Study Material For B.tech

Karnataka State Open University
Study Material for B.Tech

Mathematics - Code - BTC 11
by
K.S. Srinivasa
Retd. Principal & Professor of Mathematics Bangalore
Published by
Sharada Vikas Trust (R)

Bangalore
BTC 11 MATHEMATICS
Syllabus
1. Complex Trigonometry
Revision of Plane Trigonometry - trigonometric ratios, expressions for relation between allied angles and trigonometrical ratios. Addition formulae for trigonometrical ratios and simple problems. Complex numbers and functions, definition, properties, De Moivre's Theorem (without proof), Roots of a complex number, expansions of sin ( n ), cos ( n ) in powers of sin & cos , addition formulae for any number of angles, simple problems.
2. Matrix Theory :
Review of the fundamentals. Solution of linear equations by Cramers' Rule and by Matrix method, Eigen values and Eigen vectors, Cayley Hamilton's Theorem, Diagonalization of matrices, simple problems.
3. Algebraic Structures
Definition of a group, properties of groups, sub groups, permutation groups, simple problems, scalars & vectors, algebra of vectors, scalar & vector products, scalar triple product, simple problems.
4. Differential Calculus
Limits, continuity and differentiability (definition only), standard derivatives, rules for differentiation, derivatives of function of a function and parametric functions, problems. Successive differentiation, nt hderivative of standard functions, statement of Leibnitz's Theorem, problems, polar forms, angle between the radius vector and the tangent to a polar curve, (no derivation) angle between curves, pedal equation, simple problems, indeterminate forms, L' Hospital's rule, partial derivatives, definition and simple problems.
5. Integral Calculus
Introduction, standard integrals, integration by substitution and by parts, integration of rational, irrational and trigonometric functions, definite integrals, properties (no proof), simple problems, reduction formulae and simple problems.
6. Differential Equations of first order

Introduction, solution by separation of variables, homogeneous equations, reducible to homogeneous linear equation, Bernoulli's equation, exact differential equations and simple problems.
Text Books
1. 2. Elementary Engineering Mathematics by Dr. B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publications Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publications
Reference Books
1. 2. 3. Differential Calculus by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co. Integral Calculus by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co. Modern Abstract Algebra by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
CONTENTS
Page Nos. 1. Complex Trigonometry 2. Matrix Theory 3. Algebraic Structures 4. Differential Calculus 5. Integral Calculus 6. Differential Equations 01 27 47 69 101 123
COMPLEX TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometric ratios of acute angles
BC = . The side AC Consider a right-angled triangle ABC, right angled at C. Let A opposite to angle is called opposite side. The side BC is called adjacent side. The side AB is hypotenuse.
The ratio
opposite side hypotenuse
ie
AC AB
is defined as sine of
& written as sin .
The ratio
adjacent side hypotenuse
ie
BC AB
is defined as cosine of
& written as cos . 90 BC
The ratio
opposite side adjacent side
ie
AC BC
is defined as tangent of
& written as tan .
It can be seen by the above definition that sin tan =

cos 1 sin AB AC ie AB BC
The reciprocal of sin ie
ie
is defined as cosecant of
and written as cosec .
The reciprocal of cos ie
1 cos
is defined as secant of
and written as sec .
The Reciprocal of tan ie
BC AC
is defined as cotangent of
and written as cot .
Identities:- (1) sin (2) sec
2 2
+ cos
=1
2 2
= 1 + tan
2
(3) cosec
= 1 + cot
Proof:- From the right angled triangle ABC AC2 + BC2 = AB2
divide by AB 2 ,we have AC 2 AB
2
BC 2 AB 2
=1
ie sin
+ cos
=1
divide by BC 2 ,we have
AC 2 BC
2
+1 =
AB 2 BC 2
ie tan
+ 1 = sec
divide by AC 2 ,then
1+
BC 2 AC
2
AB 2 AC 2
ie 1 + cot
= cosec
Trigonometric ratios of 30 & 60

Consider an equilateral triangle of side 2 units AB = BC = AC = 2. Draw AD
r
to BC , then BD = DC = 1. Then in the
triangle ABD , A DB = 90 , A BD = 60 & BAD = 30 , further AD2 = AB2 BD2 = 4 1 = 3,
AD =
2 KSOU Complex Trigonometry In the triangle ABD

take A BD
A sin 60 = AD AB
BD AB
3 2
1 2
30
cos 60 =
22
AD 3 tan60 = = BD 1
also cosec 60 = 2 3 take 2 B AD sin 30 = BD AB = 1 , sec 60 = 2 & cot 60 = 1 3
60 BDC
90 11
cos 30 =
AD 3 = AB 2
BD AD = 1 3 3
tan 30 =
also cosec 30 = 2, sec 30 =
2 3
& cot 30 =
From the above results, it can seen that sin60 = cos30, cos60 = sin30 and tan60 = cot30.
Trigonometric ratios of 45
Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC where A CB = 90

A B C = 45 = B AC
Let AC = BC = 1 unit then AB = \

sin 45 = AC AB cos 45 = BC AB tan 45 = also, cosec45 = AC BC = 1 1 2 , sec 45 = = = 1 2 1 2 =1
2 units 2
2 and cot 45 = 1
Note :-
Trigonometric ratios of 30, 45 and 60 are called Standard Trigonometric ratios which are always useful, hence these values have to be always remembered.
Trigonometric ratios of any angle (from 0
to 360 )
Let XOX'& YOY' be co-ordinate axes where O is the origin. Consider a circle of radius r with centre O. Let P be any point on the cirlce whose co-ordinates are ( x, y ). Draw PM perpendicular to OX .
BTC11 Then OM = x & PM = y

Let M O P = sin = y r also cosec = r y , sec = , cos = x r r x , cot = , tan = y x x y
(, +) (+, +) y X' X x O (, ) (+, ) M
P (x,y )
When M , OP satisfy 0 < < 90 the print P will be in first quadrant of the circle, when it satisfy 90 < < 180, P will in second quadrant, when 180 < < 270, P will be in third quadrant & finally when 270 < < 360 the point P will be in fourth quadrant, because of these positions, signs of the Trigonometric ratios changes. In the I quadrant both x & y are +ve and r is always +ve. Therefore sin , cos & tan are +ve, their reciprocals are also +ve. In the II quadrant x is ve, yis +ve Therefore sin & cosec are +ve cos , tan , sec & cot are ve.
Y'
In the III quadrant bothx & y are ve Therefore, tan & cot are +ve and sin , cos , cosec & sec are ve. In the IV quadrant x is +ve & y is ve Therefore, cos & sec are +ve and sin , tan , cosec & cot are ve. Note :The signs of the trigonometric ratios can be easily remembered with the help of the following diagram
Sine is +ve All are +ve
SA
in short
TC
tan is +ve cos is +ve
Trigonometric ratios of angles 0 (can be called border angles).
, 90 , 180 , 270 and 360

y x OM
Let M O P be an angle whose measure is very close to zero (as in fig. 1) As \ 0, y

sin 0 = 0 r
0, x
=0
fig.1
4 KSOU Complex Trigonometry P

=1
cos 0 =
r r
tan 0 =
0 r
=0
O Mx If M , OP is very close to 90 as in fig. 2. As \ 9 0, x

sin 90 = r r cos 90 = 0 r r 0 =0
0, y
=1
fig.2
tan 90 =
=8
P y
If is very close to 180 as in fig. 3 As \ 180 , x

sin 180 = 0 r cos 180 = - r r tan 180 = 0 r =0 = -1
- r, y
=0
fig.3
If is very close to 270 as in fig. 4 As \ 270 , 0x

sin 270 = - r r cos 270 = 0 r tan 270 = - r 0 = -8 =0
, y
= -1
-r
M x y r O
P fig.4
If is very close to 360 as in fig. 5

When 360 , x sin 360 = 0 r cos 360 = r r tan 360 = 0 r =0 =1 =0 r, y 0
x r
M y P
fig.5
BTC11 Thus we have the following

sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1, tan 0 = 0 sin 90 = 1, cos 90 = 0 , tan 90 = 8 sin 180 = 0 , cos 180 = - 1, tan 180 = 0 sin 270 = - 1, cos 270 = 0 , tan 270 = -8 sin 360 = 0, cos 360 = 1, tan 360 = 0
Note :- From the above derivations it can be seen that the values of sin & cos always be between 1 & 1. Whereas the value of tan will be between -8 & 8 and hence the graphs of the trigonometric functions y = sin x, y = cos x & y = tan x are as follows.
y = sin x
Ox
90 270 180 360
fig.6
y = cos x
Ox
90 270 180 360
fig.7 y = tan x
Ox
90 270180 360
fig.8
6 KSOU Complex Trigonometry
Rules for allied angles

sin( 90 cos( 90 tan( 90 ) = cos ) = sin ) = cot sin( 270 cos( 270 tan( 270 sin( 270 + cos( 270 + ) = - cos ) = - sin ) = cot ) = - cos ) = sin
sin( 90 + ) = cos cos( 90 + ) = - sin tan( 90 + ) = - cot sin( 180 cos( 180 tan( 180 sin( 180 + ) = sin ) = - cos ) = - tan ) = - sin
tan( 270 + ) = - cot sin( 360 cos( 360 tan( 360 sin( 360 + ) = - sin ) = cos ) = - tan ) = sin
cos( 180 + ) = - cos tan( 180 + ) = tan
cos( 360 + ) = cos tan( 360 + ) = tan
Using the Trigonometric ratios of standard angles 30, 45 & 60 and using the above rules for allied angles, we can find the trigonometric ratios of other angles as follows. Eg.1 2sin 120 = sin(90 + 30 ) = cos 30 = 3
or s 2 in120 = sin(180 - 60 ) = sin 60 =
Eg.2 2cos 150 = cos( 90 + 60) = - sin 60 = -
or c 2os 150 = cos(180 - 30 ) = - cos 30 = 1 2
Eg.3 sin 315 = sin( 360 - 45 ) = - sin 45 = -
or sin 315 = sin( 270 + 45 ) = - cos 45 = -
1 2
Radian Measure
Consider a circle of radius r with centre O . Let AB be a arc such that arc AB = r . Measure of the A O B is called a 'radian' denoted as 1C . O
rr 1 radian r A
To prove that radian is a Constant angle

Consider a circle of radius r with centre O . Let arc AB = r so that A O B is 1 radian. Let C be a point on the circle such that AO C = 90 . Since the angle subtended at the centre of a circle is proportional to the corresponding arc.
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 7

AO B AOC 1 radian 90 arc AB arc AC = r 1 4 1 = Q AC = Circumfere nce 4 1 4 (2 p r ) = 2
C B r r A
p O
( 2p r )
p radians = 180
ie p = 180 imp. result.
p
2
= 90 ,
p
4
= 45 ,
p
3
= 60 ,
p
6
= 30 .
Using the relation p = 180 measurement of an angle in degrees can be converted to radians and vice-versa. Eg. (1) Qn. : Convert 40 to radians
Solution : 40 = 40
p
180
2p 9
radius
Eg. (2) Qn. : Convert

2p 3 180
2p 3
radians in to degrees
Solution :
= 120
Some Problems
1. Show that (1 + cot A)2 + (1 - cot A)2 = 2 cosec 2 A
Solution : LHS = 1 + cot 2 2 A + 2 cot A + 1 + cot 2 A = 2 cot +2
2
cot A
= 2(1 + cot2 A) = 2 cosec 2 A = RHS. 2. Show that

1 + sin 4 A 1 - sin A 1 - sin A 1 + sin A = sec A tan A
Solution : LHS =
(1 + sin A)2 - (1 - sin A)2 (1 - sin A)(1 + sin A)

=
(taking LCM)
(1+ sin 2 A + 2 sin A ) - (1 + sin 2 A - 2 sin A ) 1 - sin 2 A 1 + sin 2 A + 2 sin A - 1 - sin 2 A + 2 sin A cos 2 A 4 sin A cos 2 A =4 1 sin A cos A cos A
= 4 sec A tan A = RHS
3. If sec
A+ tan A = a , then prove that

a2 - 1 a2 = +1
a2 - 1 a2 + 1
= sin A
Solution : LHS =
sec 2 A + tan 2 A + 2 sec A tan A - 1 sec 2 A + tan 2 A + 2 sec A tan A + 1
sec 2 A - 1 + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A sec 2 A + tan 2 A + 1 + 2 sec A tan A
2 tan 2 A + 2 sec A tan A 2 sec 2 A + 2 sec A tan A
(using the identity)
2 tan A( tan A + sec A) 2sec A (sec A + tan A )
tan A sec A
sin A cos A
cos A 1
= sin A = RHS
4. If
sin 5 =
, find the value of 4 5
sin tan
+ cos - cot
Solution : If sin
then opposite side is 4 hypotenusis 5.

3 5 4 3
adjacent side =
25 - 16 = 4 3
9 =3
cos
& tan
sin tan
+ cos - cot
+ -
= 5 4 3
7 5 = 5 = 12 3 7 5 4 12
5. If
tan
=-
3 4
p
2
<
< p find
5 cos 8sec
+ 8 tan - 3 cosec
Solution : Since
sin = 3 5
lies in II Quadrant sine is +ve cosine & tangant are ve.

and cos =4 5 4 5 8 5 4 - 3 3 4 5 3
5 5 cos 8sec + 8 tan - 3 cosec =
+8
- 4- 6 - 10 - 5
10 15
2 3
6. Prove that
tan(180 sec + ) sec( 180 sec( 360 ) cot( 90 + ) cosec (90 + ) ) sin( 90 ) =
2
Solution sec : LHS =
tan (- sec sec
) sec
( - tan ) cos
7. Prove that
sin( p + ) cos( 2p tan +p 2 (- sin cot + 3p 2 ) cos tan ) ) cot -p 2 sin( - ) = sin
Solution : LHS =
( - cot ( - tan )( - sin = cos = cos tan sin cos = sin
= RHS
Addition Formulae
sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B tan( A + B ) = tan A + tan B 1 - tan A tan B
replacing Bby B
sin( A - B ) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B cos( A - B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B tan( A - B ) = tan A - tan B 1 + tan A tan B
Using the above formulae we can find the trigonometric ratios of 15, 75, 105 etc.
sin 75 = sin( 45 + 30 ) = sin 45 sin cos 30 + cos 45 30
2 =
1 2
3 1 1 3 +1 + = 2 2 2 2
cos 75 = cos( 45 + 30 ) = cos 45 sin cos 30 - sin 45 30
2 =
1 2
3 1 1 3-1 = 2 2 2 2
tan75 =
sin 75 3 +1 = cos 75 3-1
sin 15 = sin( 45 - 30 ) = sin 45 sin cos 30 - cos 45 30
2 =
1 2
3 1 1 3-1 2= 2 2 2
cos 15 = cos( 45 - 30 ) = cos 45 sin cos 30 + sin 45 30
2 =
1 2
3 2
1 2
2=
3 +1 2
tan15 =
sin15 = cos 15
3- 1 3 +1
sin 105 = sin( 60 + 45 ) = sin 60 sin cos 45 + cos 60 45
2 =
3 1 1 1 3 +1 + 2= 2 2 2 2
cos 105 = cos( 60 + 45 ) = cos 60 sin sin 45 - sin 60 45
2 =
1 1 3 1 1 2= 2 2 2 2 3 +1 13
tan105 =
Alternate method
sin 15 cos = sin( 90 - 75 ) = 75
3 -1 2 2
cos 15 sin = cos( 90 - 75 ) =
75
3 +1 2 2
sin 105 sin = sin( 180 - 75 ) =
75
3 +1 2 2
cos 105 cos = cos( 180 - 75 ) = -
75
() 3-1
2 2
1-
2 2
To find sin2
, cos2
& tan2 .
sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
put A =
sin 2
=B
cos cos + cos sin
= sin = 2 sin
cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
put A = B =
cos 2 = cos = cos 2 cos - sin sin
- sin 2
2
using cos sin2

cos 2
= 1= 2 cos 2
- 1
2
also using sin cos 2
= 12
cos 2 sin = 1- 2 tan( A + B ) =
tan A + tan B 1 - tan A tan B
put A =
tan 2 = tan 1 - tan = 2 tan 1 - tan 2
=B
+ tan tan
To find sin3
sin 3
, cos3
& tan3
= sin( 2 + ) = sin 2 2 cos + cos sin
= 2 sin cos cos + (1 - 2 sin2 = 2 sin sin (1 - sin2

= 2 sin = 3 sin cos 3 - 2 sin 3 - 4 ) - sin sin
3
)sin
3
) + sin - 2
+ sin - 2
3
= cos( 2 + = cos 2 2 cos
= (2 cos 2 = 2 cos 3
= 2 cos 3 = 4 cos 3 3
- 1) cos - 2 sin 2 - cos - 2 (1 - cos 2

- cos cos - 2 cos + 2
cos )cos
3
tan 3
= tan( 2 + ) = tan 2 + tan
1 - tan 2 tan
2 tan = 1- tan2 2 tan 11 - tan2
+ tan tan
2 tan + tan (1 - tan2 ) = 1 - tan2 1 - tan2 - 2 tan2 (1 - tan2

= 2 tan + tan 1 - 3 tan 2 = 3 tan - tan 3
- tan 3
1 - 3 tan2
Thus we have,
sin 2 2 = sin cos 2
cos 2 sin = cos 2 tan 2 = 2 tan
= 2 cos sin 2
- 1 =1- 2
1 - tan 2 sin 3 sin = 3 sin cos 3 = 4 cos 3 3 tan - 4 3
cos
tan 3
- tan3
1 - 3 tan 2
Problems
1. Show that
sin 3 A sin A cos 3 A cos A =2 4 cos 3 A cos A
Solution : LHS =
3sin 3 A - 4 sin 3 A sin A
cos A
= 3 - 4sin 2 A - 4 cos 2 A + 3
= 6 - 4(sin 2 A + cos 2 A
= 6 - 4 = 2 = RHS
2. If
cos A =
2 3
find sin2 A& cos3 A.

2 3 9- 4 3 5 3
Solution : Given cos A =
, sin A =
sin 2 A = cos 3 3 A = 4 cos 3 A = 4 8 27 sin 2 A = 4 5 9 - 3
sin A cos A = 2 cos A 2 3 = 32 27 - 22 27 - 2 =
5 3
2 3
4 5 9
32 - 54 27
- 22 27
& cos 3 A =
3. Prove that
1 + sin 2 1 - sin 2 Solution : LHS = 1 + 2sin 1 - 2 sin (cos (cos = cos cos = cos cos )2 )2
2
= tan 2 ( 45 + )
+ sin - sin + sin - sin

2
(dividing Nr & Dr inside the bracket by cos
1 + tan 1 - tan
= tan( 45 +
) = RHS
4. Prove that
1 - cos 1 + cos
= tan2 2
and hence prove that 3 tan15 = 2 -
Solution :
1 - cos 1 + cos
1- 1 = -
2 sin 2 2
using cos2 A formula
1 + 2 cos 2
1 - 1 + 2 sin 2 = 1 + 2 cos 2 2 1 - cos 1 + cos = tan 2
2 = - 1
2 sin 2 2 cos 2
2 2
= tan 2 2
2 3 2 1+ 3 2 = 22+ 3 3
put
= 30 . tan 2 15 =
1 - cos 30 1 + cos 30
1=
()() - 3 ()() 2+ 3
2 3
22-
3 3
2-
()() 3
4-3
= 2-
tan 2
=2-
Complex Number
Definition :A number of the form x + iy where x
R, y R & i= - 1 is defined as a Complex Number and usually denoted
as Z. xis called Real part & y is called Imaginary part. x iy is called Conjugate. Complex number denoted as . Z A or z complex number can be represented by a point on a plane by taking real part on x -axis & imaginary part ony-axis. The plane on which complex numbers are represented is called a Complex Plane. For every point in a plane there is a complex number & for every complex number there is a point in the plane. In a complex x-axis is called Real axis & y-axis Imaginary axis.
Properties
(1) (2) Equality. Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 are said to be equal if x1 = x2 , y1 = y2 Addition. If z = x + iy , z = x + iy 1 1 1 2 2 2
z +z
1 2
= ( x + x ) + i( y + y )
1 2 1 2
(3) (4)
Subtraction. z1 - z 2 = ( x - x2 ) + i ( y1 - y 2 ) 1 Multiplication. z z = ( x + iy )( x + iy ) 1 2 1 1 2 2 =x x + ix2 y1 + ix1 y2 + i2 y1 y2 1 2

2 =x 1 x 2 - y1 y2 + i ( x 1 y2 + x2 y1 ) Q i = - 1
Note : i = z
- 1, i 2 = - 1, i3 = - i , i 4 = 1 etc ( x + iy )
1 1
(5)
Division.
z2
( x2 + iy 2 )
2 2
multiply numerator & denominator by the conjugate of x + iy ie

z
1
x iy , then
2 2
( x + iy )( x - iy )
1 1 2 2
z2
( x2 + iy 2 )( x2 - iy 2 ) = x x + y y + i (x y - x y )
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2
x2 + y 2
2 2
x x +y y
1 2 1 2 x2
+i
x y - x y
2 1 1 2 2 x2 + y2
2 y2
which is a complex number. Note :- Product of a complex number with its conjugate is always a positive real number. ie z z = ( x + iy)( x - iy ) = x2 + y2 & z + z = 2 x, z - z = 2 iy
x= z+ z 2 & y = z- z 2i
Polar form the complex number

z = x + iy is called the Cartesian form. Let P( x, y ) be any point in the plane which represents a complex number. Draw PM OP = r. From the triangle OPM ,
r
P (x, y ) ry OxM x &
to x -axis & join PM . Then OM = x , MP = y . Let M OP =

OM OP sin = PM OP = x y y r + ir sin = r (cos + i sin ) y = r sin
cos
x = r cos
z = x + iy = r cos
This form of the complex number is called 'Polar form'. Where r is called Modulus & given by
r = x2 + y 2 & = tan - 1 y x
is called argument which are
r is always positive and argument varies from 0 to 360. The value of argument satisfying p < as amplitude which is unique for a complex number. Thus we have
Mod. z = z = r = arg z = tan - 1 y x while finding the amplitude of a complex number, we have to find satisfying ie cos = x y and sin = y x2 + y 2
= p is defined
and amp. z =
where p <
=p
Examples
1. Express
2 + 3i 1+ i 2 + 3i 1+i = =
in the form x + iy 2 + 3 i - 2 i - 3i2 1 +1

= 5 2 +i 1 2
Solution :
( 2 + 3i )(1 - i ) (1 + i )(1 - i ) 2 +i +3 2 =
5+ i 2
2. Express
(1 + i ) 2 3- i
in the form x + iy
Solution :
(1 + i )2 1 + i2 + 2i 2i (3 1+ i ) = = (using i 2 = - ) 3- i (3 - i ) (3 - i )( 3 + i )
= 6 i + 2i2 9+1 = - 2 + 6i 10 = - 2 10 + 6i 10 = 1 5 + 3i 5
3. Find the modulus and amplitude of 1 +

Solution : z = r = cos = x r Modulus = 1 2 is x2 + y 2 = and sin = 1+1 = y r = 1 2 2
i.
= 45 =
p
4
2 and amplitude is
p
4
4. Find the modulus & amplitude of

Solution : z = 3+ 1 = 4 = 2
3+i
cos = sin =
2 1 2
3 = 5p 6
Modulus is 2 & amplitude is
5p 6
5. Find the modulus & amplitude of 3

Solution : z = 1+ 3 = 4 = 2
- 1- i
cos = -
1 2
=-
2p 3
3 sin = 2
Modulus is 2 & amplitude is -
2p 3
6. Find the modulus & amplitude of 1

Solution : z = x r sin = y r = 1 +1 = 1 2 1 2 = 2
i.
cos
p
4
Modulus is
2 & amplitude is -
p
4
7.
If a + i =
1 a + ib
,then prove that (a 2 + 2 )( a 2 + b2 ) = 1
Solution : a + i =
1 a + ib
( a - ib ) ( a + ib )( a - ib ) a a 2 + b2 b a 2 + b2
a - ib a 2 + b2
- i
Equating real and imaginary parts separately a =

a a2 + b 2 and = - b a2 + b 2
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 17 Squaring and adding a 2 + 2 =
()() a +b
2
a2
2 2
+
2
b2 a +b
2 2
(a 2 + b2 )
() a +b
2
2 2
1 a2 + b 2
cross - multiplyin g
(a 2 + 2 )( a2 + b2 ) = 1
DeMoivre's Theorem
Statement : If nis a +ve or ve integer, then (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n (cos + i sin )n is cos n + i sin n .
If n is a +ve or ve fraction, one of the values of
Proof : Case (i) when nis a +ve integer proof by Mathematical Induction. When n = 1, (cos + i sin )1 = cos result is true for n= 1.
+ i sin = cos 1 . + i sin .
Let us assume that the result is true for n = m ie (cos + i sin )m = cos m + i sin m multiply both sides by cos (cos + i sin )m
+ i sin + i sin )
(cos + i sin ) = (cos m + i sin m )(cos
ie (cos + i sin )m +1
= cos m = cos m cos cos + i sin m - sin m cos sin + i cos m sin + i [sin m cos - sin m + cos m sin sin ]
= cos( 1 m + 1) + i sin( m + )
the result is true for n = m + 1. Thus if the result is true for n = m then it is true for n = m + 1. ie If it is true for one integer it is true for next integer, hence by Induction the result is true for all +ve integers. Case (ii) When n =
p q
where p& qare +ve integers. p q

q
+ p Consider cos q
= cos p q
i sin
+ i sin
p q
= cos q
+ i sin p
= (cos + i sin )p
ie (cos
+ p + i sin ) p = cos q
i sin
p q
taking qth roots on both sides. One of the values of (cos
+ i sin
= cos
p q
+ i sin
p q
Case (iii) when nis ve integer or ve fraction. Let n = m where m is a +ve integer or +ve fraction (cos + i sin )n = (cos + i sin )- m
= (cos = (cos m = cos m
1 + i sin )m
= cos m
1 + i sin m = cos m cos 2 m - i sin m + sin 2 m
(cos m - i sin m ) + i sin m )(cos m - i sin m 1 - i sin m )
= cos( - m ) + i sin( - m )
= cos n + i sin n .
Important Results
(i) If
x = cos x+ 1 x + i sin
then
and x -
1 x 1 x
= cos
- i sin
= 2 cos
= 2 i sin .
(ii) If
x = cos
+ i sin
xn
1 x
= (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n

- i sin
= cos
&
= (cos
- i sin
)n
xn = cos n - i sin n xn + 1 xn = 2 cos n
& xn -
1 xn
= 2 i sin n
Note :- For convenience cos
+ i sin
can be written as cis .
Roots of a complex number

Let z = x + iy , express the complex number in the polar form.
ie z = r (cos = z
1 n
+ i sin
) )
1 n
r [] cos( 2 k p
1 n
+ ) + i sin( 2 k p + + ) + i sin( 2 kp + + i sin ( 2 kp n
where k
= r
[] cos( 2 k )p
2k p + + = r 1 n cos n
where k = 0, 1, 2, ......... n 1. Let us denote the nth roots of the complex number by z , z , z , .............. z
0 1 2
n 1
Then, for
k = 0, z 0 = r
1 n
+ cos
i sin
=r
cis
n 2p + n 4p + n 2( n - 1)p n 2 ( n - 1) p + n
2p + + k = 1, z = r 1 n cos 1 n 4p + + = r 1 n cos n
+ i sin
2p n 4p n
= r 1 n cis
k = 2, z
+ i sin
= r 1n cis
k = n - 1, zn - 1 = r
2( n - 1) p + + cos n
+ i sin
=r
cis
the above nvalues gives nth roots of z = x + iy
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 19 Note :If k = n , n + 1, n + 2 etc. The values will repeat. Hence these will be only nvalues of z1 n which are distinct. Using the polar form of the complex number we can plot the nth roots of the complex in the following way. z Draw a circle of radius r 1n whose centre is O . Mark a point on the circle and take OA as intial line. Take a point B such that A OB =
n
2
. Then B represent z . Take a

0
point C such that A OC =
2p + n
then Crepresent z , like this all the nth roots can

1
z B O
/n
be represented. This diagram is called 'Argand Diagram'.
A
n
Problems :
(1) Simplify cos 5 - i sin 5 ) 2 (cos 7 (cos 4 - i sin 4 ) (cos
9
+ i sin 7 ) - 3 + i sin )5
Solution : G.E. (given expression)

= (cos (cos + i sin + i sin ) - 1 0 (cos )- 3 6 (cos + i sin + i sin )- 2 1 )5
= (cos + i sin )- 10 - 21 +36 - 5 = (cos + i sin )0 = 1
( 2) Simplify
(cos 2 (cos 4 (cos (cos
+ i sin 2 ) - 5 (cos 3 - i sin 3 )- 3 - i sin 4 ) 4 (cos + i sin + i sin )- 10 (cos ) - 16 (cos + i sin + i sin + i sin ) 10 )9 )10 5
Solution : G.E. =
= (cos + i sin )- 10 + 9+ 16 - 10 = (cos + i sin )5 = cos 5 sin +i
(3 ) If 2 cos
= x+
1 x
& 2 cos f = y +
1 y
Show that
(i) x m y m + 1 x y
m m
= 2 cos( m
+ n f ) & (ii)
xm y
n
yn xm
= 2 cos( m
- nf )
Solution : 2 cos
=x+
1 x
x2 + 1 x
x2 + 1 = 2cos x 0 ie x2 - 2 cos x +1 =
2 cos 4 cos 2 2 2 cos - 4 2 If x = cos + i sin ,then 1 y 1 x Similarly if 2 cos f = y + , y = cos f + i sin f & 1 y = cos f - i sin f = cos sin 2 - 4
x=
2=
2 cos
(- 4)(1 - cos 2
2 cos
2 i sin 2
= cos
i sin
- i sin
(i)
xm = (cos
+ i sin )m = cos m
+ i sin m
y n = (cos f + i sin f )n = cos nf + i sin nf xm yn = (cos m + i sin m )(cos nf + i sin nf )

= cos( m 1 xm y n = 2 cos( m + n f ) + i sin( m + nf )
(1) (2)
+ n f ) - i sin( m + n f )
adding (1) & (2)

xm y n + 1 xm yn = 2 cos( m + nf )
(ii)
xm = cos m 1 yn
+ i sin m
= cos n f = i sin n f
xm yn
= cos( m
- n f ) + i sin( m
- nf ) &
yn xm
= cos( m
- nf ) - i sin( m
- nf )
adding
xm y
n
yn xm
= 2 cos( m
- nf )
(4) Prove that

( a + ib ) m n + ( a - ib )m n = 2 (tan a 2 + b2 ) m 2 n cos m n
-1
b a b a
Solution : Let a + ib = r (cos
+ i sin
) where
r =
a2 + b2 & m n
= tan - 1
( a + ib )
m n
=r
m n
(cos )
+ i sin
m n
=r
m + cos n
i sin
(1)
a - ib = r (cos
- i sin
m ( a - ib ) m n = r m n cos n
i sin
m n
(2)
adding (1) & (2)

(a 2 + ib )
m n
+ ( a - ib )
m n
=r
m n
cos
m n
( a + ib )
+ ( a - ib )
a2
b2
2n
2 cos b a
m n
tan - 1
b a
Q r =
a 2 + b 2 & tan
b a
= tan - 1
( a + ib )m n + ( a - ib )m n = 2 a2 + b 2
()
m 2 n
2 cos
m n
tan - 1
b a
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 21 (5) Find the cube roots if 1 +

Solution ): Let z = 1+ i = r (cos r cos = 1, r sin
iand represent them on Argand diagram.

