% 7elocity
r )adius
ft 3 sec ft 3 ?#:9 sec ft 3 0#29 sec ft 3 3#93 sec ft 3 3#< sec ft 3 "99#$ sec
22#9
ft sec ft 0< sec ft 2#9 sec ft 0: sec ft 02 sec ft 3< sec

09
<#9 ft
#29 ft
2#2 ft
Chapter " ummary

S 7olumetric flow rate 5 V 6: The volume of fluid that flo"s %ast a fi)ed %oint %er unit time. Units are gallons %er minute 7g%m:( cu$ic feet %er second 7ft<0sec:( and liters %er hour. E*uals the cross=sectional area times fluid velocit# or V = A 7Area ) ?elocit#:. S 8ass flow rate 5 6: The amount of mass that flo"s %ast a fi)ed %oint %er unit time. Units include %ounds mass %er hour 7l$m0hr: and %ounds mass %er second 7l$m0sec:. E*ual to densit# times volumetric flo" rate or m = V . Also e*ual to densit# times area times the velocit# or m = A . U The &rinci%le of 1onservation of ,ass and Energ# states that neither mass nor energ# can $e created or destro#ed( onl# altered in form. U 1ontinuit# of flo" e)ists "hen the same mass flo" rate e)ists ever#"here in a %i%e.

m1 = m2
1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2
Therefore "hen mass flo" rate is constant( =if %i%e siAe decreases( fluid velocit# must increaseD =if %i%e siAe increases( fluid velocit# must decrease. U The velocit# of a fluid is given $# = V ( or = V 7"here A = r2 :. A r 2

This page was intentionally left blank
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter E/ Ty$es of Flow
Chapter 9 T.;E O( (-O@
This cha$ter descri*es the two *asic ty$es of fluid flow/ laminar and tur*ulent% The factors that determine the ty$e of flow is also discussed%
TO 9#<
!O 5." !O 5.( !O 5.!O 5.2
Given the necessary fluid system parameters, #!T!7B%&! the fluid flow type and the flow characteristics of that fluid system #!$%&! the two basic types of fluid flow' laminar, turbulent !)*L+%& how fluid flow parameters influence the type of fluid flow #!$%&! the $luid $low term 3viscosity4 !)*L+%& how the viscosity of a li1uid varies with temperature
-aminar (low
aminar flo" is the flo" of fluid in %arallel la#ers 7refer to Figure >.. on ne)t %age:. The la#ers of fluid move smoothl# over adEacent la#ers. There is little or no mi)ing $et"een them. The fluid %articles move in definite %aths or streams. This t#%e of fluid flo" is relativel# silent( "ith lo" noise levels.
Turbulent (low
Tur$ulent flo" is characteriAed $# random movement of the fluid %articles 7refer to Figure >.. on ne)t %age:. The %articles travel in irregular %aths "ith no distinguisha$le %attern this t#%e of fluid flo" has high noise levels as com%ared to laminar flo".
Laminar Flow (Layers) Silence

High Viscosity - Low Velocity - Smooth Walled Piping - Small Dia. Pipe
Turbulent Flow (Random) Noise!

Low Viscosity - High Velocity - Rough Walled Piping - Large Dia. Pipe
(igure 9/2? The Two =asic Types of (luid (low
(actors Influencing Type of (low

The t#%e of flo" e)%erienced $# a fluid de%ends on several factors( the velocit# of the fluid( the diameter of the %i%e( the viscosit# of the fluid( the roughness of the %i%e( and the siAe of the %i%e. As fluid velocit# and roughness increases( the movement of the %articles $ecomes more random and tur$ulent flo" is more li2el#. A larger diameter %i%e allo"s more movement of %articles ma2ing it more li2el# that tur$ulent flo" "ill occur. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid6s resistance to flo". A thic2 oil has a high viscosit#( "ater has a lo" viscosit#. A more viscous fluid is more li2el# to e)%erience laminar flo" "hile a IthinnerJ less viscous fluid is more li2el# to e)%erience tur$ulent flo". As tem%erature increases( the Ithic2nessJ of a li*uid "ill decrease( causing viscosit# to decrease( "hich "ill increase the %ossi$ilit# of tur$ulent flo". Fluid friction increases "ith an increase in tur$ulence. Increased friction means that more energ# must $e added to the s#stem to cause the desired flo". The amount of mi)ing "ithin the fluid de%ends on the t#%e of flo". Tur$ulent flo" causes mi)ing of the fluid. 8ixing of the fluid enhances heat transfer and is an important consideration for con%ection heat transfer systems# This can $e a $enefit in facilitation of heat transfer in heat e)changers( $oilers( and cooling to"ers. Tur$ulent flo" ma# also enhance heat loss "hen #ou donKt "ant it so tur$ulent flo" "ithin %i%ing ma# indicate a need to %eriodicall# chec2 for %ro%er %i%ing insulation.
Ideal (luid
An ideal fluid is one that is incom%ressi$le and has no viscosit#. An Ideal fluid is imaginar# and does not actuall# e)ist( $ut sometimes it is useful to consider "hat "ould ha%%en to an ideal fluid in a %articular fluid flo" %ro$lem in order to sim%lif# the %ro$lem. Engineers do this all the time $ecause it is almost true in real fluids( so their results are still *uite accurate though not %erfect. It hel$s to sim$lify com$le> mathematics%
Noise -e%el and (low )ate

Increasing the velocit# of a fluid causes an increase in tur$ulence. An increase in tur$ulence "ill cause an increase in noise level and vi$ration as the fluid flo"s through s#stem %i%ing and com%onents. This relationshi% $et"een noise level and flo" rate can $e used $# an o%erator to gauge changes in the flo" rate of a s#stem.
Noise level and vibration can be valuable indicators of flow conditions
Chapter 9 ummary
-aminar flo" is flo" in %arallel la#ers( "hile turbulent flo" is random movement of fluid %articles. Also+ An increase in tur$ulence causes an increase in fluid friction. Tur$ulent flo" is $etter than laminar flo" for heat transfer. Noise and vi$ration are indicators of tur$ulence.
As fluid velocit# and roughness increases( the movement of the %articles $ecomes more random and tur$ulent flo" is more li2el#. A larger diameter %i%e allo"s more movement of %articles ma2ing it more li2el# that tur$ulent flo" "ill occur. Fluid friction increases "ith an increase in tur$ulence. Increased friction means that more energ# must $e added to the s#stem to cause the desired flo".
An ideal fluid is one that is incom%ressi$le and has no viscosit#. 7iscosity is a measure of a fluid6s resistance to flo". As tem%erature increases a fluid "ill $ecome thinner ( so the measure of itKs resistance to flo"( viscosit#( "ill decrease. As tem%erature decreases viscosit# "ill increase.
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Cha$ter 3/ Forms of Ener"y ) The .eneral Ener"y E7uation
Chapter A (O)8 O( ENE)+. BT4E +ENE)*ENE)+. EC,*TION
This cha$ter discusses the forms of ener"y in fluid flow systems% It also discuss the .eneral Ener"y E7uation and the ?aw a Conser ation of Mass and Ener"y in fluid flow systems%
TO A#<
!O 8."
Given a fluid system, %#!&T%$C the forms of energy using the General !nergy !1uation #!$%&! the following terms to include their units' potential energy, kinetic energy, flow energy, internal energy, heat energy, work energy, specific energy #!S.7%9! the relationship between the General !nergy !1uation and the Law of .onservation of Bass and !nergy
!O 8.(
+eneral Energy E'uation

The general energ# e*uation is an attem%t to sum u% all of the energies that a fluid %ossesses. -o"ever( the general energ# e*uation does not ta2e into consideration nuclear energies( nor chemical energ# so is not a %erfect reflection of all energ# in nature. It is therefore an incom%lete mathematical e)%ression of the la" of nature called the la" of conservation of mass and energ#. The general energ# e*uation is( ho"ever( a ver# useful tool "hen tal2ing a$out conventional engineering energ# concerns. It means that for a stead# flo" s#stem( the total energ# 7conventional engineering energ# onl#: at one %oint must e*ual the total energ# at an# other %oint in the s#stem. As a result( even though the amount of an# %articular t#%e of energ# ma# go u% or do"n due to a change in other t#%es of energ#( the total amount of energ# "ill not have changed. The general energ# e*uation onl# considers the change or the difference in certain energies( and includes some energies added from outside and some energies removed from the s#stem. This ma# sound com%le)( #et if "ritten it ma# $e easier to understand. Energies at a $eginning %oint .( added to all energies that come from outside the s#stem e*uate to+ Energies at an ending %oint /( added to all energies that are removed and leave the s#stem=
Su$stituting e*uivalencies for the energ# at %oint . and the energ# added+
E point1 is PE1 + KE1 + FE1 + U1 and E added is Qin + W in

Su$stituting e*uivalencies for the energ# at %oint / and the energ# removed+
E point2 is PE 2 + KE 2 + FE2 + U2 and E removed is Qout + W out

All of these energies added together ma2e u% the general energ# e*uation.
General Energ# E*uation
'here+ &E M %otential energ# 7ft.=l$f: LE M 2inetic energ# 7ft.=l$f: FE M flo" energ# 7ft.=l$f:. U M internal energ# 74tu: S M heat 74tu:. ' M "or2 7ft.=l$f:.
4efore %roceeding further( letKs revie" the different forms of energ# in the general energ# e*uation. !ou have seen %otential and 2inetic energ# in earlier fundamentals courses.
;otential Energy 5;E6

&otential energ# 7&E: is the energ# an o$Eect 7in this case a mass of fluid: %ossesses due to its %osition a$ove a reference level. The energ# %ossessed $# a fluid due to the "or2 of the force of gravit# u%on it is a large %art of the %otential energ# of a fluid.
PE =
mgz "hen using the English S#stem( gc
7 PE = mgz "hen using the International S#stem: 'here+ &E M %otential energ# 7ft=l$f: m M mass 7l$m: A M elevation a$ove 7or $elo": reference level 7ft: 2 g M acceleration of gravit# 32.17ft / sec
gc
( ) M gravitational constant (32.17ft lbm / lbf sec )

2
The dra"ing $elo" is to re%resent a volume of fluid in a tan2 that has a height IAJ that creates a %ressure at the $ottom of the tan2. It is to $e a visual re%resentation of %otential energ#.
'henever a li*uid is elevated a$ove some reference %oint( its %otential energ# is increased. 'hen a li*uid is lo"ered( its %otential energ# is decreased.
T
(igure A/2: * 7isual of ;otential Energy
pecific potential energy is the amount of %otential energ# %ossessed $# a "or2ing fluid %er %ound=mass of the fluid. It is denoted $# the small letters $e% Since g and g c are numericall# e*ual( the s%ecific %otential energ# is numericall# e*ual to the height a$ove a reference level e)%ressed in terms of ft=l$f0l$m.
pe =
PE mgz gz = = m mg c g c
%e M s%ecific %otential energ# 7ft=l$f0l$m:
Dinetic Energy 5DE6

Linetic 7LE: energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its velocit#+
mv 2 "hen using the English S#stem 2g c mv 2 7 KE = "hen using the International S#stem: 2 KE =
'here+ LE M 2inetic energ# 7ft=l$f: m M mass 7l$m: v M velocit# 7ft0sec: g c M </..@ ft=l$m0l$f=sec/ The dra"ing $elo" is to re%resent a volume of fluid moving "ith a velocit#( and is to $e a visual re%resentation of 2inetic energ#.
2e'&ci*y
(igure A/2$ 7isual of Dinetic Energy
pecific kinetic energy is the 2inetic energ# a "or2ing fluid %ossesses %er %ound=mass of the fluid. It is denoted $# the small letters 2e.
ke =
'here+ (e M s%ecific flo" energ#7ft=l$f0l$m:
KE mv2 v2 = = m 2mg c 2gc
(low Energy 5(E6

Flo" energ# is Ithe energ# %ossessed $# a fluid due to its %ressure and volume.J Flo" energ# can easil# $e seen "hen com%ressing a gas "ith a %iston. As a force is a%%lied $# a %iston in com%ressing a gas( the %ressure of the gas increases 7Figure C.<:. 'or2 "as done in com%ressing the gas. This "or2 is no" stored in the gas in the form of flo" energ#( li2e the energ# in a s%ring. This energ# is not lost. It can $e transformed into useful "or2 $# releasing the %iston( Eust li2e releasing a s%ring allo"s it to "or2 and move o$Eects. As the gas e)%ands it does "or2 in moving the %iston. Flo" energ# causes fluids to flo" from higher %ressure areas to lo"er %ressure areas Eust as though the fluid "ere $eing %ro%elled $# s%rings in the s#stem. i*uids act the same "a#. The# do not com%ress "ell $ut the# do store energ#.
F p w
l i o s
u t r
i o
d n k o
o o n
m r v
p p o u l
r u
e m
o I
O
d
a a
W F
l n t
u d t
i i
d m
t o e
E u
N t e
oO
lx n t u e s i d t s i
F f o
l l u r
u i v d
d a
F e a d n a
d a mo
o e
n w f
a o e
d o t
(igure A/3< (low Energy in Compressing ;iston Attem%ting to com%ress a li*uid that is virtuall# incom%ressi$le does not cause it to com%ress $ut causes it to move out of the "a#. This is much li2e tr#ing to com%ress a "ater melon seed $et"een the fingers causes it to sli% from $et"een the fingers and fl# a"a#. In addition as ?olume . 7Figure C.3: moves through the %i%e it must %ush ?olume / ahead of it. In this e)am%le ?olume . is doing "or2 on ?olume / in raising its elevation and in moving it from one location to another. The %ressure driving the flo" is "hat %ushes the volume or fluid. The "or2 is $eing done $# flo" energ#. The flo" energ# is de%endent on the %ressure of the fluid and volume of the fluid moved.
P P o
o i n
n t
V p p -
o V o F r W
l o
u i l e u
u m l n i c o r u t d e
(igure A/30 (low Energy in (luid (low through a ;ipe
Flo" energ# is sho"n in the follo"ing e*uation+
FE = PV
'here+ FE M flo" energ# ( ft lbf ) & M %ressure (lbf / ft
2
) ? M volume ( ft )
3
The more fluid that is moved and the further the distance( the more flo" energ# that is needed to move it. Flo" energ# is entirel# different from 2inetic energ# $ecause flo" energ# is not de%endent on velocit#. It is onl# de%endent u%on %ressure and volume. (low energy is pro%ided by pumps or compressors = Flo" energ# %ushes fluids around and com%resses them. Flo" energ# 7FE: is the energ# %ossessed $# a fluid due to the %ressure that is stored in a volume of the fluid. The dra"ing $elo" is to re%resent a volume of fluid under %ressure and is to $e a visual re%resentation of flo" energ#.
(igure A/32 7isual of (low Energy
Example: 5etermine the flo" energ# 7FE: of a s#stem "here "ater "ith a %ressure of / lbf / ft %asses through a 3=foot section of %i%e "ith an internal area of 0.> feet. olution+ FE M &?M & ) A ) 7&ressure times Area times ength:
lbf 0.5 ft 2 4 ft x = 4 ft lbf FE M 2 2 x ft 1 1
pecific (low Energy is the flo" energ# a "or2ing fluid %ossesses %er %ound=mass of the fluid. It is denoted $# the small letters fe. It is e*ual to the total flo" energ# divided $# the total mass.
FE PV = fe = = P m m
-ere "e also have defined I J( s%ecific volume( "here letter I%J.
V = ( and "here %ressure is designated $# the m
Internal Energy 5,6

&otential energ# and 2inetic energ# are visi$le forms of energ#. These can $e seen in terms of the %osition and the velocit# of an o$Eect. In addition to these visi$le forms of energ#( a su$stance %ossesses other forms of energ#. For e)am%le( su%%ose "e have a $uc2et of "ater sitting on the ground. The $uc2et of "ater has no %otential energ#( $ecause it is sitting on the ground. The $uc2et of "ater has no 2inetic energ# $ecause the $uc2et is not moving relative to its environment. -o"ever( the individual molecules of "ater have energ# due to their random motion "ith the $uc2et. The random motion of the "ater molecules is a result of the internal ener"y 7U:. This is a microsco%ic form of energ# that can not $e measured directl#. Internal energ# is the energ# of the molecules of a su$stance due to their rotation, i*ration, translational motion( and intermolecular attractions. These forms of energ# can not $e o$served directl#( $ut the sum of these forms of energ# can $e indirectl# measured. These microsco%ic forms of energ# are grou%ed together and are called internal ener"y 7U:. Tem%erature is an indirect measure of the internal energ# of an o$Eect. Therefore( "e can measure internal energ# indirectl# "ith a thermometer. The follo"ing dra"ing sho"s random molecular energies( "ith their intermolecular attractions and is to $e a visual re%resentation of internal ener"y 7U:.
(igure A/33 7isual of Internal Energy
The random movement of atoms is of interest to us( and is increased and decreased $# adding or removing sensi*le heat energ# to change the Item%eratureJ of a fluid. Sensi$le heat energ# is heat #ou can measure "ith a thermometer. Also the Istrength of attractionJ of the atoms for each other is of interest to us( and this is increased or decreased as latent heat energ# is added or removed to change the IstateJ of a fluid. atent heat is heat that is hidden from measurement $# a thermometer. 7A more com%lete e)%lanation for these energies is given in the heat transfer course.:
pecific Internal Energy is the internal energ# a "or2ing fluid %ossesses %er %ound=mass of the fluid. It is denoted $# the small letter u. It is e*ual to the total internal energ# divided $# the total mass.
4eat, as an operator controlled input or output 5C6

'e are onl# concerned "ith the change in heat measurement that "e read on a thermometer due to our actions. This change in tem%erature is defined as IheatJ and is "ritten "ith the ca%ital letter ISJ and has units of 4tuKs( 74ritish thermal units: "hen using the English s#stem. -eat is the energ# transferred due onl# to a difference in tem%erature. If heat is transferred into a s#stem the s#stems energ# goes u%( and the energ# is stored inside. If heat is transferred out of a s#stem the s#stems energ# goes do"n. 7A more through definition is given in the -eat Transfer course to include IlatentJ heat:. The dra"ing $elo" is a visual re%resentation of heat energ#.
Q
(igure A/3" 7isual of 4eat Energy
pecific 4eat Energy is the measure of the difference in t"o tem%erature measurements of thermal energ# a "or2ing fluid %ossesses %er %ound=mass of the fluid. It is denoted $# the small letter 7. It is e*ual to the heat energ# divided $# the total mass.
@ork, as an operator controlled input or output 5@6

'or2 is mechanical energ# transferred due to a Iforce acting over a distanceJ. It is a measure of the "or2 that is done $# the li*uid acting on the container 7li2e a tur$ine $lade $eing driven $# steam: or the "or2 that the container does on the li*uid 7li2e a %iston com%ressing a gas into a smaller volume:. It is "ritten "ith the ca%ital letter I'J( and is measured in 4tuKs 7in the English s#stem:. The dra"ing is of a force moving an o$Eect a distance. It is a visual re%resentation of "or2 energ#.
(igure A/39 7isual of @ork Energy
pecific @ork Energy is the "or2 energ# a "or2ing fluid %ossesses %er %ound=mass of the fluid. It is denoted $# the small letter w. It is e*ual to the "or2 energ# divided $# the mass.
+eneral Energy E'uation

