Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

CHAPTER 2

Nature of Materials
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Materials Concepts

!At equilibrium atoms !!specific atomic and molecular spacing !!dictated by the size and arrangement of atoms !Spacing varies changes in energy !! temperature !! mechanical (force) !Atoms arrangement (electron configuration) !! bonding mechanisms !! molecular structure !Bonding and structure of the atoms strongly influence strength and mechanical response

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Material Concepts-Bonding Energy

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Material Concepts - Bonds

1.! Primary Bond: forms when atoms interchange or share electrons in order to fill the outer (valence) shells like noble gases. Types:
a)! Ionic b)! Covalent c)! Metallic

2.! Secondary Bond: forms from an imbalanced electric charge among atomic arrangements.

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ionic Bond
Electrons transfer from one atom to another.

Na Na sodium atom

Cl Cl chlorine atom

Na

Cl

Na sodium Cl chlorine cation anion atom has atom has positive charge negative charge NaCl molecule

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Covalent Bond
Atoms share electrons to fill outer shells
!!Strength of the bond depends on the number of valence electrons needed (shared) to fill the subshell !!Materials with covalent bonds have good heat and electricity insulation properties
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Metallic Bond
!!Atoms share electrons with many neighboring atoms !!Atoms with few valence electrons like to join with many others !!Extremely strong and tight packing

- + -+ + - + + !!Electrons + - + - + + +!! free to move between atoms + - + -+ + - + !! good conductor of heat and electricity + + -+ + + - Electrons floating
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cations fixed in lattice structure

Secondary Bonds
!Dipolar electrostatic attraction and are much weaker than primary bonds. !!Dipolar molecules (e.g., H2O) are asymmetric and have one side positive while the other pole is negative. !!van der Waals force. !!Hydrogen bonds are a stronger type of secondary bond because hydrogen atoms easily form dipoles and can bond this way in chains with many other atoms.
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Materials Classification by Bond Type

! Metals !!metallic bonds between atoms with 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons !!steel, iron, aluminum, etc. ! Inorganic Solids !!covalent and ionic bonds between atoms with 5, 6, or 7 valence electrons !!Ceramics Portland cement concrete, bricks, diamond, glass, aggregates (rock) ! Organic Solids !!long molecules of covalent hydrogen-carbon molecules with secondary bonds between chains !!hydrocarbons !!asphalt, plastics, wood
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Metallic Materials
!Crystal Lattice Structure !!Lattice repeating pattern of atoms !!3-D geometric pattern !!Unit Cell smallest repeating unit !Grain Structure collection of unit cells

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3-D Lattice Structures

BCC

!14 possible 3-D lattice structures !Three common ones: !!body center cubic (BCC) !!face center cubic (FCC) !!hexagonal close pack (HCP) HCP
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

FCC

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Body Centered Cubic each corner center of lattice 9 atoms

Face Centered Cubic each corner center of faces 14 atoms

Hexagonal Close Pack each corner center top and bottom face center plane 17 atoms

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Equivalent Number of Atoms in Unit Cell

Nine atoms but corner atoms are shared BCC Number of equivalent atoms Center atom 1 Corner atoms 8x(1/8) 1 Total eq. atoms 2 Number of equivalent atoms BCC 2 FCC 4 HCP 6

Corner atoms shared with seven other cells Each corner atom contributes 1/8 to the equivalent atom count

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Atomic Packing Factor

!Volume of unit cell occupied by the atoms Vol of atoms in unit cell APF = Vol of unit cell FCC radius of atom: r Volume of atoms in unit cell, V
Va = n ! Vsphere

4 Vsphere = ! r 3 3

4 Va = n " ! r 3 3

4r

Volume of unit cell, Vc

a = 2 2 !r
Vc = 2 2 ! r

Length of side, a No. eq. atoms, FCC n=4

n! 4 " r3 3 APF = = 0.74 3 2 2!r

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Density
nA != Vc N A
Where, !!! = density !!n = number of equivalent atoms in unit cell !!A = atomic mass (gram/mole) !!Vc = volume of unit cell !!NA = Avogadros number (6.023 x 1023 atoms/mole)
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Imperfect World
!Perfect lattice structures only exist under ideal conditions and small quantities of material. !Defects
!!Point !!Line !!Area !!Volume

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Point Defects in Crystalline Structure

Self interstitial

Interstitial impurity atom Substitutional impurity atom Vacancy

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Line Defects

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Plastic Deformations Along a Slip Plane

Shear stresses

Shear stresses

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Grain Development

As molten metal cools Grain Boundaries atoms loose energy and form together into lattice structures. Multiple nuclei develop creating grains.

1. Perfect grain growth 2. Grain starts at a new nuclei 3. Grains grow together with perfect alignment (coherent boundary) 4. Grains grow together with imperfect alignment (coherent strain boundary) 5. Grains grow together with imperfect alignment (semicoherent boundary) 6. Grains grow together with skewed alignment (incoherent boundary)
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

!Influence of flaws and slip planes on mechanical properties

!!Flaws & defects are weak spots, reducing toughness !!Grain boundaries act as crack inhibitors, increasing toughness

!The size and arrangement of crystal grains influence the material behavior
!!This mainly depends on the rate of cooling of the molten metal !!Smaller grains are formed by rapid cooling and increase toughness

!Both heat treating and plastic strains during manufacturing change grain structure
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Alloys
Alloys have one or more compounds dissolved in a metal
!!Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon but frequently contains chromium, copper, nickel, phosphorous, etc.