+ i sin =1 say
Squaring & adding r 2 (cos 2

r2 = 2 r = 1 2 sin = 1 2 + p 2 cos 4 = 2
+ sin2
) = 1 +1
cos
p
4
z =
i sin
p
4
+ 2 cos 2 k p
p
4
+ + i sin 2 kp
p
4
for k
z = 1+ i =
+ 2 cis 2 kp
p
4
z1 3 = (1 + i )1 3 =
() 2
1 6
1 3
cis p
12
+ 8kp p 4
=2
1 6
1 3
=2
1 6
cis
8 kp + p 12
for k = 0, 1, 2
when k = 0, z0 = 2
1
cis
cis15 3p 4
k = 1, z1 = 2 6 cis
1 6
9p 12
= 2 6 cis
=2
1 6
cis 135 17 p 12
k = 2, z 2 = 2
cis
17 p 12
k = 2 , z2 = 2
1 6
cis
=2
1 6
cis255
To represent them on Argand diagram. Draw a circle of radius 2

1 6
with centre O. Let OA be the initial line.
Take a point B on the circle such that A , OB = 15 take a point Con the circle such that A OC = 135 & take a point D on the circle such that the points B, C , Drepresent z , z , z .
0 1 2
A OD = 255 then 255
135
B
15 1 26
(6) Find all the values of
-1 2
3 2
& find their continued product.
Solution : Let z = 1
1 3 -i = r (cos 2 2 , r sin = 3 2
+ i sin
r cos
Squaring & adding

r2 = 1 4 + 3 4 = 4 4 =1
cos sin
1 2 3 2 p
3
=-
p 3
=-
z = 1 cos
+ i sin
p
3
z = cis 2 kp
p
3
for k
z1 4 =
-1 2
3 2
= cis 2 kp
p 3
1 4
= cis
- 6kp p 3
1 4
= cis ,
6 kp - p 12
for k = 0, 1, 2 3 -
for
k = 0, z = cis
0
p
12 11 p 12
k = 1, z = cis
1
5p 12 17 p 12
k = 2, z = cis
2
k = 3, z = cis
3
Their continued product

= ci s -
p
12
cis
5p 12
cis
11 p 12 17 p 12
cis
17 p 12
+ p 5 p 11p = cis + + 12 12 12 + = cis 2 p 2p 3 = cis 2p 3
= cis 2p 3
32 p 12
= cis 2p 3
8p 3
= cos
+ i sin
=-
1 3 +i 2 2
Expansion of sin (
n ) and cos ( n ) in powers of sin
& cos
Consider (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n Expand (cos n + i sin n )n Using Binomial Theorem ( x + a)n = xn + nC1 xn - 1 a + nC2 xn- 2 a2 + ........ + nCn an Equating real and imaginary parts separately we get the expressions of cos n Eg. (1) Express cos 5 sin +i
5 in powers of
5
& sin n
sin
& cos
Solution :)cos 5 + i sin 5 = (cos + i sin = cos 5

= cos 5
+ 5 C1 cos 4
+ 5 i cos 4
i sin
sin
+ 5 C2 cos 3
sin 2
(i sin )2 + 5 C3 cos 2 (i sin )3 + 5C4 cos ( i sin )4 + 5C5 ( i sin )5

- 10 i cos 2 sin 3 + 5 cos sin 4 + i sin 5
- 10 cos 3
= cos 5
- 10 cos3
sin2
+ 5 cos sin 4
+ i[5 cos 4
sin - 10 cos2
sin3
+ sin5
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 23 Equating real & imaginary parts separately

cos 5 sin = cos 5 sin 5 sin = 5 cos 4 - 10 cos 3 sin sin 2 + 5 cos sin 3 +
5 4
and
- 10 cos 2
Eq. (2) Express cos 6 & sin 6
in powers of cos
6
+ i sin
Solution :)cos 6 + i sin 6 = (cos + i sin = cos6 + 6C1 cos 5
(i sin ) + 6C2 cos 4
(i sin )2 + 6 C3 cos 3 ( i sin )3 + 6 C4 cos 2 ( i sin )4 + 6C )5 cos ( i sin )5 + 6C6 (i sin

6
= cos 6
+ 6 i cos 5
sin
- 15 cos 4
sin 2
- 20 i cos 3
sin 3
+ 15 cos 2
sin 4
+ 6i cos
sin 5
- sin 6
= cos6
- 15 cos 4
sin 2
+ 15 cos2
sin4
- sin 6
+ i[ 6 cos 5
sin - 20 cos 3
sin 3
+ 6 cos
sin5
Equating real and imaginary parts separately cos 6 = cos 6

sin 6 sin = 6 cos 5
- 15 cos 4
sin
sin 2
+ 15 cos 2
sin 3
sin 4
- sin 6
5
and
- 20 cos 3
+ 6 cos
Addtion formulae for any number of angles

We have,
cis
1
cis cis
cis
1
......... cis
2
= cis(
n
+ .......... ... +
Now
cis
cis
......... cis ) cos 1
= cos = cos ie cis (

1
(1 + i tan 1
1
(1 + i tan 2
n
)......... cos )(1 + i tan

2
(1 + i tan
)
n
cos +
3
......... cos
(1 + i tan )
n
)......... .....( 1 + i tan
+ .......... .. +
2
= cos where S = 1
S2 = S3 =
cos
tan tan tan
cos
.......... cos
(1 + iS1 + i2 S2 + i3 S3 + .......... ....)
tan tan
tan
.........................................
cis ( + + .......... .. + ) n 1 2 = cos = cos
1 1
cos cos
2 2
.......... cos .......... cos
n n
( 1 + iS - S - iS + S .......... ....)
1 2 3 4
( 1 - S + S .......... ....) + i cos

2 4
cos
.......... cos
( S - S .......... ..)
1 3
Equating real and imaginary parts separately

cos(
1
+ .......... ... +
) = cos
cos
.......... cos
(1 - S2 + S 4 .......)
and
sin(
1
+ .......... ... +
) = cos
cos
.......... cos
( S1 - S 3 .......)
tan( 1 + 2 + 3 + .......... ... + n ) =
S1 - S 3 .......... ....... 1 - S + S .......... .......

2 4
Exercise
1. Find the continued product of fourth roots of unity.
2. 3.
4.
If ' ' isthe cube root of unity,then findthe value of (4 - 3 - 3 Findthe value of sin(p / 8) + i cos( p / 8) sin(p / 8) - i cos( p / 8 )
8
2 3
).
Write the conjugate of the multiplica tive inverse of the complex number ( sin
+ i cos
).
5. 6.
7. 8.
If z = x + iythen wha t does z + 1 =1 represents? Simplify (sin 2 x + i cos 2 x )2 using De Moivre's Theorem.
Find the realvalues of x and y which satisfy th e equation ( 2 0x - y ) + i (3 x + 2 y + 1 ) = Find the realvalues of x and y which satisfy th e equation ( 2 0 + i ) x + ( i - 3) y - 4 = . .
9. 10. 11.
12 .
If 'n'is any integer, find i- n + i- n +1 + i - n + 2 + i- n + 3 . What isthe multiplicative inverse of i101 ? If ' ' in the cube root of '1' , findthe value of (1 + )3 - (1 +
Simplify 2 i + 4 i2 + 2 i3 + 4 i4 i sin 3p 4 in the Cartesian form. .
2 3
) .
13 .
Express
+ 3p 2 cos 4
14.
Find the real part of
p + 1 + cos 5
i sin
p
5
-1
15 .
If x + iy =
a + ib c + id
, prove that ( x2 + y 2 )2 =
a2 + b2 c2 + d 2 1+ i 1- i
n
16 .
Find the least positive integer ' n 'for which
= 1.
17 . 18 .
If z = x + iy and If z = a + ib and
z + 6 = 2 z + 3 , show that
x2 + y 2 = 9 .
z - 2 = 2 z - 1 , show that a 2 + b 2 = 1. z - 1 z +1
19 . 20 .
If z = x + iy be such that
amp
p
4
, show that
x2 + y 2 - 2 y = 1 .
Express 1 - i in the polar form.
21.
Express
3- i 2
in the polar form.

2 +i 3- i
2
22.
Find the modulus and amplitude of
23 .)
Simplify
(sin + i cos )3 (cos a + i sin a

2
24. 25.
26.
Simplify If
(cos 7 + i sin 7 )- 2 (cos 3 + i sin 3 )4 (cos + i sin )- 4 +

2 )(1 2
is a cube root of unity, showthat (1 ,then find x5 + 1 x5 .
)(1 -
8 )(1 -
16
) =16.
If x = cis
27.
28.
If i2 = - 1,then find i2 + i4 + i6 + L + (2n)terms.

If x = cis a and y = cis , prove that x- y x+ y = i tan -a 2
n
29 .
If a & arethe roots of x2 - 2 x + 4 = 0 ,then prove that a
+ n = 2n + 1 cos
np 3
30.
Provethe following i) (1 + i)3 + (1 - i)3 = - 4 ii) 1 - i 2

1 Zn
()()
+ 1+ 2
= 46.
1 Zn = 2i sin n .
31 . 32 .
If Z = cos
+ i sin
, show that Z n +
= 2 cos n
and Z n -
If x = cis a , y = cis , prove that i) xy + 1 xy = 2 cos( a + ) ii) xy 1 xy = 2 i sin( a + ).
33 .
If x = cis a , y = cis , prove that i) x2 y 3 + 1 x 2 y3 x2 n - 1 x2 n + 1 = 2 cos( 2a + 3 ) ii) x2 y 3 1 x2 y 3 = 2 i sin( 2a + 3 ).
34 .
If x = cis
, prove that
= i tan n .
35. 36.
Provethat (1+ cos + i sin )8 + (1+ cos - i sin )8 = 2 9 cos( 4 ) cos 8 ( / 2). If cos a + 2 cos + 3 cos = 0 = sin a + 2 sin + 3 sin , provethat ii ) sin 3a + 8 sin 3 + 27 sin 3 = 18 sin(a + + ).
i) cos 3a + 8 cos 3 + 27 cos 3 = 18 cos(a + + ) 37.
1 1 1 If 2 cos a = x + , 2 cos = y + and 2 cos = z + , provethat x y z i) xyz + 1 = 2 cos(a + + ) xyz ii ) xyz 1 = 2 i sin( a + + ). xyz
38.
39 .
Show that (a + ib)2 n - (a - ib )2 n = 2i ( a2 + b 2 )n sin 2n tan- 1 (b / a)

Prove that 1 + sin 1 + sin 1 - cos 1 + cos 1 + i tan a 1 - i tan a + i cos - i cos - i sin - i sin
n 7 n
[]
= cos
- np 2
+ i sin
- np 2
40 .
Prove that
= i tan 7 2 1+ i tan a 1 - i tan a
cis 7 .
41 .
Prove that
42 . 43. 44. 45.

46 . 47. 48 . 0 49. 50 .
If Z r = cis (p / 3r ); r = 1, 2, 3 L provethat Z1 Z2 Z3 L L 8 = i. Findthe cube roots of - 1 + i 3 . Find allthe values of (1 + i )2 / 3 . Find allthe values of (1 - i )2 / 3 .
Find the fourth roots of 1 + i 3 and represent them in the Argand diagram. Solve Solve x7 - x = 0. x5 + 1 = . sin 7 cos 8 & cos 7 & sin 8 in powers of sin in powers of cos & cos & sin . .
Express Express
MATRIX THEORY
Review of the fundamentals
A rectangular array ofmn elements arranged inmrows & n columns is called a 'Matrix' of a orderm n matrices are denoted by capital letters of The English Alphabet.
Examples
a1 Matrix of order 3 2 is a2 a3
a1
b 1 b2 b3
a2 b2 c
2 2
a3 b3 c
3 3
Matrix of order 4 3 is
b1 c
1 1
a1 Matrix of order 3 3 is a2 a3
b 1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Note :- Elements of Matrices are written in rows and columns with in the bracket ( ) or [ ].
Types of Matrices
(1) Equivalent Matrices : (2) Equal Matrices : Two matrices are said to be equivalent if the order is the same.
Two matrices are said to be equal if the corresponding elements are equal. A matrix of order m n is said to be rectangular if m n, square if m = n .
(3) Rectangular & Square Matrices : (4) Row Matrix : (5) Column Matrix :
A matrix having only one row is called Row Matrix. A matrix having only one column is called Column Matrix.
(6) Null Matrix or Zero Matrix : A matrix in which all the elements are zeros is called Null Matrix or Zero Matrix denoted as O. [English alphabet Onot zero where as elements are zeros] (7) Diagonal Matrix : A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all elements except the elements in the principal diagonal are zeros. 4 0 0 6 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4
Example
are diagonal matrices of order 2 & 3. (8) Scalar Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the elements in the principal diagonal are same.
28 KSOU Matrix Theory
8 Example 4 0 0 4
0 0
0 8 0 0 0 8
are Scalar Matrices of order 2 & 3. (9) Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the elements in the principal diagonal is 1 is called Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix denoted by I .
1 Example , : 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
are unit matrices of order 2 & 4. (10) Transpose of a Matrix : If A is any matrix then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows & columns of A is called 'Transpose of Aand it is written as A'or AT . a Example : If A = c e b d then A' is f
a b
c d
e f
A is of order 3 2 but A'is of order 2 3.
Matrix addition
Two matrices can be added or subtracted if their orders are same.
Example : If A = a1 a2 A+B = b1 b2 a +c
1 1 2
c1 c2
& B=
c1 c2
d1 d2
1 2
e 1 e2
b +d
1
1 2
c +e
1
a +c
2
b +d
2
c +e
2
A- B =
a1 - c1 a2 - c2
b1 - d1 b2 - d2
c1 - e1 c2 - e 2
Matrix Multiplication
If A is a matrix of order m pand B is matrix of order p n, then the product AB is defined and its order is m n. (ie. for AB to be defined number of columns of A must be same as number of rows of B) a 1 a2 b1 b2 c 1 c2 a1 & B= a2 a3
1 3 3 1 1 1 2
1 2 3
2 1 3 3
Example : Let A =
a a +ba then AB =
1 1 1 2
2 2
+ca
2
a +b +c
2 1 2 2
a a +b a
2 1
+c a
a +b + c
which is of order 2 2. Note :- If A is multiplied by Athen AAis denoted as A2 , AAA.... as A3 etc.
Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix

If Ais a matrix of any order andKis a scalar (a constant), then KA represent a matrix in which every element ofA is multiplied by K . a1 Example : If A = a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c 1 c2 c3 Ka1 then KA = Ka2 Ka3 Kb1 Kb2 Kb3 Kc1 Kc2 Kc3
Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

Let A be a matrix of ordern nan element in it hrow and jth column can be denoted as aij. Hence a matrix of order n n can be denoted as ( aij ) or [aij] where i = 1, 2, ....... n, j= 1, 2, ....... n A matrix of order n n is said to be Symmetric if aij = aji and Skew Symmetric if aij = aji or A is symmetric if A = AT or A = A', skew symmetric if A = AT or A = A' also A + A' is symmetric & A A'is skew symmetric. Note :- In a skew symmetric matrix the elements in principal diagonal are all zeros. 2 Example : A = 3 5 3 5 7 6 is symmetricwhere A = A' 6 8 0 B= 2 -7 - 2 7 0 6 is skew symmetricwhere B = - B ' - 6 0
Determinant
A determinant is defined as a mapping (function) from the set of square matrices to the set of real numbers. A If A is a square matrix its determinant is denoted as . a1 Example: Let A = a
2
b 1 b
2
c1
2
a1
2
b1 b
2
c1 c
2
c then det. A or A = a c3
a3
b3
a3
b3
c3
Minors and Co-factors

Let ,A = ( aij ) i = 1, 2 , 3 j = 1, 2 3
a11 ie A = a21 a31 a11 A = a21 a31

Consider
a 12 a22 a32 a 12 a 22 a 32 a13 a23 a33

a a
23 33
a 13 a 23 a33
a a
22 32
which is a determinant formed by leaning all the elements of row and column in which all lies. This
11
determinant is called Minor of a . Thus we can form nine minors. In general if A is matrix of order n nthen minor of aij is
30 KSOU Matrix Theory obtained by leaning all the elements in the row and column in whichaij lies in .A The order of this minor is n 1where as the order of given determinant is n if this minor is multiplied by (1) i + j then it is called Co-factors of aij . a11 Example : Let A = a21 a31 a12 a22 a32
a22 a32
a13 a23 a33

a23 a33 a 22 a3 2 a2 3 a3 3 a2 2 a3 2 a2 3 a3 3
Minor of a1 1 =
Co - factor of a
11
= ( - 1)1 + 1
a Minor of a 21 is a
12 32
a a
13 33
Co - factor of a
21
is (- 1)2 +1
a1 2 a3 2
a13 a3 3
=-
a1 2 a3 2
a13 a3 3
Value of a determinant
Consider a matrixA of ordern n. Consider all the elements of any row or column and multiply each element by its corresponding co-factor. Then the algebraic sum of the product is the value of the determinant.
Example : Let A = a a
1 2
b b
1
1 2
Co-factor of a is b
1
2 2
Co-factor of b is a A =a 1 b2 - b 1 a2 a1 Let A = a 2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
b b
2 3
Co - factor of a1 is ( - 1 )1+ 1
c c
2 3
b b
2 3
2 3
c a2 a3
Co - factor of b is (- 1)1 + 2
1
a2 a3 a a
2 3
c2 c3 b b
2 3
=-
c2 c3 b b b2 b3
2 3
Co - factor of c1 is (- 1)1 + 3
a = a
2 3
A =a
b2 b3
1
c2 c3
2 3
- b
a2 a3
2 1
c2 c3
+ c
a2 a3
3 2
= a (b c - b c ) - b (a c - a c ) + c ( a b - a b )
3 2 3 1 2 3 3 2
= a1 b2 c3 - a1 b3 c 2 ) - a2 b1 c 3 - a3 b1 c2 + a2 b3 c1 - a3 b2 c1
Properties of determinants
(1) If the elements of any two rows or columns are interchanged then value of the determinant changes only in sign. (2) If the elements of two rows or columns are identical then the value of the determinant is zero. (3) If all the elements of any row or column is multipled by a constant K , then the value of the determinant is multipled by K . (4) If all the elements of any row or column are written as sum of two elements then the determinant can be written as sum of two determinants. (5) If all the elements of any row or column are multiplied by a constant and added to the corresponding elements of any other row or column then the value of the determinant donot alter.
Adjoint of a Matrix
a 1 Let A = a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
Let us denoted the co-factors of a , b , c , a , b , c , a , b , c as A , B , C , A , B , C , A , B , C transpose of matrix of 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 co-factors is called Adjoint of the Matrix. A 1 Matrixof Co - factors = A 2 A 3 A 1 Adjoint of A = B 1 C1 A 2 B2 C2 A 3 B3 C3 .A. A A 1 B 1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A 3 B3 C3 a A + b1 B3 + c1 C3 1 3 a2 A + b2 B3 + c2 C3 3 a3 A + b3 B + c3 C3 3 3
a + c1 a
2 3
B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
Theorem A. adj adj .A = A I = a1 A. adj . A = a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
a1 A +b B + c1 C1 1 1 1 = a2 A +b B + c2 C1 1 2 1 a3 A +b B + c3 C1 1 3 1
b Now a1 A + b1 B1 + c1 C1 = a1 1 a A +b B +c C
2 2 2 2 2 2 3
a1 A2 + b B + c1 C 2 1 2 a2 A + b2 B2 + c2 C2 2 a3 A2 + b3 B2 + c3 C2
c
2 3
a - b1 a
2 3
c c
2 3
b b
2 3
c =
The value of the det. A.
Similarly
a A +b B +c C
3 3 3 3 3
= b
1 3
c c
a1 A2 + b1 B2 + c1 C 2 = - a1
1 3
a + b1 a
1 3
c c
1 3
a - c1 a
1 3
b b
1 3
= - a ( b c - b c ) + b ( a c - a c ) - c (a b - a b )
1 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 1
=- abc +ab c +a bc - a bc - a b c +a b c =0
1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1
32 KSOU Matrix Theory Similarly the other five elements of A adj.Ais zero. 0 A. adj.A = 0 0 0 0 0 = .I 1 .A 0 0 where = A
1 0 = 0 1 0 0 A. adj. adjA = A I =
Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix A is said to be singular if 0A = and non-singular if . A 0
Inverse of a Matrix
Two non-singular matrices A& B of the same order is said to be inverse of each other if AB = I = BA . Inverse of A is denoted as A 1 . Inverse of B is denoted as B1 and further (AB )1 = B1 A 1 .
To find the inverse of A

A.adj. A = A I
multiply by A - 1 , AA - 1 .adj. A = A A- 1 ie adj. A adj = A A- 1 A- 1 = .A A
1 Example : Find the inverse of - 2 1 1 Let A = - 2 1 4 - 5 - 2 - 2 4 1

- 5 - 2 Matrix of Co - factors = 4 - 2 4 - 5
4 -5 - 2
- 2 4 1
4 1 - 2 1 - 2 4 -
- 2 1 1 1 1 - 2
4 1
- 2 1 1 1 1 - 2
- 5 - 2 4 - 2 4 - 5
- 2 1 - 2 4
(- 5 + 8 ) = - (4 - 4) (16 - 10) 3 6 = 0 6 0 9 3
- (- 2 - 4) (1 + 2) - (4 - 4 )
(4 + 5) - (- 2 - 4) (- 5 +8)
3 6
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 33 3 0 6 adj.A = 6 3 0 9 1 A= -2 1 4 - 5 - 2 6 3 -2 4 1 3 0 6

A
-1
= 1( 55 + 8 ) - 4( - 2 - 4 ) - 2( 4 + ) = 3 + 24 - 18 = 9
3 6 9
1 A
adj. A =
1 9
9 9 9
0
3 6 9 9
6 3 0 = 9 6 3
0
3 9
3 3
0
1 2 3 3
A- 1 =
0
1 3
Solutions of Linear equations Cramer's Rule

To solve the equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
a1 Consider = a2 a3
b 1 b2 b3
c 1 c2 c3 (1)
first evaluate & if it is not zero then multiply both sides of (1) by x. a1 x = x a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c3 a x 1 a3 x b1 b3 c1 c2 c3
c2 = a2 x b2
multiply the elements of columns 2 & 3 by y& z and add to elements of column 1. a x+b y + c1 z 1 1 then x = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z a3 x + b3 y + c3 z d1 = d2 d3 b 1 b 2 b 3 c1 c2 = c3
1
b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
(say)
(2)
multiply both sides of (1) by y a1 y = y a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c3 a1 a3 b1 y b2 y b3 y c1 c2 c3
c2 = a2
34 KSOU Matrix Theory multiply the elements of columns 1 & 3 by x & z and add to the elements of column 2. a1 = a2 a3 a1 x + b y + c1 z 1 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z c1 c3 a1 a3 d1 d2 d3 c1 c2 = c3
2
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z c2 = a2
(say)
(3)
multiply both sides of (1) by z a 1 z = z a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c3 a 1 a3 b 1 b2 b3 c z 1 c2 z c3 z
c2 = a2
multiply the elements of columns 1 & 2 by x & yand add to the elements of column 3. a1 = a2 a3 a1 = a2 a3 then x =
1
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z a2 x + b2 y + c2 z a3 x + b3 y + c3 z d1 d2 = d3
3
(say)
(4)
from (2)
y =
from (3)
z =
from (4)
Note :- Verification of values of x, y ,z can be done by substituting in the given equations. Example - 1
Solve 2x + y - z = 3
1 x+ y + z = 4 x- 2y - 3y = 2 Let =1 1 1 1 -1 1 (1)
-2 - 3
= 2 (-13 + 2 ) - 1(- 3 - 1 ) - 1( - 2 - ) = - 2 + 4 + 3 = 5
multiply both sides of (1) by x 2 then x= x1 1 1 -1 1 2x = x x 1 1 -1 1
1 - 2 - 3
- 2 -3
multiply the elements of columns 2 & 3 by y and z and add to the elements of column 1. 2x+ y- z x= x+ y + z x - 2 y - 3y 1 1 - 2 -1 1 -3
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 35 3 =1 4

x= 10 =
1 1
-1 1
= 3(43 + 2 ) - 1( - 3 - 4 ) - 1 (- 2 ) = - 3 + 7 + 6 = 10
-2 - 3
10 5 =2
multiply both sides of (1) by y 2 3 y= y1 1 1 4 -1 - 3 2 1 y y - 2y -1 1 - 3
1 == 1
multiply the elements of column 1 by x& 3 by z and to the corresponding elements of column 2. 2 then y=1 1 2x + y - z x+ y + z x - 2 y - 3z 2 3 = 1 1 -1 1 = 2( -13 - 4 ) - 3( - 3 - 1) - 1(4 - ) = - 14 + 12 - 3 = - 5 -1 1 - 3
1 4 - 3
y = - 5 = - 5 5 = -1
multiply both sides of (1) by z 2 z =z1 1 3 1 -1 2 1 3 -z z
1 =1 1
4 -3
4 - 3z
multiply the elements of column 1 by x& column 2 by yand to the corresponding elements of column 3. 2 then z=1 1 1 1 - 2 2 = 1 2x+ y - z x+ y + z x - 2 y - 3z 1 1 3
1 + 2) - 1(4 - 1) + 3( - 2 - ) = 12 - 3 - 9 = 0 1 = 2( 4
1 - 2 4
z = 0 = 0 5 =0
Thus solution is x = 2, y = 1 & z = 0 which can be verified by substituting in the given equations. Example - 2
Solve 4 x + y = 7
53y + 4z =
5x+ 3z = 2
4 =5 2
1 0
15 - 0) - 1 (0 - 20 ) + 0 ( 0 3 4 = 4( 9 ) = 36 + 20 = 56
0 3
7 1
1
0 4 = 7( 9 6 - 0) - 1(15 - 8) + 0(0 - ) = 63 - 7 = 56 3
=5 3 2 0
4 7 0
2
= 0 5 4 = 4(15 - 8) - 7(0 - 20 ) + 0 ( 0 - 25) = 28 + 140 = 168 5 2 3 4 1 7 5 = 4( 6 15 - 0 ) - 1(0 - 25 ) + 7( 0 2

56 56 ) = 24 + 25 - 105 = - 56
=0 3 5 0
1
x=
=1
y =
168 56
= 3
z =
- 56 56
=-1
Solution of Linear equations by Matrix Method

Given
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2 a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d3
a1 Consider A = a 2 a3
b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
x z
d1 d3 solution exists multiply both sides by A1
X = y & B = d2
then given equations can be written in Matrix form as AX = B . If 0 A A- 1 ( AX ) = A- 1 B A- 1 AX = A- 1 B

ie IX = A- 1 B
X = A- 1 B Example
Solve 3 x - y + 2 z = 13
3 2x + y - z = 8 x + 3 y - 5z = 3 -1 Let A = 2 1 1 3 2 -1 - 5 x X = y , B= z 13 3 - 8
then given equations can be written as AX = B
X = A-1 B To find A1 3 A=2 1 -1 1 3 2 - 1 = 3 (- 5 + 3) + 1(- 10 + 1) + 2( 6 - 1) = - 6 - 9 + 10 = - 5 - 5
(1)
1 3 - 1 Matrix of Co - factors = 3 - 1 1
- 1 - 5 2 - 5 2 - 1
2 1 3 1
-1 - 5 2 - 5 2 -1 -
2 1 3 1 3 2
1 3 - 1 3 - 1 1
3 2
(- 5 + 3 ) = - (5 - 6) 1- 2 -2 adj.A = 9 5 1 - 17 - 10 - 1 7 5
- (- 10 +1) (- 15 - 2 ) - ( - 3 - 4)
(6 - 1) - (9 + 1) (3 + 2) - 2 =
- 2 1 -1 1 - 17 - 10
9 - 17 -7 -1 7 5
5 - 10 5
A- 1 =
1 1 adj.A = A 5
9 5
Using this in (1) -2 X =1 5 9 5 1 - 17 - 10 -1 7 5 13 3 -8 =- 26 3 8 1 117 - 51 - 56 5 65 - 30 - 40 - 15 3 1 10 = - 2 5 -5 1
=-
x = 3, y = 2, z = 1 is the solution Verification : Consider the first equation 3x - y + 2z = 9 + 2 + 2 = 13
Characteristic equation, Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors

ALet A& I be square matrices of same order and a scalar then 0 I = is called Characteristic equation and the roots of X is called Eigen
this equation ie values of are called Eigen Values or Characteristic roots. The matrix Xsatisfying AX= Vector. Example - 1 Find the eigen roots and eigen vectors of the matrix
1 4 3 1 2 1 2 ie 14 3- 3 4 3 4 3+ =0
2
4 3 1 0 0 1
Let A =
Characteristic equation is
=0
(1 2
)(3 - 4
)- 8 = 0 - 5=0
- 8=0
- 5 )( , + 1) = 0
= -1 5
Eigen roots are 1 & 5. To find eigen vector X, corresponding to 1, AX = 1

ie 1 2 4 3 x y = - x - y - x = - y
x+ 4y 2x+3y
x+ 4y = - x 2 x + 3y = - y
ix = - 4 y ie x = - 2 y
x - 2
y 1
Eigen vector corresponding to eigen value 1 is (2, 1) To find the eigen vector corresponding to 5.
ie 1 2 4 3 x1 x2
2
=5
x1 x2
x + 4 x2 1 2 x1 + 3 x2
5 x1 5 x2
x + 4x
1
= 5x
2 x1 + 3 x2 = 5 x2
ie x1 = x2
ie
x1 1
x2 1
Eigen vector is (1, 1) Eigen vector corresponding to eigen root 5 is (1, 1) Example - 2 6 Find the eigen roots and eigen vectors of the matrix -2 2 6 Let A = - 2 2 ie (6 ie (6 ie (6 ie 6 ie 2 3
- 2 3 -1 6-
2 -1 3 - 2 3-1 2 -1 = 3-
- 2 3 -1
2 -1 3 )2 - 1 + 2 [][] - 2(3 2
Characteristic equation is 0- 2 2 ) + 2 + 2 2 - 2(3 -
[] [] )9 +
) (3 )(
- 36 + 12
2
) =0
- 6 - 1 + 2 [][] - 6 +2 +2 + 2 2 - 6+ 2 ) = 0
- 6 + 8) + 2(2 - 4) + 2 (2 - 4) = 0
+ 48 2 3
+6
- 8
+4 ie
3
- 8+ 4 - 12
2
- 8= 0 + 36 - 32 = 0
- 36
+ 32 = 0
which is the characteristic equation, by inspection 2 is a root dividing

3
- 12
2
+ 36 - 32 by
- 2 ,we have
0( - 2)(
ie ( - 2)(
- 10 + 16) =
- 8) = 0 8
- 2 )(
= 2 ,, 2
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 39 To find eigen vector or = 2 Consider AX = 2 X 6 ie - 2 2 - 2 3 -1 2 3 x1 x3 x 1 = 2 x2 x3

1
x1 where X = x2 x3
4 x - 2 x + 2x = 0
2 2 3
- 1 x2
6 x1 - 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 2 x1 - 2x + 3x - x = 2x 1 2 3 2 2 x1 - x2 + 3 x3 = 2 x3
- 2x + x - x = 0
1 3
2x - x + x = 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
the above three equations represent one equation 2x x + x = 0.