Again loo2ing at the general energ# e*uation( there are si) energies on each side of the general energ# e*uation all added together.
PE1 + KE1 + FE1 + U1 + Qin + Win = PE2 + KE2 + FE2 + U2 + Qout + Wout
'here+ S#m$ol Name 'hereH ,ost 1ommon Units
PE1 M %otential energ# at %oint . 7ft.=l$f: KE1 M 2inetic energ# at %oint . 7ft.=l$f: FE1 M flo" energ# at %oint . 7ft.=l$f: U1 M internal energ# at %oint . 74tu: Qin M heat energ# in 74tu: W in M "or2 energ# in 7ft.=l$f:
and+
PE 2 M %otential energ# at %oint / 7ft.=l$f: KE 2 M 2inetic energ# at %oint / 7ft.=l$f: FE 2 M flo" energ# at %oint / 7ft.=l$f: U 2 M internal energ# at %oint / 74tu: Qout M heat energ# out 74tu: W out M "or2 energ# out 7ft.=l$f:
Referring to the figure $elo"( &oint . is the $eginning %oint for measurement of energies 7&E( LE( FE and U: contained in a given fluid flo"ing through a %i%e section. These energies are on the IinJ side
"here energ# is introduced into the s#stem. &oint / is the final or ending %oint for measurement of energies 7&E( LE( FE and U: contained in the fluid. These energies are on the IoutJ side "here energ# is ta2en out of the s#stem. 'hen the difference $et"een these measurement is determined( the general energ# e*uation $egins to ta2e sha%e. 'e "ill have defined Ithe difference inJ or Ichange inJ %otential energ#( 2inetic energ#( flo" energ#( and internal energ# that are contained in the fluid itself.
;oint 0 IN ;oint 2 O,T
;E0 DE 0 (E0 ,0
(igure A/3A (luid Energies >IN> %ersus >O,T>
;E2 DE 2 (E2 ,2
There are other energies from outside of the fluid that feed those energies "ithin the fluid from outside( Sin and 'in. 7Refer to Fig C=..:. Also there are other energies that ta2e energ# a"a# from the energies "ithin the fluid( Sout and 'out. An e)am%le of 'in ma# $e a s#stem %um%. An e)am%le of Sout could $e "here some heat is transferred from the %rocess fluid to another fluid( such as the cooling "ater in a heat e)change s#stem.
Flo"
(igure A/3? Energies *dded %ersus Energies )emo%ed
&ut them together and #ou have an engineerKs mental %icture of the general energ# e*uationO
5 ystem6
P F
K U
E E
All the energy that goes into the s#stem e*uals all t the energy that comes out of the s#stem. 7This is the conservation of energ# %artO !ou lose no energ#= at least theoreticall# s%ea2ing.: t
(igure A/3: 7isual of the +eneral Energy E'uation
The General Energ# E*uation has units that can loo2 li2e this+
9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 2 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f: 8 9ft#l*f:
Anything that has units of ft-lbf is energy.
or the# can have another name for the ver# same thing called I4ritish thermal unitsJ
<tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 2 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s 8 <tu=s
Anything that has units of British thermal units is energy
* pecial Case of the +eneral Energy E'uation: =ernoulli>s ;rinciple

-ave #ou ever "ondered "h# a car6s converti$le to% $ulges u%"ard at high s%eeds or "h# smo2e goes u% a chimne#H These are e)am%les of a %rinci%le discovered $# 5aniel 4ernoulli 7.@00=.@9/:. 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le sa#s that "here the velocit# of a fluid is high( the %ressure is lo"( and "here the velocit# is lo"( the %ressure is high. 74ernoulli "as a S"iss mathematician "ho "as the first to stud# this %henomena in .@<9. -e also develo%ed an e*uation that e)%ressed this %rinci%le *uantitativel#. : 4# "a# of illustration( in a case "here "ater is flo"ing continuousl# through the %i%e at Figure C..<. If the %ressure at %oints . and / "ere measured( #ou "ould find that the %ressure is lo"er at %oint /( "here the velocit# is higher( than it is at %oint .( "here the velocit# is lo"er.
(low
L&1 e! P!e%%u !e ,i3 e! F'&12e'&ci*y ,i3 e! P!e%%u !e L&1 e! F'&12e'&ci*y
;oint 2 ;oint 0
(igure A/3$ =ernoulli>s ;rinciple
At first glance( this might seem strange. !ou might e)%ect that the higher velocit# at %oint / "ould im%l# a greater %ressure. 4ut this cannot $e the case. 4ecause if the %ressure at %oint / "ere higher than at %oint .( this higher %ressure "ould slo" the fluid do"n( "here in fact it has s%eeded u% in going from %oint . to %oint /. 7;ust as a "ide river6s velocit# increases as it goes through a narro" gorge:. So the %ressure at %oint / must $e less than at %oint .( "hich "ill allo" the fluid to accelerate. 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le e)%lains man# common %henomena( for e)am%le the converti$le to% in the %revious *uestion. The air velocit# over the converti$le to% is higher than inside the car. The %ressure is therefore lo"er a$ove the to% than $elo"( and it $ulges u%"ard. Smo2e goes u% a chimne# %artl# $ecause hot air rises( $ut 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le also hel%s. 4ecause "ind $lo"s across the to% of a chimne#( the %ressure is less there than inside the house. So( air and smo2e are %ushed u% the chimne#. Even on a still night( there is enough air flo" to assist u%"ard flo" of smo2e. 74ernoulli6s %rinci%le a%%lies to $oth li*uids and gases.: There are man# e)am%les of this %rinci%le that can $e o$served in ever#da# life.
Example: A %ing %ong $all can $e made to float a$ove a $lo"ing Eet of air( see Figure C..<. 7Remem$er+ 'here the fluid velocit# is higher( the %ressure is lo"er.: If the $all starts to leave the Eet of air( the higher %ressure outside the Eet %ushes the $all $ac2 in. 7Giancolli+ />/:
-igh &ressure &ing &ong $all o" &ressure
(igure A/"< ;ing ;ong =all (loating in *ir tream Example: In a %ro%erl# designed air%lane "ing( the air stream se%arates at the front of the "ing and reEoins smoothl# at the rear as in Figure C..3. The air that flo"s over the u%%er surface must travel further( so its average velocit# is greater than the velocit# of the air $elo". 7Fluid velocit# is higher so the %ressure is lo"er.: As a result( the air %ressure a$ove the "ing is less than the air %ressure $elo" the "ing. This causes a net u%"ard force on the "ing called Glift.G The forces on the lo"er side of the "ing ma# account for over 90F of the entire lift force on the "ing. 7Freeman+ @9D Ser"a# X Faughn+ /<3:. Example:
Airplane Wing
. /
G &U SA i!F & !ce4 44
*I) ,;;-.
. /
(igure A/"0 *ir ;assing *bo%e and =elow *irplane @ing
A %itcher thro"ing a curve $all and a golfer hitting a slice are $oth e)am%les of 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le. A curve $all results "hen a $ase$all is thro"n "ith %ro%er s%in. The $all in Figure C..C is moving to the right and is s%inning cloc2"ise. From the %oint of vie" of the $ase$all( the air is streaming $# it to"ard the left. -o"ever( $ecause the $all is moving it is com%ressing air in front( and $ecause the $all is
s%inning( some air is GdraggedG along "ith the $all $ecause the surface is rough. This causes the air a$ove the $all at 4 to $e slo"ed do"n and $unched u% 7com%ressed: "hile the air $elo" the $all is hel%ed along $# the direction of s%in 7decom%ressed:. 4ecause the s%eed of the air is greater at A than at 4( it follo"s from 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le. The %ressure at A is less than at 4 $ecause there are more molecules at 4 to e)ert %ressure on the $all. The %ressure difference %roduces a net force on the $all( causing it to curve do"n"ard faster than under the force of gravit# alone.
Air dragged around by spin vv B
v v v v v v v vv v
vv v
vv
vv
v v v v v Spin v v v vvvv v vv A Path of ball
Force on ball
(igure A/"2 *ir ;assing by a Thrown =aseball
If the $all "ere to s%in in the o%%osite direction the $all "ould create a com%ressed air front $efore it and also a com%ressed air %oc2et $elo" it and a decom%ressed air %oc2et a$ove it. It "ould tend to rise in com%arison to the traEector# of a normal $all. So( 4ernoulli6s &rinci%le( G"here the velocit# of a fluid is high( the %ressure is lo"D and "here the velocit# is lo"( the %ressure is highG hel%s to e)%lain "h# some ever#da# things ha%%en. ets loo2 at the scientific $asis of 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le.
implified =ernoulli>s E'uation

4ernoulli6s e*uation results in a sim%lification of the general energ# e*uation. It applies to a steady flow system containing an ideal fluid 7is incom%ressi$le and has no viscosit# or friction: and in "hich no "or2 is done on or $# the fluid( no heat is transferred to or from the fluid( and no change occurs in the internal energ# 7no tem%erature change: of the fluid. As "e "ill see later these are serious limitations to real "orld a%%lications $ut the# are necessar# assum%tions "hen "e are not concerned a$out a$solute %erfection. Under these conditions( the General Energ# E*uation can $e sim%lified to $ecome the simplified =ernoulli>s e'uation: Original General Energ# E*uation+
Sim%lification &rocess+
Note+ , does not change from %oint one to %oint t"o( therefore it is the same and ma# $e canceled out. This onl# occurs $ecause an ideal fluid has no viscosit# 7or friction:( therefore Ino changeJ occurs in the internal energ# of the fluid.
independent of one another
Also C 7$oth in and out: $ecomes Aero for an ideal fluid. No heat is transferred to or from the fluid. 7O%erators control real fluids $# o%erating heaters to add heat or $# o%erating heat e)changers to ta2e heat out. Either action ma# ta2e %lace "ith or "ithout the other. An o%erator can add heat "ithout ta2ing it out and vise versa.:
independent of one another independent of one another
Also @ 7$oth in and out: $ecomes Aero for an ideal fluid. No "or2 is transferred to or from the fluid. 7O%erators control real fluids $# o%erating com%ressors and %um%s to add "or2 or $# o%erating tur$ines and %addle "heels to ta2e "or2 out. An o%erator can add "or2 "ithout ta2ing it out and vise versa.:
Therefore+ for an ideal fluid
PE1 + KE1 + FE1 = PE2 + KE2 + FE2

7since UM0( SM0( 'M0: 7I I means Ichange inJ: 7In other "ords( since there is no change in U it is given a Aero value for an ideal fluid: Su$stituting e*uivalent e)%ressions for %otential( 2inetic( and flo" energies( the e*uation $ecomes+
mgz1 mv1 2 mgz2 mv2 2 + + P1V1 = + + P2 V 2 gc 2g c gc 2gc

'hich means that the total energ# in a s#stem at %oint one e*uals the total energ# at an# %oint two. Or stated another "a#( the total energ# in such a s#stem is constant. 7i.e. No loss of energ#O A %erfect s#stemO That is "h# it is called an ideal fluidO: Of course an ideal fluid does not e)ist.
mgz mv 2 + + PV M 1onstant gc 2gc

Sim%lified 4ernoulli6s E*uation
'here+
m M mass 7l$m: v M velocit# gc M &M
g M acceleration due to gravit# 32.17ft / sec A M height a$ove or $elo" a reference 2 gravitational constant( 32.17ft lbm / lbf sec %ressure (lbf / ft
2
? M volume ( ft
pecific Energies
For flo"ing s#stems( it is useful to e)%ress forms of energ# in terms of energ# %er %ound mass. Rather than tal2 a$out the total energ# in the s#stem "e can then tal2 a$out the energ# in a single mass unit of the fluid. 5ividing an energ# $# mass turns it into a I specificO energy# Each term of 4ernoulli6s e*uation can $e e)%ressed as a s%ecific energ# $# dividing the term $# the total mass of the s#stem. Energ# %er %ound mass7l$m: is sho"n $# small letters+
pe1 + ke1 + fe1 = pe2 + ke 2 + fe 2
pecific flow energy 7fe: is the flo" energ# %er unit of mass. It is e*ual to the total flo" energ# divided $# the total mass. Since s%ecific volume 7 : is e*ual to total volume divided $# mass( s%ecific flo" energ# is e*ual to %ressure times the s%ecific volume.
fe =
'here+ fe M s%ecific flo" energ# lbm 3 ? M volume ( ft ) & M %ressure lbf / ft
FE PV = = P m m
FE M flo" energ# ( ft lbf ) m M mass 7l$m:
ft lbf
M s%ecific volume
( ft
/ lbm )
Su$stituting e*uivalent e)%ressions after dividing $# the mass of the s#stem gives the s%ecific energ# form of the e*uation.
gz1 v12 gz v 2 + + P1 1 = 2 + 2 + P2 2 gc 2gc gc 2g c

Sim%lified 4ernoulli6s E*uation=S%ecific Energ# form
Each term in the a$ove E*uation re%resents a form of energ# %ossessed $# a moving fluid 7%otential( 2inetic( and flo" related energies:. The e*uation %h#sicall# re%resents a $alance of the %otential( 2inetic( and flo" energies so that if one form of energ# increases( one or more of the others "ill decrease to com%ensate( and vice versa.
Chapter A ummary:
&otential energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its height 7%osition: relative to other $odies. Linetic energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its %elocity. Flo" energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its pressure and volume. Internal energ# is the energy of the molecules of a fluid due to rotation( vi$ration( translational motion and intermolecular attractions. -eat and 'or2 are $oth outside in%uts %erformed $# an o%erator for the %ur%ose of increasing or decreasing the four fluid energies listed a$oveD their use "ill $e discussed in greater de%th in the heat transfer course. Rather than tal2 a$out the total energ# in the s#stem "e can then tal2 a$out the energ# in a single mass unit of the fluid. 5ividing an energ# $# mass turns it into a IspecificO energy# The a" of 1onservation of ,ass and Energ# statesD IEnerg# can neither $e created nor destro#ed( onl# altered in form.J This la" includes all energies in the universe. The General Energ# E*uation includes onl# those energies %ertinent to conventional engineering %ractice( and is an incom%lete mathematical e)%ression of the la" of conservation of mass and energ#+
5ividing mass out of the General Energ# E*uation gives the s%ecific form of the General Energ# E*uation+
pe 1 + ke1 + fe 1 + u1 + qin + win = pe 2 + ke 2 + fe 2 + u2 + qout + wout

All energ# has units of 4tuKs or Force times 5istance.
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Cha$ter C/ Ener"y Con ersions in Ideal Fluid Systems
ENE)+. CON7E) ION IN I1E*- (-,I1 . TE8
This cha$ter descri*es the arious ener"y con ersions that can occur in Ideal Fluid Systems% An Ideal Fluid System is one where no heat or wor( is transferred into or out of the fluid% Althou"h not in real world a$$lications, the Ideal Fluid conce$t is fre7uently used to understand and $redict system *eha ior%
TO ?#<
G% !& an %deal fluid system where no heat is transferred in or out, and no work is performed on or by the fluid, !)*L+%& the energy conversions that occur Given an %deal fluid system, #!T!7B%&! the energy conversions that occur using arrow analysis
!O :."
Energy Con%ersions in Ideal (luid ystems

As discussed earlier( energ# ma# neither $e created nor destro#ed. -o"ever( the %otential( 2inetic( and flo" energies in a fluid s#stem ma# $e converted from one form to another de%ending on the changes that occur to the elevation or flo" area 7%i%e siAe: of the %i%ing s#stem. 4ernoulli6s e*uation hel%s e)%lain ho" these energ# conversions ta2e %lace and ho" the energ# $alance is affected. 75OE ?ol. III( %. /<:
Energy Con%ersions for Changes in Cross/ ectional *rea 5(low *rea6

The energ# conversions that occur "hen %i%e flo" area 7%i%e siAe: changes can $e determined using the simplified form of =ernoulli>s e'uation discussed earlier.

Remem$er( the a$ove e*uation assumes an ideal fluid and no heat transferred in or out 7%erfectl# insulating:( and that no work is done on or by the system 7no com%ression( no decom%ression:( and therefore( no change occurs in the internal energy of the s#stem 7no loses due to tur$ulence( no internal friction:. Since "e are concerned here onl# "ith a change in %i%e siAe( "e do not consider a change in %i%e elevation. 'ith no change in %i%e elevation( there is no change in %otential energ# 7nor s%ecific %otential energ#:. Since %otential energ# 7
gz : is the same at all %oints( it can $e canceled out of the e*uation. gc
So the a$ove e*uation can $e sim%lified to+
v12 v2 2 + P1 1 = + P2 2 2gc 2g c
From the %revious discussion of 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le( "e 2no" that as %i%e siAe gets smaller or larger( flo" velocit# increases or decreases( res%ectivel#. 9Remem*er how elocity increases as a ri er "oes throu"h a narrow "or"e and slows down as the ri er widens a"ain%: As the velocit# of a fluid increases( the 2inetic energ# of the fluid increases. The increase in 2inetic energ# must come from some %lace. The onl# other energ# that can change in this e)am%le is flo" energ# 7 P :. Therefore( as 2inetic energ# increases( flo" energ# must decrease to offset the increase in 2inetic energ#. This is in accordance "ith the conservation of energ# %rinci%le 7energ# can not $e created nor destro#ed:. This relationshi% is sho"n $# the arro"s in the e*uation $elo".
Notes regarding use of arrow analysis+ An eas# "a# to get used to using arro" anal#sis is to remem$er that the anal#sis always looks back from point 2 to where it was earlier at point 0( and it is a com%arison of the difference that ta2es %lace. Onl# three com%arisons can $e made( either IincreaseJ( IdecreaseJ( or Ino changeJ. 'hen the arro" %oints u%(
( it means an increase "hen loo2ing $ac2 from %nt / to %nt .. ( it means a decrease "hen loo2ing $ac2 from %nt / to %nt .. or ( it means no change "hen loo2ing $ac2 from %nt / to %nt ..
'hen the arro" %oints do"n(
'hen the arro" %oints side"a#s(
It sho"s that as one form of energ# goes u%( the other must go do"n in order for the e*uation to remain in $alance.
v1 2 v2 2 + P1 1 = + P 2 2 2gc 2g c
This means that( in this instance "here onl# the %i%e siAe changes( a change in 2inetic energ# is e)actl# offset $# a corres%onding change in flo" energ#. Or stated mathematicall#+
(e = fe
7'here the G G stands for the Gree2 GdG( delta( and means GdifferenceG or Ichange inJ.: FFF9The followin" e>am$les assume a continuously flowin" ideal fluid%:FFD
Example: E)%lain the energ# conversions that occur $et"een %oints . and / $elo".
(igure ?/"3 ;ipe ection with a )eduction in *rea Flo" energ# is converted to 2inetic energ#. E)%lanation+ .. /. <. 3. Since %i%e elevation does not change( %otential energ# remains the same and is not a consideration. Onl# 2inetic energ# and flo" energ# are involved. Area . is greater than area /. Since area decreases( velocit# must increase to maintain continuit# of flo". If velocit# increases( then 2inetic energ# increases. The energ# increase comes from a conversion of flo" energ#.
Example: E)%lain the energ# conversions that occur in an ideal fluid $et"een %oints . and / $elo".
(igure ?/"" ;ipe ection @ith Increase in *rea Linetic energ# is converted to flo" energ#. E)%lanation+
.. /. <. 3.
Since %i%e elevation does not change( %otential energ# remains the same and is not a consideration. Onl# 2inetic energ# and flo" energ# are involved. Area . is smaller than area /. Since area increases( velocit# must decrease to maintain continuit# of flo". If velocit# decreases( 2inetic energ# decreases. The energ# decrease is a conversion of 2inetic energ# to flo" energ#.
Energy Con%ersions for Changes in Ele%ation

The energ# conversions that occur for a change in fluid elevation can also $e determined using the sim%lified form of 4ernoulli6s e*uation.