!This is only possible if the different materials have compatible crystal structures !Interstitial atoms fit between the metal atoms
!!Must have an atomic radius less than 60% of the host metal !!Can dissolve only about 6% into the host

!Substitutional atoms take the place of host atoms in the lattice

!!If the atoms are similar enough, the compounds can mix easily
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

!To have complete miscibility, the two alloying agents must be similar enough that the crystal lattice doesnt strain too much. !Hume-Rothery Rules: to have complete miscibility (limitless solubility), the elements must have the following characteristics: 1. Less than 15% difference in atomic radius 2. Same crystal structure 3. Similar electronegatives (ability of electron attraction) 4. Same valence
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Phase Diagrams
Also known as equilibrium diagram !Phase: liquid & solid states of a material !Phase diagram displays relationship between percent of elements & transition temperatures !Phase diagrams for soluble, insoluble, or partially soluble materials

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Phase Diagram Soluble Materials

Percent weight of material A
100 100 PlA 75 75 50 50 PA PsA 25 25 0 0

Liquid Liquidius
Temperature

State point combination of temperature and material composition Tie line horizontal line drawn through the state point Vertical projection of the intersection of the tie line and liquidus identifies the percent of the liquid that is material A or B. Similar for tie line-solidus vertical projection.
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Liquid + Solid

Melting point B

MeltingSolidius point State point A

PlB 0 0 25 25 PB 50 50 P sA

Tie line

Solid
75 75 100 100

Percent weight of material B

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Phase Diagram Soluble Materials

Percent weight of material A Percent weight of material A
100 100 PlA 75 75

Given:
0 0

Determine:

6050 50

25 25 PsA

Liquid
Temperature

PA

Liquidius

Liquid + Solid

Solidius
PlB 0 0 25 25 PB 50 50 P sA

Solid
75 75 100 100

20 weight 40 70 B Percent of material

Percent weight of material B

mt = 100g ml pB = 40% ms plB = 20% psB = 70% Solution: ml + ms = 100g 20ml +70ms = 40x100g 1/20(20ml +70ms) = 1/20(40x100) ml + 3.5ms = 200 -(ml + ms) = -100 2.5ms = 100 g ms = 40 g, m1 = 60 g
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Insoluble materials
Percent weight of material A
100 75 50 25 0

Liquid
Temperature

Liquidus Liquid +B

Liquid +A Solidus
0 25

Projecting a tie to line in the Liquid + Similar regions phase diagram B area shows that the solid material for soluble materials. is composed of 100% B. The solid is composed of particles of materials A and B since these materials are insoluble. Eutectic Sudden transition from liquid to solid without a two phase region. ! point ! composition ! isotherm
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Solid A+B
50 75 100

Percent weight of material B

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Partially Soluble
Liquid Temperature Liquidus
Liquid+$# Liquid+"#

$#

"#

$ and " are solid solutions of the A and B materials. The materials are partially soluble.# $ is solid, predominately A material with some B material. # State point, tie line, and lever rules for determining composition still apply.
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Solidus Solubility $+"# limit Composition

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Eutectoid Reaction
Liquid Temperature %#
Liquid+%# Liquid+"#

Liquidus Solidus Solid region "# Solid state transformation of material, $"% depending on temperature

Eutectoid point
Eutectoid composition Eutectoid temperature

$#

$+%#

%+"# $+"# Composition

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Inorganic Solids
!Ceramics very well defined unit cell producing
!!High strength !!High durability !!brittle materials like diamond

Silicate tetrahedron

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Classes of Inorganic Solids

1. Glasses !!based on silica and have a random or amorphous but very stable crystalline structure 2. Vitreous Ceramics !!clay products like pottery, bricks, etc. 3. High-Performance Ceramics !!expensive, highly refined materials specially developed to have very specific properties 4. Cement & Concrete 5. Rocks & Minerals
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2.4 Organic Solids

!Most polymers are long molecular chains of carbon and hydrogen !Mechanical properties depend on !!polymer chain length !!the extent of cross-linking !!type of radical compounds linked to the H-C

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Classes of Organic Compounds

Thermoplastics Transition from elastic to viscous plastic behavior when heated as the crosslink bonds between chains melt Chemical reaction to harden stable cross-links that dont soften when heated Limited cross-linking flexible structure Asphalt PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, Teflon (PTFE) used for pipes, tubing, bottles, electrical insulation Epoxy, polyesters, and phenolformaldehyde used as glues, reinforcing fibers, and Formica Polyisoprene (natural rubber), polybutadiene (synthetic rubber), polychloroprene (Neoprene wood

Thermosets

Elastomers or Rubbers Natural Polymers

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Polymer Basics
!Mer The repeating unit in a polymer chain !Monomer A single mer-unit (n=1) !Polymer Many mer-units along a chain (n=103 or more) !Degree of Polymerization average number of mer-units in a chain.
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Polymer Structures
Activated polymer Polymer Isotactic
one side

Terminator Radical or side chain

Sindiotactic
alternating

Atactic
random

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Polymer Chain Structure

Ordered structure linear polymer

Cross linked structure linear polymer

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Melting Point and Glass Transition Temperature

Volume liquid
crystalline state

Tm Temperature

Volume

Well defined melting point (crystalline material)

Glass transition temperature

Liquid Rubbery Glassy Free Volume

Volume

Tm Temperature

Poorly defined melting point (amorphous material)

Tg

Tm

Temperature

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Covalent Bond Effect on Stiffness

1000 Elastic modulus, GPa
100% Covalent

100

Drawn fibers and film (drawn PE, nylon, kevlar) Cross-linked polymers (epoxies, polyesters)

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Noncross-linked polymers (plexiglass) Simple hydrocarbons

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Fraction of covalent bonds

Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Advanced Construction Materials

!High strength, light alloys !High performance concrete !Fiber reinforced polymers !Structural laminate systems !Fiber optics !Nano-technology !Utilization of waste materials
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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