Let x = 0,then 2 x = x
3 1 2
ie
x1 1
x2 2
ie
x1 1
x2 2
Eigen Vector is (1, 2, 0) To find the eigen vector for Consider AX = 8 X 6 ie - 2 2 - 2 3 -1 2 3 x1 x3 8x 1 = 8x 2 8x 3

ie - 2 x - 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0 1 - 2 x1 - 5 x2 - x3 = 0 2x - x2 - 5 x3 = 0 1
=8
- 1 x2
ie 6 x1 - 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 8 x1 - 2 x1 + 3 x2 - x3 = 8 x2 2 x1 - x2 + 3 x3 = 8 x3 ie x + x2 - x3 = 0 1 2 x1 + 5 x2 + x3 = 0 2 x1 - x2 - 5 x3 = 0
(1) (2) (3)
adding (1) & (2) we get 3 x1 + 6 x2 = 0

ie x + 2 x2 = 0 1 then , x = -2K
1
ie x1 = - 2 x2 x = K
2
x1 - 2
x2 1
= K (Say)
subsitituting in (1)
- 2 K + K - x3 = 0 x1 = - 2 K &, x2 = K x3 = - K x3 = - K
Eigen vect or is (- 2, 1, - 1) or (2, - 1, 1) Eigen roots are 2, 2, 8 &1 Eigen vect ors are (1, 2, 0) & (2 , - 1, )
Properties of Eigen values

(1) The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is the sum of the elements of the principal diagonal. (2) The product of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to the value of its determinant. (3) If is an eigen value of Athen
1
is the eigen value of A1 .
Cayley - Hamilton Theorem

Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
Let A = a c b d ab d-
Characteristic equation is
=0
which on simplification becomes a quadric equation in in the form 0 2 + a1 + a2 = where a , a are constants. 1 2 Cayley Hamilton Theorem states that A 02 + a1 A + a2 I = where I is a unit matrix of order 2 & 0 is a null matrix of order 2. a1 If A = a2 a3 b 1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3 a1 then characteristic equation is 0 a2 a3 which on simplification becomes 0 3
b1 b2 b3 + a1
2
c1 c2 c3 + a2 + a3 = which is a cubic equation. where I is a unit matrix of order 3 & 0 is a null =
Then as per Cayley Hamilton Theorem 0 - A3 + a A2 + a2 A + a3 I = 1 matrix of order 3.
In general if A is a square matrix of order n then characteristic equation will be of the form (- 1 )n
n
+a
n- 1
+ a2
n- z
+ ........ + an I = 0
and by Cayley Hamilton Theorem (- 1 )n An + aAn - 1 + a2 An - z + ........ + a n I = 0 where I is a unit matrix of order n & 0 is a null matrix of order n. Note :- If we put = 0 in the characteristic equation then an = A If a = 0, matrix A is singular & an
n
0 the matrix Ais non-singular & hence inverse exists and we can find the
inverse of A using Cayley Hamilton Theorem. Example - 1

a Let A = c b d ac
1 2
Characteristic equation is ie
2
b d =0
+ a1 + a2 = 0 where a , a are constants.
By Cayley Hamilton Theorem A2 + a1 A + a2 I = 0 multiply both sides by A1 then A2 A-1 + a1 AA- 1 + a2 A- 1 = 0 ie A + a1 I + a2 A- 1 = 0 a2 A- 1 = - ( A + a I) 1

A- 1 = 1 a2 ( A+ a I )
1
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 41 Example - 2 The characteristic equation of a matrix A of order 2 is Solution : put = 0 in C.E. then the constant 10 is . A Example - 3
2 -1 4
2
- 5
+ 10 = 0 find
A.
Find the inverse of

2 - 3
- 3 -1 4
using Cayley Hamilton Theorem.

2- 3 - 1 4+
2
Solution : Let A =
C.E. is
=0
ie ( 2 ie
2
)( 4 -
)- 3=0
ie 8 - 4 - 2
- 3=0
- 6
+5 = 0
by Cayley Hamilton Theorem

A2 - 6 A + 5 I = 0
multiply both sides by A1

A - 6 I + 5 A- 1 = 0
5A- 1 = - A + 6 I
= 2 - 3 1 4 5 3 1 2 - 1 4 +6 1 0 0 1 = - 2+ 6 3+ 0 1+0 - 4+6 = 4 3 1 2
A- 1 =
Diagonalisation of Matrices
If Ais a square matrix of order nwhere all the eigen values are linearly independent then a matrix Pcan be found such that P1 AP is a Diagonal Matrix. Let Abe a square matrix of order 3 and let vectors where x 1 x3 x 1 Let P = x2 x3 Example - 1
1 Let A = - 5 - 2 4 - 2 4=0 (1 )( 4 ) - 10 = 0
1
be the eigen values, corresponding to these. Let X , X , X be three

1 2 3
y1 y3 y1 y2 y3 z1 z2 z3
z1 z3
1
X1 = x2 , X 2 = y2 , X3 = z2
0
2
0 0
3
Then P - 1 AP = 0 0
1C.E. is - 5
ie
- 5 - 6=0
( + 1)( - 6 ) = 0
= - 1, 6 are eigen valu es
For , = - 1 let AX = - X
1 ie - 5 - 2 4 x1 x2
1
- x1 - x2 x1 = x2 x1 1 = x2 1 ....eigen vect or is 1 1
x - 2x = - x ie
1 2
- 5x + 4 x = - x 1 2 2
For
= 6 , AX = 6X
1 ie - 5 - 2 4 x x
1 2
6x = 6x
1 2
x1 - 2 x2 = - x1 - 5 x1 + 4 x2 = - x2 ie x
1
5x = - 2x
1
eigen vect or is 1 5
5 2 1
- 2 Let P = -1 1
5 2 5 1 5 2 1 1 - 5 Then P- 1 =
7 - 1
P - 1 AP =
- 2 -1 4 1
2 5 2 5 1 7 1 7 0 - 2 4 1 - 5 7 - 6 0 42 - 1 0 - 2 -1 6 0 6 1 5 2
7 - 1
1 5 - 10 7 - 1- 5 1 - 5- 2 7 - 6+ 6
- 10 + 8 -1 2 +4 10 - 10 12 + 30 1
Thus P =
-1 1 5
2 diagonaliz ethe matrix
- 5
Example - 2 1 1 3 Let A = 1 5 1 3 1 1 1Characteristic equation is 0 1 3

ie (1 ) [][][] (5 - )(1 -
1 51
3 1 1- 3 + 3 1 - 3( 5 ) = 0
) - 1 - 11 -
ie (1ie ie 2
)(
- 6
- 6 + 4) - ( 3
- 2 ) + 3(- 14 + 3 ) = 0
+
3
+42
+6
- 4 ie
+ 2 - 42 + 9
2
=0
+ 7
- 36 = 0
- 7
+ 36 = 0
by inspection 2 is a root ( + 2 )(
2
+ 2 is a factor.
equation becomes
- 9 +18) = 0

ie ( + 2)( - 3( - 6) = 0 6
= - 2,,3
ie characteristic roots are 2, 3, 6. To find the eigen vector for = 2 Consider x 1 where X1 = x 2 x 3 1 1 3 ie 1 5 1 3 1 1
ie
1 1
AX 1 = - 2 X 1
x1 x2 x3
2 3
- 2x1 = - 2 x2 - 2 x3
1 2 3
x + x + 3x = - 2x x + 5x + x = - 2x
2 2 3
ie
3x + x + 3x = 0
1 2 3
(1) (2) (3)
x + 7x +x = 0
1 2 3
3x + x + x = - 2x
1 3
3x + x + 3x = 0
1 2 3
(1) & (3) are same.

Put x2 = 0 in (1) or (2), then x1 + x3 = 0
ie x = - x3 1
x1 - 1
x3 1
eigen vector X1 = = 3.
- 1 0 1
Let X be the eigen vector for

2
ie AX 2 = 3 X 2
1 1 3 ie 1 5 1 3 1 1
ie
y1 y2 y3
3 y1 = 3 y2 where 3 y3
ie
y1 X 2 = y2 y3
- 2y + y + 3y = 0
1 2 3
y + y +3y = 3y 1 2 3 1 y +5y +3y

1 2 3
(1) (2) (3)
= 3y 2
y +2y + y = 0
1 2 3
3 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y3
3y + y - 2 y = 0
1 2 3
Let us eliminate y from (1) & (2)

1
(1) 1is
- 2 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 0
(2) 2 is
adding
2 y1 + 4 y2 + 2 y3 = 0
5 y 2 + 5 y3 = 0 y 2 + y3 = 0
2
ie y 2 = - y3
y2 -1
y3 1
(4)
Let us eliminate y from (2) & (3)

(2) 1 is (3) 2 is subtractin g y1 + 2 y 2 + y3 = 0 6 y1 + 2 y 2 - 4 y3 = 0 - 5 y + 5y = 0
2 3
5 y1 = 5 y 3
y1 = y3
y1 1
y3 1
(5)
1
From (4) & (5) y1 1 = y2 - 1 = y3 1
X2 = - 1 1 =6
Next, let X be the eigen vector for

3
ie AX 3 = 6 X 3
1 1 3 ie 1 5 1 3 1 1
ie
1
z1 z2 z3
2 3
6 z1 = 6 z 2 where 6z 3
=6z
1
z1 X3 = z 2 z3
ie - 5z + z + 3z = 0
1 2 3
z + z + 3z
(1) (2) (3)
z + 5z + z = 6 z 1 2 3 2 3 z1 + z 2 + z3 = 6 z3 adding (1) & (2), - 4 z + 4 z = 0

1 3
z - z +z =0
1 2 3
3 z + z - 5z = 0
1 2 3
ie z1 = z3
3
z1 1
z3 1
(4)
Let us eliminate z from (2) & (3) (2) 5 is (3) 1 is adding

ie 2 z1 = z2
5 z1 - 5 z 2 + 5 z3 = 0 3 z1 + z2 + - 5 y3 = 0 8z1 - 4 z2 = 0
z1 1 = z2 2
(5) 1
From (4) & (5),
z1 1
z2 2
z3 1
X3 = 2 1 - 2 0 0
- 1 Let P = 0 1 -1 P= 0 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 Then P - 1 AP = 1
-1 2
0 0
3 0 0 6
1 1 3 diagonalize 1 5 1 3 1 1
-1 2 1
Exercise
1 2 a- b 2. Evaluate b - c c- a 2 3 3 1 b- c c- a c- a a - b.
1 . Evaluate - 1 2 3 .
a- b b- c
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 45 1 2 3. Evaluate 2 3 3 4 2 4. If 6 0 x 4 5 = 0,then find x . 3 4. 4
-1 - 3 1 1 5. Evaluate - p q p 1 - r
2 2
-q r . 1
0 3
6. Find the adjoint of
1 2 3 7. If A = 2 3 4 findthe co - factorof 1. 3 4 2
2 0 1 3 5 7
8. If A =
find A A ' & A 'A .
sec 9. Find the inverse of tan
tan sec -1 0 4 .
2 10 . If A = -1
3 0 -4 3
4 5 and B =
3 2 find 5 A - 3 B and 6 B - 7 A .
11 . If 3 A + B =
2 7 x 7 7 10 y
5 6
and 2 B + A =
2 - 1
0 2
4 3
find A and B .
12 . If
+1 5
x x
4 12
5 4x '
find x and y .
- y
13 . If A =
5 8
6 9
verify th at () A'
= A.
14. If A =
-3 6
2 and B = - 4 3
4 3 - 2 find A + B ' and A' - B.
- 2 1
15 . 0 If A =
3 5
4 7
prove that A 2 - 10 A + I =
16 . Find the inverse of
6 3
5 2
17 . Find the characteri stic equation of
1 0
2 4
18 . Find the eigen valu es of
2 0
3 4
19 . Solve 2 x + z = - 1, 2 y + x = 5, z - y = - 2 by Cramer' s Rule. 20. Solve
5 x - y + 4z = 5 2 x + 3y + 5z = 2 7x- 2y + 6z = 5
by matrix method.
21. Find the characteri stic roots of -2 0 1 1 .
-1 0 22. Findthe characteri stic roots of 1 2 2 2
1 1 . 3
1 2 4 0 -1 . .
23. Verify Cayley - Hamilton Theorem for the matrix
3 2
24. Verify Cayley - Hamilton Theorem for the matrix
25. Find the eigen vect ors for the matrix
1 2
2 1
6 26. Findthe eigen values and eigen vect ors for the matrix - 2 2
- 2 3 -1
2 -1. 3
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 21
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
Abreviations used
N Zor I Z+ Q R C
n
: represent set of natural numbers. : represent set of +ve and ve integers including zero. : represent non-negative integers ie. +ve integers including zero. : represent set of rational numbers. : represent set of real numbers. : represent set of complex numbers. n 1} ie. Z represent set of integers modulo n.
n
Z = {0, 1, 2, 3, .............. Q+
: represent set of +ve rational numbers.
z - {o} : represent set of integers except 0. Q - {o} : represent set of rational numbers except zero. R - {o} : set of real numbers except zero. A set in general is denoted by S. : for all : belongs to
Binary Operation
If S is a non-empty set then a mapping (function) from S Sto Sis defined as Binary Operation (in short B.O.) and denoted by * (read as star). ie. : S S S (Star maps S cross S to S)
Another Definition
If Sis non-empty set then * (star) is said to be a Binary operation if a, b S, a * b S.
Examples
(1) on N + and (ie addition & multiplication) are B.O.
2+3=5 N 2 3 = 6 N
(2) on
Z, +, & are B.O. 4+5 Z, 3 - 4 = 1 Z , 4, - 3 = 1 Z 5 6 = 30 Z

a 0 Q & R but on Q - {o} & R- {o} is a B.O.
(3) On (4) on
Q& R+, & are B.O. but is not a B.O. on Q& R Q for 0, C, + and are B.O.
( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy 2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y 1 + y 2 )
C C
( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy 2 ) = ( x1 x2 - y1 y 2 ) + i ( x1 y 2 + x2 y1 )
48 KSOU Algebraic Structures
Definitions
(1 ) A non-empty set S with one or more binary operations is called an 'Algebraic Structure'. ( N, +), ( Z, +, ), ( Q, +, ) are all algebraic structures. (2) (3) Closure Law : A set S is said to be closed under a B.O. * if Associative Law : A B.O. * is said to be associative on Sif ( a * b ) * c = a * ( b * c) a, b a, b , c S, a * b S S.
(4) (5)
Commutative Law : A B.O. *is said to be commutative on Sif Identity Law : An element e a * e = a = e * a. a
a,b
S, a * b = b * a.
Ssatisfying Sis called an identity element for the B.O. *on S.
Examples
(i) + and (addition and multiplication) are associative and commutative on N, Z , Q & R.
(ii) B.O. (subtraction) is not associative & commutative. (iii) 1 is an identity for B.O. on Nbut + has no identity on N. Where as O is an identity on Z , Qand R for the B.O. +.
1 0 0 1
(iv) If S is a set of 2 2 matrices and B.O. is matrix multiplication then I =
is an identity element.
Group
A non-empty set Gtogether with a B.O. *ie ( G, *) is said to form a group if the following axioms are satisfied. G . Closure Law :
1
a, b
G, a * b
G . Associative Law :
2
a, b, c
G, ( a * b) * c = a * ( b * c) Gsuch that a G, a * e = a = e * a.
G . Identity Law :
3
There exists an element e
G . Inverse : 4 as a1
G , there exists an element bsuch that a * b = e = b * a . This b is called inverse of aand usually denoted
1
ie. a * a1 = e = a
* a. G, a * b = b * a . Then (G, * ) is called an'abelian group' or 'commutative
In addition to the above four axions if a, b group'.
Note (1 ) If for ( G , *) only G is satisfied it is called a 'groupoid'.

1
(2 ) If for ( G , *) G & G are satisfied it is called a 'semi-group'.

1 2
(3 ) If for ( G , *) G , G & G are satisfied it is called 'Monoid'.

1 2 3
Examples
(i) ( N, +) is a groupoid and semigroup.
(ii) ( N, ) is a groupoid, semigroup and Monoid (identity for is 1) (iii) ( Z , +) is a group (identity is O and a1 = a) ie. a+ ( a ) = 0 = a + a . Note :Every group is a monoid but the converse is not true, Z ( , +) is a group and also a monoid but N ( , ) is a monoid but not a group.
Properties of Groups
1. Cancellation laws are valid in a group ie if ( G , *) is a group then
(i )( a * b = a * c (ii ) ( b* a = c*a b=c b=c a, b , c G,
left cancellati on law) right cancellati on law)
Proof :- a * b = a * c , as , a a
-1
G a- 1
* (a * b ) = a
-1
-1
* (a * c )
-1
ie (a
* a )* b = (a
* a)* c
ie e * b = e * c where e is the identity. b =c
Similarly by considering (b * a) * a- 1 = (c * a) * a- 1
we get b = c
2. In a group G, the equations Proof :- a * x = b
a * x = b and y * a = b have unique solutions,
a, b
G.
Operating on both sides by a1 a -1 * (a * x) = a- 1 * b ie )( a- 1 * a * x = a- 1 * b ie e * x = a - 1 * b x = a- 1 * b To prove that the solution is unique, let x & x be two solutions of
1 2
a * x = b.
a* x =b ie & 1 a* x =a * x
1 2
a* x = b
2
Operating on both sides by a1 We get a- 1 * ( a * x1 ) = a - 1 * ( a * x2 ) ie ( a- 1 * a ) * x1 = (a- 1 * a )* x2

ie e * x1 = e * x2 x1 = x2
solution is unique. 3. In a group the identity element and inverse of an element are unique. Proof :- To prove identity is unique. If possible let e & e are two identities then
1 2
G , a * e1 = a = e1 * a & a * e2 = a = e 2 * a
(1) (2)
From LHS of (1), a * e1 = a = e2 * a (using (2))

ie a * e1 = e2 * a = a * e2 (using LHS of (2))
50 KSOU Algebraic Structures by left cancellation, e1 = e2 . Thus the identity is unique. To prove that inverse of an element is unique. Let a
Now, G , if possible let b & care inverses of a ie b- 1 = a and c- 1 = a a*b = e & a *c = e
where eis the identity of the group

a *b = a *c
by left cancellation law b = c . Thus inverse of an element is unique.
4. In a group
G , a- 1
()
-1
=a a
Proof :- As a 1 is the inverse of a

We have a * a - 1 = e = a - 1 * a
it can be easily seen from above relation that inverse of a1 is aie
a- 1
()
-1
=a.
Note :- If b& care elements of G , such that b * c = e = c * b then each is the inverse of the other. 5. In a group a, b
( G , *)
G, ( a * b)- 1 = b- 1 * a- 1
Proof :- Consider ) ( a * b) * (b - 1 * a- 1 = a * (b * b- 1 )* a- 1 = a * e * a - 1 = a * a- 1 = e (a * b )- 1 = b - 1 * a- 1 6. A group of order 3 is abelian. Proof :- Order of group means the number of elements in a group. If a group Ghas nelements. The order of Gis n, which is denoted as O( G ) = n. If nis finite it is called finite group and nis Infinite then it is called Infinite group.
Let G = { e , a , b } be a group with a binary operation * .
eis the identity by definition of identity it commutes with every element Q a * e = a = e * a So we have to prove that a * b = b * a Let a * b = a (a- 1 * a)* b = a- 1 * a
e *b = e b=e
which is not possible.

Let a * b = b
( a * b )* b -1 = b * b- 1 which is not possible.

a * b cannote be equal to aor b
a*e = e
a= e
a *b = e
Similarly we can prove that

b* a = e a*b =b *a (G , *) is abelian.
BTC111
Subgroups
A non-empty subset Hof a group Gis said to form a subgroup with respect to the same binary operation * if ( H , * ) is a group. Eg. (1) ( (2) (3) z , +) is a subgroup of ( Q , +)
H = { 0, 4 2, } is a subgroup of G = { 0, 5 1, 2 , 3, 4, } with B.O. + mod 6 ie
6
H ={1 1, } is a subgroup of G = {1, - 1, i, - i } with respect to the B.O. multiplication.
Theorem
A non-empty subset Hof a group Gis a subgroup of Gif and only if . a , b Proof :- case (i) Let H be a subgroup of Gthen H is a group a, b G , b- 1 G (inverse axion) & ab- 1 G (closure law) H , ab - 1 H , ab - 1 H
condition is satisfied. case (ii) Let Hbe a non-empty subset of Gwith the property . a , b We have to prove that H is a subgroup. Let a , H , a, a- 1 H aa -1 = e H &e a H ea- 1 H ie a - 1 H H
Since all elements of H are elements of G , associative property is satisfied. Let b

- 1 closure H , bie H & property for a His ,a satisfied. b -1 ie ab
()
-1
Hence H is a group and hence a subgroup.
Permutation group
Let S = { a1 , a2 , a 3 , .......... a n }
Then a one-one and onto mapping or function from Sonto itself is called a Permutation. Permutation is denoted as There will be n! ie
Let f , g a1 f (a )
1
a2
2
a3
3
.......... a n
n
f (a ) f ( a ) .......... f ( a )
n
n permutations the set of permutations is denoted by S .
S n . There is a composite mapping forf& g denoted as f o g , this can be taken as binary operation. Then the
set Sn with binary operation 'O' (ie composite mapping) will form a group. For convenience f o g is denoted as gf.
Let f = 1 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 3 4 3 4 4 2 4 2 1 2 2 3 & g = 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 1 3 4 4 1 1 ? S4 the B.O. composite function is given by 2 ? 3 ? 4 ?
f og =
to fill up the second row, following is the procedure.

in g : g (1) = 2 , g ( 2) = 3 , g (3 ) = 4, g (4) = 1 & in f : f (1) = 3, f ( 2) = 1, f ( 3) = 4, f ( 4) = 2 Now f o g (1) = f [ g (1)] = f ( 2 ) = 1 f o g (2) = f [ g ( 2)] = f (3) = 4 f o g ( 3) = f [ g ( 3)] = f ( 4 ) = 2 f o g ( 4) = f [ g ( 4)] = f (1) = 3
fog =
1 1
2 4
3 2
4 3
for convenience f o g is written as gf

1 ie f o g = 3 2 3 2 1 3 4 3 4 4 1 4 2 o 1 2 2 1 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 = 1 1 2 4 2 4 3 2 3 2 4 3 4 3
& gf =
1 2
1 3
the composite function is also called product function. Eg. (1)

Let S = {1, 2 } then S =
2
1 1
2 2
1 2
2 1
Let B.O. be product permutation

1 then 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 = = 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 e = 1 1 2 2
closure law is satisfied, associative law can be easily verified. inverse

1 1 1 2
2
2 2 2 1
-1
=
-1
1 1
2 2 2 1
1 2
S forms a group. Eg. (2)

Let S = {1, 3 2, } 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 3 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 2 3 1
S =
3
Let us denote the elements as f1 , f 2 , f3 , f4 , f 5 & f6 respectively.

ie S3 =
{} f ,
1
f 2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f 6
The following is the multiplication table. f

1
f f
1 1
f f
2 2
f f
3 3
f f
4 4
f f
5 5
f f
6 6
f f f f
2 3 4 5
f f f f
2 3 4 5
f f f f
1 5 6 3
f f f f
4 1 2 6
f f f f
3 6 5 1
f f f f
6 2 1 4
f f f f
5 4 3 2
BTC113 It can be seen from the table that closure law is satisfied. For associative law
Consider ( f3 f4 ) f5 = f6 f 5 = f3 f ( f f ) = f f = f
3 4 5 3 1 3
(f f )f
3 4
= f ( f f ) hence associative law is satisfied.

3 4 5
identity e = f
f1-1 = f1 , f2- 1 = f2
f3- 1 = f3 , f4- 1 = f5
f5- 1 = f4 & f6- 1 = f6
inverse of all elements exists. S forms a group, but it is not an abelian group
3
f f
3
= f but f f = f
6 4 3
f f
3
f f .
4 3
Examples
(1) Show that the set R- {o} with B.O. forms a group. R- {o}. a * b R- {o} R- {o} Solution : For any elements a, b 2, 3 R- {o}, 2 3 = 6
closure law is satisfied. For any three elements a, b , c (a b) c = a ( b c) (3 4) 5 = 12 5 = 60. 3 (4 5) = 3 20 = 60. associative law is satisfied. Identity element is 1, ie. Let a a R- {o}, a 1 = a= 1 a. R- {o}
R- {o} then there exists

1} a R - {o such that a 1 a =1= 1 a a
inverse exists for all elements R- {o}. ( R- {o}, ) forms an abelian group. (2) Show that
( Z5 , ) forms an abelian group.
5
Solution : Let us construct table for (Z 5 ,
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4
54 KSOU Algebraic Structures From the above table it can be easily seen that closure law is satisfied.
2 (2 ie 2
5 5
(3 3)
5
5 5
4) = 2 4=0
5
5 5
2=4 4=4
5
(3
4 ) = (2
3)
associative law can be versified. identity element is 0. inverse of 0 is 0 inverse of 1 is 4 inverse of 2 is 3 inverse of 3 is 2 inverse of 4 is 1
(Z ,
5 5
) form a group, further it can be seen from the table that for any two element a , b b =b
5
Z
5
a ( Z5 ,
5 5
) is an abelian group.
(3) Show that
G= {1, 2, 3, 4} with B.O. multiplication mod 5 ie
is an abelian group.
Solution : The following in the relevant table for elements

5
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
From the above table it can be seen that closure law is satisfied.
(2 2
5 5
3) (3
5
4 =1 4) = 2
5 5
4 =4 2 =4
associate law is satisfied. identity is 1. inverse of 1 is 1 inverse of 2 is 3 inverse of 3 is 2 inverse of 4 is 4

(G ,
5
) forms a group and it can be seen from the table that it forms an abelian group.
4. If
Ris the set of real numbers and *is a binary operation defined on . R as x * y = 1 + xy, Show that * is commutative but not associative.
Commutativ e property a * b = b * a , a, b R
x, y
x * y = 1 + xy
BTC115 y * x = 1 + yx x* y = y * x
Associativ e property ( x * y ) * z = x * ( y * z ) LHS )= (1 + xy ) * z = P * z = 1 + pz = 1 + (1 + xy z = 1 + z + xyz RHS )= x * (1+ yz ) = x * Q = 1 + xQ = 1 + x (1 + yz = 1 + x + xyz LHS RHS * is not a associativ e a * b = a - b where a , b I is not a group
5. Show that set of integers with

a *b = a - b ( a * b) * c I
closure axiom is satisfied I, a, b I.
a * ( b * c ), a * b = a - b
LHS = ( a - b ) * c = a - b - c RHS = a * ( b - c ) = a - b + c ( I , *) is not a group. associativ e axiom is not satisfied
When one of the axiom is not satisfied, it is not a group. Hence, we need not have to check the rest of the axioms. 6. In a group
(G 2 , *), a * b = ab . Find the identity element, inverse of 4 and solve 4 *x = 5
To find e : a * e = a = e * a a *e = ae 2 a * a-1 = e = a- 1 * a a * a-1 = 2 4 4 4* x = 5 4x 2 =5 x= 10 4 = 5 2 aa - 1 2 4- 1 = = 1. inverse of 4 is 1. =2 a- 1 = 4 a =a e = 2 i.e. identity element is 2.
7. Prove that G = {} cos
G = {} cos + i sin + i sin is real
is real is an abelian group under multiplication
Let x, y , z be any three elements of G .