Since "e are concerned here onl# "ith a change in elevation 7the %i%e goes u% or do"n :( "e do not consider a change in %i%e siAe. 'ith no change in %i%e siAe( there is no change in velocit# or 2inetic energ#. Since the 2inetic energ# term 7
v2 : is the same at all %oints( it can $e canceled out of the 2gc
e*uation. So the a$ove e*uation can $e sim%lified to+
gz1 gz + P 1 1 = 2 + P 2 2 gc gc
As the elevation of a fluid increases( the %otential energ# of the fluid increases. Since energ# can neither $e created nor destro#ed( the increase must come from some%lace. The onl# other energ# su$Eect to change in this instance is flo" energ#. Therefore( if the %otential energ# increases( flo" energ# must decrease to offset the change in %otential energ#. This is in accordance "ith the conservation of energ# %rinci%le. This is illustrated $elo" $# the arro"s. The# sho" ho" as one form of energ# goes u% the other must go do"n to 2ee% the e*uation in $alance.
gz1 gz + P 1 1 = 2 + P 2 2 gc gc
This means that in this instance( "here onl# the %i%e elevation changes( a change in %otential energ# is e)actl# offset $# a change in flo" energ#. Or stated mathematicall#+
pe = fe
Example: E)%lain the energ# conversion that occurs as an ideal fluid flo"s from %oint . to %oint /.
B/ B. .
Z1 < Z
(igure ?/"9 ;ipe ection with Increasing Ele%ation Flo" energ# is converted to %otential energ#. E)%lanation+ .. /. <. 3. Since there is no %i%e area 7siAe: change( there is no change in fluid velocit# so 2inetic energ# remains the same and is not a consideration. Onl# %otential energ# and flo" energ# are involved. Elevation . is lo"er than elevation /. 4ecause elevation increases( %otential energ# must increase. If %otential energ# increases( flo" energ# must decrease. In the e*uation $elo" the arro"s illustrate the relative increase in %otential energ# and the corres%onding decrease in flo" energ# necessar# to 2ee% the e*uation in $alance.
gz1 gz + P1 1 = 2 + P 2 2 gc gc
Example: E)%lain the energ# conversion that occurs as an ideal fluid flo"s from %oint . to %oint / $elo".
Z < Z
B.
B/
(igure ?/"A ;ipe ection with 1ecreasing Ele%ation &otential energ# is converted to flo" energ#.
E)%lanation+ .. /. <. 3. Since there is no %i%e area 7siAe: change( there is no change in fluid velocit# so 2inetic energ# remains the same and is not a consideration. Onl# %otential energ# and flo" energ# are involved. Elevation . is higher than elevation /. If elevation decreases( %otential energ# must decrease. If %otential energ# decreases( flo" energ# must increase. In the e*uation $elo" the arro"s illustrate the relative increase in flo" energ# and the corres%onding decrease in %otential energ# necessar# to 2ee% the e*uation in $alance in this e)am%le.
gz1 gz + P1 1 = 2 + P 2 2 gc gc
Chapter ? ummary:
&otential energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its height 7%osition: relative to another $od#. If %otential energ# increases flo" energ# decreases( and if %otential energ# decreases flo" energ# increases. 7If $e then fe ; If $e then fe : &otential energ# increases "hen height increases( and decreases "hen height decreases. Linetic energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its velocit#. If 2inetic energ# increases flo" energ# decreases( and if 2inetic energ# decreases flo" energ# increases. 7If (e then fe D If (e then fe ) 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le sa#s + 'here the %elocity of a fluid is high( the %ressure is lo"D and "here the %elocity is lo"( the %ressure is high. ?elocit# changes "ith %i%e siAe changes. 7A reducer causes an increase in velocit# and a reduction in %ressureD and vice versa.: Flo" energ# is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its pressure and volume. Flo" energ# ta2es the hit from %otential energ#( 2inetic energ# and internal energ#. 'hatever each of these energies do flo" energ# com%ensates and does the o%%osite. Advance information for com%arison and ease of revie"= Internal energ# is the energy of the molecules of a fluid due to rotation( vi$ration( translational motion and intermolecular attractions. Internal energ# al"a#s increases and flo" energ# al"a#s com%ensates $# decreasing. 7u and fe 100% of the time) Internal energ# e)ists in a real fluid "here there is al"a#s viscosit# and fluid friction due to intermolecular attractions.
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,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Cha$ter A/ Ener"y Con ersions in Real Fluid Systems
Chapter ? Energy Con%ersions in )eal (luid ystems
This cha$ter descri*es fluid friction as well as the use of arrow analysis to determine the arious ener"y con ersions that occur in real fluid systems where head loss is always $resent%
TO :#<
!O ;." !O ;.( !O ;.!O ;.2 !O ;.5 !O ;.8 !O ;.:
G% !& a 7eal fluid system, #!S.7%9! the effects of fluid friction to predict energy conversions #!$%&! the fluid flow term 3fluid friction4 %#!&T%$C the factors that effect fluid friction in 7eal fluid systems #!$%&! the fluid flow term 3head loss4 #!S.7%9! the effects of fluid friction on a flowing fluid in a piping system #!$%&! the fluid flow term 3throttling4 #!S.7%9! the effects of throttling on the fluid flow in a piping system /S! arrow analysis and the general energy e1uation to predict energy conversions in a real fluid system
(riction
Friction is the force "hich o%%oses movement. Friction forces are created "henever t"o o$Eects are touching and there is movement in o%%osition to one another. If "e slide a $o) along the floor( some of the mechanical energ# necessar# to move the $o) is converted into internal energ#. 'e measure this as an increase in the tem%erature of the $o) and the floor. 'hen #ou ru$ #our hands together( the friction $et"een #our hands "ill cause an increase in the tem%erature #ou can feel.
(luid (riction
Fluid friction is the force "hich o%%oses the movement of a fluid. A good e)am%le of fluid friction is the resistance "e feel "hen stirring %aint "ith a flat stic2. Fluid friction converts flo" energ# into internal energ#. Fluid friction occurs $et"een a fluid and the "alls of a %i%e( and $et"een each of the molecules of a fluid( since each molecule hinders the movement of ever# other molecule it touches.
7iscosity
?iscosit# "as discussed in the cha%ter on T#%es of Flo". It is mentioned again here $ecause viscosit# is often identified "ith fluid friction. ?iscosit# "as defined earlier as Ia measure of a fluid6s resistance to flo"G. ?iscosit# is tied to the internal friction of a fluid "hich ma2es it resist flo"ing %ast a solid surface or other la#ers of fluid. If there is no viscosit# there is no fluid friction and vice versa. Factors Affecting Fluid Friction The follo"ing factors "ill cause an increase in fluid friction+ Increase in fluid velocit# Increase in roughness of %i%e -igher viscosit# fluids Smaller diameter %i%e Increase in tur$ulent flo" Increase in %i%e length Increased num$ers of valves( fittings( and $ends
Energy Con%ersion by (luid (riction in )eal (luids

In a pre%ious chapter we assumed an ideal fluid# For an ideal fluid( there is no viscosit# and no fluid friction and therefore( no change in internal energ# of the s#stem. =ut for a real fluid, the effects of fluid friction must be considered# This is 4ernoulli6s e*uation "ritten to include internal energ# GuG( assuming no "or2 is done on or $# the s#stem( and no heat enters into or moves out of the s#stem 7 SM0( 'M0:
pe1 + ke1 + fe1 + u1 = pe2 + ke 2 + fe 2 + u2

4ernoulli6s e*uation can $e a%%lied to a straight horiAontal %i%e( "ith no change in elevation and no change in %i%e siAe 7Figure 9..:. These assum%tions eliminate the 2inetic and %otential energ# terms from the e*uation so that it $ecomes+
fe1 + u1 = fe2 + u2
;oint 0
;oint 2
(igure :/"? traight ;ipe ection
Fluid friction resists the fluid flo" and causes flo" energ# to $e converted to internal energ# as the fluid flo"s through the %i%ing s#stem. Internal energ# is the energ# associated "ith the motion of the molecules of a su$stance. Tem%erature is a measure of the molecular motion of molecules. An increase in internal energ# "ill increase the tem%erature of the fluid. Fluid friction causes internal energ# to increase( and flo" energ# to decrease. The change in internal energ# in this e)am%le is e*ual to the change in flo" energ# or+
u = fe
The amount of flo" energ# converted to internal energ# $# fluid friction is called head loss# 7Also e*uivalent to a %ressure loss since fe = P :. 4ernoulli6s e*uation can also hel% sho" the effect of friction on flo" in a %i%e that has changes in $oth elevation and %i%e siAe. Example+ E)%lain "hat ha%%ens to the energ# levels and tem%erature and %ressure of the s#stem sho"n in figure 9./. as "ater flo"s from %oint . to %oint /H olution+ 4egin $# evaluating the energ# conversions that occur. In this case( the %i%e is not horiAontal and the %i%e siAe changes. The three factors to consider are changes to elevation( %i%e siAe( and the %resence of fluid friction. (igure :/": ;ipe ection with Changes in siFe and Ele%ation
;otential Energy: Goes u%. 4ecause elevation increases from %oint . to %oint /( the %otential energ# of the fluid increases. Flo" energ# "as converted to %otential energ#. This means %ressure decreases due to the decrease in fe# Dinetic Energy: Goes u%. 4ecause the %i%e flo" area decreases from %oint . to %oint /( the fluid velocit# increases( "hich increases 2inetic energ#. This increase came from flo" energ#. &ressure decreases again due to the decrease in fe% Internal Energy: Goes u%. 4ecause fluid friction is %resent( flo" energ# is converted to internal energ#. This means %ressure decreases a third "a#( and tem%erature increases. /*s a )esult/ (low Energy: Goes do"n. The changes in elevation( %i%e siAe( and the %resence of friction all contri$ute to dro%s in the flo" energ# 7%ressure decrease: at %oint /. This is characteristic of an o%en flo" 7non recirculating: s#stem. A %um% must su%%l# enough %ressure to overcome the %ressure decreases caused $# fluid friction and changes in %i%e elevation and %i%e siAe. In the e*uation $elo"( the arro"s sho" the net effect of the energ# conversions that too2 %lace in this o%en0non=recirculating s#stem.
pe1 + ke1 + fe1 + u1 = pe2 + ke2 + fe2 + u2

Su$stituting e*uivalent terms for s%ecific %otential( s%ecific 2inetic( and s%ecific flo" energies+
gz 1 v 12 gz v2 + + P1 1 + u1 = 2 + 2 + P2 2 + u2 gc 2gc gc 2gc
Energy Con%ersion by (luid (riction

So far( in our discussions on energ# conversions for changes in area and elevation( "e assumed a frictionless fluid. For an ideal fluid( there is no fluid friction and no change in internal energ# of the s#stem. (or a real fluid, the effects of fluid friction are real# 'e "ill start "ith the delta form of the general energ# e*uation.
$e P (e P u P 7 P : P w2(net M 7net
Fluid friction %roduces a %ressure dro% and an increase in internal energ#. 'e can measure the %ressure dro%. 'e can ta2e %ressure readings at $oth ends of a long %i%e run( for e)am%le. 'e can also ta2e %ressure readings on $oth sides of a valve or other com%onent. 'e "ould li2e to 2no" "hether "e can detect fluid friction as a change in fluid tem%erature. Recall that ;oule6s constant G is the relationshi% $et"een heat and mechanical "or2. 'e "ould li2e to ans"er the
follo"ing *uestion+ ho" much of a %ressure dro% is re*uired to %roduce a . F increase in tem%eratureH The ans"er to this *uestion is found using the mechanical e*uivalent of heat and some dimensional anal#sis.
Pipe
Example: The %i%e sho"n in Figure 9.3 has a constant flo" rate. There is no change in %i%e siAe or elevation.. 'hat is the %ressure dro% from %oint . to %oint /H First "e "rite do"n the delta form of the general energ# e*uation+ $e P (e P u P 7 P : P w2(net M 7net Then "e sim%lif# the general energ# e*uation $# anal#sis+ w2(net M 0 7net M 0 $e M 0 (e M 0 This leaves us "ith u P 7 P : M 0 The change in internal energ# u is the change associated "ith the change in fluid tem%erature from @0 F to @. F. In a se%arate -eat Transfer course( regarding sensi$le and latent heat( "e "ill find that the heat added to a s#stem is given $#+
1 T1 = 70oF p1 = D 1 = 10 in Z1 = 50 ft 2 T2 = 71oF p2 = D 2 = 10 in Z2 = 50 ft
(igure :/"$ The ;ressure 1rop from a 0( Temperature )ise
7 M c T
"here+
4 tu ; o r l$ m g 4 tu ; or c M s%ecific heat ca%acit# in l$ m F g 1 T M change in tem%erature in F or 1
7 M heat %er unit mass in
For "ater at room tem%erature( c M ..0
4tu . So for a . F increase in tem%erature( l$ m F
q = c T =
1.0Btu 1 F Btu =1 lbm F lbm
This energ#==Y"hich is transferred as heat at the molecular levelZ==is converted from flo" energ# 7%ressure: to internal energ# 7tem%erature:. So "e are loo2ing for a %ressure dro% e*ual to . 4tu0l$m. 'e do this $# dimensional anal#sis+
Btu lbm
1 Btu lbm
778 ftlb f 1 Btu
62.4 lb m 3 ft
1 ft2 2 144 in
1 Btu lbm
= 337 psi
Although it6s %ossi$le to %rove that the densit# $elongs in this calculation( dimensional anal#sis gave us the correct ans"er. 'e Eust used unit conversion factors "hich too2 us in the right direction. This sa#s that a . F rise in fluid tem%erature corres%onds to a <<@ %si change in %ressure. -ote that this result is only alid for water at room tem$erature. For other fluids and at other tem%eratures( this is not the right ans"er. In other "ords( if the %ressure dro%s <<@ %si through a %i%e( a fitting( or an o$struction( the friction "ill %roduce a . F rise in tem%erature. For this reason( "e cannot measure the effects of fluid friction $# o$serving a tem%erature rise. 'e can onl# see the %ressure dro%. The internal energ# increase is real. It6s Eust not measura$le "ith a thermometer. A decrease in %ressure %roduces a decrease in flo" energ# 7 p = fe :. That decrease in the flo" energ# must $e e)actl# matched $# an increase in internal energ#. 7 fe 8 u 2 D :. The amount of flo" energ# converted to internal energ# $# fluid friction is called head loss. 7-ead loss "ill $e discussed later:. Fluid friction converts flo" energ# to internal energ# as fluid flo"s through a %i%ing s#stem. Internal energ# is the energ# associated "ith the motion of the molecules of a su$stance. Tem%erature is a measure of that molecular motion. An increase in internal energ# is seen as an increase in the tem%erature of the fluid.
Energy Con%ersions in a )eal (luid ystem with No Change in (low *rea or Ele%ation:
If the area is constant( the velocit# can not change( in accordance "ith the continuit# e*uation. Since s%ecific 2inetic energ# consists of the velocit# s*uared divided $# /( if the velocit# is constant the 2inetic energ# must also $e constant S%ecific %otential energ# consists of gravit# times height 7A:. Gravit# does not change. Since there is no change in elevation 7A sta#s constant:( there is no change in s%ecific %otential energ#. In a real fluid s#stem that has viscosit# there is al"a#s friction. Friction A 'A!S causes an increase in the s%ecific internal energ#. Since s%ecific internal energ# has increased and energ# can neither $e created nor destro#ed the energ# must $e transformed into another form. Since the s%ecific 2inetic energ# and the s%ecific %otential energ# did not change( the onl# energ# form that can change is the s%ecific flo" energ#. Since s%ecific internal energ# increased( the s%ecific flo" energ# must decrease. S%ecific flo" energ# consists of s%ecific volume times %ressure. For an incom%ressi$le fluid the densit# and s%ecific volume remain constant. If the s%ecific volume remains constant and the s%ecific flo" energ# decreases( the %ressure must also decrease. Remem$er( there are several factors "ill cause an increase in fluid friction in real fluids+ U U U U U U U U Increase in fluid velocit# Increase in roughness of %i%e -igher viscosit# fluids Smaller diameter %i%e &resence of tur$ulent flo" instead of laminar flo" Increase in tur$ulence &resence of valves( fittings( and $ends ength of %i%e
Example: The s#stem sho"n in Figure 9.> has a %ressure of @0 %sig at %oint . and a %ressure of 3> %sig at %oint /. 'hat is the flo" energ# loss due to fluid frictionH As al"a#s( "e first "rite the delta form of the general energ# e*uation+ $e P (e P u P 7 P : P w2(net M 7net Anal#Aing the s#stem( "e find+ 7net M 0 w2(net M 0 (e M 0 The general energ# e*uation then reduces to+ $e P u P 7 P : M 0 'e identif# u as the flo" energ# loss due to fluid friction. So "e solve for u+
1 D1 = 6 in V1 = 500 gpm Z1 = 80 ft p1 = 70 psig T1 = 70 F
Pipe
2 D2 = 6 in = 500 gpm V 2 Z2 = 125 ft p2 = 45 psig T2 = 70 F
(igure :/9< ;ressure 1rop and (luid (riction
u M = $e = 7 P :
Ne)t( "e get numerical values for & and $e.
Since+
&/ = &. M 3> %sig = @0 %sig
&M =/> %sig M
/> l*f in /
1 1 0.01603 ft 3 = = m 62.4 lb lbm ft 3
therefore(
5 P 6
&M
0.0.C0< ft1 =/> l$f l$m in4

ft l$ f l$ m
.33 in4 . ft4
& M =>@.@09
No" solving for
pe/
</ ..@ ft (./> ft 90 ft ) s/
$e M " U7!/ = !.: M
$e M
</..@ ft s/
ft l$ f l$ m
3> ft
l$fUs/ </..@ l$mUft
$e M 3>
Since
u Q / pe / 5 P 6
Then(
ft l$ f ft l$ f : 3> l$ m l$ m ft l$ f u M ./.@09 l$ m
uM 7 >@.@09
That is(
u/ = u. M ./.@09
ft l$ f l$ m ft l$ f . l$ m
The internal energ# at %oint / is greater than the internal energ# at %oint . $# ./.@09 'e can convert this to 4tu or an e*uivalent %ressure dro%.
. / .@ 0 9 ft l$ f .4 tu = 0.0 . C 3 4 tu 0l$ m l$ f @ @ 9 ft l$ f
7 = cT
Rearrange to solve for T + T =