Take x = cos a + i sin a , y = cos + i sin , z = cos where a , , are real numbers. G Q ( a + ) is real + i sin .
i)
xy = (cos a + i sin a )(cos + i sin ) = cos( a + ) + i sin( a + )
Closure axiom is satisfied ii)

(xy ) z = [(cos a + i sin a )(cos + i sin )](cos = {cos( a + ) + i sin( a + )}(cos + i sin )
+ i sin )
= cos{( a + ) + } + i sin{( a + ) + } = cos{ a + ( + )} + i sin{ a + ( + )}
= x( yz) Q multiplication is associative on R iii)

1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 G is the identity element
Associative axiom is satisfied.
56 KSOU Algebraic Structures iv) v)
( cos
+ i sin
)(cos
- i sin ) = 1
cos
- i sin
is the multiplica tive inverse of cos
+ i sin
xy = (cos
+ i sin a )(cos + i sin )
= cos( a + ) + i sin( a + ) = cos( + a ) + i sin( + a ) Q is commutativ e on R = yx
Commutative law is satisfied. So all the axioms are satisfied. Hence, G is an abelian group under multiplication. 8. Show that the cube roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication We know that the cube roots of unity are 1}, . 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
and
2.
Let G = {1, ,
here
=1
3
&
i) All the entries in the table are the same as the elements of the set. This means the closure law is satisfied. ii) 1 Consider 1 ( (1 ) 1 (
2 2 2
) =1 1 = =1
2
=
2
) = (1 )
. Associativ e law is satisfied.
iii) The row heading 1 is the same as the topmost row. 1 is the identity element. iv) Inverse of 1 is 1, inverse of Every element has a inverse. v) The table is symmetrical about the principal diagonal commutative law holds good. So Gis an abelian group under multiplication. is
2
and inverse of
is
9.
Show ,that the four matrices
1 0
0 1
- 1 0
0 1
1 0
0 - 1
and
- 1 0
0 - 1
form an abelian group under matrix
multiplication.
1 Take 0 0 1 = I, 1 0 0 1 = A, 1 0 0 - 1 = B, - 1 0 0 -1 = C ; G = {1, A , B , C }
IA = AI = A, IB = BI = B, IC = CI = C
- 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 - 1 = - 1+ 0 0+0 0+0 0- 1 = - 1 0 0 -1 =C
AB =
Similarly, it can be shown that
BA = C , AC = CA = B , BC = CB = A , A A = I etc.
BTC117 The composition table is . I A B C I I A B C A A I C B B B C I A C C B A I
i) The entries in the table are the same as the elements of the set ii) iii)
A ( BC ) = A ( A ) = I ; ( AB ) C = (C ) C = I
G.
Closure law is satisfied.
Associative law is satisfied.
Iis the identity element. I, A are , Brespectively I, A is ,a B,group C . under G matrix multiplication
iv) Inverses of
( G , ) is a group.
v) Since the entries on either side of the leading diagonal are symmetric, 10. If every element of a group Given a - 1 = a, we knowthat, a, b a, b G G , ( ab )- 1 = b- 1 a - 1
ab = ba ,
( G , ) is an abelian group.
Ghas its own inverse, show that Gis abelian (1) (2)
a, b G
from (1), Using a - 1 these = a, in b -1 (2), = b and (ab )- 1 = ab. the commutative law is satisfied, so Gis abelian. 11. In a group . (G , ) if ( Prove ab )2 = that a2 b2 , (ab )2 = ( ab )( ab) = (aa )( bb)
a[ b ( ab )] = a [a ( bb )] using L.C.L. b (ab ) = a ( bb ) (ba ) b = (ab ) b using RCL ba = ab
a, b
(G , ) is abelian and conversely.
it is abelian
Conversely If ab = ba pre operating by awe get,

a ( ab ) = a ( ba ) ( a a ) b = ( ab ) a
post operating by b we get [( a a ) b ] = [( ab )a ]b
( a a)( b b ) = ( ab )( ab)
a 2 b2 = ( ab )2
12. Given
0
Q , the set of non zero rational numbers is a multiplicative group andH = 2 n n

0
{}
Z , show that His a subgroup
of Q under multiplication.
H =
{}{ } 2 n Z
n
= ... 2- 2 , 2 - 1 , 20 , 21 .....
i) ii)
2m , 2n
H , 2m 2 n = 2m+ n
r
closure law is satisfied z (2 m+ n )2 r = 2m (2n +r Associativ e law is satisfied.
m (2 2 ie 2n ) 2r = 2m (2n
),
m , n, r
2( m+ n)+ r = 2 m+ (n + r ) i.e. 2m+n+ r = 2m +n+r iii) 2 iv)

0
is the identity element 2m ; there exist 2- m such that 2m 2- m = 20 His a group under multiplication and H Inverse of 2m is 2- m .
Q
0
ie His a subgroup of Q under multiplication.

0
Exercise
1. If N= {1, 2, 3, ....}, which of the following are binary operation of
(1 ) a * b = a + 2 b (2) a * b = 3 a - 4 b
N.
a b
(5) a * b =
2. Which of the following operations on the given set are binary (1) on (2) (3) 3. If I , the set of integers, a * b = 3 a - 4 b on R, a * b =
on R , a * b =
a2 - b 2
ab
*is given by a * b = a b , show that *is not a binary operation of Z.
4. Why the set of rationals does not form a group w.r.t. multiplication ? 5. If x, y, z are any three elements of a group G , find ( xyz)1 . G, a , b G , find a- 1 b -1
6. In a group
()
-1
7. If the binary operation
*on the set Z is defined by ,a * b = a + b + 5 find the identity element.
8. In the group of non zero integers mod 5. Find the multiplicative inverse of 4. 9. 10. If
If f = 1 1 2 2 3 3 and g = 1 2 2 3 3 1 are permutatio ns in S3 , find f o g .
S= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} w.r.t. multiplication (mod 7), solve the equation 3 S= {1, 2, 3} under multiplication (mod 4) is not a group.
1 3 2 4 3 1 4 2 and g = 1 2 2 3 3 1 4 4 ab 7 find gf .
x= 5 in S.
11. Show that 12.

If f =
13. The binary operation
*is defined by a * b =
ab 2
, on set of rational numbers, show that *is associative.
14. If 15. If
*is defined by a * b = *is defined by a * b =
, on the set of real numbers, show that *is both commutative and associative.
a 2 + b 2 , show that *is associative. R , a * b = a + b - 1, a, b R . Show that *is associative.
16. On the set of real numbers, 17. On the set of real numbers,
R, *is defined by , a * b = 2 aexamine - 3b + ab whether
* is commutative and associative.
18. In the set of rationals except 1, binary operation 19. On the set of positive rational numbers 20. In a group of integers, an operation
* is defined by a * b = a + b - ab . Find the identity and inverse of 2.

ab 4 , a, b Q + . Find the identity element and the inverse of 8.
Q+ , a * b =
*is defined by a * b = a + b - 1. Find the identity element.
BTC119
Vectors and Scalars

Vector : A physical quantity which has both direction and magnitude is called a 'Vector'. Eg. Velocity, acceleration, force, weight etc. Scalar : A physical quantity which has only magnitude and no direction is called a 'Scalar'. Eg. speed, volume, mass, density, temperature etc. Vectors are represented by directed line segments. Let AB be the line segment. Vector from A to B is denoted by AB and vector from B to Ais denoted by BA. AB can also be represented by a . The length of AB is magnitude of the vector denoted as AB or a or simply a. For AB , Ais the initial point and B the terminal point. A B
Scalar multiplication of a vector

Let be a scalar and a a vector then is same as that of a if a represents a vector whose magnitude is times the magnitude of a and the direction is negative. If
= 0 it represents a null vector denoted by
is positive but opposite to that of a if
'0 ' ie a null vector is a vector of magnitude zero but its direction is arbitrary. A vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector and a unit vector in the direction of a is written as a a or a or a (readas a cap) a
Like and unlike vectors

Vectors having same direction are called 'like vectors' and those having the opposite direction are called 'unlike vectors'. Co-initial vectors : Vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors. Coplanar vectors : Vectors in the same plane are called 'coplanar vectors'. Parallel vectors : Vectors having same direction but different initial points are called 'parallel vectors'. C
Triangle Law for addition of vectors

Let AB & BC represents two vectors then AC represents
AB + BC ie a + b
Parallelogram Law
Let OA = a & OB = b
Complete the parallelogram OACB .

then OA + AC = OC by triangl e law
B
but AC = OB (parallel vectors) OC = OA + OB = a + b Note : - AB = OB - OA & BA = OA - OB
Properties
(i) Vector addition is commutative ie . a + b = b + a (ii) Vector addition is associative ie
a + b + c = a + b + c.
()()
(iii) Set of vectors V, with binary operation vector addition will form a 'Group' . The identity being 0 (null vector) and inverse of .a is - a
Position vectors
(i) Let P be a point in a plane where Ois the origin and OX & OY are co-
ordinate axes. OP is called position vectors of P . Draw PQ

r
to OX , then OQ = x & QP = y OX &OY . j
P (x, y) y OQ
i
Let i represents & j unit vectors in the direction of

Then OQ = xi , QP = y j
OP = OQ + QP = xi + y j
OP =
x2 + y2
Note :- A plane vector is an ordered pair of real numbers and the distance between O& P is the magnitude of .OP (ii) Let P be a point in three dimensional space whereOX, OY & OZ are co-ordinate axes. Let ( x, y , z ) be the co-ordinates of P . Draw PQ r to the plane XOY & QA & QB parallel to OY & OX respectives to meet OX at A & OY at B.
Let i , j & k be unit vectors in the direction of OX , OY & OZ
Then OA = x i , OB = y j , QP = z k OQ = OA + OB (by parallelog ram law)
= xi + yj
OP = OQ + QP (by triang le law) i = xi + y j + z k
P (x, y,z )
j
OB
A
OP = x2 + y2 + z 2
This position vector denoted by r ie OP = r
OP of the point
P is usually
unit vecto r in the direction of OP is given by
xi + y j + z k x2 + y 2 + z 2

Let P ( x1 , y 1 , z1 ) & P ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be any two points in 3-space to f , ind PQ from the triangle OPQ OP + PQ = OQ PQ = OQ - OP = x i + y j + z k - x i - y j - z k
2 2 2 1 1 1
Z
Q ( x2 , y2 , 2 z )
P ( x1 , y1 , 1 z )
= ( x2 - x1 ) i + ( y 2 - y1 ) j + ( z2 - z1 ) k
OY
1
and unit vector in the direction of

PQ is (x - x )i + (y - y ) j + (z - z )k
2 1 2 1 2
( x - x ) 2 + ( y - y )2 + ( z - z )2
2 1 2 1 2 1
Scalar product of two vectors
X
1 1 2 2 3 3
If a = a1 i + a 2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k are two non-zero vectors, then a b + a b + a b is defined as 'scalar product'
of two vectors a & b , denoted as a b also known as 'dot product'.
Vector product of two vectors

If a = a1 i + a 2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k are two non-zero vectors, then a vector ( a2 b3 - a3 b2 ) i + ( a3 b1 - a1 b3 ) j + ( a1 b2 - a2 b1 ) k
i ie a1 b 1
j a2 b2 i
k a3 is defined as 'vector product'of two vector a & b, denoted as a b also known as cross product. b3 j a2 b2 k a3 = - (a 2 b3 b3 a3 b2 ) i
ie a b = a1 b 1
Geometrical Meaning of a b and a b

Let OA = a & let OB = b and AOB =
B b
then a b = ab cos
where a = a & b = b when cos = 0 , a b = ab when 0 = ab
OA
= 90 , a b = ab cos 90 = 0
hence two vectors are said to be 'orthogonal' if . a b = 0 Let ON represent a line which is the direction of ON.
Then ab sin
r
to both OA & OB . ie ONis
to the plane OAB . Let n represent a unit vector in
n is a b and - ab sin
n is b a if
= 0 , then sin
=0 a b = 0 (null vector)
a b or - b a is a null vector, hence two vectors are said to be parallel or coincident if
62 KSOU Algebraic Structures Note :N B

n
a b = ab sin n represent anti - clockwise
rotation.
OA a B b O a
-n b a = - ab sin n represent clockwise rotation.
N also for unit vectors i , j & k

i j = k, k i = j, j k = i & j i = - k, i k = - j, k j = - i .
Projection of
b upon
a
B
. Draw BD a b ab
r
Let OA = a , OB = b & A OB =
to OA then OD isthe projection of b upon a .
b OD
OD b
Since a b = ab cos
, cos
A a
from the
le
OBD
cos
OD OB
OD = b cos
= b
ab ab
a a
b = a b
further area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides areOA & OB is given by

OA BD = ab sin Q BD OB = sin but a b = ab sin .
Area of parallelogram whose co-terminus edges are a & b is given by a b

le
and therefore area of
OAB =
1 2
ab . 1 2
Also area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are d & d is 1 2
d d
1
Scalar Triple Product

Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a 3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k & c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k Then a (b or c) ( a b ) c is called 'Scalar Triple Product'
both on computation gives a1 b2 c3 - a1 b3 c1 + a 2 b3 c1 - a2 b1 c3 + a3 b1 c2 - a3 b2 c1 a 1 which is b 1 c1 a2 b2 c2 a3 b3 c3

( a b) c
Thus a ( b or c)
which is 'Scalar Triple Product' which is usually denoted as
[ a b c ]also called
'Box-Product'.
Geometrical Meaning of
[a b c ]
N
Consider a parallelopiped whose co-terminus edges are

OA , OB , OC ie a , b , c
Area of parallelogram OBDC is b c

Let OP be the projection of OA ie a upon ON which is
r
P
to
A a c C b B D
the plane OBDC . OP = bc bc a =
() a b c
b c
Volume of parallelopiped = area of parallelogram OP = bc a b c bc

= a b c =
()
()
[abc ]
Volume of parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are given by a , b , c is
[ a b c ]= b [ a b c ]= 0
a1
1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
c1 If
then the vectors a , b & c are coplanar.
Vector Triple Product

If a , b , c are three non-zero vectors then
a b c = a c b - a b c
also
()()() () ()() a b c = a c b -
bc a
Examples
1.
If a = ( 2 , 5), b = (- 2, 3) find a b .
Solution : 11 a b = - 4 +15 = 2.
If a = i + 2 j - 3 k , = 3i - j - 2 k , find 2 a + a + 2
()()
Solution : 2a + a + 2 = ( 5i + 3 j - 8 k ) ( 7 i - 7 k ) = 35 + 0 + 56 = 91 3.
Prove that the vectors a = 3i - 2 j - k , b = 2i + j - 4 k are perpendicu lar to each other. a & b are perpendicu lar to each other.
()()
Solution : a b = 6 - 2 - 4 = 0 4.
Find m such that 3 i + m j + k and 2 i - j - 8 k are orthogonal . 6- m- 8=0 - m = -2
Solution : (3 i + m j + k ) ( 2i - j - 8 k ) = 0
5.
If a + b = a - b . Show that a and b are orthogonal to each other.
Solution : Given
a+b = a- b
Squaring both the sides,
( )()()() a+ b a +b = a - b a - b
i.e. 2 a b = 0
a a + a b + b a + b b = a a - a b - b a + b b ab = 0 a is perpendicu lar to b.
()
6.
Find the projection of a = i + 3 j + 5 k on b = - 3i + j + k .
Solution : Projection of a on b =
a b b
- 3 +3+ 5 9 +1 +1
5 11
7.
If a = 2 i + j + k and b = i - 2 j + 2 k and c = 3i - 4 j + 2 k , find the projection of a + c on b .
Solution : Projection of a + c on b =
()()
a + c b b
5i - 3 j + 3 k i - 2 j + 2k 1+4 + 4
()()
5 + 6 + 6 17 = 3 3
8.
Find the cosine of the angle between ve ctors a = 4 i - 3 j + 3 k and b = 2 i + j - k
Solution : cos
a b a b
8- 3- 3 16 + 9 + 9 4 + 1 +1
2 34 6
9.
Find the cross product of vectors
a = 9i - j + 4 k, b = 8i - j + k
i Solution : a b = 9 8 10.
- 1 4 = i (- 1 + 4 ) - j(9 - 32) + k(- 9 + 8) = 3i + 23 j - k -1 1
If , a = i + 2 j + 2 k and b = 2i + j - 2 k then find a b
i Solution : a b = 1 2
a b =
j 2
k (1 - 4 ) = - 6i + 6 2 = i( - 4 - 2 ) - j (- 2 - 4 ) + k j - 3k
1 - 2
36 + 36 + 9 = 81 = 9 a = 6 i2 - 2 j + k and b = 3 i + j k
11.
Find the unit vecto r perpendicu lar to the pair of vectors
i Solution : Vector perpendicular to a & b is a b = 6 3 n= ab ab 12. = 3i +15 j +12k 9 + 225 +144 = 3 i + 15 j + 12 k 378
j - 2 1
k 1 = i (4 - 1) - j (- 12 - 3 ) + k (6 + 6) = 3i +15 j +12 k - 2
()()() ()()()() ()() () Solution : 2 a + b a + 2b = 2 a a + 4 a b + b a + 2 b b = 4 a b + b a = 3 a b . ()()() 13. If a , b , c are non zero vectors prove that a b + c + b c + a + c a + b = 0
Prove that 2 a + b a + 2 b = 3 a b Solution : a b + a c + b c + b a + c a + c b = a b + a c + b c - a b - a c - b c = 0.
14.
Find the sine of the angle between th evectors
2 + j + k and b = 2 i - 3 j + k a =i
i Solution : a b = 1
j 1
k 1 = i (2 + 3 ) - j (2 - 2) + k(- 3 - 2) = 5 i - 5 k , a b = 52 + 52 ,
2 - 3 2
52 + 52 1 +1 + 1 4 + 9 + 4
sin
5 2 3 17
15.
If a + b + c = 0, then show that a b = b c = c a
Solution : Given a + b + c = 0 a a + b + c = a a + a b + a c = 0 Q a b = - a c Similarly b a = c b or c b = - a b or a b = b c Similarly c a = b c a b = b c = c a
()()
[]
aa = 0
a b = c a
16.
Find the area of the triangle whose sides are a = 3 i5 - 2 j + k and b = i - 3 j + k 1 2 a b
Solution : A =
k 5
a b = 3 - 2 1 = i (- 10 + 3 ) - j(15 - 1) + k (- 9 + 2) = - 7i - 14 j - 7k 1 - 3
area = 17.
49 +196 + 49 2
294 2
sq.units
Position v ectors of the points A , B and C are respective ly i - j + k , 2 i + j - k and 3i - 2 j + k. Find the area of triangle
ABC.
Solution : AB = OB - OA = ( 2 i + j - k ) - ( i - j + k ) = i + 2 j - 2 k . AC = OC - OA = 3i - 2 j + k - ( i - j + k ) = 2 i - j .
i AB AC = 1 2 area =
j 2 -1
k - 2 = i (0 - 12 - j (4) + k (- 1 - 4 ) = - 2i - 4 j - 5 k. 0 45 sq.units 2
adjacent sides are a = 3 i + 2 j - k and b = i + 2 j + 3k .
1 4 + 16 + 25 = 2
18.
Find the area of a parallelog ram whose
k - 1 = i (6 + 2 ) - j(9 + 1) + k( 6 - 2) = 8i - 10 j + 4k 3
180 sq.units diagonals are d = 3 i + j + 2 k and d
1
Solution : a b = 3 2 1 2
A =
64 + 100 + 16 =
19.
Find the area of a parallelog ram whose 1 2 d1 d 2
= i - 3 j + 4k.
Solution : A =
i d1 d2 = 3
j 1
k 2 = i ( 4 + 6) - j(12 - 2) + k (- 9 - 1) = 10 i - 10 j - 10k
1 - 3 4
d1 d 2 = 100 + 100 + 100 ; 1 2 d1 d 2 = 1 2 300 sq.units = 5 3 sq.units.
20.
Find the scalar tri ple product of vectors
a = 2 i - j + 3 k , b = i + 2 j + 3 k and c = 3i + j - k .
Solution : a b c = 1 3 21.
()
2 - 1 2 1
3 3 = 2( 35 2 - 3 ) +1( - 1 - 9) + 3(1- 6 ) = - 10 - 10 - 15 = -1 .
Evaluate [] i - j, j - k , k - i 1 -1 1 0 0 - 1 = 1(1) + 1(- 1) + 0 = 0 1
Solution : 0 -1
22. Find the volume of parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are

a = i - j + k , b = 2 i - 4 j + 5 k , c = 3i = 5 j + k .
Solution : a b c = 2 3 23.
Find if the vectors
()
-1 1 - 4 5 = 1(- 4 + 25) +1( 2 - 15) +1(- 10 + 12) = 21 - 13 + 2 = 10 cubic units - 5 1

a = ( 2, - 3 4), b = (1, 2, - 1) and c = ( , - 1, 2) are coplanar.
Solution : a b c = 1
[]
-3 2 -1
4 -1=0 2
i.e., 2(4 - 1) + 3(2 + ) + 4(- 1 - 2 ) = 0 6 +6 +3 - 4- 8 =0 5 = 8;5 = 8 .
24.
Show that the points
A (4, 5, 1), B ( 0, - 1, - 1), C (3, 9 , 4 ) and D (- 4, 4 , 4) are coplanar.
Solution : OA = 4 i + 5 j + k , OB = - j - k , OC = 3 i + 9 j + 4 k , OD = - 4i + 4 j + 4 k AB = OB - OA = - 4i - 6 j - 2 k , AC = OC - OA = - i + 4 j + 3 k , AD = OD - OA = - 8i - j + 3 k
Consider
AB AC AD = - 1 - 8
A, B , C and D are coplanar.
()
- 4
-6 - 2 4 -1 3 = - 4(12 + 3) + 6 (- 3 + 24) - 2(1 + 32) = - 60 + 126 - 66 = 0 3
Exercise
1 . The position vectors of the points
a and b. A, B and C are respective ly a , b and 2 a - 3 b. Express vectors BC , AC , AB in terms of
2.
Position v ectors are A , B , C and D are 2 a + 4c , 5a + 3 3 b + 4 c , - 2 3 b + c and 2 a + c respective ly. Show that AB || CD and AB = 3 2 CD
3. 4. 5.
If a = 3i - 4 j , b = 2i - 3 j , c = i + j , find (i) 2 b - c + 2 a (ii) 2 a - 3c + 2 b Find the unit vecto r in the direction of a + b + c where a = i + 4 j + 2 k , b = 3i - 3 j - 2 k and c = - 2i + 2 j + 6 k . If a = 2 i + 3 j and b = - i + 2 j , find a b .
6. Show that the vectors (1, 2, 3) and (2, 5, 4) are orthogonal. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Find the values of such that i - 3 j + k and i + j + 2k may be orthogonal .
If a and b are unit vecto r show that the vectors a + b and a - b are orthogonal . If a = (1 , - 1, 3 ) and b = (2, 1, 1), find a b . Find the projection of a on b where a = i + 2 j - 3k and b = - 2i + 3 j .
If a = 2 i + j - 3k and b = i - 2 j + k . Find the projection of b on a .
12. 13. 14.
If a = (2 , 3 ) and b = (8 , m ) and a b is a null vector, find m . If a = (2 , - 1, 3), b = (- 2 , 1, 4 ) and c = (2 , 1, - 7), find the unit vecto r in the direction of a + b + c . Show that cos sin f i + sin j + cos f k is a unit vecto r.
15. Show that points 16. Show that points 17.
A(3, 2, 4), A(1, 1, 1),
B(1, 1, 1) and C (1, 4, 2) are collinear. B(7, 2, 3), C (2, 1, 1) form a triangle.
Show that points A, B and C whose
position v ectors are 2i + j + k , i + 3 j - 5 k and 3 i - 4 j - 4 k respectively form a
right-angled triangle. 18. 19. 20.

Find the cosine of the angle between th evectors Find the sine of the angle between th evectors Find the unit vecto r perpendicu lar tothe vectors a = i + j + k and b = 2i + 3 j - 2 k . 2i - 3 j + k and 3i + j - 2 k . 3i + j + 2 k and 2i - 2 j + 4 k .
21. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose co-terminal edges are represented by a = 2i - 3 j + 4k ; b = i + 2 j - k and
c = 3i + j + 2 k .
22. 23.
Show that vect ors 2i - j + k , i + 2 j - 3 k and 3i - 4 j - 5 k are coplanar. If the vectors i + 2 j + 5 k , 2 i + xj - 10 k and 3i + 9 j - 2k are coplanar. find x.
24. Show that points 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
A(2, 3, 1),
B(1, 2, 3),
C (3, 4, 2) and D(1, 6, 6) are coplanar.
Find the scalar tri ple product of, a = i - 2 j + k , b = 2i + j + k , c = i + 2 j + k . Prove that 2 a + 3 b a + 4b = 5 a b
()()()
Find the area of the triangle whose 2 sides represente d by a = i - 3 j - 2 k , b = i + 2 j + k . Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are i - j + 2 k , 2 j + k and j + 3 k . Find the area of parallelog ram whose diagonals are a = 3 i + j - 2 k and b = i - 3 j + 4 k . If a = (1, - 1, 2), b = (1, 2, 3) & c = (3, - 2, 4). Find a b c and a b c .
()()
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 65
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Limits of functions
Consider y = f ( x) = x2 - 1 x-1
the function is defined for all values of xexcept for x = 1.
for x = 1, f ( x ) =
1- 1 1- 1
0 0
which is indeterminate.
Let us consider the values of f ( x) as xapproaches 1

x2 - 1 x- 1
x .9 1.9 .99 1.99 .999 1.999 1.01 2.01 1.001 2.001 1.0001 2.0001
f ( x) =
2 It can be seen from the above values that as xapproaches 1, x - 1 approaches 2.
x- 1 This value 2 is called "Limit of x - 1 x2 - 1 x2 - 1 as x approaches 1"which can be written as lim 2 or Lt = . x- 1 x 1 x- 1 x 1 x - 1

2
In general the limit of a function f( x) as xapproaches a is denoted as l and which is written as lim or f (x) = l
x a x
Lt f ( x ) = l
a
Properties
(1) (2) lim [] f ( x) g ( x) = lim f ( x) lim g( x)
x a x a x a
lim [] f ( x) g ( x)
x a
= lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )where in particularlim kf ( x) = k lim f ( x)

x a x a x a x a
kis a contant
(3) .
lim f ( x) f ( x) x a lim 0 = provided lim g ( x) lim g ( x) x a g ( x) x a

x a
Standard Limits
(1)
lim
x a
xn - a n x- a
= na n - 1
70 KSOU Differential Calculus
(2)
lim
0
sin
= 1 ( in radians) also lim

0 n
tan
=1
(3)
+ 1 lim 1 ) n 8 ax - 1 x
= e 2 < e < 3 or lim (1 + x

x 0
=e
(4)
lim
x 0
= log
a ( a > 0) in particular lim

x 0
ex - 1 x
= 1.
Examples
(1)
lim
x 0
x2 + 4 x + 3 x2 - 5 x + 4
0 +0 +3 0 - 0+ 4
3 4
(2)
3 + x lim (dividing Nr & Dr by x2 ) 3= lim 2 2 x 8 3x + 2 x + 1 x 8 3+ + x

2 x2 - 3 x + 4
2-
4 x2 = 2 - 0 + 0 = 2 1 3 + 0+ 0 x2
(3)
lim
x 3
x4 - 81 x- 3
= lim
x 3
x4 - 3 4 x-3
= 4 (3 )3 = 108
(4)
x7 - (x7 + a7 x - (x+ a lim = lim = lim 5 5 5 5 5 x -a x +a x -a x + a x - a x - (x+ a x - (x7 + a 7

lim
x 0
a)7 a) a) a)
5
7( - a )6 5 - (- a )
4
7 5
a2
(5)
sin 7 x x
= lim
x 0
sin 7 x x
7 = 1 7 = 7
(6)
lim
0
1 - cos 2
2
= lim
0
2 sin 2
2
=2
tan 3 x
(7)
lim
x 0
tan 3 x - x 3 x - sin x
- 1 =
(dividing Nr & Dr by x ) = lim

x 0
x 3sin x x
3- 1 3- 1
=1
(8)
lim(1 + ) ax )
x 0
b x
ab
= lim (1 + ax
x 0
ax
= eab
(9)
+ 3 lim 1 n n 8
+ 3 = lim 1 n n 8
n 3
= e3
(10)
lim(1 - 2 x)
x 0
= lim (1- 2 x)
x 0
1 2x
-2
= e- 2
(11)
lim
x 0
a x - bx x
= lim
x 0
(a x - x ) - ( b x - x ) x
= lim
x 0
ax - x x
- lim
x 0
bx - x x
= log e a - log e b = log e
a b
2x - 1 log e 2 2x - 1 (12) 2 lim = lim x = = loge 1 x 0 sin x x 0 sin x x
Continuity of a function
A function f ( x) is saidto be continuous at x = a if lim f ( x ) = f (a )
x a
A function f ( x) is saidto be continuous if lim f ( x) exists, f (a ) exists andthey are equal.

x 0
If these donot happen then the function is said to be not continuous or discontinuous. A function f( x ) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at all points in the interval.
Examples
(1)
f (x) = x2 - 1 x- 1 is not continuous at x = 1 Q lim
x 1
x2 - 1 x-1
= 2 exists but f (0 ) =
0 0
donot exists.
where as it is continuous at all other values of x . (2)

Discuss the continuity of function f ( x) = 4 x + 3 for x = 4 3 x + 7 for < 4
at x = 4.
Solution : While finding the limit of a function f( x) as xapproaches a, if we consider the limit of the function as xapproaches a from left hand side, the limit is called 'Left Hand Limit' (LHL) and if xapproaches a from right hand side the limit is called 'Right Hand Limit' (RHL) and the limit of the function is said to exists if both LHL & RHL exists and are equal, for convenience LHL & RHL are denoted as )lim f ( x)and and further lim f ( x
x x ah 0 x a+ h 0 ax a+
LHL = lim f ( x) = lim f ( a - h) & RHL = lim f ( x) = lim f ( a + h) For the given problem LHL at x = 4 is lim f ( x ) = lim f (4 - h) = lim 3(4 - h) + 7 = 19
x 4h 0 h 0
RHL at x = 4 is lim f ( x) = lim f (4 + h) = lim 4(4 + h) + 3 = 19

x 4+ h 0 h 0
and f ( 4) = 19 The function is continuous at x = 4 sin x
(3)
Examine the continuity of
f ( x) =
for x x 2 for x = 0
at x = 0.
Solution : lim
x 0
sin x x
= 1, but f ( 0 ) = 2
The function is discontinu ous at x = 0. 5 x - 4 for 0 < x = 1
(4)
Examine the continuity of the function
f ( x ) = 4 x2 - 2 x for 1 < x < 2 4 x + 4 for x = 2
at x =1 and x = 2.
at x = 1, LHL = lim f ( x) = lim f (1 - h ) = lim 5 (1 - h) - 4 = 1

x 1h 0 h 0
RHL = lim f (1 + h ) = lim 4(1 + h )2 - 2(1 + h ) = 4 - 2 = 2

h 0 h 0
LHL
RHL at x = 1
The function is discontinuous at x = 1. at x = 2 , LHL = lim f ( 2 - h ) = lim 4( 2 - h) 2 - 2( 2 - h) = 16 - 4 = 12

h 0 h 0
RHL = lim f (2 + h) = lim 4(2 + h) + 4 = 12

h 0 h 0
and f (2) = 4 2 + 4 = 12 lim 2 f ( x) = f ( )

x 2
The function is continuous at x = 2 .
Differentiability of a function
A function f ( x ) is said to be differenti able at a point a if lim
h 0
f ( a + h) - f ( a ) h f ( x + dx ) - f ( x )
exists and the derivative is denoted as f '( a ).
A function
f ( x ) is said to be differenti able at x if
lim
dx
0
dx
exists andthe derivative is denoted as f '( x).
[d xis called the increment in x which is very very small].