T=
7 c
0.0.C3 4tu l$ m F = 0.0.C3 F l$ m ..0 4 tu
u4#u0M
./.@09 ft l$ f C/ .3 l$ m . ft / = >.>0@ l$ f 0 in / M >.>0@ %si l$ m ft < .33 in /
The internal energy change due to friction is <#<0A" F 5not a measurable temperature rise6, howe%er, it is 9#9<? psi 5a detectable pressure dropL6#
Energy Con%ersion In a )eal (luid ystem with an Increase in Ele%ation If the area is constant( the velocit# can not change( in accordance "ith the continuit# e*uation. Since s%ecific 2inetic energ# consists of the velocit# s*uared divided $# /( if the velocit# is constant the 2inetic energ# must also $e constant. S%ecific %otential energ# consists of gravit# times height 7A:. Gravit# does not change. Thus if elevation increases 7A increases:( the s%ecific %otential energ# must increase. In a real fluid 7or s#stem: there is al"a#s friction. Friction A 'A!S causes an increase in the s%ecific internal energ#. Since s%ecific %otential energ# and the s%ecific internal energ# have $oth increased and energ# can neither $e created nor destro#ed the energ# must $e transformed into another form. Since the s%ecific 2inetic energ# did not change( the onl# energ# form that can change is the s%ecific flo" energ#. Since s%ecific %otential energ# and s%ecific internal energ# have $oth increased( the s%ecific flo" energ# must decrease. S%ecific flo" energ# consists of s%ecific volume times %ressure. For an incom%ressi$le fluid the densit# and s%ecific volume remain constant. If the s%ecific volume remains constant and the s%ecific flo" energ# decreases( the %ressure must also decrease.
Open %ersus Closed (luid (low ystems

An o%en fluid s#stem is( as the name im%lies( a fluid s#stem "here the fluid source and fluid destination are se%arate. One e)am%le of an o%en s#stem could $e a t#%ical drin2ing "ater s#stem "here the clean %ressuriAed "ater comes from one location $ut never returns to that same destination. A Ionce throughJ design is another "a# of vie"ing an o%en s#stem. A closed fluid s#stem is a fluid s#stem "here the fluid source and fluid destination are the same. In other "ords( the fluid re=circulates in some Iloo%J and is returned to the %ressure source 7%um%: for to $e re= distri$uted into the s#stem. One e)am%le of a closed s#stem could $e the radiator coolant s#stem in an automo$ile "here the "ater is dra"n from the radiator $ottom into the engine $loc2 $# the "ater %um%. The %um% returns the heated fluid through the o%ened thermostat into the radiator to%( "here the c#cle is re%eated.
Energy Con%ersions in Closed ystems

In a closed or recirculating flo" s#stem( changes in elevation and %i%e siAe do not cause significant net losses in s#stem %ressure. Fluid friction causes the most significant losses in s#stem %ressure in a closed0recirculating flo" s#stem. 'here viscosit#( and therefore fluid friction 7e.g. ideal fluid:( do not e)ist the follo"ing ta2es %lace+ Example:
E)%lain the energ# conversions and %ressure and tem%erature changes for the closed0recirculating s#stem sho"n in Figure 9.<( as "ater flo"s from %oint . to %oint >.
(igure :/90 Energy Con%ersions in a Closed ystem
olution: 4egin $# considering the energ# conversions that occur and noting "hich conversions cause increases in %ressure 7flo" energ#: and "hich cause decreases in %ressure 7flo" energ#:. &oint . to &oint / = (low energy 5pressure6 is con%erted to potential energy# ;ressure decreases# EV& ANATION+ As the fluid is elevated from %oint . to %oint /( its %otential energ# is increased. This increase in %otential energ# has to come from some"here. 7&er the a" of 1onservation of Energ# = #ou don6t get something for nothing:. The increased %otential energ# comes from flo" energ# $eing converted to %otential energ#. Flo" energ# 7%ressure times s%ecific volume( P : has decreased. Therefore( %ressure has decreased. The arro"s in the e*uation $elo" sho" the relative changes in energ# from %oint . to %oint /.
gz1 v12 gz v 2 + + P1 1 + u1 = 2 + 2 + P2 2 + u 2 gc 2gc gc 2gc

&oint / to &oint < = (low energy 5pressure6 is con%erted to kinetic energy# ;ressure decreases# EV& ANATION+ The %i%e siAe decreases at %oint <( "hich causes an increase in velocit#. 'hen velocit# increases( 2inetic energ# increases. The increase in 2inetic energ# has to come from some"here 7again = #ou don6t get something for nothing:. It comes from flo" energ# 7 P : causing a %ressure decrease.

&oint < to &oint 3 = Dinetic energy 5%elocity6 is con%erted to flow energy# ;ressure increases# EV& ANATION+ The %i%e flo" area increases as the fluid leaves %oint <( "hich causes velocit# to decrease. 'hen velocit# decreases( 2inetic energ# decreases. The lost 2inetic energ# is converted $ac2 to flo" energ# 7 P : and %ressure increases an amount e*ual to the decrease from %oint / to %oint <.
gz1 v12 gz v 2 + + P1 1 + u1 = 2 + 2 + P2 2 + u 2 gc 2gc gc 2g c

&oint 3 to &oint > = ;otential 5height6 energy is con%erted to flow energy. ;ressure increases# EV& ANATION+ As the fluid elevation dro%s from %oint 3 to %oint >( its %otential energ# is decreased. The decrease in %otential energ# is e*uivalent to the increase in %otential energ# as the fluid moved from %oint . to %oint /. The %otential energ# lost is converted $ac2 to flo" energ# 7 P :. The %ressure therefore increases $# an amount e*ual to the %ressure decrease from %oint . to %oint /.

Net Result+ No losses in &ressure 7e.g. ideal fluid: If we did not consider the effects of fluid friction, the abo%e analysis would show that the pressure at point 0 and point 9 would be the same# The decrease in %ressure "hen the %i%e siAe decreases is e)actl# offset $# the increased in %ressure "hen the %i%e siAe increases. The decrease in %ressure "hen elevation increases is e)actl# offset "hen the fluid returns to the same elevation it started from. Fluid friction is %resent in all real fluids including all gases and li*uids. Fluid friction results in the conversion of flo" energ# to internal energ#( as evidenced $# a decrease in %ressure and an increase in tem%erature. In the e*uation $elo" the arro"s sho" the net result of the energ# conversion in a real fluid that too2 %lace in a closed0recirculating s#stem.
gz1 v12 gz v 2 + + P1 1 + u1 = 2 + 2 + P 2 2 + u 2 gc 2gc gc 2g c

Flo" Energ# goes do"n and Internal Energ# goes u% $# the same amount.
Unli2e the %ressure dro% caused $# the changes in %i%e siAe and elevation( fluid friction results in an unreco%ered pressure drop. This %ressure dro% is referred to as head loss. This dro% in %ressure must $e re%laced $# "or2 on the fluid( usuall# %rovided $# a %um%( or the fluid "ill sto% flo"ing.
Fluid Friction results in an un-recovered pressure drop

et6s loo2 ne)t at another closed loo%. ,an# fluid s#stems are closed loo%s. A t#%ical closed loo% has a %um% to su%%l# %ressure( some load 7li2e a heat e)changer:( and connecting %i%ing. The s#stem in (igure :/93 Closed -oop Example Figure 9.C is a sim%le closed loo%.
'ater leaves the %um% at %oint .( flo"s through the loo%( and returns to the %um% at %oint /. Out in the loo%( the s#stem e)%eriences changes in elevation W k, out 7A:( %i%e siAe7A:( and direction. It %ro$a$l# transfers heat. If it is a %o"er s#stem 7li2e a h#draulic s#stem: it ma# also %erform "or2.
Q in Q out
(igure :/92 * imple Closed -oop ystem
'e "ant to find out "hat the effect of fluid friction is on this real s#stem.
Example: Figure 9.@ sho"s the fluid %ro%erties of a s#stem. 5etermine the fluid friction energ# dro% in this s#stem. The densit# of "ater at .03 F is C..8 l$m0ft .
<
'e start "ith the delta form of the general energ# e*uation+ $e P (e P u P 7 P : P w2(net M 7net The figure sho"s that the s#stem has heat in and heat out. -o"ever( since T. M T/( "e ma# conclude that 7in M 7out( and that 7net M 0. Flo"ing from %oint . to %oint / there is no "or2( so w2(net M 0. The %i%e diameters are the same( so . M /( and (e M 0. The elevation changes from %oint . to %oint /. -o"ever( a /=ft change in height %roduces a negligi$le change in the %ressure( com%ared to the rest of the %ro$lem. 7If "e "ere
in dou$t on this %oint( "e could include pe in the calculation.: Therefore( the general energ# e*uation reduces to+ uP &M0
Again( "e identif# u as the fluid friction term. Friction converts flo" energ# into internal energ#.
u M = &
u M =0.0.C.< ft< l$m
ft l$ f l$ m
=C> l$f in/
.33 in/ . ft/
u M .>../
The fact that u is %ositive tells us that internal energ# increases as the "ater flo"s from %oint . to %oint /. At %oint /( the %ressure has decreased( and the internal energ# has increased $# e)actl# the same amount. The %um% raises the fluid %ressure( and friction reduces it. The reason "e need a %um% in a closed loo% is to overcome the effects of fluid friction. Unli2e the %ressure dro% caused $# the changes in area and elevation( fluid friction results in an unrecovered %ressure dro%. This %ressure dro% is referred to as head loss. This dro% in %ressure must $e com%ensated $# "or2 on the fluid $# the %um%.
Patm
10 ft 30 ft 20 ft E4eadE
Engineers and %um% manufacturers often use the term head to mean %ressure.
30 ft
(igure :/9" ;ressure is ;roportional to Column 4eight
<ead is Jpressure expressed as an e'ui%alent water column height#J -ead is related to %ressure in %si $# the height of an e*uivalent "ater column. Recall the e*uation "e develo%ed in the cha%ter on fluids( and refer to Figure 9.9. The relationshi% $et"een %ressure and column height is given $#+
& M "!
&ressure is the %roduct of densit# ( gravit# "( and height !. -ead and %ressure descri$e the same fluid %ro%ert#.
J4eadJ is another term for fluid pressure. Each of the energies %ossessed $# a fluid can also $e e)%ressed in terms of GheadJ. The term GheadG is used to refer to %ressure. It is a reference to the height( t#%icall# in feet( of a column of "ater that a given %ressure "ill su%%ort. If atmos%heric %ressure at sea level 7.3.@ %sia: is e)%ressed as head( it "ould $e a$out <<.8/ feet. -ead is measured in feet $ecause of its direct relationshi% to the %ressure at the $ottom of a column of fluid. &um%s move fluid from one %oint to another and from one level to another. 'hen %um%s "ere first $uilt( it "as easier to measure the %ressures as differences in height $et"een com%onents. The differences in height can $e used to measure %ressure( $ecause a column of "ater has a %ressure associated "ith it. Elevation head = re%resents the %otential energ# of a fluid due to its elevation a$ove or $elo" a reference level. 7It is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its height6. ?elocit# head = re%resents the 2inetic energ# of the fluid. 7It is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its %elocity:. ?elocit# head is the height in feet that a flo"ing fluid "ould rise in a column if all its 2inetic energ# "ere totall# converted to %otential energ#. &ressure head = re%resents the flo" energ# of the fluid. 7It is the energ# a fluid %ossesses due to its pressure:. &ressure head is the height in feet a column of "ater "ould have if all its flo" energ# "ere totall# converted into %otential energ#. 'hen all the energies of a s#stem are turned into heights as though all energies "ere %otential energies( "e have a convenient "a# of discussing them in terms of the %ressure at the $ottom of a tan2 of "ater. 'e ma# then tal2 a$out this total head %ressure in terms of a num$er of feet of height. -o" it is done mathematicall#+ Ele%ation 4ead $e 2 $e
gz gz M solving for AD A M A in feet gc gc gz Pgc solving for AD AM in feet gc g
;ressure 4ead
fe 2 $e & M
7elocity 4ead
v 2 gz v2 (e 2 $e M solving for AD AM in feet 2gc gc 2g
'hen "e "ish to determine the deliver# %ressure of a fluid "e tal2 a$out several s%ecific %ressures "hich "e e)%ress as head( in units of feet+ Static head is the %otential energ# of the fluid( e)%ressed in feet 7this is also an elevation head( $ut of the tan2 onl#( or of a %um%:. Velocity head is the 2inetic energ# of the fluid( e)%ressed in feet. Pressure head is the flo" energ# of the fluid( e)%ressed in feet. Total head is the sum of all elevation heads a$ove the deliver# %oint 7e.g. level of li*uid "ithin a tan2 Istatic head of tan2J P the height of the floor level u%on "hich the tan2 sits Ielevation head of floorJ or the hill u%on "hich it sits Ielevation head of hillJ:
Head loss is loss of %ressure. -ead loss sho"s u% in the general energ# e*uation as an increase in internal energ#. It is the amount of %ressure loss due to friction as a fluid moves through the s#stem. It is caused $# valves( %i%e( el$o"s( orifices( and other flo" restrictions. &ressure measured at the %um% discharge of a given s#stem is higher than %ressure do"nstream $ecause of the head loss that occurs along the length of the %i%e.
x y
Static head Total head
x y F F
7elocity 4ead Q x
(riction 4ead Q y
F
Elevation head
+age *
+age =
+age C
;ressure 4ead Q F flo" valve
(igure :/99 ;ressures @ithin a (luid (low ystem 5exaggerated6
Figure 9=8 descri$es the effects fluid flo" at some constant velocit# to the s#stem %ressures. The follo"ing can $e derived referencing the a$ove illustration+ 'hen the valve is full# shut the Gage A( 4( and 1 %ressures are e*ual to the static head of the tan2 %lus the elevation head of the tan2 7height that the tan2 is a$ove the %ressure gage: 'hen the valve is o%ened to allo" some fluid flo" Gage A( 4( and 1 %ressures 1ecrease due to head losses. Note that -ead losses are the com$ination of velocit# head and friction head. ?elocit# head and friction head $oth ta2e %ressure a"a# from %ressure head. -o"ever( velocit# head is the same value at all three gage measurements( "hile friction head increases do"n the length of the %i%e. This measurement or calculation can $e ta2en at an# %oint in the %i%ing s#stem. Notice that the amount of velocit# head does not increase as the fluid flo"s through the %i%e once flo" has $een initiated. Also notice that the amount of friction head does indeed increase as the fluid continues to flo" greater and greater distances through the %i%ing s#stem. The figure 9=8 is e)aggerated to $etter define the different heads involved "hen a tan2 causes a fluid to flo". A %um% can re%lace the tan2 in the dra"ing and the ver# same heads "ill $e %resent. 4oth tan2s and %um%s 7including air com%ressors: can create %ressure head. -o"ever( moving an# mass of fluid to give it a velocit# comes at the cost of some of that %ressure head in the form of elocity head. Also( since
ever# real fluid has a resistance to flo" called fluid friction there is an additional unrecovera$le loss of %ressure head "hich goes into the internal energ# of the fluid. This is eventuall# dissi%ated into the surroundings and lost as heat. The energ# lost due to friction head is not recovera$le and does not return as an eventual increase in %ressure head. oss due to friction head is easil# noticed in a closed loo% s#stem "here a fluid returns to a %um%. The %um% must continue to ma2e u% the head losses in the s#stem due to friction head. If this "ere not so a fluid could $e started moving in a closed loo% s#stem and it "ould never sto%. The term Ihead lossJ is usuall# used as a s#non#m for friction head loss( so "hen #ou hear of losses of head or losses of head %ressure in a s#stem immediatel# thin2 of fluid friction( internal energ#( and friction head. Total head 7is a sum: M Static head of the tan2 height.
Elevation head of the tan2 to measure %oint such as a tan2 %latform
7i.e. the sum of all elevation heads: +eli ery head 7is a difference: M Total head
Friction head
?elocit# head
7i.e. the %ressure left after velocit# and friction have $een %aid their %rice: 'hen a fluid comes from a tan2 or is delivered via a %um% there is a static head that is created and since all real fluids have fluid friction there is also a small amount of friction head. The longer the %i%ing run and the more the fluid is agitated $# the molecules of the fluid $um%ing into fittings and $ends etc. the greater the losses of %ressure head 7due to friction head:. 'hen fluid flo"s for short distances head losses are small and the head losses are not significant. That is the reason man# engineers li2e to thin2 of "ater as having virtuall# no fluid friction. As a result the engineering %rofession created the conce%t of an imaginar# ideal fluid "here fluid friction does not e)ist. &lease remem$er that "e often are not Eust concerned "ith %um%ing "ater short distances $ut ma# %um% ver# viscose fluids "ith significant losses due to fluid friction. Even "ater %um%ed for large distances and %assing through man# fittings and $ends "ill have significant friction losses. An e)am%le could $e fire fighters count the num$er of hoses from the %um% to the noAAle and turn u% the %um% .> %si for each .00 feet of / .0/ inch hose to ma2e u% for the loss of head. The high velocit# of the "ater is the cul%rit that causes this action to $ecome necessar#. -igh viscosit# slurries ma# also re*uire %um%s to carr# a heavier load as in radioactive "aste( 7for e)am%le:( "here fluids are %ur%osel# concentrated to a higher concentration of heav# metals. Referring to Figure 9..0( the illustration sho"s that total head is the sum of the elevation head %roduced $# the tan2 7or %um%: itself and the actual elevation of the tan2 or %um% a$ove the deliver# %oint. The deliver# head is this total head after su$tracting the losses due to friction head and velocit# head. For
"ater %um%ed short distances friction head is ver# small or insignificant. (or large distances, high %elocity fluids, and high %iscosity fluids friction head must be considered# Refer to figure 9=.0. 'hen a %um% is lifting fluid from a sum% or a tan2 that is lo"er than the %um% itself( and is delivering fluid over the to% of a tan2 it is "or2ing more than if the fluid "ere $eing ta2en from a tan2 that is higher than the %um% "here the fluid is $eing forced into the %um%( and %um%ing to the side of a tan2. 'here the %um% is delivering to a tan2 through the side of the tan2 it is %ushing onl# against the actual head %ressure 7static head: of the fluid alread# in the tan2. In the first case the %um% "or2s harder. The %um% does less "or2 in the second case sho"n. 4# stud#ing the total static head in the t"o dra"ings #ou "ill $e a$le to see pump * doing more "or2 than pump = $ecause it is lifting fluid and also delivering fluid higher than the level needed. ;ump = $enefits from the higher elevation of the su%%l# tan2 as "ell as from the smaller elevation to $e delivered.
T&*a' S*a*ic ,ead
Di%c a!3e ,ead
T&*a' S*a*ic ,ead

5Ac*ua''y e'p% * e pu#p6
Pump A S*a*ic Suc*i&$ Li0* 5 ead6
Di%c a!3e ,ead
5Ac*ua''y c&u$*e!% * e pu#p 1&!76
S*a*ic Suc*i&$ Li0* 5 ead6 F'uid i% 8pu''ed9 i$*& * e pu#p F'uid i% 8pu% ed9 i$*& * e pu#p
Pump B
(igure :/9A Total tatic 4ead Examples
4ead -oss due to (riction

(riction head loss is una%oidable in real fluids# -ead loss occurs $ecause of the friction $et"een the fluid and the "alls of the %i%eD or $et"een adEacent %articles as the# move relative to one another. Friction also occurs in tur$ulence caused "henever the flo" is redirected or affected in an# "a# $# such com%onents as %i%ing entrances and e)its( %um%s( valves( flo" reducers( and fittings. @ork must be done on a fluid to o%ercome fluid friction# This is typically done by a pump, and is referred to as Nwork done on a fluidO#
-ead losses due to friction occur throughout a %i%ing s#stem $ut the# are greatest as the fluid flo"s through small o%enings in valves( fittings( and an# %i%ing "ith rough inner surfaces. Studies of the flo" of li*uids sho" that head losses due to friction+ Increase as+ The length of %i%e increases = a longer %i%e has more surface area. The fluid velocit# increases. The %i%e diameter decreases = a %i%e "ith a smaller diameter has more surface area %er unit of cross=sectional area. The roughness increase in %i%ing inner surfaces. 1ontrolling Flo"
Throttling
?alves are used to control the flo" rate and %ressure of fluid s#stems. Throttling is the term used to descri$e the control of fluid flo" $# mani%ulating a valve. It is commonl# used to mean %artiall# closing a valve to restrict flo". Throttling is the $ra2es of a fluid s#stem and Eust li2e the $ra2es on a car( heat is given off.
Throttling is the brakes of a fluid system. Without fluid friction throttling could not take place.
A valve causes a reduction in flo" area follo"ed $# area increasing to the %revious siAe. 7See Figure 9....: As fluid flo"s from u%stream of the valve( fluid enters the reduced area of the valve. A sudden increase in velocit# and decrease in %ressure occurs as flo" energ# is converted to 2inetic energ#.
l t
os
e p
(igure :/9? Typical 7al%e
On the do"nstream side of the valve( the flo" area increases a$ru%tl#. ?elocit# decreases and %ressure increases as 2inetic energ# is converted $ac2 to flo" energ#. If "e trul# had ideal fluids in our %i%ing s#stems and therefore the conversions $et"een flo" energ# and %otential and 2inetic energ# "ere the onl# %rocesses occurring( there "ould $e no %ressure dro% across a valve. ?alves "ould not "or2. 'e could not limit flo" and could not sto% a fluid from flo"ing. If "e could create a trul# ideal fluid "e "ould have to thro" a"a# all %i%ing s#stems and valves. 5ue to the a$ru%t increase in area do"nstream of the valve( flo" $ecomes highl# tur$ulent. The increased turbulence causes an increase in fluid friction# The increase in fluid friction causes a con%ersion of flow energy to internal energy and a sustained pressure drop occurs# ,ani%ulation of valves is a common method of controlling the flo" rate and %ressure of fluid s#stems by putting on the brakes. 1hattering of the s%ra#er unit for a 2itchen sin2 sho"s that the flo" stops $efore the valve is full# closed.
O%ercoming 4ead -osses

&um%s are machiner# used to overcome head losses. These devices are the o%%osite of %ressure reducers and could easil# $e called I%ressure increasersJ. The centrifugal %um% is even $uilt the o%%osite of a %ressure reducer "ith an e)%anding volute to increase %ressure as the fluid %asses through it. Although centrifugal %um% theor# is covered in detail in another fundamentals course( the follo"ing section discusses centrifugal %um% o%eration.
Centrifugal ;ump Operation

A centrifugal %um% converts mechanical energ# to flo" energ# using the centrifugal force created $# a rotating shaft. Figure 9../ sho"s the maEor %arts of a centrifugal %um%.
Casing 7olute Impeller
8otor/1ri%en haft
uction Eye
7anes
(igure :/9: * Centrifugal ;ump -ere6s ho" a centrifugal %um% "or2s to increase the head 7or %ressure: of the fluid+ .. A motor driven shaft is connected to and rotates the im%eller. /. The fluid $eing %um%ed enters through the suction e#e at the center of the im%eller hu$. <. The im%eller vanes catch the fluid and s%in it in the direction of the im%eller and shaft rotation. The vanes of the im%eller are sha%ed so that the# thro" the fluid out of the im%eller Q 7the# do not scoo% or catch the fluid.: 3. As the fluid gains velocit# 72inetic energ#:( it %ushes out"ard against the casing "alls. This action is due to centrifugal force. >. As the fluid moves out"ard and around "ithin the %um% casing( it ma2es room for more fluid at the center of the im%eller( creating a suction "hich dra"s more fluid into the suction e#e of the im%eller. C. The "ater discharged at the ti% of the im%eller into the %um% volute is moving ra%idl# 7it contains a large amount of 2inetic energ#:. In the volute( essentiall# a graduall#="idening cham$er( the fluid s%reads out to fill the cham$er and thus slo"s do"n. The increasing cross=sectional area of the volute causes fluid velocit# to decrease. As the fluid slo"s( the 2inetic energ# is converted into flo" energ# 7%ressure energ#: according to 4ernoulliKs %rinci%le. @. This conversion results in an increase in fluid %ressure at the %um% discharge. The overall result of this %rocess is that the fluid %ressure at the %um% discharge is much higher than it "as at the %um% suction. The %ressure changes( "hich occur as the fluid %asses through the centrifugal %um%( are illustrated in Figure 9..<. 7The 2inetic energ# of the fluid entering is virtuall# e*ual to the 2inetic energ# of the fluid leaving "here the inlet and discharge %i%ing are the same siAe.: The ,echanical Sciences course "ill discuss %um%s in more detail.
Normall#( a centrifugal %um% ;ressure Cur%e %roduces a relativel# lo" %ressure increase in the fluid. This Tur$ulence and gradual %ressure head loss due to fluid friction increase can $e an#"here from several doAen to several hundred %sid ;ressure within the ystem across a Suction E#e Im%eller ?olute &i%ing centrifugal %um% "ith a (igure :/9$ ;ressures @ithin a Centrifugal ;ump single stage im%eller. The term &SI5 5&ounds Force &er S*uare Inch 5ifferential: is e*uivalent to 5&. In this conte)t( it is the %ressure difference $et"een the suction and discharge of a %um%. &SI5 can also $e used to descri$e a %ressure dro% across a s#stem com%onent 7strainers( filters( heat e)changers( valves( demineraliAers( etc.:. 'hen a centrifugal %um% is o%erating at a constant s%eed( an increase in the s#stem $ac2 %ressure on the flo"ing stream causes a reduction in the magnitude of volumetric flo" rate that the centrifugal %um% can maintain.
;ositi%e 1isplacement ;ump Operation

&ositive dis%lacement %um%s add energ# to fluid $# a %ushing action that a%%lies a direct %ressure to the volume of fluid $eing %um%ed. The %ositive dis%lacement %um% moves fluid $# %ushing it out of the %um% due to the mechanical action of the %um%. There are t"o $asic t#%es of %ositive dis%lacement %um%s+ reciprocating and rotary, and there are man# different versions of each# The reci%rocating %ositive dis%lacement %um% is sho"n in Figure 9..3. For each c#cle( the %iston %ushes e)actl# one c#linder volume of fluid into the discharge line. The valve arrangement of this t#%e of %um% is such that the suction valve is dra"n off its seat "hen the %iston moves out of the c#linder dra"ing li*uid into the c#linder. On the discharge stro2e the suction valve shuts and fluid is forced out of the %um% through the discharge valve. The %ositive dis%lacement %um% converts the mechanical energ# of the %um% directl# to flo" energ# as the %iston a%%lies a %ressure to the volume of "ater in the c#linder.
S S
u t
c r o
S V
O k
o e
u a
c l
t v D Se e
o tn i s r
n c o
S V
h k
u a a e
c l rv
t i g e
o e
D V
i a
s l
c v
h e
gD V
e a
s l
c v
h e
d O
(igure :/A< ;ositi%e 1isplacement ;ump
The rotar#=t#%e %ositive dis%lacement %um% uses gears( vanes or scre"=t#%e rotors that rotate to move fluids. The flo" from a rotar# %um% is fairl# stead# com%ared to the %ulsating flo" of a reci%rocating %um%. The# are used %rimaril# in oil s#stems and chemical s#stems.
,sing the +eneral Energy E'uation to *nalyse )eal (luids

Remem$er that the General Energ# E*uation is strictl# an attem%t to e)%ress the IdifferenceJ $et"een measurements of eight 2inds of energies. 'ith this information and using arro" anal#sis a %rediction can $e made a$out the Ienerg# changesJ "ithin the s#stem $et"een the t"o %oints. The s%ecific energies %ictured in the figure $elo" are a mental image of the energ# contained in a s#stem 7or the General Energ# E*uation in mental form:. Those energies inside of the s*uare are %ictured as $eing contained inside the fluid. Those energies outside of the s*uare are (igure :/A0 +eneral Energy E'uation in %ictured as entering from outside or leaving the 8ental (orm fluid. 4ecause nature "ill not allo" us to destro# nor create mass or energ# $# sim%l# %um%ing a fluid through a %i%e the total energ# in a stead# flo"ing s#stem at an initial %oint . must also $e the total energ# at another final %oint /. 'e can e*uate ever#thing initial on one side of an e*uation to ever#thing final on the other side of an e*uation and can create a mathematical e)%ression for the energ# in this mental %icture of a s#stem.
'e thus have created the s%ecific form of the General Energ# E*uation "ith the initial side on the left and the final side on the right of the e*uation sign+
'h# use the s%ecific formH 4ecause in the s%ecific form( mass is divided out of ever# energ# term( so it allo"s us to s%ea2 generall# a$out "hat is ha%%ening "ithin a s#stem "ithout $eing tied to an# %articular fluid 7$ecause of its Imass(J or its Imass flo" rateJ:. This means that the e*uation "e have defined a%%lies to all fluids and is trul# general. The ne)t several %ages contain e)am%les of the energ# conversions "ithin fluid s#stems under a variet# of circumstances+ Training Note for examples which follow: 1anceling unnecessar# energ# terms hel%s to sim%lif# diagnosis.
These energy terms may be zeroed-out when a specific circumstance occurs
pe fe 1 + ke1 + 1 + u1 + qin + win = pe 2 + ke2 +
The energ# terms that are tied together $# solid lines are %aired. This means that the# are e*ual to each other and cancel so ma# $e eliminated from the e*uation. Those not tied together are not %aired( or not e*ual to one another so must $e eliminated individuall# from the General Energ# E*uation. This is a mathematical "a# of treating energies that in realit# are not Aero e)ce%t under ver# s%ecial circumstances. For instance( internal energ# u is hardl# ever# Aero( $ut "here there is no change in internal energ# the values on the left and the right side of the e*uation are identical and cancel each other out( so are
no hea t ex cha nge no rs , pum or ste ps am or gen com era p no res tor pi p sor s e el s eva ti o nc no han pi p ges e si ze c han g es no pre s su re c han if a g es n id ea l fl u id no hea t ex cha nge no rs ( tur coo bin l er es , s) or pad dl e wh eel s
fe 2 + u2 + qout + wout
effectivel# Aeroed out. This logic also holds for $e, (e, and fe. If there is no change in energ# from %oint . to %oint / the energ# values are the same and cancel. *s a mathematical con%ention we will therefore indicate that energy %alues for paired energy terms in the +eneral Energy E'uation will be set to Fero when there is no change# Example: In the dra"ing $elo"( "hich of the 9 7eight: t#%es of energ# are not %airedH
qin
pe ke fe u
qout
win
*nswer:
wout
The in%uts and out%uts of 7 and w are not %aired. If an# of these energies $ecome Aero this does not effect the value or e)istence of the other. Each one ma# e)ist "ithout $eing effected $# the e)istence of an# other. In other "ords( 7 7$oth in or out: can e)ist "ithout the other. Also w 7$oth in or out: can e)ist "ithout the other term. [[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
Example: In the e)am%le $elo"( "hich of the 9 7eight: t#%es of energ# re%resent the energies that are contained "ithin the fluid itself 7and are %aired:H
qin
pe ke fe u
qout
win
wout
*nswer: $e, (e, fe, and u are energ# differences that are contained "ithin the fluid itself 7and are %aired:( "hile 7 and " 7$oth in and out: are re%resentative of "hat the o%erator does to the fluid to either add energ# or remove energ# from the fluid from outside of the fluid and are not "ithin the fluid itself. [[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[ Example: In the e)am%le $elo"( "hich of the 9 7eight: t#%es of energ# listed toggle $ac2 and forth transferring energ# $et"een them( and "hich are one "a# transfers onl#H
qin
pe ke fe u
qout
win
wout
*nswer: $e, (e, fe, and u easil# transfer energ# $et"een them as the fluid moves through the %i%ing( "hile 7 and " 7$oth in and out: are re%resentative of "hat the o%erator does to the fluid and either add energ# or remove energ# from the fluid one "a#. [[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
Example: 'rite the s%ecific form of the general energ# e*uation *nswer:
pe1 + ke1 + fe1 + u1 + qin + win = pe2 + ke2 + fe2 + u2 + qout + wout
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[ Example: 5ra" a re%resentative figure the 3 t#%es of energ# that are contained "ithin a fluid. *nswer:
pe ke fe
Example: 'hat are the 3 t#%es of energ# that are o%erator controlled in a fluid s#stem. *nswer:
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
qin
qout
win
Example:
wout
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
'rite ho" the s%ecific form of the General Energ# E*uation "ould a%%ear "hen no "or2 is %erformed on the fluid or $# the fluid( and "hen no heat enters or e)its( *nswer:
pe 1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2+ ke 2+ pe 1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1 = pe 2+ ke 2+
fe 2 + u 2+ q out + w out fe 2 + u 2
Not paired with one another Not paired with one another
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
,ost Ireal fluidsJ act almost li2e the conce%t of an ideal fluid( $ut all %rocess e*ui%ment and all %i%ing causes real fluids to lose a small amount of flo" energ# "hich goes into internal energ# u 7and thus into unrecovera$le losses "hich continuousl# remove flo" energ# from the s#stem:. An ideal fluid( on the other hand( has no change in u. 'hen there is no change in internal energ# I uJ( $oth values for u( 7at %oint one and at %oint t"o: are canceled. This descri$es a I%airedJ relationshi% "here "ith no change in u. The value of u at %oint . cancels "ith the value of u at %oint /.
pecific )ules ,sing *rrow *nalysis

&reviousl# in this te)t arro" anal#sis has re%eatedl# $een used "ithout $eing highl# defined. Some s%ecific rules for arro" anal#sis "ill no" $e introduced to allo" for more in=de%th use. 'hen using arro" anal#sis "ith the General Energ# E*uation( all energies contained initiall# "ithin the fluid 7%aired: "ill $e considered to $e constant $ecause the# com%are %oint . "ith %oint . and there is no change. This means the# do not change u% or do"n. As a result an arro" "ill not need to $e used. 7If an arro" is used it "ill $e a horiAontal arro" indicating no change u% nor do"n+ .: Those energ# terms on the left side that are inde%endent( 7 in and w in ( must $e assessed "ith u% or do"n arro"s( as "ell as all energ# terms on the right side of the General Energ# E*uation.
These energy terms may be zeroed-out when a specific circumstance occurs
pe fe 1 + ke1 + 1 + u1 + qin + win = pe 2 + ke2 +
Note that the first four energ# t#%es "ill not need an arro" and "ill $e considered to $e constant( not changing "ith movement in the %i%ing s#stem. All the energ# t#%es that have s%ecific conditions listed must $e assessed $# u% or do"n arro"s if the# are not %reviousl# eliminated. U An increase arrow 7u% arro": "ill $e used for an# s%ecific heat 7 7: or s%ecific "or2 7w: terms that are not canceled out. 7This re$resents the effect the heat or wor( term will ha e on the total ener"y of the fluid, such that any heat or wor( in will cause ener"ies to "o u$ within the fluid, and any heat or wor( out will cause ener"ies to "o down within the fluid%: Ever# arro" is assigned from the %osition of %oint / 7t"o:( U U U $e terms can cancel each other out if there is no height change in the s#stem. (e terms can cancel each other out if there is no cross=sectional area change in the s#stem. fe terms al"a#s ta2e the $runt of changes in $e and (e terms and therefore ta2e the o%%osite arro" direction. 7&ressure ta2es the hit from height and cross=section area changes.: 7Rarel# does fe ever cancel out( $ut if the %ressures at $oth %oint one and %oint t"o are identical this can $e canceled.: U u terms cancel if the fluid is an ideal fluid . In an ideal fluid there is no viscosit# and therefore no fluid friction to heat u% as the s#stem changes in height( and cross=sectional area. Note+ Lee% in mind that "hen a heat e)changer is involved( u can change. 7-o"ever( usuall# u is 2e%t constant using an ideal heat e)changer s#stem.:
no hea t ex cha nge no rs , pum or ste ps am or gen com era pre no tor s so pi p s r e el s eva ti o nc no han pi p ges e si ze c han g es no pre s su re c han if a g es n id ea l fl u id no hea t ex cha nge no rs ( tur coo bin l er es , s) or pad dl e wh eel s
fe 2 + u2 + qout + wout
w 7$oth in and out: ma# $e canceled if it is assumed that there is no "or2 on the ideal fluid $# the s#stem nor $# the ideal fluid on the s#stem. Note+ Lee% in mind that a %um% or a com%ressor does do "or2 on the fluid. If there is a %um% or com%ression in a s#stem there is w in . The fluid has "or2 done on it $# %um%s or com%ressors.
7 7$oth in and out: ma# $e canceled if it is assumed that there is no heat %assing in nor out of an ideal fluid. It is assumed that the %i%ing has %erfect insulation. Note+ Lee% in mind that heat e)changers can $oth %ut heat in and ta2e heat out of the s#stem 7e.g.( $oilers and coolers:.
The +eneral Energy E'uation and 1iagnosis using *rrow *nalysis

If "e consider that there is an ideal fluid in the %i%ing and changes in the cross=sectional area and the height ta2e %lace( the fluid "ill move faster or slo"er( and change %ressure either do"n or u%. 'ith an ideal fluid there is considered to $e a .00F %erfect transfer of energ#. No loses occur $ecause internal energ#( u, 7$oth at %oint one and at %oint t"o: is the same for an ideal fluid( so cancel out. Even though an ideal fluid does not e)ist( it almost descri$es "hat does ta2e %lace in a real fluid. It is a good a%%ro)imation to realit#. 'hen "e must $e more accurate "e recogniAe that internal energ#( u( also e)ists and ta2es energ# a"a# from fe as energ# is converted $ac2 and forth. If there is a real fluid in the %i%ing the internal energ#( u, "ill al"a#s ta% a small amount of flo" energ# a"a# from the s#stem. So as the energ# in a s#stem transfers $ac2 and forth 7as the %i%ing causes the fluid to s%eed u%( slo" do"n and change %ressure:( in a real fluid, the internal energy, u, will always increase.
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions in an Iideal s#stemJ 7contains an ideal fluid: "here no heat enters nor e)its the fluid( and no "or2 is done on or $# the fluid( and there is no change in cross=sectional area 7A:( $ut there is an increase in height 7A:H
pe 1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2+ ke 2+ pe 1+ = pe 2+
fe 2+ u 2+ q out + w out
fe 1
fe 2
*nswer: U U $e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P fe 2 %otential energ# increases 7A increase: $e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P fe 2 thus flo" energ# decreases 7com%ensates: since fe 2 M 7& 2 : means 7& 2 : M& 2 pressure at point two goes down 7$ecause M incom%ressi$le fluid: In summar#+
1 ( and densit#( ( must remain constant 7unchanged: in an ideal fluid or
an
$e
ke
fe
&
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions in an Iideal s#stemJ 7contains an ideal fluid: "here no heat enters nor e)its the fluid( and no "or2 is done on or $# the fluid( and there is no change in cross=sectional area 7A:( $ut there is a decrease in height 7A:H
pe 1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2+ ke 2+ fe 2 + u 2+ q out + w out pe 1