If y = f ( x), the derivative is denoted by dy dx or f '( x )
Note :- A function which is differentiable is always continuous but the converse is not always true.
eg. y = f ( x ) = x = - x for x < 0 x for x = 0
is continuous for all
xbut not differentiable at x = 0.
To find the derivates of xn , log x , ax , sin x , cos x and a constant Cwith respect to x .
e
(1)
Let y = xn , d dx (iv) d
dy dx
= lim
dx
0
( x + dx )n - x n x + dx - x , ( ii ) d dx x4
= nx n - 1 d dx 9 () x = x
9 4
Eg.
(i)
() () x =7x
7
= - 4 x- 5
(iii)
9 4
-1
9 4
x4
() x
5
=-
5 3
x-
5 3
-1
= -
5 3
x-
8 3
( v)
d dx
() x =
2
1 x
dx
(2)
Let y = log
then
dy dx +x
= lim
dx
0
log e ( x + d x ) - log e x
dx
x
= lim
dx
0
x dx
log
dx
x
= lim
dx
0
1 x
+ log 1
dx
x
dx
1 x
log e e =
1 x
(3)
Let y = ax
dy dx = lim 0
dx
0
a x +d x - a x
dx
= lim a x
dx
0
(a dx - 1)
dx
= a x log e a ( a > ) in particular
d dx
(e x ) = e x
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 73 (4)
Let y = sin x dy dx = lim

dx
0
sin( x + d x ) - sin x
dx
2 cos x + dx + x 2 sin x + dx - x 2 = lim cos
dx
0
= lim
dx
0
dx
dx
2
sin
dx
2 = cos( x + 0 ) 1 = sin x.
dx
2
(5)
Let y = cos x
dy dx = lim
dx
0
cos( x + d x ) - cos x
dx
+
= lim - sin x
dx
0
dx
2
sin
dx
2 = - sin( x + 0 ) 1 = - sin x.
dx
2
(6)
Let ( y =c
a constant)
dy dx
= lim
dx
0
c- c
dx
=0
Thus derivative of a constant is zero. Thus we have the following standard derivatives Function y = f ( x ) Derivative
xn log x a
x
nxn - 1 1 x
a x loge a
cos x - sin x
sin x cos x
constant zero
Rules for differentiation

I Sum Rule
If & y = u + v whose u v are functions of x then to find dy dx Give a small increment dx to x , let the correspond ing increments in u , v & y be du , dv & d y respective ly. Then y + dy = u + d u + v + dv
Subtracting y + d y - y = u + du + v + dv - u - v
divide through out by dx then take limits on both sides as d x Then lim
dx
0
ie dy = du + d v
dy d u dv = + dx dx dx
0.
dy du dv = lim + lim d x d x 0 dx dx 0 dx
ie
dy dx
du dx
dv dx dy dx = du dx + dv dx dw dx dy dx = d dx ( x6 ) + d dx (sin x ) d dx (cos x )
Note : - If y = u + v - w then
Eg.
(1) If y = x 6 + sin x - cos x then
= 6 x5 + cos x - (- sin x) = 6 x5 + cos x + sin x.

( 2) If y = 3x - log x + c then dy dx = 3x log 3 e
1 x
+ 0.
II Product Rule
If y = uv where u & v are functions of xthen to find dy dx .
Give a small increment d xto x, let the correspond ing increments in u , v & y be d u , d v & d y respective ly. then y + dy = ( u + d u )( v + dv ) = uv + u d v + v du + du d v
d y = y + d y - y = udv + v du + du d v
divide through out by d x ,
dy dv du dv =u + v + du dx dx dx dx take limit on both sides as dx

then lim lim
dx
0
0, du
0
dy dv du = u lim + v lim + dx dx 0 d x d x 0 dx dx
dv dx + v du dx + v du dx +o dv dx
dv dx
ie
dy dx
=u
ie
dy dx
=u
dv dx
Note (1) If y = kv where k is a constant dy dx dw dx
then dv dx
dy dx + vw
= k du dx
dv dx
(2 ), If y = uvw then
3 2
= uv
+ uw
Eg. (1) If y = x
3 2
sin x then
dy dx
3 2 x
=x
1 2
3 2
d dx
(sin x) + sin x
d dx
3 2
= x
cos x + sin x
( 2) 8 If y = 8 cos x then
dy dx
=-
sin x dy dx d dx d dx d dx
( 3) If y = e x sin x log x then 1 x
= e x sin x
(log x ) + e x log x
(sin x) + sin x log x
( ex )
= e x sin x
+ e x log x cos x + sin x log x e x .
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 75 III Quotient Rule

If y = u v where u & v are functions of x then to find dy dx .
Give a small increment dx to x , let the correspond ing increments in u , v & y be d u , dv & dy respective ly. then y + d y = u + du v + dv u + du v +dv u v = v (u + du ) - u ( v + d v ) v ( v + dv ) = vu + v d u - uv - u dv v (v + dv )
dy =
divide through out by dx
du dv -u dx dx = dx v (v + dv ) dy v
take limit on both sides as d x 0
du dv -u dx dx ie lim = lim d x 0 dx d x 0 v (v + d v ) dy v
v = du dx v2 - u dv dx
ie
dy dx
This rule can be easily remembered in the following manner

If y = u v Then dy dx Note : - If y = k v Eg. (1) If y = tan x = sin x cos x cos x d dx (sin x) - sin x
2
Nr Dr
(say)
Dr ( derivative of Nr ) - Nr (derivative of Dr ) ( Dr ) 2 k is a constant then dy dx =k dv v 2 dx
where
d dx
dy then cos = dx =
(cos x )
x = cos 2 x + sin 2 x cos 2 x = 1 cos 2 x = sec 2 x .
cos x cos x - sin x (- sin x ) cos

2
x dy dx = sec 2 x.
If y = tan x, then cos x sin x
( 2) If y = cot x =
dy sin x ( - sin x ) - cos x (cos x ) then sin = 2 x dx = - sin 2 x - cos 2 x sin 2 x = - 1 sin 2 x = - cosec
2
x.
If y = cot x , then
dy dx
- cosec
x.
( 3) 1 If y = sec x = cos x then dy dx =1 cos 2 x =1 d (cos x) cos 2 x dx 1 cos x dy dx (sin x ) = 1 sin x = sec x tan x. cos x cos x
( - sin x ) =
If y = sec x , then
= sec x tan x.
( 4) 1 If y = cosec x = sin x then dy dx =1 sin 2 x cos x
=-
1 cos x = - cosec x cot x. sin x sin x dy dx = - cosec x cot x.
If y = cosec x , then
IV Chain Rule or function of a function rule

If , y = f ( u ) where u = g ( x ) to find dy dx lim
dx
0
consider
dy d y du = dx du d x
dy dy du = lim dx dx 0 du dx
= dy du dy dy du dv also if y = f ( x ), u = g ( v ) & v = h ( x ) then = du dx dx du dv dx
ie
dy dx
Eg. ) (1) If y = (ax2 + bx + c n then put u = ax2 + bx + c

y = un dy du u = ax 2 + bx + c du dx dy dx = dy du = ( ax 2 + bx + c ) n ( 2 ax + b ). du dx = 2 ax + b = nu n- 1
( 2) 7 If y = log( x3 - 2 x2 + )
then dy dx = 1 ( x3 - 2 x2 + 7 ) d dx ( x3 - 2 x2 + 7 ) = 3 x2 - 4 x x3 - 2 x2 + 7
( 3) 3 If y = sin( 2x 2 + 4x - )
then dy dx = cos( 3 2 x2 + 4 x - 3 )( 4 x + 4) = 4( x + 1 ) cos( 2 x2 + 4 x )
(4) If y = tan
x2 - 1 x2 + 1
then
dy x2 - 1 d x2 - 1 = sec 2 dx x2 + 1 dx x2 +1 = sec2 x2 - 1 x +1 = sec2 x2 - 1 x 2 +1 4x ( x2 +1)2

2
( x2 +1)(2 x) - ( x2 - 1 )2 x ( x +1)
2 2
= sec2
x2 - 1 x +1
2
2x( x2 +1 - x2 + 1) ( x2 +1)2
Derivative of Hyperbolic functions

(1) If y = sinh x,
then
dy dx
d dx
(sinh x) =
d +ex dx 2
e- x
e x - e- x 2
= cosh x.
( 2) If y = cosh x,
then
dy d d - ex e- x = (cosh x) = dx dx dx 2
sinh x cosh x
ex + e- x = sinh x . 2
(3 ) If y = tanh x = dy dx d dx
then
sinh x cosh x cosh

2
cosh x cosh x - sinh x sinh x cosh 2 x
x - sinh 2 x
1 cosh 2 x
cosh 2 x ,
= sech 2 x .
( 4) If y = coth x = dy dx d dx
cosh x sinh x
then
cosh x sinh x sinh 2 x - cosh 2 x sinh 2 x - 1 sinh 2 x
sinh x sinh x - cosh x cosh x sinh 2 x 1 cosh x ,
= - cosech
x.
(5 ) If y = sech x =
then
dy dx
d dx
1 cosh x
= -
cosh 2 x dx
(cosh x )
- 1 cosh 2 x
sinh x =
-1 sinh x = - sech x tanh x. sech x cosh x
(6 ) If y = cosech x = dy dx -1 sinh 2 x -1
1 sinh x
, d
then
=-
(sinh x)
sinh 2 x dx cosh x = - 1 sinh x cosh x sinh x = - cosech x coth x.
Implicit Functions
Function of the type f ( x, y ) = 0 is called Implicit function.
To & find dy dx treat y as a function of x use chain rule.
Eg. (1) If ax2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0

+ dy then 2 ax + 2 h x dx ie ( 2 hx + 2 by ) dy dx Eg. dy dx y + 2 by dy dx =0
= - 2 ax - 2 hy - (ax + hy ) hx + by
- 2( ax + hy ) 2( hx + by )
(2) If x sin y + y sin x = 10
differentiating w.r.t. x
x cos y dy dx ie ( x cos y + sin x ) dy dx dy dx + sin y + y cos x + sin x dy dx = - sin y - y cos x =0
- (sin y + y cos x ) ( x cos y + sin x )
Parametric functions
Functions of the type x = f ( t ), y = g ( t ) taken together is called Parametric function, isthe parameter.
where t is the paramter. Parametric
functions are also denoted as x = f ( ), y = f ( )where

To & find dy dx Eg. dy dx then = dy dt dx dt or , consider dx dt dy dx = dy dt dy d dx d dy dx or dx d & dy d
(1) If x = a cos 3 t , y = a sin 3 t , find dx dt
Solution : x = a cos 3 t ,
= - 3 a cos 2 t sin t , y = a sin 3 t ,
dy dt
= 3a sin 2 t cos t
dy dx
dy dt dx dt
3 a sin2 t cos t - 3a cos 2 t sin t
= - tan t
(2) If x = a (3 cos dy dx
- 4 sin 3
) & y = a (3sin + 12 cos 2
- 4 cos 3 sin ) )
), find
dy dx
Solution :
dy d dx d = 3 cos
a (3 cos a ( - 3 sin (1 + 4 sin (1 + 4 sin
- 12 sin 2 cos cos cos ) ) = - cot
- 3 sin
Differentiation using Logarithms

If y = f ( x)g ( x ) use logarithms on both sides log y = log f ( x) g ( x) = g ( x) log f ( x) differentiating w.r.t. x
1 dy y dx dy dx Eg. (1) Find dy dx Solution : log y = x log x 1 dy y dx ie dy dx = x 1 x + log x 1 = g ( x) 1 f ( x) = f ( x) g ( x ) + g ( x ) f '( x ) f (x) if y = xx g ' ( x ) log f ( x) f '( x ) + g '( x ) log f ( x ) = g ( x ) f ' ( x) f (x) + g '( x ) log f ( x)
= x x [1 + log x ] dy dx
(2) If y = xs i n x + (cos x ) ta n x , find
Solution : Let y = u + v where u = xsin x & v = (cos x)tan x

log u = sin x log x 1 du u dx ie du dx = sin x x +sin x x cos x log x + cos x log x
= xs i n x
v = (cos x) tanx
log v = tan x log cos x 1 dv v dx dv dx dy dx = du dx + dv dx = xsi n x + sin x x cos x log x + (cos x ) t an x [ - tan 2 x + sec 2 x log cos x] = tan x 1( - sin x ) cos x + sec 2 x log cos x
= (cos x) tan x [ - tan 2 x + sec 2 x log cos x ]
Derivatives of inverse Trigonometric functions

(1) d 1 (sin -1 x) = dx 1 - x2 d (cos - 1 x) = dx
d dx ( 4) d dx (cot - 1 x ) = (tan - 1 x ) =
for x < 1
(2)
-1 1- x2
1 1 + x2 - 1 1 + x2
for x < 1
(3 )
(5 )
d dx d dx
(sec- 1 x) =
1 x x2 - 1
for | x | > 1 - 1
(6 )
(cosec - 1 x) =
for x > 1
x x2 - 1
Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions

(1)) d dx (sinh- 1 x = 1 1+ x 2 1 x -1
1 1 - x2 - 1 x2 - 1 for x <1
2
(2)
d (cosh- 1 x) = dx
d dx d dx (tanh - 1 x) =
for x > 1
(3 )
( 4)
(coth - 1 x) =
for
x >1
(5 )
d -1 (sech- 1 x) = dx x 1 - x2 d -1 (cosech- 1 x ) = dx x 1+ x2
for x < 1
(6 )
Exercise
Find dy dx of the following
1. y = x2 + a 2
4. y = x+ 1 x- 1 y = ax 2 + bx + c
2 . y = log e (3 x + 2)
5. y = x2 e x
3.
6.
y = loge cos x
y = ( 2 x + 3) 2 y = (3 x + 5) 1/ 3
7.
8.
y = e
9.
10. y = sin x + log e x + x2 + e x 13. y = sinh xsinh- 1 x
11. y = cosec x - tan x + x5 14. y = sin x sin- 1 x
12. y = sinh- 1 x 15. y = sec- 1 x + cosec - 1 x
16. y = (1 + x2 )tan-1 x 19. y = ( x

22 . y = ex x
2
17. y = (1 + x2 ) sin x 20. y =

23 . y =
18. y = 21. y
x2 + x + 1 x
+1)2
( x + 2)
5 ex
+ 4 loge x
x
= e x (sin
x + cos x)
e x + e2
24 . y = sin x sin 2 x
25 . y = ( x + a )( x + b )( x + c )
26 . y = sin - 1
2x 1 + x2
27 . y = tan - 1
x+a 1 - ax
28 . y =
1 - cos x 1 + cos x
29 . y = e s in h x
30 . y = log e
sin x
31 . y = log e ( x2 tan x)
32 . y = (1 - x2 ) cos - 1 x
33 . y = tan - 1
1+ x 1- x
34 . y = tan - 1
1- x 1+ x
35 . xy = c 2
36 . sin - 1 x + sin - 1 y = 0
37. x2 + y2 = a2
40 . x = t, y = 1 t
38. x2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = a 2 /3
41 . x = 4 cosh t , y = 4 sinh t
39. x = at 2 , y = 2at
42 . x = a cos t , y = b sin t
43. x = loge sec t , y = tan2 t 46. y = ( x +1 )e log e x cosec x xex 1 + cos x x3 ex cos
-1 2 x
44. y = x cos xy 47. y = e -e

x - x x
45. y = sin xy 48. y = (1+ x2 ) tan x cos - 1 x loge x 3 x - x3 1 - 3x2
e x + e-
49. y =
50 . y =
x2 + ex 1 - x loge x x2 + 1 x -1 1 + sin x 1 - sin x

2
51. y =
52. y =
53. y = sec- 1 x
54. y = tan- 1
55. y =
5x3 cosh x cosech x
56. y =
57. y =
x+3 sec x x- 1
58. y = ( x - 1)2 cosec- 1 ( x - 1) 61. x = et (cos t + sin t), y = et
59. sin( x + y ) = log e ( x + y ) (cos t - sin t)

64 . x = a 1 + cos t 67 . y = (sin x ) si n x 70 . e x + y = e x + e y , y= a 1 - cos t
60. y sin x + x sin y = 0 62. x = a cos 4 t , y = a sin4 t

65 . y = sin n x sin nx
- 1
63 . x = log e sec t , y = tan 2 t 66 . y = (sin - 1 x ) ta n x 69 . y = (log x x) l og e

x
68 . y = (sin x )ta n
Successive Differentiation
If y = f ( x )then dy dx The second derivative is denoted by d2 y dx 2 or f ''( x ) or y 2 or D 2 y . = f '( x ) is also a function of x, hence further derivative s can be obtained.
The third derivative is denoted by
d3 y dx 3
or f ''' ( x ) or y 3 or D 3 y . dn y dx n
In general n t h derivative is denoted as
or f ( n) ( x ) or yn or D n y .
Examples
1. If y = (1 + x 2 ) tan - 1 x find d2 y dx 2 at x = 1
Solution : y = (1 + x2 ) tan- 1 x
dy dx = (1 + x2 ) 1 1 + x2 1 1 + x2 =
x= 1
+ tan - 1 x ( 2 x ) = 1 + 2 x tan - 1 x .
d2 y dx 2
= 0 + 2x
+ 2 tan - 1 x
at x = 1, 2
d2 y dx 2
2 1 +1
+ 2
p
4
= 1+
2.
If y 2 = 4 ax , show that
d2 y dx 2
- 4a y3
Solution : y2 = 4ax
differenti ating w.r.t. x 2y dy dx = 4a dy dx = 2a y
again differenti ating w.r.t. x d2 y dx

2
= -
2 a dy y
2
=-
2a y
2
2a y
- 4a 2 y3
dx
3.
+ If x = a cos t
log tan
t 2
& y = a sin t , then show that
d2 y dx2
sin t a cos 4 t
+ Solution : x = cos t
log tan
t 2
dx = a - sin t + dt
1 t sec2 1 2 2 tan 2
= a - sin t +
1 1 + = a - sin t + = a - sin t 1 t t t 2 2 tan cos 2 sin cos 2 2 2 2
1 sin t
=a
+- sin2 t 1 sin t
a cos 2 t sin t
y = a sin t , dy dx dy dt dx dt
dy dt
= a cos t a cos t a cos

2
sin t = tan t
d2 y dx2
d2 y dx 2 4.
d dy d dy dt 1 sec 2 t = = sec 2 t = dx dx dt dx dx dx dt a cos 2 t sin t

sin t a cos 4 t d2 y dx 2 2x
If y = sin 2 x, find
dy Solution sin : = 2 sin x cos x = dx d2 y dx 2 5.
= cos 2 x 2 = 2 cos 2 x d2 y dx 2
If y = x2 log e x find dy dx 1 x
Solution :
= x2
+ log e 1 x 2 x = x (2 log e x + )
d2 y dx 2
6.
=x
2 + (2 2log e x +1) = 3+ loge x x

d2 y dx 2
If y = e ax sin( bx + c ) find dy dx dy dx d2 y dx 2 = e ax
Solution :
= e a x cos( bx + c ) b + sin( bx + c ) ae a x
{} b cos( bx + c ) + a sin( bx + c )
= e ax - b 2 sin( bx + c ) + ab cos( bx + c ) + ae a x {} b cos( bx + c ) + a sin( bx + c)
{}
= eax 2ab cos( bx + c ) + ( a2 - b 2 ) sin( bx + c )

7. If x = a ( - sin dx d dy dx = b sin 2 a (1 - cos ) ), y = b (1 - cos dy d = b 2 sin( 2) cos( 2) 2) = b a cot( ) ) find d2 y dx 2 Solution : = a (1 - cos ), = b sin
{}
a 2 sin 2 (
d2 y dx 2
=-
b 1 d b 1 b cosec2 =cosec2 =cosec4 ( a 2 2 dx 2a 2 a (1 2- cos ) 4a 2
).
8.
If y = e m s i n-1
, then prove that
(1 - x2 ) y
- xy - m 2 y = 0
1
dy m - 1 Solution : = emsin x dx 1 - x2 cross multiplying & squaring, we have

2 (1- x2 ) y1 = m2 y 2
2 (- 2 x) = m2 2 yy (1- x2 ) 2 y1 y2 + y1 1
Dividing throughou t by 2 y1 , we get (1 - x2 ) y2 - xy1 - m2 y = 0 9. If y = sin( m sin - 1 x ), then provethat (1 - x2 ) y2 - xy + m2 y = 0 1 m 1- x2
Solution : y1 = cos( m sin- 1 x)
y =
1
m 1- y2 1 - x2
(1 - x2 ) y 2 = m 2 (1 - y 2 )
1
2 (1- x2 )2 y1 y2 + y1 (- 2 x) = m2 (- 2 yy1 )
Dividing throughto ut by 2 y1 we get (1 0- x 2 ) y2 - xy + m2 y = . 1 10. If y = e x tan- 1 x , provethat (1+ x2 ) y2 - 2(1 - x + x2 ) y1 + (1 - x)2 y = 0

dy dx = ex 1 1 + x2 + e x tan- 1 x
Solution :
(1 + x2 )[ y1 - y] = ex differentiating w.r.t. x (1 + x2 )( y2 - y1 ) + 2x( y1 - y) = ex (1 + x2 ) y2 - (1 + x2 - 2 x) y1 - 2xy = (1 + x2 ) y1 - (1 + x2 ) y (1 + x2 ) y2 - 2 (1 + x2 - x) y1 + (1 - x)2 y = 0
Exercise
(1) If 4 x2 + 9 y 2 = 36 show that d2 y dx 2 =16 9 y2 ( 2) If x2 + 2 xy + 3 y 2 = 1 prove that d2 y dx 2 = - 2 ( x + 3 y )3
(3 )
If x = a cos 3
, y = a sin 3
find
d2 y dx 2
( 4)
If x = a tan , y =
1 2
a sin 2
find
d2 y dx 2
(5 )
If x = a (cos
+ sin
), y = a (sin
cos
) show that
d2 y dx
2
sec 3 a
( 6)
If y = sin - 1 2 x, then find
d y dx 2
(7)
If y = x log e x ,then
find
d2 y dx 2
(8 )
If y = e 4 x sec 3 x,then
find
d2 y dx 2 d2 y dx 2
(9 )
If y = a x ,then
find
d2 y dx 2 d2 y dx 2
( 10 )
If x = at 2 , y = 2 at ,then
find
( 11 )
2
If x3 y 3 = a x , then find
(12 )
If y = a cos mx + b sin mx , prove that

m
d y dx 2
+ m2 y = 0
(13) (14) (15) (16) (17)

(18 )
+ If y = x +
x2
, prove that ( x2 +1) y2 + xy - m2 y = 0 1
If y = axn +1 + bx - n , provethat x2 y2 - n (n +1) y = 0 If x = sin t, y = sin pt , provethat (1 - x2 ) y2 - xy1 + p 2 y = 0 If x2 + xy + y2 = 1, then provethat ( x + 2 y )3 y2 + 6 = 0 If y = eax sin bx provethat y2 - 2ay1 + ( a 2 + b 2 ) y = 0
If y = ax + b x2 then b xn show that x2 y 2 + 2( xy1 - y ) = 0
(19 )
If y = ax n +1 +
then show that
x2 y
= n ( n + 1) y
( 20 )
If x = a cos nt + b sin nt then show that
d2 x dt 2
+ n2 x = 0
nth derivative of Standard functions

1 .) If y = (ax + b
m to
find yn
Solution : y1 = m( ax + b )m - 1 a ; y2 = m( m - 1)( ax + b )m - 2 a2
differenti ating ntimes, we have
yn = m( m 1 - 1)L ( m - n + )( ax + b )m- n an
in particular , if m = - 1 ie y = 1 ax + b
yn = (-L 1)( )- 2)( - 3)

ie y n = 2 .) ( - 1) n n ! a n ( ax + b )n + 1
(- n)( ax + b
- 1- n
an
If y = log( ax + b to find yn 1 ax + b a
Solution : y1 =
differenti )ating ( n - 1 times ( - 1)n - 1 an - 1 (ax + b ) n ( - 1 )n - 1 a n ( ax + b )n
yn =
a =
3.
If y = amx to find yn
2
Solution :) y1 = amx m(log a ) ; y2 = a mx m2 (log a Ingeneral, yn = mn (log a )n amx

4 .) If y = sin( ax + b to find y n
+ Solution : y1 = a cos( ax + b ) = a sin ax + b again differenti ating w.r.t. x y 2 = a 2 cos + ax + b
p
2
p
2
p = a2 sin ax + b + 2 2 p
2
y 3 = a 3 cos
ax + b + 2
p = a 3 sin ax + b + 3 2
In general, 5 .)
p = a n sin ax + b + n 2
If y = cos( ax + b to find y n + ax + b
Solution : y1 = - a sin( ax + b ) = a cos
p
2
again differenti ating w.r.t. x + y 2 = - a 2 sin ax + b
p
2
p = a 2 cos ax + b + 2 2
ax + b + n
In general,
= a n cos
p
2
6 .)
If y = eax cos(bx + c to find yn
Solution : differenti atingw.r.t. x
y1 = aeax cos( bx + c) - beax sin( bx + c )

put a = r cos a , b = r sin a
then y1 = reax cos( bx + c) cos a - reax sin( bx + c )sin a = reax [cos( bx + c) cos a - sin( bx + c ) sin a ] = reax cos( bx + c + a )
again & differenti ating w.r.t. x simplifyin g, we get
y2 = r 2 e ax cos(bx + c + 2 a )
In general, yn = r n e a x cos( bx + c + n a ) where r = a2 + b2 & a = tan - 1 b a
7 .)
If y = eax sin( bx + c to find yn
Solution : differenti ating w.r.t. x
y1 = aeax sin( bx + c ) + beax cos( bx + c )

put a = r cos a , b = r sin a
then y1 = reax [sin( bx + c) cos a + cos(bx + c )sin a ] = reax sin( bx + c + a )

again differenti & ating w.r.t. x simplifyin g, we get
y2 = r 2 eax sin( bx + c + 2a )
In general, y n = r n e a x sin( bx + c + na ) where r = a 2 + b2 & a = tan - 1 b a
8. Statement of Leibmitz's Theorem on
nth derivative of a product
If u & v are functions of x, the nth derivative of the productuv is given by