*nswer: U U $e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P fe 2 %otential energ# decreases 7A decrease: $e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P fe 2 thus flo" energ# increases 7com%ensates: since fe 2 M 7& 2 : means 7& 2 : M& 2 pressure at point two goes up 7$ecause M incom%ressi$le fluid: In summar#+
+ fe 1
= pe 2
+ fe 2
1 ( and densit#( ( must remain constant 7unchanged: in an ideal fluid or
an
$e
ke
fe
&
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions in an Iideal s#stemJ( "here there is no change in height 7A:( $ut there is a cross=sectional area 7A: increaseH
pe 1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2+ ke 2+ ke 1 + fe 1
*nswer: S
ke 2 +
fe 2
(e 1 P fe 1 M (e 2 P fe 2 2inetic energ# decreases( 7$ecause v decreases: since A therefore v (e 2 M
U U U
1 and therefore (e 2 $ecause the velocit# at %oint t"o v2 2 2 gc
decreases (e 1 P fe 1 M 2e 2 P fe 2 thus flo" energ# increases 7com%ensates: and since fe 2 M 7& 2 : means 7& 2 : M& 2 pressure at point two goes up
In summar#+
z v
pe (e
fe
&
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions in an Iideal s#stemJ( "here there is no change in height( 7A: $ut there is a cross=sectional area 7A: decreaseH
pe1 + ke1 + fe 1+ u 1+ q in + win = pe2 + ke2 + ke1 + fe 1

*nswer: U
fe 2+ u 2 + q out + wout
ke2 +
fe 2
(e 1 P fe 1 M (e 2 P fe 2 2inetic energ# increases( 7$ecause v increase: since A therefore v
1 and therefore (e 2 $ecause the velocit# at %oint t"o increases v2 2 2 gc U (e 1 P fe 1 M (e 2 P fe 2 thus flo" energ# decreases 7com%ensates: and since fe 2 M means 7& 2 : M& 2 pressure at point two goes down
U (e 2 M In summar#+
7& 2 :
z v
pe (e
fe
&
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions in an Iideal s#stemJ( "here there is an increase in height( 7A: and also a cross=sectional area 7A: decreaseH
2 1
0 pe 1
0 ke 2 +
ke 1 + fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2
fe 2+ u 2 + q out + w out fe 2+
pe 1 + ke 1 + fe 1+
*nswer: U U
= pe 2 + ke 2 +
$e 1 P (e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P (e 2 P fe 2 increase in %otential energ# 7A increase: $e 1 P (e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P (e 2 P fe 2 2inetic energ# increase 7v decrease: since A therefore v
U U
under the influence of two specific energy changes In summar#+ A A v $e (e
1 and therefore (e 2 $ecause the velocit# at %oint t"o increases v2 2 2 gc $e 1 P (e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P (e 2 P fe 2 thus flo" energ# decreases 7com%ensates: and since fe 2 M 7& 2 : means 7& 2 : M& 2 pressure at point two goes
(e 2 M
down
fe
&
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions in an Iideal s#stemJ( "here there is a decrease in height( 7A: and also a cross=sectional area 7A: decreaseH
1 2
0 pe 1
0 ke 2 +
ke 1 + fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2
fe 2+ u 2 + q out + w out fe 2+
pe 1 + ke 1 + fe 1+
*nswer: U U
= pe 2 + ke 2 +
$e 1 P (e 1 P fe 1 M $e 2 P (e P fe decrease in %otential energ# 7A decrease: $e P (e P fe M $e P (e P fe 2inetic energ# increase 7v increase: since A therefore v U (e M and therefore (e $ecause the velocit# at %oint t"o increases U $e P (e P fe M $e P (e P fe H thus flo" energ# $oth increases due to the s%ecific %otential energ# decrease and decreases due to the s%ecific 2inetic energ# increase as com%ensates and since fe M 7& : means 7& : M& S The pressure at point two goes either up or down depending upon the amount of of the two specific energies that affect it# 7If the changes are e*ual the# "ill cancel out %ressure at %oint t"o "ill not change.: In summar#+ A A v $e (e feH &H
it
change and the
This is a case "here mathematical calculation is necessar# to ma2e further conclusions as to "hether fe increases( decreases or remains the same.
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions for a centrifugal %um% "hich does "or2 on an ideal fluid 7the fluid does not do "or2 on a %um%:( "here there is no change in height 7A:( and no change in cross=sectional area 7A:( and no heat enters nor e)its the fluidH 7Assume cross=sectional areas of entr# and e)it %i%es to $e the same( and the height change to $e negligi$le.:
2 1
pe1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe2+ ke 2+
fe 1
+ w in =
fe 2
*nswer: U fe P w M fe 7S%ecific flo" energ# at %oint one has no change "hen com%ared to itself so receives an arro" indicating Ino changeJ.: The "or2 7in: $# the %um% increases so "hen com%aring s%ecific flo" energ# at %oint t"o "ith s%ecific flo" energ# at %oint one there is an increase $# the amount of energ# that is %ut in $# e)actl# the amount of the "or2 %erformed $# the %um% on the fluid. 7In other "ords( the t"o flo" energies "ould $e the same if there "ere no "or2 %ut into the fluid $# the %um%.: U fe Pw M fe so flo" energ# at %oint t"o must increase( and since fe M 7& : means 7& : M& pressure at point two goes up# In summar#+
fe
&
Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions for a %i%e "ith a Ireal fluidJ flo"ing through itH As a result there is an internal energ# change 7 u:% 1onditions+ There is no change in height( 7A:( no change in cross=sectional area 7A:( no heat 77: enters nor e)its the fluid( and no "or2 7w: is %erformed either on the fluid or $# the fluid.
pe1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe2+ ke 2+
*nswer: U U fe Pu M fe 8 u s%ecific internal energ# increases fe Pu M fe 8 u that energ# comes from s%ecific flo" energ# 7decreases: and since fe M 7& : means 7& : M& pressure at point two goes down# U In effect( given enough distance to travel through the %i%e all the flo" energ# "ould internal energ#. In summar#+
go into
u fe
&
Training Note for exercises which follow: An# Iideal fluidJ can $e re%laced $# a Ireal fluidJ in an# e)ercise and the changes in flo" energ# and %ressure that occur in addition to "hat ha%%ens due to the Iideal fluidJ is effectivel# this horiAontal %i%e e)ercise. In other "ords( fe and & "ill al"a#s decrease $ecause u increases in ever# Ireal fluidJ s#stem. [[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[ Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions that occur "ith a Ireal fluidJ in a %i%e "here there is no height 7A: change( $ut there is a decrease in cross=sectional area 7A:H 7There is no heat 77: in nor out( and no "or2 7w: %erformed on or $# the fluid "here the container is a %i%e. This should $e understood.:
0 pe1 + ke 1 + ke 1 +
fe1+ u 1+ q in + win = pe2 + ke 2 + fe1+ u = ke 2 +
fe2+ u 2 + q out + wout fe2 + u 2
*nswer: U U U U since A therefore v (e M and therefore (e $ecause the velocit# at %oint t"o increases (e P fe P u M (e P fe P u 2inetic energ# increases( 7$ecause v increases: (e P fe P u M (e P fe P u thus flo" energ# decreases 7com%ensates: and since fe M 7& : means 7& : M& pressure at point two goes down because of a cross/sectional area increase# S 4ut that is onl# %art of the solution== 4ecause the fluid %asses "ith a velocit# through the %i%e there is tur$ulence( and tur$ulence "ithin a real fluid that has fluid friction creates an increase in internal energ#. Internal energ# then ta2es that energ# from the %ressure "ithin the s#stem( i.e. from flo" energ#( thus (e P fe P u M (e P fe P u again( flo" energ# com%ensates for an increase in another form of energ# and since fe M 7& : means
7& : M& pressure at point two goes down also because of an internal increase# In summar#+
energy
(e u fe
&
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE Example: 'hat "ould $e the energ# conversions that occur "ith a Ireal fluidJ in a %i%e "here there is a height 7A: decrease( $ut no change in cross=sectional area 7A:H 7'here the container is a sim%le %i%e there is no heat 77: in nor out( and no "or2 7w: %erformed on or $# the fluid for all intents and %ur%oses. This should $e understood $# no".:
pe 1+ ke 1+ fe 1+ u 1+ q in+ w in = pe 2+ ke 2+ fe 2 + u 2+ q out + w out pe 1 + fe 1+ u 1 = pe 2 + fe 2 + u 2
*nswer: U U $e P fe P u M $e P fe P u %otential energ# decreases 7A decrease: $e P fe P u M $e P fe P u thus flo" energ# increases 7com%ensates: since fe M 7& : means 7& : M& pressure at point two goes up 7$ecause M ( and densit#( ( must remain constant 7unchanged: in an incom%ressi$le fluid: U 4ut that is not the com%lete ans"er $ecause the fluid has internal friction( thus+ $e P fe P u M $e P fe P u internal energ# increasesD flo" energ# decreases. U Thus pressure at point two again goes down# @e can not sa# e)actl# "hat ha%%ens to %ressure. In summar#+ A $e u feH
&H
This is another e)am%le "here mathematical calculations "ould $est $e used to descri$e the final %ressure amount and direction.
Chapter : ummary:
Fluid friction converts flo" energ# into internal energ#. Fluid friction causes the internal energ# of a fluid to increase "hich is seen as an increase in s#stem tem%erature. The follo"ing factors "ill cause an increase in fluid friction+ Increase in fluid velocit# Increase in roughness of %i%e -igher viscosit# fluids Smaller diameter %i%e Increase in tur$ulent flo" Increase in %i%e length Increased num$ers of valves( fittings( and $ends
The amount of flo" energ# converted to internal energ# $# fluid friction is called head loss. If internal energ# increases( tem%erature increases. ?alves cause a reduction in flo" area "hen the fluid %asses $# a throttled dis2( The# control flo" $# decreasing %ressure at that %oint. Flo" can $e totall# sto%%ed $# decreasing the %ressure at the dis2 to Aero. -ead is another term for fluid %ressure. It is the height( in feet( of a column of "ater that a given %ressure "ill su%%ort. 7In other "ords( "e turn it into %otential energ#.:
u " fe $ $ = = &ressure head M " " "
Friction head 7head loss: M
Static head is the sum of friction head P velocit# head P %ressure head. Total head is the sum of all Ielevation headsJ 7static head P elevation head:. +eli ery head is the total head IminusJ sum of friction head and velocit# head. Fluid friction is o%%osition to the movement of a fluid and converts flo" energ# to internal energ# and raises s#stem tem%erature. Fluid friction causes a decrease in flo" energ# 7 fluid %ressure: and an increase in internal energ# "hich is seen as an increase in tem%erature.
1hapter : ummary Continued
Fluid friction is the force "hich o%%oses the movement of a fluid The flo" energ# converted to internal energ# $# fluid friction is called head loss. -ead loss is a %ressure loss 7an energ# loss: If flo" energ# decreases( %ressure decreases and vice versa. Throttlin" is the term used to descri$e the control of fluid flo" and %ressure $# mani%ulating a valve. It is commonl# used to mean %artiall# closing a valve to restrict flo". Throttling causes a sustained %ressure dro% in a s#stem due to increased tur$ulence and the resulting fluid friction. &um%s overcome head losses = the# are the o%%osite of I%ressure reducersJ = the# are I%ressure increasersJ. &um%s convert mechanical energ# to flo" energ# $# causing an increase in %ressure. 1entrifugal %um%s convert mechanical energ# to flo" energ# using centrifugal force and an e)%anding volute. &ositive dis%lacement %um%s add energ# to a fluid $# a %ushing action that a%%lies a direct %ressure to the volume of fluid $eing %um%ed. Total Static -ead 7the "or2 the %um% does: "hen lifting fluid u% to the %um% and %um%ing higher than the %um% is the sum of Static Suction ift and 5ischarge -ead. Static Suction ift is read as a %ositive amount "hen read from a ?acuum Gauge. 7This is the %ro%er "a#.: Total Static -ead 7the "or2 the %um% does: "hen dra"ing fluid from a tan2 %ositioned higher than the %um% is the difference $et"een Static Suction -ead and 5ischarge -ead. Internal energ# is the energy of the molecules of a fluid due to rotation( vi$ration( translational motion and intermolecular attractions. Internal energ# al"a#s increases and flo" energ# al"a#s com%ensates $# decreasing. 7u and fe 100% of the time) Internal energ# e)ists in a real fluid "here there is al"a#s viscosit# and fluid friction due to intermolecular attractions.
Chapter : (luid (low 8easurement
This cha$ter discusses different ty$es of flow measurin" de ices their affects to the fluid system%
TO $#<
!)*L+%& the energy conversions that occur as fluid flows through the enturi tube, flow no@@le, and orifice plate flow measuring devices #!S.7%9! the basic construction of the following types of head flow detectors' enturi tubes, Orifice plates, $low no@@les
!O =."
(low 8easuring 1e%ices

,an# fluid s#stems are %rovided "ith flo"=measuring devices to measure the magnitude of the volumetric or mass flo" rate. Lno"ledge of flo" rate is re*uired to ensure that s#stems are o%erating acce%ta$l#.
1ifferential ;ressure 8eters

Of the man# different t#%es of flo" meters( differential %ressure meters are most commonl# encountered in industr#. The# are relia$le( relativel# ine)%ensive( and %rovide suita$le accurac#. This t#%e of flo" meter o%erates on the %rinci%le that %lacing a restriction in the fluid stream causes a %ressure dro%. 7As velocit# increases through a narro" restriction( %ressure decreases = 4ernoulli6s %rinci%le.: This difference in %ressure is measured to %rovide flo" rate information. Some common flo" measuring devices are orifice plates( flow noFFles( and %enturi tubes.
Orifice ;lates
An orifice %late is sim%l# a flat %late .0.C=inch to .03 inch thic2( "ith a hole drilled in it. It is one of the sim%lest of the flo" %ath restrictions used in flo" detection as "ell as the most economical. One of the most common t#%es is sho"n in Figure 8..
(igure $/A2 * imple Orifice ;late
The inlet side decreases the area of the fluid stream at the hole of the %late( causing the velocit# to increase and the %ressure to decrease 7flo" energ# is converted to 2inetic energ#: a$ru%tl#. The lo" %ressure is measured as the fluid e)its the outlet side of the orifice %late since the %ressure "ill $e at its lo"est. The outlet side of the %late immediatel# increases the area "hich decreases velocit# and increases %ressure 72inetic energ# is converted to flo" energ#: a$ru%tl#. The high %ressure is measured u%stream of the inlet side of the orifice %late. 4ecause the area changes for an orifice %late are so a$ru%t as the fluid %asses through the %late %enetration( there is much tur$ulence caused $# the orifice( and therefore some head loss. The %ressure increases to a$out C0F to 90F of the original in%ut value. The %ressure loss is irrecovera$leD therefore( the out%ut %ressure "ill al"a#s $e less than the in%ut %ressure. The %ressure on $oth sides of the orifice are measured( resulting in a differential %ressure "hich is %ro%ortional to the flo" rate. An orifice %late is easier to install and chea%er than more com%le) flo" measuring devices. 4esides $eing used to %rovide flo" indication( orifice %lates are often used as flo" control devices. The# are normall# installed in a straight run of smooth %i%e to avoid distur$ance of flo" %atterns caused $# fittings and valves. Orifice %lates have t"o distinct disadvantagesD the# cause a high %ermanent %ressure dro% 7outlet %ressure "ill $e C0F to 90F of inlet %ressure: and the# are su$Eect to erosion( "hich "ill eventuall# cause inaccuracies in the measured differential %ressure.
(low NoFFles
The flo" noAAle 7Figure 8=/: is commonl# used for the measurement of steam flo" and other high velocit# fluid flo" measurements "here erosion ma# $e a %ro$lem. It is ca%a$le of measuring
(igure $/A3 * imple (low NoFFle
a%%ro)imatel# C0F higher flo" rates than an orifice %late "ith the same diameter. This is due to the streamlined contour of the throat( "hich is a distinct advantage for the measurement of high velocit# fluids. The flo" noAAle re*uires less straight run %i%ing than an orifice %late. -o"ever( the %ressure dro% 7head loss: is a$out the same for $oth devices.
7enturi Tubes
A venturi tu$e is also used to measure fluid flo". It is the most accurate flo"=sensing element "hen %ro%erl# cali$rated. A $asic venturi tu$e is sho"n in Figure 8.<. It has a converging conical inlet( a c#lindrical throat( and a diverging recover# cone. It has no %roEections into the fluid( no shar% corners( and no sudden changes in contour. The inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream( causing the velocit# to increase and the %ressure to decrease 7flo" energ# is converted to 2inetic energ#:. The lo" %ressure is measured in the center of the c#lindrical throat since the %ressure "ill $e at its lo"est value there and neither the %ressure nor the velocit# is changing. The diverging cone has a steadil# increasing area "hich decreases velocit# and increases %ressure 72inetic energ# is converted to flo" energ#: such that the total %ressure loss is onl# .0F to />F due to fluid friction 7head loss:. The high %ressure is measured u%stream of the entrance cone. The maEor disadvantage of this t#%e of flo" detection are the high initial costs for installation and difficult# in installation and ins%ection.
A venturi is designed to minimiAe tur$ulence and thus minimiAe head loss and %ermanent %ressure dro%. The mass flo" rate through the venturi is determined $# measuring the differential %ressure it %roduces. The %ressure difference is measured $et"een the inlet to the venturi tu$e and the throat. The s*uare root of the %ressure dro% is directl# %ro%ortional to the mass flo" rate.
m = 7constant:
(igure $/A" imple 7enturi Tube
&
Lno"ing that mass flo" rate is %ro%ortional to the s*uare root of the differential %ressure allo"s a meter constant to $e used so that a %articular flo" rate can $e related to a %articular instrument.
Other *pplications of the 7enturi ;rinciple

A ?enturi is $asicall# a tu$e "ith a narro" constriction 7the throat:. It has other a%%lications than flo" measurement. A car$uretor+ The $arrel of a car$uretor in a car 7Figure 8.3: is an e)am%le of another common use of the venturi %rinci%le. The flo"ing air s%eeds u% as it %asses the constriction and so the %ressure is lo"er. 4ecause of the reduced %ressure( gasoline under atmos%heric %ressure in the car$uretor reservoir is forced into the air stream and mi)es "ith the air $efore entering the c#linders. 7Giancoli( />/:. Steam ;ets One common method for transferring solutions $et"een vessels in industr# is to IEetJ the solution "ith steam Eets 7Figure 8=>:. Steam Eets re*uire no moving %artsD thus( the# are relia$le and need little maintenance. Steam( travels through %i%ing to the steam Eet noAAle located in %i%ing near the vessel. The steam is forced through a small o%ening( the noAAle %ortion of the Eet( "hich increases the velocit# of the steam. (igure $/A9 *uto Carburetor ,ses 7enturi ;rinciple
As the steam e)its the noAAle %ortion( it crosses over an o%ening in the Eet. 1onnected to the o%ening is a di% leg leading to the %rocess vessel. The force of the steam crossing the o%ening %ulls a vacuum 7creates lo" %ressure $ecause of 4ernoulli6s &rinci%le: on the %rocess vessel di% leg and solution is dra"n u% through the line from the vessel. Steam and %rocess solution e)it the Eet together.
(igure $/AA * Typical team Het
Eductors An eductor is a t#%e of %um% or Eet %um% "hich uses the %rinci%le of reduced flo" area. Figure 8.C 7ne)t %age: sho"s a $asic eductor. 5uring o%eration( the eductor has t"o t#%es of fluids+ a high velocit# fluid( "hich flo"s through the noAAle into the throat of the diffuser( and a fluid $eing %um%ed. The fluid $eing %um%ed flo"s around the noAAle into the throat of the diffuser. As the high velocit# fluid enters the diffuser its molecules stri2e molecules of the lo" velocit# fluid. The struc2 molecules are carried along "ith the high velocit# fluid. This %rocess is called entrainment. As the entrained molecules are carried out of the diffuser( a lo" %ressure area is created around the mouth of the noAAle. This lo" %ressure area "ill dra" more fluid from around the noAAle into the throat of the diffuser( "here it is also entrained and continues the %rocess. A common e)am%le of an eductor is the chemical s%ra# $ottles that connect to the end of a garden hose. The flo" of "ater from the hose is directed through an eductor. The "ater %ulls chemicals from the $ottle( mi)ing them "ith the $ul2 of the "ater flo".
(igure $/A? * imple Eductor
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter B/ Fluid Flow Measurement
Chapter $ ummary:
?enturi tu$es( orifice %lates( and flo" noAAles o%erate on the %rinci%le that %lacing a restriction in a fluid stream "ill cause a %ressure dro%. These devices measure flo" rates $# detecting changes in %ressure. An orifice %late is sim%l# a flat %late .0.C=inch to .03 inch thic2( "ith a hole drilled in it. The flo" noAAle is has a streamlined contour of the throat and immediatel# o%ens to the original cross= sectional area of the %i%e The ?enturi has a converging conical inlet( a c#lindrical throat( and a diverging recover# cone. It has no %roEections into the fluid( no shar% corners( and no sudden changes in contour. The mass flo" rate through a venturi tu$e is directl# %ro%ortional to the s*uare root of the difference in %ressure $et"een the venturi tu$e inlet 7the largest o%ening: and the venturi tu$e throat 7the constriction:.
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter B/ Fluid Flow Measurement
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,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Cha$ter 0D/ 'ater Hammer, Steam Hammer, and Pi$e 'hi$
@ater 4ammer and ;ipe @hip
The cha$ter identifies some of the causes and methods of minimi!in" water hammer 9and steam hammer: and $i$e whi$
TO 0<#<
!O "F." !O "F.( !O "F.!O "F.2
%#!&T%$C the conditions and prevention methods for both Ewater hammerE and Epipe whipE in fluid systems #!S.7%9! the causes of water hammer #!S.7%9! the methods used to prevent water hammer. #!S.7%9! the causes of pipe whip #!S.7%9! the method used to prevent pipe whip
8echanisms of @ater 4ammer

'ater hammer is a li*uid shoc2 "ave resulting from the sudden starting or sto%%ing of flo". It is affected $# the initial s#stem %ressure( the densit# of the fluid( the s%eed of sound in the fluid( the elasticit# of the fluid and %i%e( the change in velocit# of the fluid( the diameter and thic2ness of the %i%e( and the valve o%erating time. 'ater hammer is a %h#sical shoc2 to the com%onents in a s#stem caused $# im%act of high velocit# li*uids. These li*uids are dense and incom%ressi$le. This is an h#draulic over%ressuriAation. 'hen slugs 7%oc2ets or accumulations: of li*uid are driven( or dra"n $# vacuum through a %i%e line these slugs of heav# fluid ma# move at car or truc2 s%eeds. 7Slugs of li*uid "eighing hundreds or thousands of %ounds ma# slam into valves( $ends( TKs( or other e*ui%ment. i*uid can slam into various e*ui%ment $rea2ing %i%eline su%%orts( straightening %i%e $ends( moving %um%s out of alignment( crushing adEacent e*ui%ment( and stressing and $rea2ing valves( Eoints( and unions( "hile maiming and 2illing "or2ers.:
Occurrence of @ater 4ammer 5and team 4ammer6

'ater hammer can occur "hen fluid flo" through a %i%e section is a$ru%tl# changed. This can occur during ra%id valve o%erations in fluids s#stems. This also can occur local areas of the fluid in the %i%e section undergoes a %hase change. In the case of steam( different areas 7%oc2ets: of steam cool $elo" it saturation tem%erature and condenses to "ater. The "ater IslugJ is %ushed at high s%eed further do"n the %i%ing s#stem.
The shoc2 "ave caused $# "ater hammer can $e of sufficient magnitude to cause %h#sical damage to %i%ing( e*ui%ment( and %ersonnel. 'ater hammer in %i%es has $een 2no"n to %ull %i%e su%%orts from their mounts and ru%ture %i%ing( Normally, the entire hammer process takes place in under one secondL
There are various industrial %rocesses that utiliAe steam. 4ecause steam is $asicall# "ater( 7-/O:( in its gaseous %hase( a form of "ater hammer should $e addressed. Steam hammer is similar to "ater hammer e)ce%t it is for a steam s#stem. Steam hammer is a gaseous shoc2 "ave resulting from the sudden starting or sto%%ing of flo". Steam hammer is not as severe as "ater hammer for three reasons+ .. The com%ressi$ilit# of the steam dam%ens the shoc2 "ave /. The s%eed of sound in steam is a%%ro)imatel# one third the s%eed of sound in "ater.
<. The densit# of steam is a%%ro)imatel# .C00 times less than that of "ater. The items
of concern that deal "ith steam %i%ing are thermal shoc2 and "ater slugs 7i.e.( condensation in the steam s#stem: as a result of im%ro%er "arm u%.
,an# conditions can lead into water hammer or steam hammer in fluid s#stems. several such conditions+ 7This listin" is not all inclusi e:
isted $elo" are
Suic2l# closing a valve to sto% a mass of fluid from flo"ing "ill cause %ressure "aves to $e transmitted through the s#stem causing mechanical shoc2. 5uring the closing of a valve( 2inetic energ# of the moving fluid is converted into %otential energ#. Elasticit# of the fluid and %i%e "all %roduces a "ave of %ositive %ressure 7"ave: $ac2 to"ard the fluidKs source. 'hen this "ave reaches the source( the mass of fluid "ill $e at rest( $ut under tremendous %ressure. The com%ressed li*uid and stretched %i%e "alls "ill no" start to release the li*uid in the %i%e $ac2 to the source and return to the static %ressure of the source. This release of energ# "ill form another %ressure "ave $ac2 to the valve. 'hen this shoc2"ave reaches the valve( due to the momentum of the fluid( the %i%e "all "ill $egin to contract. The momentum of a fluid a$ru%tl# sto%%ed must $e a$sor$edO. 9See Fi"ure 0D#0 Case 0/ Val e Huic(ly Closed: Suic2l# o%ening a valve to admit a fluid under %ressure to enter a virtuall# em%t# line. 9See Fi"ure 0D#4 Case 4/ Val e Huic(ly ,$ened :
1old condensate sitting in a steam line "ill cause the steam to colla%se and create a void into "hich a mass of fluid "ill $e dra"n via vacuum to high s%eed movement to"ard $ends( TKs( valves( e*ui%ment( etc. 9See Fi"ure 0D#1 Case 1/ Cold Condensate in Steam ?ine: -ot condensate sitting in a steam line "ill $e $lo"n $# the steam into collisions "ith $ends( TKs( valves( e*ui%ment( etc. A confined mass of incom%ressi$le li*uid moving at high s%eeds "ill create a high h#draulic %ressure "hen it stri2es $ends( TKs( valves( e*ui%ment( li2e $eing hit "ith a $o"ling $all at high s%eed. 9See Fi"ure 0D#5 Case 5/ Hot Condensate in Steam ?ine: 4oiling of a li*uid to create steam in a %i%eline "ill result in an eventual colla%se of the steam as tem%eratures and %ressures change. The colla%se "ill cause a void to $e created into "hich a mass of fluid "ill $e dra"n via vacuum to high s%eed movement. Increasing tem%erature( decreasing %ressure( or decreasing the amount of li*uid in the %i%ing 7"hich effectivel# decreases %ressure: 9See Fi"ure 0D#E Case E/ <oilin" of a Fluid in a ?i7uid System ?ine:
--The following pages illustrates each of the above five cases'--
(igure 0</A: Case 0 7al%e Cuickly Closed
Case 2: Conditions: Non-flowing Liquid under head pressure from pump, tank etc. Empty Line
(Fluid may or may not be flowing in this line)
Valve is opened quickly
Heavy liquid weighing 62.4 lbs per cubic foot rushes forward
With no liquid or pressure to hold it back it increases velocity
At vehicle speeds a slug of liquid hits the pipe bend and heads toward other bends and equipment
At what amounts to both vehicle speeds and vehicle weights it is not unusual for pipes to be bent, or ripped from their mounts when valves are opened too quickly.
(igure 0</A$ Case 2 7al%e Cuickly Opened
Wham!
(igure 0</?< Case 3: Cold Condensate in team -ine
(igure 0</?0 Case ": 4ot Condensate in team -ine
Case 9: =oiling / Introducing a gas into a li'uid system 'ater hammer can also result if high tem%erature s#stems are suddenl# de%ressuriAed( or *uic2l# heated allo"ing %ortions of the li*uid to flash to steam. This causes gas $u$$les to se%arate the continuous stream of li*uid into individual slugs that can collide "ith el$o"s and %roEections in the %i%ing. Ra%id $oiling ma# drive s#stem flo" $ac2"ard or ra%idl# for"ard and ma# allo" li*uids to move more freel# "ithin the %i%ing. A colla%se of the gas $u$$les can occur causing a Isteam void colla%seJ "ater hammer.
Gas Bubbles created in liquids by decreased pressure or by increased temperature. These gas bubbles accumulate in high areas
Warm Liquid
Warm Liquid
When a cooler liquid comes in contact the gas is collapsed and "vacuum draws" the incompressible liquid into piping components. Void Collapse
Wham!
Cooler Liquid Warmer Liquid
(igure 0</?2 Case 9: =oiling
Ca%itation
Ca%itation is a s%ecial isolated form of $oiling "ater hammer "hich causes enormous amounts of erosion( and is created $# m#riadKs of gas $u$$le im%losions. A gas is created "ithin a li*uid at a lo"= %ressure area and the $u$$les created are im%loded at a higher %ressure region. This usuall# is isolated "ithin a small area( $ut is ver# destructive. 1avitation is another form of induced $oiling in a s#stem( usuall# "ithin a %um% 5ue to+ 5ecreased &ressure( Increased Tem%erature( etc. 7Note+ The ,echanical Sciences fundamentals course treats cavitation from the %oint of vie" of the %um% and associated e*ui%ment. This course treats cavitation from the %oint of vie" of the fluid and o%erator actions on a fluid.:
Cavitation is caused by the formation of vapor bubbles in low pressure areas and their subsequent collapse in higher pressure regions.
1avitation occurs "hen the local %ressure in an el$o"( %i%e( or %um% falls $elo" the %ressure at "hich a li*uid "ill $egin to $oil0va%oriAe for the e)isting tem%erature. Usuall# this lo"est %ressure area of a s#stem is at the suction e#e of the %um%. 1avitation can cause severe damage to %um%s( %i%es( and other e*ui%ment and causes a reduction in flo" rate. 1avitation is $ased on the %rinci%le that the lo"er the %ressure a%%lied to a fluid( the lo"er the $oiling %oint. For e)am%le( at sea level "here the atmos%heric %ressure is .3.@ %si( "ater "ill $oil at /./ degrees F. -o"ever( at >000 feet a$ove sea level( "here atmos%heric %ressure is a%%ro)imatel# .<.> %si( "ater "ill $oil at /09 degrees F
Ca%itation in Centrifugal ;umps

'hen a li*uid $eing %um%ed enters the e#e of a centrifugal %um%( the %ressure is significantl# reduced. If the %ressure dro% is great enough( or if the tem%erature of the li*uid is high enough( the %ressure dro% ma# $e sufficient to cause the li*uid to $oil0va%oriAe. 'hen this occurs( the %um% is said to $e cavitating. 'hen it occurs( the $oiling is localiAed and continues as the li*uid and $u$$les leave the suction e#e. The $u$$les and the li*uid travel across the im%eller vanes and are su$Eected to increasing %ressure( "hich causes the $u$$les to colla%se violentl#. 7See Figure .0.C: . &um% cavitation is recogniAed $# e)cessive noise and vi$ration. 7Sounds li2e %um%ing roc2s.:
(igure 0</?3 Ca%itation in a Centrifugal ;ump
The violent im%losions of the $u$$les can cause su$stantial damage to the im%eller( the casing( and other internal %um% %arts. Even small amounts of cavitation can cause significant damage to a %um% over an e)tended %eriod of time. In addition( cavitation can cause a significant loss of %um% %erformance( $ecause the $oiling action %revents fluid from $eing %um%ed to the s#stem. The mechanical damage that cavitation can cause is attri$uted to the %eculiar "a# in "hich the $u$$les colla%se. As a $u$$le %rogresses through the colla%sing stage( its sha%e changes. From nearl# s%herical it $ecomes flattened on the u%stream surface( and $efore reaching critical siAe "here it $ursts( it assumes a sha%e resem$ling a ham$urger %att#. 'hen the $u$$le im%lodes it a%%ears to form a cone "ith a tin# central Eet into "hich the entire energ# of the $u$$le is concentrated. 7See figure .0.@.: This is similar in action to a Isha%ed chargeJ "hich creates an e)tremel# high %ressure over a ver# small area "henever the Eet hits a solid surface. The re$eated *lows of these colla$sin" *u**les will destroy any (nown en"ineerin" material% 9+ris(ell, 05D:
COLLAPSING BUBBLE
BA N G
Formed in Low Pressure
Compressed as pressure increases
Final Implosion
Focused Explosion
(igure 0</?" Ca%itation and the Collapsing =ubble
To %revent cavitation ( the %ressure conditions at the %um% suction head should $e closel# controlled. In most cases the fluid must enter the %um% suction e#e under %ositive %ressure to %revent cavitation. At this %oint( a condition called Net &ositive Suction -ead $ecomes ver# im%ortant.
Net ;ositi%e uction 4ead 5N; 46

The %ressure at the %um% suction e#e must $e greater than the %ressure at "hich cavitation "ill occur for the tem%erature of the fluid $eing %um%ed. N; 4 is the minimum positi%e suction pressure re'uired to pre%ent ca%itation# The re*uired N&S- is determined $# testing and s%ecified $# the %um% manufacturer. Suction %ressures greater than the re*uired N&S- %rovide a safet# margin against cavitation. ,an# factors are involved "ith the N&S-. Some of the more im%ortant include+ The %ositive %ressure $eing a%%lied due to the height of the fluid a$ove the %um% suction e#e. For e)am%le( storage tan2s "hich su%%l# the fluid to the %um% are normall# located high a$ove the %um%. Another source of %ositive %ressure $eing a%%lied to the fluid "ould $e due to factors such as atmos%heric %ressure or the su%%l# tan2 $eing %ressuriAed "ith nitrogen or steam. A negative or loss of %ressure to the %um% "ould $e due to fluid friction in the %i%ing. ,ost %lant s#stems are designed so that the la#out of the %um% suction %i%ing results in a minimum loss of %ressure due to short %i%ing length. As covered earlier( "e 2no" that for a given fluid at a certain tem%erature( the fluid "ill $oil 7va%oriAe: sooner at a lo"er %ressure than at a higher %ressure. If the tem%erature of the fluid $eing su%%lied to the %um% increases $e#ond normal limits or if %ressure dro%s( then cavitation is more li2el# to occur.
!!
Conditions Causing Ca%itation

&um% Runout. If the discharge %i%ing %ressure is far $elo" the %um%6s design %ressure( the %um% "ill drive the fluid a$ove its ma)imum flo" rate. This is a condition 2no"n as %um% runout. Figure .0.9 sho"s a s#stem e)%eriencing %um% runout.
(igure 0</?9 ;ump )unout &um% runout can occur due to misaligned s#stem valves or %i%e ru%tures "hich greatl# reduce the %ressure of the s#stem. As the %um% flo" rate increases( the %ressure at the suction e#e of the %um% decreases. If the %ressure at the suction e#e goes $elo" the re*uired %ressure 7N&S- re*.:( cavitation "ill occur.
o" Suction ine &ressure The %ressure e)isting at the %um% suction is due to the height of the li*uid a$ove the %um% suction and an# a%%lied %ressure to the s#stem 7such as a %ressuriAed e)%ansion tan2 or a $ooster %um%:. If the level of the li*uid decreases or the a%%lied %ressure decreases( the %ressure at the %um% suction e#e is reduced. If the %ressure at the %um% suction e#e goes below the re*uired N&S-( cavitation "ill result. Figure O0.8 sho"s a %um% cavitating as the result of lo" level in the su%%l# tan2.
(igure 0</?A -ow uction ;ressure
&ressure $elo" the minimum re*uired could occur also if a valve in the suction line is throttled 7%artiall# closed: or if the %um%ing ca%acit# of a %um% e)ceeds the amount of fluid $eing su%%lied to the %um% 7"hich GstarvesG the %um%:. -igher Than Normal Tem%erature. If the tem%erature of the li*uid $eing %um%ed is higher than normal( the fluid could $oil0va%oriAe "hen it enters the suction e#e. This could occur if the cooling "ater to a heat e)changer is lost or other conditions occur that cause s#stem fluid tem%eratures to rise.
8inimiFing +as (ormation in -i'uid ;iping ystems

To minimiAe gas formation in li*uid %i%ing s#stems the s#stem %ressure( tem%erature( and volume must $e maintained such that saturation conditions are not %resent an#"here in the %i%ing s#stem. Saturation conditions in a steam s#stem are %resent "hen a heated li*uid can flash to steam. The saturated condition can result in steam flashing "hen an# of the conditions occur+ a decrease in %ressure an increase in tem%erature a decrease in li*uid amount 7decreases %ressure: or an# com$ination of these
There are indications that can %ossi$le cavitation+ Sounds li2e roc2s $eing %um%ed through the s#stem. Fluctuating %ressures( motor currents( flo" rates( and E)cessive e*ui%ment vi$ration
To minimiAe 0 %revent cavitation+ Ensure s#stem lineu%s are correct to %revent e)cessive flo" rates. Ensure su%%l# tan2s and e)%ansion tan2s are at correct levels. Ensure %ressures a%%lied to e)%ansion tan2s are at correct values. Ensure %ro%er suction su%%l# and valve lineu%s. ,aintain tem%eratures "ithin e*ui%ment design s%ecifications.
Other ;ump ;roblems