( uv ) n = un v + nc1 u n - 1 v2 + nc 2 un - 2 v 2 + L L + nc n uv n where suffixes of u & v represent order of the derivative s of u & v .
Examples
1. Find the n t h derivative of 1 x2 - 6 x + 8 1 x2 - 6 x + 8 1 ( x - 2 )( x - 4) = ) A ( x - 2) + B ( x - 4) (Say)
Solution : Let y =
multiplyin g throughou t by ( x 4 - 2)( x 1 = A( x 2 - 4) + B ( x put x = 2, 1 = A (- 2) ) A= 1 2 1 2 put x = 4, 1 = 2 B B=
1 1 2 + 2 y= (x 4- 2 ) ( x - )
differenti ating ntimes, we have y Find the n t h derivative of sin 2 x
3 n
1 2
( - 1) n n !
( x - 2) n +1
( - 1 )n n ! + 2 ( x - 4) n +1
2. cos
x cos 3 x + 3 cos x 4
Solution : Let y = sin 2 x cos 3 x = 1 8 =
(1 - cos 2 x) 2
ie y =
[cos 3 x + 3 cos x - cos 3 x cos 2 x - 3cos 2 x cos x] 1+ 1 3 cos 3 x + 3 cos x (cos 5 x + cos x) (cos 3 x 8 2 2 18 cos 3 x + 3 cos x 1 2 cos 5 x 1 2 cos x 3 2 cos 3 x
cos x ) 3 2
cos x )
y =
1 cos 1 cos x - cos 3 x 8 2
1 2
5x
yn =
1 8
+ cos x
p
2
1 2
+ 3n cos 3 x
p
2
1 2
+ 5 n cos 5 x
p
2
3.
If y = e 2 x sin 2 x to find yn
1 2 e 2 x (1 - cos 2 x ) y= 1 2 e 2x 1 2 e 2 x cos 2 x 1 2 = tan - 1 1 = 1 2
Solution : y =
differenti ating ntimes, we have y n = 8, a = tan - 1 2 2 y n = 2n - 1 e 2 x 1 2
2n e 2 x -
r n e 2 x cos( 2 x + n - a )
where r =
4+4 =
p
4
() 8
cos
2x + n
p
2
4.
If y = e 4 x sin 5 x cos 3 x find yn

1 2 e 4 x [sin 8 x + sin 2 x ] ie y = 1 2 y e 4 x sin 8 x + 1 2 1 2
n
Solution : y =
1 2
e 4 x sin 2 x + e 4 x sin 8 x 8 4 + e 4 x sin 2 x 1 2 1 2 + e 4 x sin 2 x 2 4
() () 16 + 64
20
n tan - 1
16 + 4
n tan - 1
ie y
1 2
() () 80 e
n
4x
sin( 8 x + n tan - 1 2) +
n tan - 1
5.
If y = x2 log 3 x find yn
Solution : y = x2 log 3 x
Let u = log 3 x = log 3 + log x (- 1) n - 1 xn , v = x2
un =
differenti ating ntimes, using Leibnitz' s Theorem, ( - 1) n - 1 xn x2 + nC1 ( - 1) nx n- 1

2
y n = ( uv )n =
2 x + nC 2
( - 1)n - 3 xn - 2
n- 3
n- 3 ( - 1))
xn -
(- 1 [][] ( - 1) + (- 1) 2 n + n ( n - 1) =
2 1
xn - 2
1 - 2 n + n2 - n
ie y n =
(- 1)n - 3 xn - 2
[] n - 3n + 1
2
6.
If y = a cos(log x ) + b sin(log x) show that x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1)x yn +1 + ( n2 +1 ) yn = 0
Solution : Let y = a cos(log x ) + b sin(log x ) differenti ating w.r.t. x y = - a sin(log x)

1
1 x
+ b cos(log x)
1 x
ie xy1 = - a sin(log x ) + b cos(log x ) differenti ating w.r.t. x again xy2 + y1 = - a cos(log x )

2
1 x
- b sin(log x )
1 x
ie x y2 + xy1 = - a cos(log x) - b sin(log x ) = - y ie x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0

differenti ating ntimes, using Leibnitz' s Theorem, we have x2 y + nC 2 xy
1
n+2
n+ 1 n +1
+ nC 2 y
2
+ xy
+ nC 1 y
1
+ yn = 0 adding, x2 y
n+2
+ ( 2 n + 1) xy
n +1
+ [ n ( n - 1) + n + 1] y
=0
ie x2 yn +2 + (2n +1 ) xyn +1 + (n2 + 1) yn = 0

7. If y = e m co s - 1
m co s- 1 x x
, prove that (1 - x2 ) y
n+ 2
- ( 2 n + 1) xy
n +1
- ( n2 + m 2 ) y = 0
n
Solution : y = e
differenti ating w.r.t. x
y1 = em cos x
- m 1 - x2
ie
1- x2 y1 = - my
2 = m2 y 2 squaring both sides (1 - x 2 ) y1
differenti ating again w.r. t. x ,
(1 - x2 )2 y1 y2 + y12 (- 2x ) = m2 2 yy1
dividing by 2 y1 , we have
(1 - x2 ) y2 - xy1 - m2 y = 0
differenti ating w.r.t. x, n times using Leibnitz' s Theorem, (1 - x 2 ) y n + 2 + nC1 yn + 1 ( - 2 x) + nC 2 y n (- 2 ) - xy
n +1
+ nC 1 y (- 1)
n
- m2 yn = 0 adding, (1 - x 2 ) y
n+2
- (2 n + 1) xy
n +1
- ( n2 - n + n + m 2 ) y = 0
n
ie (1 - x2 ) yn + 2 - (2 n +1) xyn +1 - ( n2 + m2 ) yn = 0 8. If y1 m + y- 1 m = 2 x, provethat ( x2 - 1) yn +2 + (2 n +1) xyn +1 + ( n2 - m2 ) yn = 0
Solution : y1 m + y - 1 m = 2 x ie y1 m
() () y
+ 1 = 2 xy1 m - 2 xy1 m + 1 = 0
1m 2
which is a quadratic equation in y1
y1
2x
4x 2 - 4 2
= x
x2 - 1
Consider, y1 m = x +
x2 - 1
y = x + x2
y1 = m - x +
x2
m-1
1+
2x 2 x2 - 1
= m- x + x 2
m- 1
+ x2 - 1 x2 - 1
ie
x2 - 1 y1 = my
Squaring both sides ( x2 - 1) y12 = m2 y2

( x2 - 1)2 y1 y2 + y12 (2 x) = 2m2 yy1

dividing throughou t by 2 y , we have
1
( x2 - 1) y2 + xy1 - m2 y = 0
differenti ating ntimes using Leibnitz' s Theorem ( x2 - 1) y + nC y 2 x + nC 2 yn 2 n+ 2 1 n +1 + xyn + 1 + nC1 y n 1 - m2 y = 0
n
adding, ( x 2 - 1) y n + 2 + (2 n + 1 ) xy n +1 + ( n 2 - n + n - m 2 ) y n = 0
ie ( x2 - 1) yn + 2 + (2n +1) xyn +1 + ( n2 - m2 ) yn = 0 We obtain the same result if y1 m = - x x2 1 ie y = - x m
x2
Exercise
1. Find the n t h derivative of 1 x2 - 5 x + 6
2. 3. 4.
5.
Findthe nth derivative of (i) sin3 x ( ii ) cos 3 x (iii ) sin 4 x cos 3x (iv ) sin 8 xsin 4x ( v ) cos 5x cos x. Findthe nth derivative of (i) e3 x sin 2 x ( ii ) e2 x cos 2 x ( iii ) e x sin 5 xcos 2 x If y = sin( m sin - 1 x ), provethat (1 - x2 ) yn+ 2 - (2 n +1) xyn +1 - ( n2 - m2 ) yn = 0
If y = e a si n- 1 x , prove that (1 - x2 ) y n +
2
- (2 n + 1) xy n + - (n 2 + a 2 ) y n = 0
1
6.
If y = ( x2 - 1)n , provethat (x2 - 1 ) yn +2 + 2 xyn +1 - n(n +1 ) yn = 0
Polar Co-ordinates
Let O be a fixed point and OA the initial line. Let P be any point on the curve. Let A O P = & OP = r which are called Polar co - ordinates.
r = f () q
then ) c o - ordinates of P are (r ,
r qy p
P (, r )q
r is called radiusvector, which is distance of P from O and isthe AOP measuredin anticlock direction.
Equation t o the curve is taken as r = f ( )
A Q
Let PT be the tangent to the curver = f ( ) at P, then angle made by the tangent with radius vectorOP is denoted as ie O PT = and angle made by the tangent with initial line OA is denoted by . It can be seen from the figure that = +
T (1)
Let OQ represent perpendicular from the poleOupon the tangent at P, it is denoted as p .

It can be seen from the triangle p = r sin f OPQ that sin f = OQ OP = p r
(2)
rd dr
To prove that tan f =
(important
result) dy dx
If the Cartesian co - ordinates of P are ( x , y ) then x = r cos
y = r sin
and tan
tan
dy d dx d
r cos = cos
+ sin dr d
dr d
- r sin
using , (1) & dividing Nr & Dr of RHS by cos
dr d
we have
r tan( + )=
d dr d
+ tan ie tan
tan
+ tan f tan f
tan =
+r
d dr d dr
1- r
1 - tan
1 - tan r
dr d dr from (2) p = r sin f 1 p 1 p

2 2
Comparing LHS & RHS, we have
tan f = r
(3)
1 r2
cosec 2 f =
1 r2
1 + cot 2 f =
[]
1 r2
1 r2
dr rd
using (3)
1 r
2
+ r
1
4
dr d
(4)
and obtain a relation between p & r for the curve, which is called
using r = f ( ) & ( 4) we can eliminate
Pedal
Equation or ( p, r ) equation of the curve.
92 KSOU Differential Calculus To find the angle between two curves r = g () q
r = f( ) & r = g( )
r = f () q
Let the two curves r = f ( ) & r = g ( ) intersect at P .
f 1 & f 2 bet the angles Let PT1 & PT 2 be the tangents to the two curves and let made by the tangents with the radius vectorOP .
Angle between tw o curves is given by f 1 - f 2 Now
P f2 f1 f 1 -f
2
f -f tan ()
1
tan f 1 - tan f 2 1 + tan f tan f

1 2
(5) T 2 T1
using the result in (3) we can find tan f 1 & tan f 2 and hence angle between two
curves at the point of intersection can be found out.

If tan f = tan f then
1 2
f -f tan ()
1
=0
ie f = f
1
the two curves touch each other at P .
If tan f 1 tan f 2 = - 1then
f1 - f 2 =
p
2
the two curves are said to intersect orthogonal ly.
Examples
(1) Show that in the equiangula r spiral r = ae
co t a
cot a
thetangent is inclined at a constant angleto the radiusvector.
Solution : r = ae
differenti ating w.r.t. d dr r dr d ( 2)
dr d
= ae
cot
cot a = r cot a
tan f = r
r r cot a
= tan a
f = a hence the result.
Show that the tangent t othe Cardiod r = a (1 + cos ) , dr d = a (0 - sin )
) at the point
p
3
is parallel to the initial line.
Solution : r = a (1 + cos
differenti ating w.r.t.
tan f = r
d dr
r dr d
a (1 + cos - a sin
2 cos 2 = - sin 2
2 2 =
= - cot 2
= tan
+p 2 2
cos
f =
p
2
+ 2
when & =
p
3
, f =
p
2
p
6
+f =
p
3
p
2
p
6
=p
the tangent is parallel to the initial line. (3) For the curve 2a r 2a r = 1 - cos show that ( i ) f = p and ( ii ) p = a cosec
Solution :
= 1 - cos
differenti ating w.r.t.
, -
2 a dr r2 d
= sin
dr d
- r 2 sin 2a
Now tanf = r
d r r = = dr dr - r 2 sin d 2a
= tan p
=-
2a r sin
1- cos - sin
2 sin2 = - sin 2
2 2
= - tan
cos
ie tan f = - tan
f =p2a 2 sin 2 2
2 a
& p = r sin f = r sin p
= r sin
ie p = sin
2a 2 1- cos
= sin 2
p = a cosec 2 2
sin
(4 )
Find the angle between th e curves r = 2 sin dr d = cos
& r = sin
+ cos
Solution : r = 2 sin 2 ,
Let f 1 bethe angle made by the tangent at the point of intersecti on with radius vector tan f =r d dr = r dr d = 2 sin 2 cos = tan
f1 =
for the curve r = sin dr d Let f
2
(1)
+ cos
= cos
- sin
bethe angle w.r.t. this curve
tanf 2 = r
d r sin + cos = = dr dr cos - sin d
tan + 1 + = tan 1 - tan
p 4
f2 =
p
4 +
(2) p
4
from (1) & (2) f 1 - f 2 =
angle between tw o curves is
p
4
(5 )
Prove that the curves r = a (1 + cos r = a (1+ cos )
) & r = b (1 - cos
) intersect at right angles.
Solution : Consider dr d
= - a sin d dr r dr d a (1 + cos - a sin ) (1 + cos - sin )
tan f 1 = r
(1)
Consider
r = b (1 - cos
),
dr d
= b sin
tan f 2 = r
d dr
r dr d
b (1 - cos b sin
(1- cos sin
(2)
from (1) & (2) tan f 1 tan f 2 = (1 + cos - sin ) (1 - cos sin ) 1 - cos 2 - sin 2 sin 2 - sin 2
=- 1
the two curves intersect orthogonal ly. (6 ) Find the pedal equation of 2a r differenti ating w.r.t. 2 a dr r2 d ie 1 dr r2 d 1 p
2
2a r
= 1 + cos
Solution :
= 1 + cos
= - sin sin 2a 1 r2 1 r2 1 4a 2 1 r4 dr d
2
(1)
1 r2 1 r2 1 dr r2 1 4a2 d
2
Now
1 r
2
sin 2 4 a2
2
using (1)
1 - cos 2
[]
1-
- 2a r
1 r2
1 4a2
+ 4a 2 1- 1 r2
4a r
ie
1 p2
1 r2
1 +- 4 a2 4 a2 r2
4a r
1 r2
1 r2
1 ar
1 ar
p2 = ar which isthe requiredpedal equation.
Exercise
1. Find the length of the perpendicu lar from the pole on the tangent t othe curve. r = a (1 - cos ) Ans : 2 a sin 3 2
2.
3. 4.
Forthe curve
r2
a2
sin 2
showthat
=3 .
r = 2 sin 2 , r = cos Answer :
Find the angle of intersecti on of the curves Show that the curves r = a (1 + sin
p
2
) & r = a (1 - sin
m m
) intersect orthogonal ly.
5.
6.
Findthe pedal equation of the curve r = a cos m

Find the pedal equation of r = a
Answer : pa m = rm +1 Answer : p2 (r 2 + a2 ) = r 4
Indeterminate Forms
While evaluating lim
x a
f ( x) g ( x)
or lim [] f ( x) - g ( x ) or lim f ( x ) g ( x ) when it takes the forms

x a x a
0 0
8 8
, 8 - 8 , 18 , , 0 they
are called Indeterminate forms and to evaluate such forms the following rule known as L' Hospital's Rule is used.
L' Hospital's Rule

If lim
x a
f (x) g ( x)
is of the form f ''( x ) g ''( x)
0 0
or
8 8
then lim
x a
f ( x) g ( x) 8 8
= lim
x a
f ' ( x) g '( x )
again if this is of the form
0 0
or
8 8
then
lim
x a
f ( x) g ( x)
= lim
x a
whenever it is of the
0 0
or
This rule can be applied.
To evaluate lim [] f ( x) - g ( x) when it is of the form 8 - 8 , then

x a
1 Consider lim [] f ( x) x a
1 f ( x) which is of the form 0 0 & hence L' Hospital' s Rule can be applied.
g ( x ) = lim
x a
g ( x)
g ( x) f ( x ) Consider ( lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = y
x a
say) log f ( x) 1 g ( x)
then log y = lim log f ( x)g ( x ) = lim g ( x ) log f ( x ) = lim

x a x a x a
which is of the form
0 0
or
8 8
and hence L' Hospital' s rule can be applied.
Examples
(1) Evaluate lim
x 1
log x x2 - 3 x + 2 this is of the form 1 0 0 using L' Hospital' s rule
Solution : lim
x 1
log x x2 - 3x + 2
= lim
x 1
1 x = = -1 2x- 3 2- 3 2sin x - sin 2 x x3 This is of the form 0 0 2 cos x - 2 cos 2 x 3 x2 - 2 sin x + 4 sin 2 x 6x + 4 3 =1 again it is of the form 0 0 + 2 sin x = lim 6 x x 0 4 sin 2 x 3 2x =2 6 1 + 4 3 1 Q lim
0
(2)
Evaluate lim
x 0
Solution : lim
x 0
2 sin x - sin 2 x x3 = lim

x 0
applying L' Hospital' s rule
applying L' Hospital' s rule again
= lim
x 0
sin
=1
= -
1 3
(3 )
Evaluate
lim
x 0
tan x - x x2 tan x = lim

x 0
Solution : lim
x 0
tan x - x x2 tan x
tan x - x x3 0 0
x tan x
= lim
x 0
tan x - x x3
Q lim
x 0
x tan x
=1
This is of the form
using L' Hospital' s rule
= lim
x 0
sec 2 x - 1 3 x2
0 0
using the rule again
= lim
x 0
2 sec x sec x tan x 6x 1 x 1 ex - 1
= lim
x 0
2 sec 2 x 6
tan x x
2 6
1=
1 3
(4)
Evaluate
lim
x 0
Solution : This is of the form 8 - 8 lim

x 0
1 x
ex
1 - 1
= lim
x 0
( e x - 1) - x ( e x - 1) x
which is of the form
0 0
= lim
x 0
ex - 1 e - 1 + xe x 0 0 using the rule again

x
which is again of the form ex e x + xe x + e x x x- 1 log x
= lim
x 0
1 1 + 0 +1
1 2
(5 1)
Evaluate lim
x 1
Solution : This of the form 8 - 8 log x = lim

x 1
x- 1
lim
x 1
x x- 1
1 log x
log x
x - x 1 x
This is of the form
0 0 1 -
using L' Hospital' s rule 1 x2 + x- 1 x 1 x = lim

x 1
= lim
x 1
x log x 1 1 x +1 1 x2 1 2
x-1 log x + x - 1
is
0 0
form again applying the L' Hospital' s rule
= lim
x 1
(6 )
Evaluate
lim (tan x )cot

p
x 2
Solution : This is of the form 8 0 Let y = lim (tan x ) cot

x x
p
2
log y = lim log(tan x ) cot

p
x 2
= lim cot x log tan x = lim

p
x 2 x 2
log tan x tan x
1 sec2 x 1 tan x = lim = lim = lim cot x = 0 2 x p p tan x p sec x x x

2 2 2
y =e =1 (7) Evaluate lim

x 0
sin x x
Solution : This is of the form 18
Let y = lim
x 0
sin x x
1 x
log y = lim
x 0
1 x
log
sin x x
0 0
log = lim
x 0
sin x x x
This is of the form x = lim

x 0
applying the L' Hospital' s rule
x cos x - sin x x2 1 0 0 = lim

x 0
sin x
x sin x
x cos x - sin x x2
= 1 lim
x 0
x cos x - sin x x2
This is of the form
again applying the L' Hospital' s rule - x sin x 2x - sin x 2
= lim
x 0
cos x - x sin x - cos x 2x y=1
= lim
x 0
= lim
x 0
= 0
ie log y = 0 (8 ) If lim
x 0
a sin x - sin 2 x tan 3 x
is finite, find the value of a and the limit. 0 0
Solution : The given limit is of the form
applying the L' Hospital' s rule
= lim
x 0
a cos x - 2 cos 2 x 3 tan 2 x sec 2 x 0 0
limit exists if this is of the form
a cos x - 2 cos 2 x = 0 for x = 0 = lim

x 0
a= 2 x2 1 sec 2 x = lim
x 0
2 cos x - 2 cos 2 x 3 x2
3 cos x - 2 cos 2 x 3 x2
1 1 is of form
0 0
tan 2 x
using L' Hospital' s rule = lim

x 0
- 2 sin x + 4 sin 2 x 6x
= lim
x 0
- 2 sin x 6x
4 3
sin 2 x 2x
= -
2 6
4 3
=-
1 3
4 3
=1
a = 2 and the limit is 1.
Exercise
Evaluate the following
(1) lim
x 0
cosh x - cos x x sin x
(2 )
lim
x 0
ex - e s i n x x - sin x
(3 )
lim
x 0
e - sin x - 1 log(1 + x)
- 1 x2 1 sin 2 x
1
(4)
lim
x 0
xex - log(1 + x) x2
1 sin x
1
(5 )
lim
x 0
(6 )
lim
x 0
1 x
(7 )
lim (cos x )
x 0
x2
(8 )
lim ( x) 1 x 1
1 1
(9 )
lim (cot x ) l o g x
x 0
(10 )
lim
x 0
+ ax + b x 3 1 e
cx
Answers : (1) 1 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4)
3 2
(5 ) -
1 3
(6) 0
( 7)
(8)
1 e
(9)
1 e
(10 ) ( abc )
Partial Derivatives
A function of two independent variables and a dependent variable is denoted as z = f ( x , y ) which is explicit function where x& yare independent variables and z a dependent variable. Implicit function is denoted by f ( x, y , z ) = C
If lim
dx
0
f ( x + dx , y ) - f ( x, y )
dx
f ( x , y + dy ) - f ( x , y )
exists then it is called Partial derivative of z or f w.r.t. x and denoted by z y z x
z x
or f y
f x
If
lim
dy
0
dy
exists then it is called Partial derivative of z or f w.r.t. y and denoted by
or
while obtaining the derivative
differenti atethe given function w .r.t. x treating y as a constant and while finding
z y
differentiate the given function with respect to y , treating xas a constant.

Eg. (1) If z = x 2 + xy - y 2 then z x ( 2) If z = x 2 y - x sin xy then z x 2 xy x - y
2 2
= 2x + y + 0 = 2 x + y &
z y
= x- 2 y
= 2 xy - x cos xy y - sin xy &
z y
= x2 - x cos xy x = x2 (1 - cos xy )
(3 ) If z = tan - 1
then
z x
= 1+
2
2 2 2 2
( x2 - y 2 ) 2 y - 2 xy 2 x x2 - y 2
2
() () x - y
2
4x y
() x - y () () ()() x - y + 4x
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 x 2 y - 2 y 3 - 4 x2 y x2 - y 2
- 2 y 3 - 2 x2 y x2 + y 2
2
- 2 y ( y 2 + x2 ) x2 + y 2
2
- 2y x2 + y 2
y2
&
z y
= 1+
() () x - y
2
2 2 2
4 x2 y 2
2 2
( x2 - y2 )(2x ) - 2xy(- 2 y ) x2 - y2
2
() x - y () () ()() x - y + 4x
2 2 2
2 x3 y - 2 xy 2 + 4 xy 2 x - y
2 2 2
2 x3 + 2 xy2 x +y
2 2 2
2 x ( x2 + y 2 ) x +y
2 2 2
2x x2 + y 2
Successive derivatives
For the function z = f ( x , y) z x z x x z x y z y
2
&
z y z
are first order partial derivative s, the second order partial derivative s are
, y
2
which
are denoted as
x z
2
y z
2 2
x2
x y
y x
y2
but in general
x y
y x
In example (1) x
= 2, y
= - 2,
=1 &
=1
x y
y x
2
Inexample (2)
y x
= 2 x + x2 y sin xy - x cos xy - x cos xy &
x y
= 2x + x2 y sin xy - 2x cos xy
2 z z = x y y x
In example
(3)
= y
- 2y x +y 2x x x2 + y 2
2 2
( x2 + y 2 )( - 2) + 2 y 2 y
y x
2
() () () x + y
2 2 2 2 2 2
- 2 x 2 - 2 y 2 + 4 y2 x2 + y 2
2
- 2( x 2 - y 2 ) x2 + y 2
2
and
( x2 + y 2 ) 2 - 2 x 2 x
x y
() ()() x + y
2 y 2 - 2 x2 x2 + y2
2
- 2( x 2 - y 2 ) x2 + y 2
2
Thus in general, always
2 2 z z = x y y x
Exercise
(1) Find z x , z y
2
for z = log( x2 + y2 ) and showthat

2 2
x y
z
y x
c is a constant.
( 2)
If x = f ( x + ct ) + f ( x - ct ) show that t
z
2
= c2 z x z y
where
x2 +a = 2 abz
(3)
If z = e a x + by f ( ax - by )then show that b
(4)
If u =
x2 + y 2 then showthat x+ y y then showthat x
u x
u y
= 4 1-
u x
u y
(5 )
If u = sin- 1
2 2 u u = . x y y x
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Given dy dx = f ( x ),the process of finding y is called 'Integration' and the resulting function is called
'Integral'. If g (x) is
the integral then ) f ( x)dx = g ( x is the notation used to represent the process. In the above notation f( x) is called 'Integrand' and further
But d dx d dx
[] g ( x)
= f ( x ).
[] g ( x) + c
= g '( x )when
c is a constan t
f ( x)dx = g ( x ) + c
Thus integral of a function is not unique and two integrals always differ by a constant.
Properties
(1) (2) (3)
[] f ( x) f ( x) dx =
f ( x) dx
( x)dx
Kf ( x )dx = K
f ( x)dx where K is a constant
0 dx = c (a constant)
Standard Integrals
1. xn dx = x n+1 d + xn +1 + c ( n - 1) Q c = xn n +1 dx n +1
d dx (log x + c ) = 1 x
2. Q
1 x
dx = log e x + c
3. log Q
a x dx =
ax +c log a
d + ax dx a
c = ax in particular e x dx = ex + c
4. 5. 6. 7.cot 8. 9. 10 .tanh
sin x dx = - cos x + c cos x dx = sin x + c sec x tan x dx = sec x +1 cosec x x dx = - cosec x + c
sinh x dx = cosh x + c cosh x dx = sinh x + c sech x x dx = - sech x + c
102 KSOU Integral Calculus
11 .coth
cosech x
1 1 + x2
x dx = - cosesh x + c
-1
12 .cot
dx = tan - 1 x + c or -
x+ c
13 .cos
1 1 - x2
dx = sin- 1 x + c or -
-1
x+ c
14 .sinh
1 1 + x2
dx =
-1
x +c
15 .cosh
1 x2 - 1
dx =
-1
x+ c
16 .sec
1 x x2 - 1
dx =
-1
x + c or - cosec- 1 x + c
17.
1 x 1- x2
dx = - sech -1 x + c
18.
1 x 1 + x2
dx = - cosech -1 x + c
Methods of Integration
There are two methods (1) Integration by substitution & (2) Integration by parts.
1. Integration by substitution
Consider f ( x ) dx
put x = f ( t ) then dx dt = f '(t ) ie dx = f '( t ) dt
f ( x) dx =
f [] f (t ) f '( t ) dt
now for the new integrand, we can use the standard forms, ie. we have to make a proper substitution so that the given integrand reduced to a standard one.
Examples
1. tan x dx = sin x cos x put cos x = t , then - sin x = dt dx ie sin x dx = - dt dx
tan x dx =
or
dt t
= - log t = - log cos x = log sec x + c
tan x dx =
dt dx
tan x sec x sec x
dx x
put s , ec x = t differenti ating w.r.t. sec x tan x =
sec x tan x dx = dt
tan x dx =
2.
dt t dx
= log t = log sec x + c
cot x dx =
cos x sin x
put sin , x=t
differenti ating w.r.t. dt t
cos x =
dt dx
ie cos x dx = dt
cot x dx =
3. 4. 5. 6. cosec
= log t = log sin x + c
tanh x dx = log cosh x + c coth x dx = log sinh x + c sec x dx = log(sec x + tan x) + c cosec x dx = log( x - cot x) + c
n [] f ([] x ) f '( x) dx =
In general
f ' ( x) dx = log f ( x) + c also f ( x)
f ( x) n +1 + c(n n +1
- 1)
2. Integration by parts
If u & v are functions of x, we know that, By definition of Integratio n uv = + dv u dx v du dx dx = du dx dv u dx + dx v du dx dx using property (1) d dx ( uv ) = u dv dx +v du dx
dv u dx = uv dx
dx
The result can be used as the standard result. Out of the two functions of the product, one has to be taken as u& another
dv dx
then the RHS after evaluation gives the integral or if both functions have taken as u& v then the result is as follows uv dx = u v dx du dx v dx dx uv' dx = uv u 'v dx
any one form can be used depending on convenience. The first one can also bewritten as
Examples
1. 1 xex dx put u = v, v ' = ex , u ' = , v = ex xex dx = uv 2. 1 3. 1 u'v dx = xex 1 ex dx = xex - ex + c - cos x dx = - x cos x + cos x dx = - xcos x + sin x + c
x sin x dx = x sin x du -
sin x dx = - x cos x , v= x
log x dx put u = log x , v ' = 1, u ' =
uv 'dx = uv ie
u 'v dx 1 x dx = x log x x
1 1 - x2
log 1 x dx = x log x -
dx = x log x - x + c
4.
sin - 1 x dx
put u = sin - 1 x, v ' = 1, u ' =
, v =x
sin - 1 x dx = x sin - 1 x -
1 1 - x2
x dx
to evaluate
- x 1 - x2
dx put 1 - x2 = t 2
differentiatingw.r.t. x
- 2 x dx = 2 t dt
- x dx 1 - x2 =
- x dx = t dt
t dt t2 1 - x2 + c = 1 dt = t = 1 - x2
sin - 1 x dx = x sin - 1 x -
Special Types of Integrals

Type I
(1) dx a 2 + x2 , (2 ) dx x2 - a2 , (3 ) dx a 2 - x2 & (4) dx Ax 2 + Bx + C
to evaluate(1) put x = at , dx = a dt
dx a 2 + x2 = a dt a2 + a 2 t 2 = 1 tan dt a 1 + t2 = 1 a tan - 1 t = 1 a
-1
x a
+ c
to evaluate(2) & (3) use partialfractions

1 x2 - a 2 = 1 ( x + a )( x - a ) = A x+a + B x- a (Say)
multiply throughout by x 2 - a2 1 = A( x - a ) + B( x + a ) put x = a, 1 = 0 + B 2 a put x = - a , 1 = A(- 2a ) + 0