In our discussion of fluid flo"( it is im%ortant to discuss different conditions that can affect %um% o%erations. RecogniAing and understanding various %ro$lems that can occur "hile o%erating %um%s can reduce trou$leshooting times and even aid in the diagnosis and correction of those %ro$lems %rior to com%onent damage and %rocess dela#s. Gas 4inding Gas $inding is the $uildu% of gas in a centrifugal %um%( resulting in a loss of %um% %erformance. It occurs "hen the %um% suction and0or casing accumulates enough gasses to %revent fluid from leaving the %um% decreasing flo" rate( and there$# decreasing overall s#stem %erformance. In addition( $ecause the fluid usuall# lu$ricates and cools the %um%6s internal %arts( fluid loss can result in serious %um% damage due to overheating.
S#m%toms of gas $inding include+ Fluctuation and sudden dro%=off of discharge %ressureD sudden or gradual silencing of normal %um% noiseD or a failure of discharge %ressure to increase at %um% start=u%. 1orrective action to %revent gas $inding includes+ ?enting and %riming the %um% %rior to start=u% or( if air $inding is sus%ected( carefull# venting the %um% casing. In addition( the e*ui%ment should %eriodicall# $e chec2ed for air lea2s. &ossi$le sources of air lea2s include ea2s on the suction side of the %um% in areas such as %i%ing Eoints( flanges( and gauge linesD casing lea2sD lea2s into the stuffing $o)D and inade*uate filling and0or venting of the %um% after maintenance. Shutoff head hutoff head or dead head is a condition in "hich a centrifugal %um% discharges into a %ressure e*ual to or greater than its ma)imum discharge %ressure. This means that there is no flo" from the %um%. This can $e caused $# an# condition "hich o%%oses or %revents flo" from the %um%( such as a shut or throttled %um% discharge valve( changed s#stem loads( or an im%ro%er valve line=u% do"nstream in the s#stem. 4ecause of their design( centrifugal %um%s can o%erate for short %eriods of time at a shutoff head condition. ong %eriods of o%eration( ho"ever( result in the fluid tem%erature increasing to the %oint "here $oiling and0or %um% damage "ill occur. &um%s re*uired to o%erate for long %eriods of time in this condition usuall# have a recirculation line installed to maintain %um% flo" . 'hen used( recirculation lines maintain continuous fluid flo"( even "hen a shut=off head condition e)ists. -o"ever( even "hen a recirculating line is %resent( an# unnecessar# shutoff head conditions should $e minimiAed.
;ossible )esults of @ater 4ammer

&revention Rule of Thum$ for All T#%es of 'ater -ammer+ Ne%er allow a li'uid into a gas filled systemL Ne%er allow a gas into a li'uid filled systemL
&i%eline Failure ,an# things ma# cause %i%eline failures other than "ater hammer( $ut "ater hammer ma# cause massive %i%eline failure. T"o t#%es of %i%eline failure are defined $elo"+ .ase + -*ipe 7ocket or *ipe Get i*uid is driven under %ressure at high velocit# through a %i%e $rea2 causing the %i%e to $rea2 its su%%orts and Eet in the o%%osite direction 7Figure .0=.0:. A Eet force e*ual and o%%osite to a "ater cannon force is created as a mass of heav# li*uid e)its from the %i%eline. The %i%e is initiall# held in %lace $# %i%e su%%orts( $ut as the Eet ta2es effect( the %i%e su%%ort s#stem ma# fail and allo" the %i%e to roc2et into and through "alls. 7Recall Ne"tonKs Third a" from %h#sics.: -ot condensate can heavil# damage e*ui%ment $# direct force and scald "or2ers. Steam can *uic2l# fill "or2 areas and once the slug of li*uid has $een discharged the "or2 area ma# $e e)%osed to live steam e)iting from the %i%eline.
Pipeline Failure Case A: Conditions: Quantity of high temperature liquid is forced under pressure at high velocity to exit from the end of a pipeline. (Water Cannon and Pipe Jet)
Steam Pipe Jet Force Water Cannon Force Hot Condensate
(igure 0</?? ;ipe )ocket G ;ipe Het
.ase 9 - *ipe Hhip i*uid is driven under %ressure at high velocit# through an unsecured %i%eline and( li2e the end of a garden hose( "hi%s a$out. 7Figure .0=..:. 'hen a %i%eline ru%tures at a "ea2 %oint( li2e the loose end of a garden hose suddenl# filled "ith "ater( the %i%eline ma# "hi% free of su%%orts and Eet a$out the facilit# crushing ever#thing in its %ath. Ru%tures ma# $e caused $# a "ater hammer( thermal stress( or other %h#sical shoc2 to the %i%ing s#stem.
&revention is the same as %revention of "ater 7and steam: hammer( $ut also includes I%ro%erl# su%%ortingJ and securing of %i%ing s#stems. 4ut "hat is I%ro%er su%%ortJH ,ost individuals thin2 that "elding a %i%eline to the $uilding structure is I%ro%er su%%ortJ. This is e)actl# "rongOO A rigid s#stem "ill $e far more li2el# to $rea2 under im%act than a s#stem that "ill allo" for movement. Earth*ua2e construction is "hat is needed here. A $uilding that can s"a# "ithout $rea2ing ma# ride out an earth*ua2e "hile a rigid structure "ill often $rea2. Seismic su%%orts( and e)%ansion Eoints that allo" movement can ma2e the difference $et"een containment and ru%ture.
(igure 0</?: ;ipe @hip
8ethods of @ater 5and team6 4ammerG ;ipe Het B ;ipe @hip ;re%ention
&ro%er filling and venting of li*uid filled s#stems+
All air must be removed

'ater hammer can occur if a closed loo% s#stem is im%ro%erl# filled and vented allo"ing air to remain in the s#stem. Normall#( the %ressure e)erted on "ater discharged from a %um% is transmitted e*uall# throughout the %i%ing s#stem 7disregarding head loss:( $ut "ith air introduced li*uids are free to move and $e driven or dra"n to"ard e*ui%ment at high s%eed. If a %um% is started on a %artiall# filled s#stem( the "ater leaving the %um% "ill undergo little resistance to flo" until it slams into a $end or com%onent in the %i%e. &ro%er valve o%eration+
Valves must be operated slowly

O%en valves slo"l# $# Icrac2ingJ o%en the seat Eust enough o%en the seal $et"een the seat and valve housing( "ait for %ressure to e*ualiAe( and then o%en the valve slo"l#. Use $#=%ass or e*ualiAing valves as a%%lica$le to e*ualiAe %ressures "here "ater hammer is a %otential. 1lose valves slo"l# and deli$eratel#( avoiding ra%id closure that could send an im%ulse surge 7"ave: of the %ressuriAed fluid from the closed valve to"ards the %ressure source. i*uid removal for gas filled s#stems
All condensation must be removed

'ater hammer "ill occur in steam flo" s#stems if "ater is allo"ed to accumulate in the %i%ing. This is es%eciall# a %ro$lem "hen steam lines are "armed too *uic2l# or if steam tra%s are clogged and fail to remove all condensation.
Pipelines are to be filled with either gas or liquid (never both) -- or are empty.
&i%ing s#stems are to $e su%%orted and strongl# secured to $uilding frame"or2 using shoc2 a$sor$ing %i%e hanger s#stems. Use of e)%anding %i%ing( e)%ansion Eoints and seismic hangers ma# ma2e the difference $et"een total disaster and an e)%ensive clean u%.
Chapter 0< ummary

@ater hammer is a %h#sical shoc2 to mechanical com%onents of a s#stem. 'ater hammer ma# $e created $# the follo"ing+ Suic2l# closing a valve Suic2l# o%ening a valve 1old condensate sitting in a steam line -ot condensate sitting in a steam line 4oiling of a li*uid to create steam in a %i%eline
via+ Increasing Tem%erature 5ecreasing &ressure 5ecreasing Amount of i*uid in container 7"hich effectivel# decreases %ressure = hot li*uid flashes to steam: @ater hammer may be pre%ented by: Removing all gas from li*uid s#stems = ?enting Removing all li*uid from gas s#stems = 5raining O%erating valves slo"l#( allo"ing time for %ressure to e*ualiAe Using $#%ass valves and e*ualiAing valves &ro%erl# aligning steam tra%s Ensuring correct %ressure X tem%erature are maintained so that $oiling %oint is not achieved 7At saturation tem%eratures and %ressures condensing to li*uid or flashing to steam ta2es %lace.: O%erating $oilers "ithin limits ,aintaining *ualit# "ater chemistr# %rogram and adhering to controls ;ipe whip is caused $# an $ro2en %i%eline( or an# o%ening in a %i%e containing a fluid under %ressure. This o%ening decreases the %ressure at one %oint in the s#stem sufficient to cause the %i%e to move the o%%osite direction from the o%ening( li2e a full $alloon $eing released from the hand. 7&i%e "hi% is one %ossi$le result of a "ater hammer.: &revention or decreasing damage due to %i%e Eet X %i%e "hi% ma# $e effected $# securing %i%ing s#stems to $uilding frame"or2 $# using 7mova$le: shoc2 a$sor$ing %i%e hangers and e)%ansion Eoints at vulnera$le %ositions. Rigid s#stems are to $e avoided.
Chapter $ ,nintended iphoning
This cha$ter discusses unintended si$honin" and system cross#connections in fluid systems
TO 00#<
!O ""." !O "".(
%#!&T%$C the conditions and prevention methods of a fluid siphon for a fluid system ST+T! the operating cause of a siphon and the re1uired conditions for its e,istence #!S.7%9! how to prevent siphoning in a fluid system
Introduction
IUnintendedJ si%honing and cross connections are al"a#s sur%rises and are therefore al"a#s un"elcome. -o"ever( during the course of follo"ing good o%erations %ractices it should $e noted that si%hons ma# intentionall# $e created( or s#stems ma# $e created to $e %ermanentl# cross connected. In some instances the e)%ense of creating non=cross connected s#stems is too high to $e feasi$le. An e)am%le of such a s#stem is the ventilation s#stems of nuclear facilities. ,aintaining a one="a# flo" is a method of controlling a ventilation s#stem. Recognition of the %otential dangers of a %ermanentl# cross=connected s#stem can hel% to 2ee% incidents from occurring. 7Note+ ,echanical Sciences "ill treat one "a# flo" methods in greater de%th.:
iphoning
A dictionar# definition for a siphon descri$es it as Ga $ent tu$e through "hich a fluid can $e dra"n over the edge of one container into a lo"er container $# means of air %ressure.J The tu$e must $e filled $# suction( 7a lo"er %ressure area than that of the li*uid:( $efore flo" "ill start. Si%hon action ta2es %lace $ecause of a %ressure difference $et"een one end of a tu$e or %i%e and the other. Another sim%le reason often given for si%hon action is that a li*uid al"a#s see2s the lo"est level. Si%hon action can $e com%ared to the sliding of a chain dra%ed over a smooth rod. 7See Figure ..=.:. If the chain is dra%ed so that its mid%oint is over the center of the rod and $oth ends hang at e*ual length it does not slide. 4ut if one end hangs lo"er than the other end( the longer and heavier end falls and %ulls the shorter end u%"ard and over the rod. The %ressure environment to "hich each tu$e end is e)%osed %ushes u%"ard on $oth ends of the tu$e 7%i%e: causing the li*uid column to $ecome a cohesive unit. 'hen the %ressure environments at each tu$e end differs from one another( one $ecomes the high %ressure I%ushJ "ith regards to the other and the li*uid in the tu$e is %ushed out. If 0 "hen the li*uid in the tu$e is voided( a vacuum 7suction: occurs and %ressure environment "ould immediatel# %ush more li*uid u% the tu$e to fill in the voidD thus flo" occurs. The %ath ma# $e irregular( and the Itu$eJ can $e a run of %i%ing or hose( $ut almost an# air tight %ath"a# $et"een containers has the %otential of $ecoming an unintended si%hon.
The operating cause of a syphon is: * difference in pressure between the two ends of the tube or pipe#
0 psi
-i 'u id
; re
ssure
2 psi 0"#? psi
0"#? psi 503#? psi total6
*tm osp ;r ess he ri c ure
502#? psi total6

-ower ;ressure *rea
(igure 00/?$ Example of a iphon 1onditions for a si%hon+ A si%hon needs more than a %i%ing connection $et"een reservoirs to function. All the follo"ing conditions must e)ist at the same time for a si%hon to occur+ 4eight of li'uid le%el is higher in sending container than recei%ing container
Tube or pipe must be airtight# 5no %ent6 Tube or pipe must be open throughout its length 7a lea2 ma# $e detected if a si%hon occurs: )ecei%ing reser%oir must ha%e space a%ailable or be open to the atmosphere 7i.e. $e vented:. Em%t# %i%ing can also act as a receiving reservoir. 'ith all of these conditions in %lace a si%hon ma# $e started unintentionall# $# sim%l# o%ening a valve or turning off a %um%. 1ontainers "ill continue to fill or em%t# and li*uid levels "ill rise or fall seemingl# "ithout e)%lanation.
-o" to %revent a si%hon from $eing created+ To sto% unintended si%honing the follo"ing are some general guidelines+ An effective air ga% allo"s li*uid flo" in onl# one direction and %revents si%honing. ,aintain the valves in a %i%ing run so the# do not lea2. O%en and close vents at the %ro%er time.
'hen there is a %h#sical %ath"a# $et"een t"o containers 7vessels: of fluids( and the conditions allo" the fluid to flo" in a reverse direction( a backflow of the fluid can result. The t#%es of $ac2flo" that can occur are+ =acksiphonage = occurs "hen the %ressure in su%%l# %i%ing is decreased $elo" the %ressure in receiving %i%ing. =ackpressure = occurs "hen the %rocess s#stem %ressure is increased a$ove the %ressure in the su%%l# s#stem. 4ac2flo" can occur through e)isting %i%ing or through tem%orar# hoses. -ere are some e)am%les+ 1orrosion of a tu$e "all in a heat e)changer. ea2ing valves Tem%orar# hose connection. Tem%orar# measures often $ecome %ermanent and can $#%ass safet# devices. &rocess li*uid in a container in contact "ith deliver# noAAles( faucets etc. O%ening or closing a valve at the "rong time. T"o t#%es of devices to %revent si%hons are as follo"s+ *ppro%ed air gap separation. 7Si) inches or more of air s%ace a$ove the highest %ossi$le fluid level.: This is recommended in e)tremel# haAardous situations and is considered the $est "a# to %rotect against creation of unintended cross connections. Faucets should $e %laced high enough that an# accumulated li*uid in a sin2 "ill not reach u% to the faucet to create a cross connection. This air ga% 2ee%s %rocess "ater from flo"ing $ac2"ards and from coming in contact "ith fresh "ater su%%lies. 8echanical de%ices+ Reduced &ressure &rinci%le 4ac2flo" 5evice 7R&45: 5ou$le 1hec2 ?alve Assem$l# 751?A: Atmos%heric ?acuum 4rea2er 7A?4: &ressure ?acuum 4rea2er 7&?4:
,PERATI,-S TRAI-I-. PR,.RAM Student .uide/ Fluid Flow Cha$ter 00/ @nintended Si$honin"
Chapter 00 ummary
Si%honing ta2es %lace $ecause "ater see2s a lo"er %otential energ# level. 'hen the conditions are set u% "hich "ill allo" it to flo" do"nhill it "ill move u%hill to get there. The o%erating cause of a si%hon is+ 5ifference in %ressure The conditions are+ -eight of li*uid level is higher in sending container than receiving container Tu$e or %i%e must $e air tight Tu$e or %i%e must $e o%en throughout its length Receiving container must have s%ace availa$le or $e o%en to the atmos%here Si%hons can not occur if fluid to fluid contact is not %ossi$le. An air ga% of si) 7C: inches or more air s%ace a$ove the highest %ossi$le fluid level is one method of controlling si%hons. Another 2ind of a anti=si%hon control measure is Imechanical devicesJ( Reduced &ressure &rinci%le 4ac2flo" 5evice 7R&45: 5ou$le 1hec2 ?alve Assem$l# 751?A: Atmos%heric ?acuum 4rea2er 7A?4: &ressure ?acuum 4rea2er 7&?4:

Fluid Flow Student Guide For Operations Training

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OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

(O) T)*ININ+ , E ON-.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

Chapter 2 Compression of (luids######################################################################################"9

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

Chapter 3 N*T,)*- CI)C,-*TION (-O@##############################################################93

Chapter " 7O-,8ET)IC *N1 8*

Chapter 9 T.;E O( (-O@############################################################################################??

Chapter A (O)8 O( ENE)+. BT4E +ENE)*- ENE)+. EC,*TION###########:0

ENE)+. CON7E) ION IN I1E*- (-,I1 . TE8 ##########################################$$

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

Chapter ? Energy Con%ersions in )eal (luid ystems##################################################0<?

Chapter : (luid (low 8easurement################################################################################090

@ater 4ammer and ;ipe @hip######################################################################################09$

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

Chapter $ ,nintended iphoning#####################################################################################0??

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

-ist of Terminal Ob&ecti%es:

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

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Chapter 0 INT)O1,CTION TO (-,I1

!O ".8 !O ".: !O ".; !O ".=

1ensity 5 6 and pecific 7olume 5 6

= Specific volume, ft3/lbm or m3/kg , etc.

= specific volume, ft3/lbm

Table 0/0 1ensities of Common 8aterials

1ensity 1ifferences for Non/8ixable 5Non/8iscible6 (luids

(igure 0/0 Example of non/miscible fluids

1 1 1 13.6 g cm 3 cm 3 g cm < " calculate its densit#.

. cm< 0.<@ " " = /.@0< < cm

SG = specific gravity of substance

= density of substance, lbm/ft3

Calculate the specific gra%ity of oil#

Calculate the specific gra%ity of mercury#

" cm < S. = " ..0 < cm

" cm < S. = " ..0 < cm .< .C

Calculate the specific gra%ity of ice#

l$m ft < S. = l$m C/.3 < ft >@ .3

SG = 0.92 Since this is less than 1 it will float.

Water (sea) 63.96 Table 0/2 1ensities of Common (luids

(igure 0/3 (orce %ersus ;ressure

500lbf 20 in 10 in lbf = 2.5 psi in2

500 lbf 2 in 10 in lbf = 25 psi in 2

.l$ f in4 = .2g m s/

$a*solute 2 $atm 8 $"a"e

O' R EF ER EN 1 E & R ESS UR E

(igure 0/9 Typical ;ressure +age

(igure 0/A -i'uid upported by *tmospheric ;ressure

. atm . atm . atm . atm

.3.@ %sia 309 in. of - / O /8.8/ in -g @C0 mm -g

. atm .0. . .0> &a Table 0/3 Common ;ressure ,nits

1onvert >0 in -g to in of -/O+ 50 in Hg 1 atm 29.92 in Hg 408 in H2O 1 atm

1onvert <00 torr to &ascals+ 300 torr 1 atm 760 torr

*bsolute, +age, and 7acuum ;ressure )elations

$a*solute 2 $atm 8 $"a"e

Absolute Pressure 19.7 psia 14.7 psia 0 psia

1 atm 14.7 psi

760 torr 1 atm

1 atm 408 in H2O

Chapter 3 NT,)- CI)C,-*TION (-O@##############################################################93

Chapter " 7O-,8ET)IC N1 8

Chapter A (O)8 O( ENE)+. BT4E +ENE)- ENE)+. EC,TION###########:0

Chapter 3 NT,)- CI)C,-*TION (-O@

Chapter " 7O-,8ET)IC N1 8