- 1 1 x2 - a 2 1 x2 - a 2 dx x2 - a 2 = 1 2a = 1
B=
1 2a - 1 2a
A=
2a + 2a x+ a x- a dx = 1 2a log dx x+ a x- a x+a +c + 1 2a dx x- a =1 2a log( 2 x +a)+ 1 2a log( x - a ) = 1 a log x- a x+a
next,
1 x2 - a 2
1 (a + x )( a - x )
A a+x
B a- x
(Say)
multiplying throughout by a2 - x2 , then 1 = A( a - x) + B( a + x )

put x = a , 1 = 0 + B (2 a ) B= 1 2a 1 1 a2 - x2 1 a 2 - x2 1 a 2 - x2 to evaluate (4) dx = = 1 1 2a put x = - a , A( 2 a ) + 0 A=
2 a + 2a a+x a- x dx = 1 2a 1 2a dx 1 a+x a+x a- x dx + 1 2a 1 a- x dx = 1 2a log( 2 a + x) 1 2a log( a - x) = 1 a log a+ x a- x
log
+c
Ax 2 + Bx + c dx 1 = B C A x + x+ A A
2
G.I. =
1 A
dx + x B 2A
2
= B2 4 A2 + C A
1 A + x B 2A
2
dx B 2 - 4 AC 4 A2
This integral will take any one of (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
(1) Evaluate dx 3 x2 - 2 x + 4 Solution : dx 3x 2 - 2 x + 4 = 1 3 x 2
dx 2 3 x+ 4 3
1 3 x 1 3
dx
2
= 4 9 + 4 3
1 3 x 1 3
2
dx + - 4 + 12 9
1 3 8 3
2
dx + x 1 3
2
1 3 2 2 3
2
dx 1 + x 3
2
= tan 3 2 2 3
x-1
1 3 = 1 tan- 1 - 3 x 1 + c 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
( 2)
Evaluate dx
dx x2 - 10 x + 21 = dx ( x - 5) 2 - 25 + 21 dx 6 - 4 x - 2 x2 = dx ( x - 5) 2 - 22 = 1 22 log x- 5 - 2 x- 5 + 2 = 1 4 log x- 7 x- 3 +c
Solution :
x2 - 10 x + 21 (3) Evaluate
Solution :
dx 6 - 4 x - 2 x2
1 2 =
dx 3 - ( x2 + 2 x )
1 2
dx 3 - ( x + 1 )2 + 1
1 2 +c
dx 2 2 - ( x + 1)2
1 log 1 2 + ( x + 1) 1 log = 2 2 2 2 - ( x + 1) 8
3+ x 1- x
Typ e II
(1) ) dx a - x
2 2
, (2 )
dx a +x dx a2 - x2 dx =
2 2 2
, (3)
dx x - a
2 2
, (4
2
dx Ax + Bx + C
to evaluate
put x = a sin , dx = a cos d a cos d a - a sin = sin - 1 x +c a

2 2 2
a cos d a cos
= 1 d =
= sin - 1
x a
a -x dx
a2 - x2 to evaluate dx a2 + x2 dx a2 + x2 =
put x = a sinh , dx = a cosh d a cosh d a2 = sinh- 1 + a2 x a sinh2 a cosh d a cosh x a
= 1d =
= sinh- 1
dx a2 + x2 to evaluate dx x -a dx x2 - a2 to evaluate Ax2

G.I. = 1 A
2 2
+c
dx x - a2
2
put x = a cosh , dx = a sinh d x +c a = - a2 a sinh d a sinh = 1 d = = cosh - 1 x a
= cosh- 1
= dx
a sinh d a2 cosh2
+ Bx + C
dx x2 + B A x+ C A = 1 A + x B 2A dx
2
= B 4
2
1 A + x B 2A
dx
2
A2
C A
B 2 - 4 AC 4 A2
This will reduce to any one of (1), (2) & (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
(1) Evaluate dx 2 x - 5 x2
Solution : 1 5
dx 2 5 x - x2
1 5 -
dx x2 2 5 x
1 5 1 5
2
dx x 1 5
2
1 5
xsin 1
-1
1 5 = 1 sin - 1 (5 x - ) + c 5
1 5
(2)
Evaluate x2
dx - 2x + 5
= dx ( x - 1 )2 + 2 2 = dx 22 + ( x - 1 )2 = sinh - 1 x- 1 2 +c
Solution :
dx x2 - 2 x + 5
(3 )
Evaluate
dx 4 x2 - 12x + 8
Solution : G.I. =
1 4
dx x2 - 3 x + 2
1 2 x 3 2
dx
2
= 9 4 3 +2
1 2 x
dx 3 2
2
9- 8 4
1 2 x 3 2
dx
2
= 1 2
2
1 2
xcosh 3
-1
1 2
2 = 1 cosh - 1 (2 x 2
)+c
Type III
px + q Ax + Bx + C
2
dx and
px + q Ax2 + Bx + C
to evaluate put px + q = l (derivative 2 of Ax2 + Bx + C ) + m = l( Ax + B) + m where l & mare the constants to be found out by equating the co-efficients of corresponding terms on both sides. ie. to solve for m & nfrom the equations 2 Al = p and lB + m = q
then px + q Ax 2 + Bx + c dx = l 2 Ax + B Ax 2 + Bx + C dx + m dx Ax 2 + Bx + C = l log( Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m dx Ax 2 + Bx + C
the second integral in RHS is Type I and hence can be evaluated.
px + q Ax2 + Bx + C
dx = l
px + q Ax2 + Bx + C
dx + m Ax2
dx + Bx + C
= 2l Ax2 + Bx + C + m Ax2
dl + Bx + C
the second integral in RHS is Type II and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
(1) Evaluate 2x + 3 3 x2 - 4 x + 5 dx
Solution :)Put 2 x + 3 = l(6 x - 4 + m = 6lx - 4l + m

6l = 2 l = 1 3 , - 4 l + m = 3 ie m = 3 + 4 3 = 13 3
2x + 3 3 x2 - 4 x + 5
dx =
1 3
6x - 4 3 x2 - 4 x + 5
dx +
13 3
dx 3 x2 - 4 x + 5
1 3
log( 3 x2 - 4 x + 5) +
13 9 x 2
dx 4 3 x+ 5 3
1 3
log( 3 x2 - 4 x + 5) +
13 9 x 2 3
dx
2
= 4 9 + 5 3
1 3
log( 3 x2 - 4 x + 5) +
13 9 x 2 3
2
dx
2
11 3
= 1 3 log(3 x - 4 x + 5) +
2
13 9
3 11
2 3 = 1 log(3 x2 - 4 x + 5 ) + 13 tan- 1 - 3x 2 + c 3 11 3 11 11 3
tan
-1
(2)
Evaluate
5x - 7 3x - x2 - 2
dx
Solution :)Put 5 x - 7 = l(3 - 2 x + m = - 2 lx + 3 l + m

- 2l = 5 l =5 2 5x - 7 3x- x - 2 5 2
2
& 3l + m = - 7
m = - 7 - 3l = - 7 +
15 2
1 2
dx = -
5 2
3 - 2x 3x - x - 2 1 2 - 22
dx +
1 2
dx - 2 - ( x2 - 3 x ) 1 2 1 2
2
=-
2 3 x - x2 - 2 +
dx x 3 2
2
= - 5 3 x - x2 - 2 + + 9 4
dx x 3 2
2
= - 5 3 x - x2 - 2 + 1 1 sin-3 2
3 2 = - 5 3x - x 2 - 2 + 1 sin -1 (2 x - ) + c 1 2 2
Type IV
dx a cos x + b sin x + c
to evalute put tan
x =t 2
2 dt
then differentiatingw.r.t. x
1 x dt sec 2 = 2 2 dx
- sin 2 x 2 1 1 + t2 t2 1 + t2 1 - t2 1 + t2
ie dx =
2 dt sec 2 x 2
= 1+
tan 2
x 2
2 dt 1 + t2
& cos x = cos 2
x 2
& sin x = 2 sin
x 2
cos
x 2
=2
t 1 + t2
1 1 + t2 1 - t2 1 + t2
2t 1 + t2 2t 1 + t2
when tan
x 2
= t , dx =
2 dt 1 + t2
, cos x =
& sin x =
2 dt dx = a cos x + b sin x + c (1 + t2 ) = 2 (1 - t ) 2t a +b +c (1 + t2 ) (1 + t2 ) 2 dt a(1 - t 2 ) + 2 bt + c (1 + t2 ) = 2 dt ( c - a ) t2 + 2bt + a + c
which is Type I and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
(1) Evaluate
x 2 2 dt G.I. = 1 + t2 = 2 (1 - t 2 ) 3 2 t +5 1 + t2 1 + t2 2 dt 2(1 - t 2 ) - 6 t + 5 (1 + t 2 ) = 2 dt 3t 2 - 6 t + 7 = 2 3 dt t2 - 2t + 7 3
dx 2 cos x - 3 sin x + 5
= t , then dx = 2 dt 1 + t2 , cos x = 1 - t2 1 + t2 & sin x = 2t 1 + t2
Solution : Put tan
2 3
dt 7 ( t - 1) - 1 + 3
2
2 3
dt ( t - 1 )2 + 2 3
2
2 1 t -1 1 3 tan- 1 = tan- 1 (t - 1) 2 2 3 2 3 3 3
dx 2cos x - 3 sin x + 5 ( 2) 5 Evaluate

x 2
1 3
tan-1
32
tan
x 2
1 +c
3-
dx cos x
2 dt 1+ 2 dt t2 & cos x = 1 - t2 1 + t2
Solution : Put tan
= t , then dx =
dx 3 - 5 cos x
= 3-
(1 + t 2 ) 5(1 - t 2 ) 1+t
2
2 dt 3(1 + t2 ) - 5(1 - t 2 )
2 dt 8 t2 - 2
2 8
2
dt t 2 8
1 4 t2 -
dt 1 2
2
1 4
1 2 1 2
t log t +
1 1 2 = log 1 4 2
tan tan
x 2 x 2
1 2 1 2
dx 3 tan - 5 cos x
1 4
2 tan log 2
x 2 x 2
-1 +c +1
(3 2 )
Evaluate
x 2
dx 3 + sin x
= t , then dx = 2 dt 1 + t2 and sin x = 2t 1 + t2
Solution : Put tan
2 dt dx 3 + 2 sin x = 1 + t2 = 4t 3+ 1 + t2 2 dt 3 (1 + t 2 ) + 4 t = 2 3 1+t dt
2
4 3
= t
2 3 + t 2 3
dt
2
4 9
+1
2 = 3
dt + t 2 3 +
2
5 3 x 2 5
2 1 = tan- 1 3 5 3
t+
2 3 = 2 tan- 1 3t + 2 5 5 5 3
dx 2 = tan-1 3 + 2 sin x 5
3 tan
2 +c
Typ e V
a cos x + b sin x c sin x + e cos x dx
Solution :to evaluate put a cos x + b sin x = l (Denominator) + m(derivative of denominator)

ie a cos x + b sin x = l ( c sin x + e cos x) + m ( c cos x - e sin x )
where l & m are constantsto be foundout by equatingthe co - efficients of sin x & cos x separately . ie fromthe equations lc - me = b & le + mc = a
then a cos x + b sin x c sin x + e cos x dx = l c sin x + e cos x c sin x + e cos x dx + m c cos x - e sin x c sin x + e cos x dx = lx + m log( c sin x + e cos x) + c
Examples
Evaluate 3cos x - 2 sin x 4 sin x + cos x dx
Solution : Put 3 cos x - 2 sin x = l (4 sin x + cos x) + m (4 cos x - sin x) 4l - m = - 2

l + 4m = 3
(1) (2)
(1) 4 (2)1
16 l - 4 m = - 8 l + 4m = 3 l=5 17
+2= 5 17 =5 17 - 20 + 34 17 4 sin x + cos x 4 sin x + cos x x+ 14 17 = 14 17 dx + 14 17 4 cos x - sin x 4 sin x + cos x =5 17 1 dx + 14 17 log( 4 sin x + cos x )
adding 17 l = - 5
from (1), m = 4l + 2 = 3 cos x - 2 sin x 4 sin x + cos x
20 17
dx = -
log(4 sin x + cos x ) + c
Type VI
f ( x) ex dx where f ( x) = f ( x ) + f '( x) Solution : f ( x) e
x
dx = f ( x) ex dx + f ' ( x) ex dx
(1)
Consider f ( x) ex dx put u = f ( x), v ' = ex , u ' = f ( x), v = e x f ( x) ex dx = f ( x) ex f '( x) ex dx
substitutingthis in (1),we have
f ( x) e
Examples
(1)) Evaluate xex (1 + x)2
dx = f ( x) e x -
f '( x) e x dx + f '( x ) ex dx = f ( x) ex + c
xex (1 + x
2
dx (1 + x) e
x
Solution :
dx =
(1 + x - 1) ex (1 + x)2
dx =
(1 + x)2
dx -
ex (1 + x)2
dx =
1+ x
dx -
ex (1 + x)2
dx
(1)
Consider
1
ex dx (1+ x)
, v ' = ex , u ' = - 1 (1 + x )2 , v = ex
put u =
1+ x
ex ex dx = (1 + x) (1 + x) substituting in (1) xe2 (1 + x)

( 2) 1 Evaluate
2
- ex (1 + x)
2
dx =
ex + (1 + x)
ex (1 + x)2
dx
dx =
ex + (1 + x)
ex (1 + x)
2
dx -
ex (1 + x)
2
dx =
ex +c 1+ x
x - sin x - cos x
dx
Solution :
x - sin x dx = 1 - cos x
x 1 - cos x
dx -
sin x 1 - cos x
dx =
x 2 sin 2 x 2
2 sin dx -
x 2
cos x 2
x 2 dx
2 sin 2
= 1 2 put u = x, v ' = 1 2
1 x cosec 2
x 2
dx -
cot
x 2
dx
(1)
Consider
x cosec 2 x dx x 2 x 2
cosec
, u ' = 1, v = - cot
1 2
x cosec
x 2
dx = - x cot
x 2
cot
x 2
dx
substituting in (1)
x - sin x 1 - cos x dx = - x cot x 2 + cot x 2 dx cot x 2 dx = - x cot x 2 +c
Other examples
(1) Evaluate sin x cos x 1 + sin 4 x dx
Solution : Put sin22x = t, then
sin x cos x dx = dt
1 dt =
sin x cos x 1 + sin

4
dx =
2 1 + t2
1 2
tan- 1 t =
1 2
tan - 1 (sin 2 x ) + c
( 2) 2
Evaluate
x2 + 1 (x + 1)( x2 + ) x2 +1 =
dx
Solution : Let
( x + 1)( x2 + 2 )
A Bx + C + x + 1 x2 + 2
multiplyingthroughou t by ( x 2 +1)( x2 + )
2 then x2 +1 = A( x 1 + 2) + ( Bx + C )( x + )
put x = - 1, 2 = A(1 + 2 ) + 0 put x = 0, 1 = 2 A + C
A=
2 3
C =1-
4 1 =3 3
Equating co - efficient of x2 on bothsides A+ B=1 B =1- A = 12 1 = 3 3
x2 + 1 ( x + 1)( x2 + 2 ) x2 +1
2 1 1 x3 +3 3 x + 1 x2 + 2 dx = 2 3
= 2 3
( x +1)( x2 + 2)
dx 1 + x +1 3
x- 1 x2 + 2
1 6
dx =
2 3
dx 1 + x +1 6
1 3 2 tan - 1
2x x2 + 2
x 2
dx -
1 dx 3 x2 + 2
log( x + 1) +
log( x2 + 2) -
+c
Type VII
(1) (5 ) ) a2 - x2 dx ( px + q (2) a2 + x2 dx (3)
- a 2 dx
(4 )
Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
(1)
To evaluate
a 2 - x2 dx
put x = a sin
, dx = a cos
- x2 dx =
a2 - a2 sin 2 a2 2
a2 2
a cos d =
a cos
a cos d = a2 2
x a2
a2 cos 2
d =
a2 2
(1 + cos 2 ) d
a 2 sin 2 a2 = 2 2 2
x a + a2 2 x a
-1
+
x2 a
2
a2 sin 2
= a2 2
cos
a2 sin 1 - sin2 2
a 2 - x2
sin - 1
1-
sin - 1
x a
a2 2
a2 - x2 dx =
( 2) To evaluate
x a2 a 2 - x2 + 2 sin 2
x +c a
, then dx = a cosh d
a 2 + x2 dx
put x = a sinh
a2 + x2 dx =
a
a2 2
a2 2
+ a2 sinh2 a2 2
a cosh d = a2 2
a2 2
-1
a2 cosh 2 a2 2
d = sinh 2 2
+ a2 2
a2 2 =
x a
(1 + cosh 2 ) d a2 2
1+
1 d +
a2 2
cosh 2 d =
x a
+
x2 a
2
a2 2
=
sinh cosh
a2 2 x a x 2
sinh
1 + sinh 2
sinh - 1
sinh - 1
a 2 + x2
a2 + x2 dx =
(3 ) To evaluate
x a2 a 2 + x2 + 2 sinh 2
x +c a
, then dx = a sinh d
x2 - a2 dx
put x = a cosh
x2 - a 2 dx = a2 2
a2 2
a 2 cosh2
- a2 a sinh d =
a sinh a sinh d =
a 2 sinh2
d =
a2 2
(cosh 2 - 1) d
cosh 2 d -
a2 a 2 sinh 2 a2 1d = 2 2 2 2
a2 2 cosh - 1 x a
-1
a2 sinh cosh 2
x a a2 2 cosh - 1 x 2
a2 x cosh- 1 2 a
x 2 x 2 - a2 a2 2 cosh - 1 x a
cosh 2
- 1 cosh
a2 2
x2 a2
- 1
x2 - a2 dx =
x a2 x2 - a2 2 cosh 2
A
x +c a
B A x+ C A dx . This will take the form (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be
( 4)
To evaluate
Ax 2 + Bx + C dx =
x2 +
evaluated.
(5 ) ) To evaluate ( px + q Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
put px + q = l (derivativeof 2 Ax2 + Bx + C ) + m = l ( Ax + B) + m

where l & m are constants to be found out, then, ) ( px + q ) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx = l ( 2 Ax + B
Ax 2 + Bx + C dx + m
Ax 2 + Bx + C
2 l) 3
( Ax 2 + Bx + C
3 2
+m
x2 + A
x+
C A
dx
the second integral reduces to (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Type VIII
dx ( px + q) Ax2 + Bx + C put px + q = 1 -1 1 -1 then p dx = dt & x = q t p t t2 dx ( px + q ) Ax2 + Bx + C = 1 t A -1 q p2 t
2
dt t2 -1 + q +C p t = A p2
2
- dt (1 - tq ) + B (t - qt 2 ) + Ct 2 p
This integral reduces to any one of Type II and hence can be solved.
Type IX
eax cos(bx + c) dx and eax sin( bx + c) dx
To evaluatewe haveto use integration by parts. Let C = eax cos( bx + c ) dx & S = eax sin( bx + c) dx Consider C = eax cos(bx + c ) dx
sin( bx + c ) b
put u = e a x , u ' = ae ax , v ' = cos( bx + c ), v = e

ax
C =
sin( bx + c ) b
a b
e ax sin( bx + c ) dx
bC = eax sin( bx + c ) - aS aS + bC = eax sin( bx + c) Consider S = eax sin( bx + c) dx

put u = e a x , u ' = ae ax , v ' = sin( bx + c ), v = - e ax cos( bx + c ) b a b - cos( bx + c ) b S= + e a x cos( bx + c ) dx
(1)
bS = - eaax cos( bx + c ) + aC ie bS - aC = - eax cos( bx + c)

(1) a (2) b adding a S + abC = ae
2 ax
(2)
sin( bx + c )
b 2 S - abC = - be a x cos( bx + c ) (a 2 + b 2 ) S = e ax [] a sin( bx + c ) - b cos( bx + c )
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 115 eax [] a sin( bx + c) - b cos(bx + c ) ( a2 + b2 )

abS + b2 C = be ax sin( bx + c ) abS - a2 C = - ae a x cos( bx + c )
S=
(1) b (2 ) a
b sin( bx + c ) + a cos( bx + c ) subtractin g ( a 2 + b 2 ) C = e ax []
C=
eax [] a cos( bx + c) + b sin( bx + c ) (a2 + b 2 )
Examples
(1) e 2 x sin 3 x cos 2 x dx = 1 2 e 2 x [sin 5 x + sin x ] dx = 1 2
2x
sin 5 x dx +
1 2
e2 x sin dx
= 1 2 =
1 2
e 2x
( 2 sin 5 x - 5 cos 5x ) 29 1 2 e3 x dx + 1 2
1 2
e2 x
(2 sin x - cos x) 5 1 2 e3 x 3
+c 1 2 (3 cos 2x + 2 sin 2 x) 9+4
(2)
e3x cos 2 x dx =
e3 x (1 + cos 2 x) dx =
3x 3x
e3 x cos 2x dx =
e3 x
e e + (3 2cos 2 x + 2 sin x ) + c 6 26
Exercise
Integrate the following w.r.t. x
-1
(1)
sin - 1 x 1 - x2
( 2)
1 x cos 2 (log x )
(3 )
es i n
1 - x2
(4)
sec 2 x tan x(2 + tan x)

x3 - x - 2 x2 - 1
(5)
3x - 2 ( x + 1)2 ( x + 3)
4x+ 5 x2 + 22 x + 2
(6)
x ( x - 1)( x2 + 4 )
4x +1 x2 - 6 x + 18
( 7)
(8 )
(9 )
(10)
(1 + x) (2 + x)2
ex
(11)
1 2 + cos x - sin x
1 4 cos 2 x + 9 sin 2 x
(12)
1 3 + 4 cos x
(1 + sin x) (1 + cos x) ex
(13)
2 sin x + 3 cos x 4 sin x + 5 cos x
(14)
(15)
(16)
1 x( xn + 1) 1 ( x + 1) 2 x2 + 3x + 4
(17 )
6 - 4 x - 2 x2 1 ( x + 1) x2 - 1
(18) (2x - 5 ) x2 - 3 x + 2
(19)
(20)
(21) e2 x sin 4 x sin 2x (24) e4 x sin3 x
(22) e2 x cos 3 x cos x
(23) e3 x cos 3 x
Definite Integrals
Let f ( x) be a function defined in the interval (a, b) and f ( x) dx = g ( x) + c
The value of the integral at x = b minus the value of the integral at x = a ie [][] g (b) + c - g (a ) + c
b
ie g ( b ) - g ( a ) is defined as Definite integral and denoted as

a
f ( x) dx
ie If
f ( x ) dx = g ( x )then
f ( x ) dx = g ( b ) - g ( a )
a
b is called upper limit and a is called lower limit.
Examples
2
(1)
Evaluate
1
( x3 - 2 x2 + 3 ) dx
2
Solution :
2 1
( x3 - 2 x 2 + 3) dx =
+ x4 4
- 2
x3 3
3x
1
24 4
- 2
23 3
+3 2 -
+1 4
2 3
= 4=
16 3
+6-
1 4
2 3
- 3
=71
16 3
1 4
2 3
84 - 64 - 3 + 8 12
25 12
( 2 ))
Evaluate
02
(sin - 1 x 1- x
dx
Solution sin : Put
-1
x = t then
1 1 - x2
dx = dt
when x = 0 , t = sin -1 0 = 0
when x = 1, t = sin- 1 1 =
p
p 2
(sin - 1 x )2 1- x
1 - 1 2x
dx =
0
t 2 dt =
t3 3
0
1 p 3 2
p3
24
02
(3 )
Evaluate
dx + 2x+ 5
1
dx
1
Solution :
dx + 2x+ 5
x -12
dx =
dx +1)2 +2
(x -1 2
1 2
tan- 1
+x 1 2
=
-1
1 2
tan- 1
1 +1 1 +- 1 1 - tan- 1 2 2 2
8=
p
1 1 1p p tan- 1 1 - tan- 1 0 = - 0= 2 2 2 4
( 4)
Evaluate
0
dx 4 + 3 cos x = t then dx = 2 dt 1 + t2 , cos x = 1 - t2 1 + t2
Solution : Put tan
x 2
when x = 0 , t = tan0 = 0
when x = p , t = tan
p =8 2
2 dt
p
0
dx 4 + 3 cos x
=
0
4+
1 + t2 = 3(1 - t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
8 02
2 dt 4 (1 + t 2 ) + 3 (1 - t )
=
02
2 dt t2 +
() 7
1 7
tan - 1
t 7
1 7
tan- 1 8 -
1 7
tan- 1 0 =
1 7
p 2
p 2 7
Properties of Definite Integrals

b b
1.
a b
f ( x) dx =
a
f ( y ) dy
a
2.
a b
f ( x ) dx = b c
f ( x ) dx
b
3 .)
a a
f ( x ) dx =
a a
f ( x ) dx +
c
f ( x dx
b
where a < c < b

b
4. also
0
f ( x ) dx =
0
f ( a - x ) dx
a
a
f ( x) dx =
a
f ( a + b - x ) dx
f ( x )d x
0
5.
- a
f ( x ) dx =
0
a
if f ( x ) is an even function if f ( x ) is an odd function
2a
2
0
f ( x ) dx
6.
0
f ( x ) dx =
0
if f (2 a - x ) = f ( x ) if f ( 2 a - x ) = - f ( x)
Examples
p
(1)
Evaluate
0
sin n x cos
n
x + sin n x
dx -p 2 cos
n
Solution : Let I =
0
sin n x cos
n
sin n
2
x
a n a
x+
sin n
dx = x
0
-p 2
x + sin
-p 2
dx using x
0
f ( x) dx =
0
f ( a - x ) dx
=
0
cos n x sin
n
x + cos n x
dx
p
2I =
0
sinn x cos n x+ sinn x
dx +
0
cos n x sin n x+ cosn x
dx =
0
(sin n x + cos n x ) (cos n x + sin n x)
dx =
0
1 dx = x
]
p 0
p 2
I=
p 4
p
( 2)
Evaluate
0
x sin x 1 + sin x
dx
p 0
Solution : Let I =
p 0
x sin x dx = 1 + sin x
(p - x ) sin(p - x) dx using 1+ sin( p - x)
a 0
f ( x ) dx =
a 0
f ( a - x) dx

p
ie I =
0
(p - x ) sin x 1 + sin x
p
dx
p
2I =
0
x sin x 1 + sin x
p
0
dx +
0
(p - x ) sin x 1 + sin x dx = p
dx =
0
x sin x + ( p - x ) sin x 1 + sin x dx = p
dx =
0
p sin x
1 + sin x
dx = p
p
0
sin x 1 + sin x
=p
sin x(1 - sin x ) (1 + sin x )(1 - sin x)

p
0
p
02
sin x - sin 2 x cos x
pp sec x tan x dx - p
00
tan 2 x dx
=p
sec x tan x -
p
0
sec 2 x dx
p
0
1 dx
= p [][ sec ][] x - tan x + x p = p sec p - tan p + p - p sec 0 - tan 0 + 0

0
= p [][][] - 1+ p p I = (p 2- ) 2
p
- p 1 = p - 2 +p
(3 )
Evaluate
p
3 6
dx 1+ tan x -p 2
Solution : Let I =
p
3 6
cos x dx cos x + sin x
cos
3
x dx -p 2 using x
b a
=
p
cos
-p 2
f ( x ) dx =
b a
f ( a - x ) dx
x + sin
I =
sin x dx sin x +
3
p 6 p
dx
p p p
3 3
cos x
+ sin x dx sin x + cos x dx =
3
2I =
cos x dx cos x + sin x
cos x + cos x +
sin x sin x
p
6
p
6
dx =
p
6
1 dx = x
p
6
p 3
p 6
p 6
p I= 12
Exercise
p
(1)
sin x 1 + cos x
dx
(2 )
e 1
log x dx
(3)
e t an x cos x
dx
02
1 2
02
( 4)
dx 9 - x2
dx a 2 cos 2 x + b2 sin x f ( x) f ( x) + f ( 2a - x) dx
( 5)
1 0
8
x tan- 1 x dx
x dx ( x + 1)( x + 1) x dx sin x + cos x
(6)
1 -1
p
xe- x dx
-1
p
(7 )
(8 )
02
(9)
0
log( 1 + tan ) d
02
2a
(10)
0
(11 )
0
(12 )
02
log( 1 + x ) (1 + x )
dx
Answers : (1)
( 9)
p 1 7 p 1 2 , (2) 1, (3) e - 1, (4 ) log , ( 5) - , (6) - , 4 3 5 4 2 e p

8 log 2 (10 ) a (11)
(7 )
p , 2 ab
(8)
p , 4
p
2 2
log
() 2 +1
(12 )
p
8
log 2
Reduction formulae
I.
To obtain the reduction formula for In =
sin
x dx and hence to evaluate

0
sin n x dx
Solution : In = sinn- 1 x sin xdx put u = sinn- 1 x & v' = sin x, u ' = (n - 1)sin n -2 x cos x & v = - cos x In = - sinn - 1 x cos x + (n - 1) sin n - 2 x cos 2 x dx = - sinn - 1 cos x + ( n - 1) sinn - 2 x (1 - sin2 x) dx = - sinn -1 xcos x + (n - 1) sinn - 2 x dx - ( n - 1) sinn x dx = - sin n -1 cos x + ( n - 1) In- 2 - (n - 1) In In + ( n - 1) In = - sin n - 1 x cos x + ( n - 1) In - 2 ie (1+ n - 1) In = - sin n- 1 xcos x + (n - 1) In - 2 ie I n = - sin n - 1 xcos x n - 1 + I n n n- 2
the ultimate integral is I0 or I1 according as n is even or odd
If n is even I0 = 1 dx = x
p
If n is odd I1 = sin x dx = - cos x
If I n =
0
sin n x dx then
p
I =
n
- sin n - 1 x cos x n
0
n- 1 n
n- 2
=0+
n-1 n
n- 2
In =
n-1 I n n-
n- 1 n- 3 n- 1 n- 3 n- 5 I = I n n - 2 n- 4 n n - 2 n- 4 n-6
in general
n- 1 n- 3 1 p L L if n is even. n n- 2 2 2 In = n- 1 n- 3 2 L L 1 if n is odd. n n- 2 3
p
Eg.
(1) I6 =
sin 6 x dx =
5 6
3 4
1 2
p
2 8
5p 32
0
p
( 2) I =
5 0
sin 5 x dx =
4 5
2 3
1 =
15
II.
cos n dx andto evaluate

0
cos n x dx
Solution : using integratio n by parts as in Iwe
obtain
In =
cos n- 1 x sin x n - 1 + I n n n
p p 2
andfurtherif In =
cos n x dx =
0
cos n
-p 2
x dx using
a 0
f ( x) dx =
a 0
f ( a - x) dx
=
0
p
sin n x dx which is I 6 7 7 8 4 5 5 6 2 3 3 4 16 35
Eg. (1)
0
p
cos 7 x dx =
1= 1 2
(2 )
0
cos 8 x dx =
p
2
35 p 256
III.
tann x dx tan
n- 2
Solution : In = In =
tann - 2 x tan2 x dx = tann - 2 x (sec2 x - 1) dx = tann -1 x - In - 2 which isthe requiredformula. n- 1
x sec2 x dx -
tann - 2 x dx
IV.
To obtain the reduction formula for In = cot n x dx cotn - 2 x cot2 x dx = - cotn - 1 x - In - 2 n- 1
Solution : In = In =
cot
n- 2
x (cosec 2 x - 1) dx = cotn - 2 x cosec 2 x dx -
cotn -
x dx
V.
To obtain the reduction formula for In = sec n x dx secn - 2 x

2
Solution :sec In =
x dx
3
put u = sec n - 2 x & v' = sec2 x , u ' = ( n - 2) secn In = sec n- 2 tan x -
x sec x tan x & v = tan x
( n - 2) sec n - 2 x tan2 x dx = secn - 2 x tan x - (n - 2) sec n - 2 (sec2 x - 1) dx
= secn - 2 x tan x - ( n - 2)sec sec n x dx + ( n - 2) In + ( n - 2) In = sec n - 2 x tan x + ( n - 2) I n - 2 (1 + n - 2) In = secn - 2 x tan x + (n - 2) In 2
n- 2
x dx
secn - 2 x tan x n - 2 In = + I which isthe requiredreduction formula. n- 1 n- 1 n-2
VI.
To obtain the reduction formula for In = cosec n x dx cosecn - 2 x cosec 2 dx
Solution : In =
put u = cosecn - 2 x & v ' = cosec2 x, u' = - ( n - 2 )cosec n - 3 x cosec x cot x & v = - cot x In = - cosec n - 2 xcot x (n - 2 )cosec n - 2 x cot2 x dx = - cosec n - 2 x cot x - ( n - 2) cosecn - 2 x(cosec 2 x - 1) dx
= - cosec n - 2 x cot x - ( n - 2) cosec n x dx + (n - 2) cosec n - 2 x dx = - cosec n - 2 x cot x - (n - 2 )I n + (n - 2 ) In - 2
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 121 ie In + (n - 2) In = - cosec n- 2 x cot x + (n - 2 )I n - 2 ie ( n - 1) In = - cosec n - 2 x cot x + ( n - 2 ) In - 2

ie In = - cosec
n- 2
x cot x
( n - 2) ( n - 1)
(n - 1)
In - 2 which
isthe required reduction formula.
VII. To obtain the reduction formula of Im n = , Solution : Im , n = sin m x cos n - 1 x cos x dx
sin m x cos n x dx and hence to evaluate

0
sin m x cos n x dx
put u = sinm x cos n - 1 x & v' = cos x, u ' = m sinm - 1 x cos n x - ( n - 1) sinm +1 x cos n - 2 x & v = sin x Im , n = sinm x cos n - 1 x sin x m sinm - 1 x cos n x - (n - 1)sinm +1 cos n - 2 x sin x dx
n- 2
()
= sin m+1 x cos n - 1 x - m sinm x cos n x dx + (n - 1) cos sin m+ 2 x = sin m+1 x cos n - 1 x - mIm, n + (n - 1)cos sinm x(1 - cos 2 x)
n- 2
x dx
x dx
= sin m+1 x cos n - 1 x - mIm, n + (n - 1) (sinm x cos n - 2 x - sinm x cos n x) dx

= sin m 1 + 1 x cos n - 1 x - mI m , n + ( n - 1) Im , m ie I + mI + ( n - 1) I
2
- (n - ) Im , n
m,n
m, n
m,n
= sin m + 1 x cos xn - 1 x + (n - 1) I (n - 1) m+ n
m, n- 2
ie Im , n =
sin m + 1 x cos n - 1 x ( m + n)
m, n - 2
which is the required reduction formula, if Im , n =

p
sin m x cos n x dx
then Im , n =
sin m + 1 x cos n - 1 x ( m + n)
0
n-1 m +n
Im ,
n- 2
=0+
n-1 m+n
Im , n -
Im, n =
n- 1 I m + n m, n - 2
applying this reduction formula continuous ly, we have n- 1 m+n Im , n = n- 1 m+n n- 1 m+n n- 3 m+ n- 2 n- 3 m+ n- 2 n- 3 m+ n- 2 L L L L L L 2 m +3 1 m +2 1 m +2 1 m+1 m- 1 m m- 1 m m- 3 m- 2 m- 3 m- 2 L L L L 2 3 1 2 1 if n is even & m is odd if n is odd & m odd or even
p
2
if n is even & m is even
Examples
p
(1)
I5
,5
=
0
p
sin 5 x cos 5 x dx =
4 10
2 8
1 6
1 60
( 2)
I6 , 5 =
4 11
2 9
1 7
8 693
(3 )
I7
,4
=
0
p
3 11
1 9
6 7
1 8
4 5
2 3
1= 3 4 1 2
48 3465
( 4)
I6 , 6 =
sin 6 x cos 6 x dx = x9 1- x , dx = cos sin 9
5 12
3 10
5 6
p
2
5p 2048
(5 )
Evaluate
02
dx
Solution : put x = sin x9 1- x

2a
2 when x = 0,
d
p
=0
cos cos
when x = 1,
d
p
1 02
dx =
cos 1 - sin
=
0
sin 9
=
0
sin 9
8 9
6 7
4 5
2 3
1=
128 315
02
( 6)
Evaluate
02
x 3 dx 2 ax - x
2a
2a
Solution :
02
x3 dx 2 ax - x
=
02
x3 dx a2 - ( x - a)
put x - a = a sin
, dx = a cos
when x = 0 , sin
p
=-1
=)3 a cos
2 2
p 2
d
when x = 2 a , sin
p
=1
) 3 a cos d
p 2
p
G.I. =
( a + a sin
2
2
a 3 (1 + sin
2
-p
a - a sin
p
2
-p
a cos
p
= a3
(1 + sin 3
2
+ 3 sin
+ 3 sin 2
)d
-p
= a3
1d
sin 3
+3
sin
sin 2
= a3
+ 0+0
6
0
sin 2
-p
-p -
-p
p
2 2
p
2
= a3
p 2
p
2
+ 6
1 2
p
2
+ = a3 p
3p 2
5p 2
a3
Exercise
p
(1)
0
sin 5 3 d dx
7 2
(2 )
0 1
x sin 7 x dx
(3)
0 2
x4 1 - x2
()
3 2
dx
( 4)
02
() 1+ x
(5 )
0
x6
1 - x 2 dx
(6)
0
x2
2 - x dx
p
2
(7 )
p
cot 4 x dx
(8 )
p
cosec 5 x dx
(9)
0
sin 2
1 - cos 1 + cos
(10)
1 04
x7 1- x
dx
(11)
1 0 41
() +x
x3
dx
(12)
a 02
x7 dx a2 - x
Answers : (1)
8 16p 3p 8 5p 5p 3p - 8 11 3 3 8 2 , (2) , (3) , (4) , (5) , (6 ) , (7 ) , (8 ) + log 2 + 3 , (9) , 45 35 256 15 256 8 12 4 8 3 1 1 16 a7 , (11) , (12 ) 3 24 35
()
(10)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
An equation which consists of one dependent variable and its derivatives with respect to one or more independent variables is called a 'Differential Equation'. A differential equation of one dependent and one independent variable is called 'Ordinary Differential Equation'. A differential equation having one dependent and more than one independent variable is called 'Partial Differential Equation'.
Examples of ordinary differential equation

1. dy y =0 dx x
ax dx + by dy = 0 dy dx 2x + 3y - 7 3x - y + 4
3 2 2
2.
x dx - y dx = 0
d2 y dx 2
3.
4.
= 0 2 x - 3y + 4 4 x- 6 y + 1
5.
6.
dy dx
7.
d2 y dx
2
= 1+
dy dx
2
8.
y dx + x dy = 0
9.
d2 y dx2
- 4
dy dx
+3y = 0
10.
x2
d2 y dx 2
- 2x
dy +3y = 0 dx
Order and Degree of a differential equation

Order
The order of the highest derivative occurring in a differential equation is called 'Order' of the differential equation.
Degree
The highest degree of the highest order derivative occurring in a differential equation (after removing the radicals if any) is called 'Degree' of the differential equation. In the examples given above (1), (2), (3), (5), (6) & (8) are of order one and degree one, (4), (9) & (10) are of order two and degree one where as (7) is of order two and degree two after removing the radicals.
Formation of Differential Equation

Differential equations are formed by eliminating the arbitrary constants. Arbitrary constants are eliminated by differentiation.
Examples
(1) Formthe differential equation by eliminatingthe constant a from x2 + y2 = a2
Solution : x2 + y2 = a 2
differenti ,ating w.r.t. x we have
2x + 2 y
dy =0 dx
x dx + y dy = 0 which isthe differential equation.
124 KSOU Differential Equations
(2)
Formthe differenti al equation by eliminatin g ' m ' & ' c ' from y = mx + c
Solution : y = mx + c
differentiatingw.r.t. , x we have
again ,differenti ating w.r.t. d2 y dx 2 (3)
dy =m dx
x we have
= 0 isthe required differenti al equation.
Obtain the differenti al equation by eliminatin g ' a ' & ' b ' from y = a cos 3 x + b sin 3 x 3x x we have
Solution sin : y = a cos 3 x + b
differenti ,ating w.r.t.
dy = - 3a cos sin 3 x + 3b dx
again ,differenti ating w.r.t. d2 y dx 2 ie d2 y dx 2
3x
x we have
= - 9 a cos 3 x - 9b sin 3 x = - 9 y
+ 9y = 0which
isthe required differenti al equation.
Note :- It can be seen from the above examples that the order of the differential equation depends on the number of arbitrary constants in the equation. ie. if arbitrary constant is one then order is one and if the arbitrary constants are two then the order is two.
Solution of equations of first order and first degree

I. Variable Separable
If the given differenti al equation can be written as f ( x ) dx + g ( y ) dy = 0 then this type is called 'Variable separable' , solution
is obtained by integration ie
f ( x) dx +
g ( y ) dy = Constant
Eg. 1. Solve
y 1 - x2 dy + x 1 - y 2 dx = 0 1 - x2 y dy 1y dy 1 - y2 y2 + 1 - y2 x dx 1 - x2 x dx 1 - x2 =0
Solution : divide throughou t by equation becomes
integratin g
= Constant
ie ie
1 - y2 1 - y2 +
1 - x2 = - C 1 - x2 = C is the solution.
Eg. 2. Solve 3ex tan y dx + (1 - e x )sec2 y dy = 0 Solution :), dividingthroughout by tan y (1 - ex we have
MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 125 3 ex 1ex sec2 y tan y
dx +
dy = 0 sec2 y tan y
integrating,
3e x 1- e
x
dx +
dy = Constant
- 3 log(1 - ex ) + log tan y = log C

ie log tan y (1 - e x ) 3 = log C
tan y = C (1 - ex )3 isthe solution.

Eg. 3. Solve xy dy dx Solution : given equation is xy dy dx = (1 + x )( 1 + y ) = 1 + x + y + xy
ie xy dy = (1 + x)(1 + y) dx dividethroughou t by x (1 + y)
then y dy 1+ y 1+ y- 1 1+ y ie 11 1+ y dy = +1 x = (1 + x ) dx x +1 x 1 dx x
ie
dy =
dx
integrating, y - log(1 + y) = log x + x + c isthe soluton

Eg. 4. Solve ( x - y )2 dy dx = a2
Solution : put x - y = u
then 1 dy dx = du dx u2 1 ie 1 du dx du dx ie - u 2 du dx ie u 2 du u2 - a 2 = dx = a 2 - u2 = dy dx = a2
given equation becomes
ie
u2 - a2 + a 2 u2 - a2 a2 u - a2
2
du = dx
ie 1 +
du = dx
a2 2a u- a u+ a
integratin g u +
log
= x+c
ie x - y +
a 2
log
x- y - a x- y +a
= x+c
ie
a 2
log
x- y- a x- y+a
= y + c isthe solution.
Eg. 5. Solve
dy dx
= xe y - x 2
given dy dx
2
y = 0when
x= 0
Solution : given equation is
= xe y e -
2 x
ie e -
dy = xe - x dx 1 2 ex2
integratin g, - e - y = -
+c 1 2 1 2
y
when
x = 0, y = 0 1 2
- 1= -
+c
c =-
solution is - e -
=-
e-
x2
1 1 ie 2 e2
= e- x +
II. Homogeneous Equation

Equation of the type dy dx = f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) or f ( x , y ) dx + g ( x , y ) dy = 0where f ( x, y ) & g ( x, y ) are homogeneou s expression s
in x & y of same degree is called a 'Homogeneou s Equation'. To solve put y = vx then dy dx =v+x dv dx or dy = v dx + x dv
by substituti ng this, the given equation reduces to variable separable form and hence can be solved. Eg. (1) Solve 2 xy dy dx Solution : put y = vx then dy dx given equation becomes =v +x dv dx + 2 x2 v v x dv dx = 3 x2 v 2 + x 2 = 3 y2 + x 2
dividethroughou t by x2
+ then 2 v v x dv dx ie 2 v 2 + 2 vx dv dx dv dx ie 2 vx = v2 + 1 ie 2 v dv v2 + 1 = dx x = 3v2 + 1 = 3v 2 + 1
integrating,we have log( v2 + 1) = log x + log c
ie log
+ y2 x2
1 = log x + log c
ie log
( y 2 + x2 ) x2
= log x + log c
ie log ( y2 + x2 ) - log x2 = log x + log c log ( y2 + x2 ) = 3 log x + log c = log cx3 solution is y 2 + x2 = cx3
Eg. (2) Solve +1 e
x y
dx + e
x y
x y
dy = 0
Solution : put x = vy then dx = v dy + y dv equation becomes (1 + ev )( v dy + y dv) + ev (1 - v ) dy = 0 ie v dy + y dv + vev dy + ye v dv + ev dy - vev dy = 0 ie (v + vev + ev - ev ) dy + y (1 + ev ) dv = 0 ie (v + ev ) dy + y (1 + ev ) dv = 0 dividethroughou t by y (v + ev ) dy y + (1 + ev ) dv v + ev =0
integrating, log y + log( v + ev ) = log c ie log y (v + ev ) = log c ie y (v + ev ) = c

y +x y ie x + ye
x y
x y
=c
= c isthe solution
Equations reducible to homogeneous equatins

Give dy dx Case (i) If = a1 x + b1 y + c 1 a2 x + b2 y + c 2 a1 a2 Case (ii) If a1 a2 = b1 b2 b 1 b2 ah +b k +c = 0 & a h+b k +c =0
1 1 1 2 2 2
or ( a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) dx + ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) dy = 0
put a1 x + b1 y = t then it reduces to homogeneou s equation and hence can be solved.
put x = X + h & y = Y + k
where h & k are constants to be found out such that
then given equationreducesto

dY dX = a X+ bY
1 1
a2 X + b2 Y
or ( a1 X + b1 Y ) dX + ( a2 X + b2 Y ) dY = 0which
is homogeneou s and hence can be solved.
Eg. (1) Solve
dy dx
x+y - 1 2x+ 2y + 3 1+ dy dx = dt dx dt dx - 1= 3t + 2 2t + 3 t-1 2t + 3
Solution : put x + y = t then
given equation becomes dt dx ie t- 1 2t + 3
+1 =
t - 1 + 2t + 3 2t + 3
2t + 3 3t + 2
dt = dx 2t + 3 3t + 2
integratin g
dt = x + c
put 2 )t + 3 = l (3 t + 2 + m = 3lt + 3l + m
3l = 2 l= 2 3 2l + m = 3 m = 3 - 2l = 3 4 3 = 5 3
x+ c =
2 3
2 3
3t + 2 5 dt + 3t + 2 3
5 9 +
dt 3t + 2
2 3
1 dt +
5 9
dt 2 t+ 3
2 3
t+
5 9
+ log t
2 3
x+c = 1 3
(x + y ) + 2 3 5 9
log
x+ y 2 3
2 3 is the solution
ie
x+ c =
y+
+ log x + y
Eg. (2) Solve (2 3x + y - 3 ) dy = ( x + 2 y - ) dx Solution : put x = X + h, y = Y + k

choose h & k such that 2h + k = 3 h +2k = 3 (1) 2 ( 2) 1 subtractin g 4 h+ 2k = 6 h + 2k = 3 3h = 3 h = 1, k = 3 - 2 h = 3 - 2 = 1 (2 2X + Y ) dY = ( X + Y ) dX
(1) (2)
The given equation reduces to
put Y = vX then dY = v dX + X dv (2 2X + vX )(v dX + X dv ) = ( X + vX ) dX dividethroughout by X then (2 2+ v )v dX + 2 (2 + v ) X dv = (1 + v ) dX ( 2 v + v 2 - 1 - 2 v ) dX + (2 + v ) X dv = 0 ie (v2 - 1) dX + ( v + 2) X dv = 0

ie dX X + (v + 2 ) dv v2 - 1 =0
integratin g, log X + 1 2 ie log X + 1 2
(v + 2 ) dv v2 - 1 + 2 dv v2 - 1 1 2
= Constant
ie log X +
2 v dv
= Constant
v2 - 1
log( v 2 - 1) + 2
log Y
v- 1 v+1 - 1
= log c
ie 2 log 2 X + log
- Y2 X2
1 + 2 log X Y X
= +1
log c
ie 2 log X + log( Y 2 - X 2 ) - 2 log X + 2 log(Y - X ) - 2 log( Y + X ) = 2 log c

ie log( Y + X ) + log( Y - X ) + 2 log( Y - X ) - 2 log( Y + X ) = 2 log c
3 log( Y 2 - X ) - log(Y + X ) = log c ie log (Y - X )3 = log c2 Y+X
(Y - X )3 = c2 (Y + X ) but X = x - 1, Y = y - 1 ( y - x )3 = c2 ( y + x - 2 ) isthe solution.
III. Linear Equation (Leibnitz's Equation)

Equation of the type dy dx To find the solution multiply both sides of the given equation by e then + dy dx ie dy dx ie d dx ye
P dx
Pdx P dx
+ Py = Q where
P & Q are functions of x is called a 'Linear Equation'.
Py e
Pdx
= Qe
Pdx
Pdx
+ yPe
Pdx
= Qe
P dx
= Qe
P dx
Pdx
ye
Note & :dx dy
= Qe
dx + c isthe requiredsolution.
Q are function of y is also a linear equation and its solution is xe
Pdy
+ Px = Q where P
Qe
P dy
dy + c
Eg. (1) Solve the equation
dy dx
+ y tan x = cos x
Solution : Comparingwith the standardequation P = tan x & Q = cos x P dx = tan x dx = log sec x e
P dx
= elog sec x = sec x
Solution is ye
P dx
Qe
P dx
dx + c
ie sec y sec x = cos x

Eg. (2) (1 + y 2 ) dx + ( x - e - t an
-1
x dx + c = 1 dx + c = x + c
y
) dy = 0
Solution : dividethroughou t by (1+ y2 ) dy

dx dy ie dx dy + y
2
x - e-
tan 2
- 1
=0 e - t an
2
-1
(1 + y ) x +1
y
y +1
Comparingwith standardequation
P= 1 y +1
2
Q=
e-
tan 2
-1
y +1
P dy = tan- 1 y
e-
Solution is xe
t an- 1 y
P dy
= Qe
P dy
dy + c
ie xe t an
-1
e t an
- 1
dy + c
( y 2 + 1) ie xe t an
- 1
dy y2 + 1
+ c = tan - 1 y + c
Solution is xet an- 1
= tan - 1 y + c
Bernoulli's Equation
The equation dy dx To find the solution divide by y n then 1 y n -1 1 dy yn dx + P yn - 1 = Q + Py = Qy n where P & Q are functions of x is called Bernoulli' s Equation.
put
= z ie y - n + 1 = z
differentiatingw.r.t. x
( -1n + ) y - n dy dx = dz dx 1 ie 1 dy y n dx dz = 1 dz (n - )
(1 n + 1) dx + Pz = Q
equation becomes
(1n + ) dx ie dz dx dx dy dz dy + (- n + 1) Pz = (- n + 1) Q which is a linear equation and hence can be solved.
Note : -
+ Px = Qx n is also Bernoulli' s equation, whose solution is given by
+ (1 n + 1) Pz = ( - n + ) Q
where & P
Q are functions of y
Eg. (1) Solve
dy dx
+ y tan x = y 2 sec x
Solution : dividethroughou t by y2
then 1 dy y 2 dx 1 y + 1 y 1 dy y 2 dx dz dx ie dz dx - tan x z = - sec x dz dx + tan x z = sec x tan x = sec x
put
= zthen
equation becomes
which is linear where P = - tan x, Q = - sec x P dx =

e
pdx
- tan x dx = log cos x
= e l og c os x = cos x
Solution is cosz cos x =

cos x y
- sec x
x dx + c = - 1 dx + c = - x + c
Solution is
= - x+ c
Eg. (2) Solve
dy dx
tan y (1 + x )
= (1 + x) e x sec y
Solution :the given equation is cos y
dy dx dy dx
sin y (1 + x ) dz dx
= (1 + x) e x
put sin then y = z,
cos y dz dx
= z
equation 1 1+ x P dx = -
becomes
= (1 + x ) e x which
is a linear equation w here
1+ x
P =-
, Q = (1 + x ) e x
1 (1 + x )
dx = - log( 1 + x )
P dx
x) = e = e- log(1+log
1+ x
1 1+ x
1 ( + x) dx = e x dx = e x + c
Solution is z
1 1+ x y
(1 1+ x ) e x
Solution sin is
= ex + c
1+ x
IV. Exact Differential Equation

Let M dx + N dy = 0 bethe differential equation where M & N are functions of x & y , the equation is saidto 'Exact'if
M y = N x and to find the solution
Consider
M dx y as a constant andtake N dy
(1) (2)
wherethe integration is donew.r.t. xtreating
herethe integration is donew.r.t. y omittingthe terms containing x in N then the soltuion is (1) + (2) is Constant. Eg. (1) Solve (2 x3 - xy2 - 2 y + 3) dx - ( x2 y + 2 x) dy = 0 Solution : Comparingwith standardequation M = 2 x3 - xy2 - 2 y + 3, N = - x2 y - 2 x
M y = - 2 xy - 2, N x = - 2 xy - 2 M y = N x hence equation is exact
M dx =
(2 x3 - xy2 - 2 y + 3) dx = 2
x4 4
- y2
x2 2
- 2 xy + 3 x =
x4 2
x2 y 2 2 x)
- 2 xy + 3x (1)
2 y 2 x dy N dy = ( - x 0 dy (omitting - ) the= terms which contain
= Constant solution is x4 2 x2 y 2 2 - 2 xy + 3x = c 2
ie x4 - x2 y 2 - 4 xy + 6 x = c Eg. (2) Solve ( x2 + y2 - a2 ) x dx + ( x2 - y 2 - b2 ) y dy = 0 Solution : Comparingwith standardequation M = x3 + xy 2 - a2 x, N = x2 y - y3 - b2 y

M y M y = N x = 2 xy , N x equation is exact = 2 xy
for solution, consider
M dx =
( x3 + xy2 - a2 x) dx =
x4 4
x2 y 2 2
a 2 x2 2
(treating y as a constant)
N dy = ( x2 y - y3 - b2 y ) dy = (- y 3 - b2 y ) dy omittingthe terms which contain x y4 4 b 2 y2 2 + x2 - y2 2

4
=-
solution is
4 2 2
x4 4
a2 x2 2
2
y4 4
b2 y2 2
c 4
ie x + 2 x y - 2 a x - y - 2 b y = c
2 2
Exercise
Solve the following
(1) x2 (1 - y ) dy dx dy dx (3 ) = x( 2 log x + 1) (sin y + y cos y ) dy dx ( 7) x dy - y dx = + = a y2 dy dx x2 + y 2 dx (8 ) dy dx = dy dx y x + sin y x + 1 = ey
+ y 2 (1 + x ) = 0
( 2)
dy dx
= e 2 x - 3 y + 4 x2 e - 3 y
(4 )
cos( x + y ) dy = dx
(5 )
y - x
(6 )
( x + 1)
(9 )
(11)
x2 y dx - ( x3 + y3 ) dy = 0
( 4 x - 6 y - 1) dx + ( 3 y - 2 x - 2) dy = 0
(10)
(12 )
( 2x + 5 y + 1) dx - (5 x + 2 y - 1) dy = 0
dy dx = 2y - x- 4 y- 3x+3 = x3 - 2 xy if y = 2 when x =1
(13)
x log x dy dx
dy dx
+ y = (log x)2
(14 )
dy dx
(15 )
+ y cos x = y 3 sin 2 x
(16 )
dy dx
+ y = x3 y 6
(17)
(19 )
(1 + y2 ) dx = (tan- 1 y - x ) dy
2x y
3
(18)
( 20 )
( 2xy + y - tan y ) dx + ( x2 - x tan2 y + sec 2 y ) dy = 0

+ + y 1 1 x cos y dy + ( x + log x - x sin y ) dy = 0
dx +
y 2 - 3 x2 y4
dy = 0
Answers
(1) log x y 1 x 1 y =c (2 ) 3 e 2 x - 2 e 3 y + 8 x3 = c (3 ) y sin y = x 2 log x + c (4) y = tan x+ y 2 +c (5 ) ( x + 1)( 2 - e y ) = c
(6) ( x +1)(1 - e y ) = c (7 ) y + x2 + y 2 = cx2
(8) y = 2 x tan- 1 (cx) (9)
x y
= 3 log cy
(10) ( x + y)7 = c x - y
2 3
(11) (2 x - y ) +
5 4
log( 7 - 8 x + 12 y ) = c
(12) ( X 2 - XY + Y 2 ) = c
2Y + 5 + 2Y -
() () 5-
21 X 21 X
21
where
X = x - 2, Y = y - 3
(13) y log x =
1 3
(log x ) 3 + c (14 ) 2 y - x2 + 1 = 4 e1-
x2
(15) y - 2 = ce 2 s i n x + 2 sin x + 1 (16 ) x3 y 5
+5 2
cx 2
=1
(17 ) x = tan - 1 y - 1 + ce - t an
-1
(18 ) x2 y + xy - x tan y + tan y = c (19 ) x2 - y 2 = cy 3 ( 20 ) y ( x + log x) + x cos y = c

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Study Material for B.Tech

Sharada Vikas Trust (R)

6. Differential Equations of first order

opposite side hypotenuse

& written as sin .

adjacent side hypotenuse

& written as cos . 90 BC

opposite side adjacent side

& written as tan .

It can be seen by the above definition that sin tan =

The reciprocal of sin ie

and written as cosec .

The reciprocal of cos ie

and written as sec .

The Reciprocal of tan ie

and written as cot .

Identities:- (1) sin (2) sec

divide by BC 2 ,we have

Trigonometric ratios of 30 & 60

to BC , then BD = DC = 1. Then in the

triangle ABD , A DB = 90 , A BD = 60 & BAD = 30 , further AD2 = AB2 BD2 = 4 1 = 3,

2 KSOU Complex Trigonometry In the triangle ABD

also cosec 30 = 2, sec 30 =

Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC where A CB = 90

Let AC = BC = 1 unit then AB = \

Trigonometric ratios of any angle (from 0

BTC11 Then OM = x & PM = y

(, +) (+, +) y X' X x O (, ) (+, ) M

Sine is +ve All are +ve

Trigonometric ratios of angles 0 (can be called border angles).

, 90 , 180 , 270 and 360

Let M O P be an angle whose measure is very close to zero (as in fig. 1) As \ 0, y

4 KSOU Complex Trigonometry P

O Mx If M , OP is very close to 90 as in fig. 2. As \ 9 0, x

If is very close to 180 as in fig. 3 As \ 180 , x

If is very close to 270 as in fig. 4 As \ 270 , 0x

If is very close to 360 as in fig. 5

BTC11 Thus we have the following

90 270 180 360

90 270 180 360

6 KSOU Complex Trigonometry

Rules for allied angles

cos( 180 + ) = - cos tan( 180 + ) = tan

cos( 360 + ) = cos tan( 360 + ) = tan

or s 2 in120 = sin(180 - 60 ) = sin 60 =

Eg.2 2cos 150 = cos( 90 + 60) = - sin 60 = -

or c 2os 150 = cos(180 - 30 ) = - cos 30 = 1 2

Eg.3 sin 315 = sin( 360 - 45 ) = - sin 45 = -

or sin 315 = sin( 270 + 45 ) = - cos 45 = -

To prove that radian is a Constant angle

MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 7

Eg. (2) Qn. : Convert

= 2(1 + cot2 A) = 2 cosec 2 A = RHS. 2. Show that

(1 + sin A)2 - (1 - sin A)2 (1 - sin A)(1 + sin A)

= 4 sec A tan A = RHS

8 KSOU Complex Trigonometry

A+ tan A = a , then prove that

sec 2 A + tan 2 A + 2 sec A tan A - 1 sec 2 A + tan 2 A + 2 sec A tan A + 1

sec 2 A - 1 + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A sec 2 A + tan 2 A + 1 + 2 sec A tan A

2 tan 2 A + 2 sec A tan A 2 sec 2 A + 2 sec A tan A

(using the identity)