DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS LEADERSHIP

MODULE 1
FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
How to Lead and Manage Change
THE ONCE STABLE AND RELIABLE SOURCES
OF ADVANTAGE HAVE BEEN ERODED
CAPTURING THE NEW HIGH GROUND
REQUIRES EXTRAORDINARY CHANGE AND
LEADERSHIP OF THE HIGHEST ORDER

(REVISED MARCH 2002)

FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION
The key to effective management is leadership
Some concepts in the behavioral sciences are well intended, but fall short of the mask.
They give you good ideas to think about, but they dont always tell you how to put these
ideas into practice. This programme is designed to provide you with these skills.
The leadership strategies presented will help you maximise results when working with
people. Sometimes this is easier said than done. Real life situations are never static. They
are in a constant state of change. Things are either getting better or worse.
Like any other skills, leadership effectiveness increases the more you understand and
practice the skills.

LEADERSHIP A DEFINITION
Many of you are line or operating managers and may find it difficult to associate or relate
the principles of effective leadership presented here in the warm atmosphere of this
lecture theatre with the real work situation or your factory environment.
The position may become further confused when we consider that the majority of our
accepted principles of management and leadership are derived exclusively from a case
study of the Industrialised West.
I firmly believe that leadership methods in Zimbabwe have to be studies in great detail.
Much has already been done to introduce modern management concepts; and the central
role of leadership has been recognised and is being given increasing importance.
However, Zimbabwean leaders must not be afraid to question those assumptions which
have been for long in use in the more advanced Western countries simply because we
think that the Wests achievements justify the means they used. We must seek to adopt
those concepts that we think are applicable to Zimbabwe and we should evolve new
concepts where existing practices are found wanting.
I shall be discussing a subject of which many of you have personal knowledge and
experience. I am, therefore, in real danger of saying things that some of you will regard
as heretical and perhaps misguided. It would be wrong of me to avoid this risk, for after
all the most important purpose that can be served by a programme of this kind is to
provide fresh examination of established ways of thinking.
MANAGEMENT
I should like to commence by briefly discussing the meaning of management. There are
perhaps as many formulations as there are writers on the subject of management.
Managers perform several functions, which distinguish them from other people with
professional training such as doctors, lawyers and engineers.
In various degrees managers undertake risks, handle uncertainties, plan, coordinate,
administer, direct and lead. Management in this broad sense is not confined to private
enterprise. It is also essential for the successful operation of government departments,
military units or trade unions. For our purpose, we see management as the administration
and control to avoid chaos.
MANAGEMENT THE SCIENCE
The principles of management have evolved by the scientific process of observation,
hypothesis validation and theory management can therefore, be accepted as akin to the
other behavioral sciences. The nature of management, pure management, although a
science, a technique, needs to be buttressed by leadership and leadership is a mixture of
art, craft and humanity.

You have no doubt heard the phrase:Management cannot be separated from leadership
That is not to say that management is leadership, for that would be an oversimplification.
Let me express this in another way. Management today is responsive to a great number of
techniques, which take away many of the hazards. An example is work-study. The worst
miscalculations in the laying down of wage scales can be avoided if any analytical workstudy is undertaken. Much of the guesswork can be taken out of the evolution of a
marketing policy if market research, property planned and interpreted is used to help
chart a course. Or budgeting. Management is learning more and more on clearly defined
systems of controls production, sales and financial in order to eliminate the hit or
miss atmosphere in which many businesses are conducted.
However, nether work-study, nor market research, nor budgetary control is of value in
itself if the leadership element is lacking. Work-study must be carried out in a cooperative, receptive atmosphere; market research can only supply facts and is no
substitute for dynamic marketing; budgetary controls are worthless if those who are
expected to work to them are seized by their value. A climate must be created which is
receptive to management techniques.

A CLIMATE THAT ONLY LEADERSHIP CAN ACHIEVE

It is, however, important not to confuse Management Technique with the Art of
Leadership. The two are complimentary but they are not the same thing. Business
techniques are being developed daily. The leadership element is constant. It is an act that
is timeless.
How then can the two be fused to ensure the best of both worlds? If management is arid
without leadership and leadership purposeless with management?
The answer, I believe can be found in looking for a more functional approach to
leadership, ad by improving our personal effectiveness.
LEADERSHIP THE CONSTANT FACTOR
With advancing technology, the work of a manager becomes more specialised and the
skills be requires become more particular to his specialisation. Despite this trend, one
element remains unchanged in importance in the function of all managers the skill of
leadership.

Most people can recognise effective leadership, yet it is the most difficult subject to teach
or to develop.
I should like to close with a point made in an article on Morale and Training of Leaders
by G Watson.
Practice under expert supervision has been found to be highly
important in training leaders. A man may not know when he is
being sarcastic, unreasonable or impatient. He may now know
when he is talking over a mans head or frightening By
practice and criticism the manager can learn to detect his own
weaknesses and become aware of the way his methods
influence his men. In addition, he learns to take criticism and
advice. Becoming sensitized to the reactions of the members of
ones groups is one of the most important benefits to be gained
from leadership training.
I hope that this intensive yet highly participative programme will provide you with the
insight.
MANAGERS PREVENT CHAOS.
LEADERS INSPIRE CHANGE.

RAY FOLCARELLI
MARCH 2002

PART 1
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
(THE TWO CREATIONS)
STEPHEN COVEY
Its a principle that all things are created twice. LEADERSHIP is the first creation.

AN IDEA A DREAM A VISION

Leadership is not management, management is the second creation. Management is the

bottom line focus. Leadership deals with the top line, what do I want to accomplish?!

MANAGEMENT IS DOING
THINGS RIGHT
LEADERSHIP IS DOING THE
RIGHT THINGS

In business the market is changing rapidly. Proactive powerful leadership most constantly
monitor the environment.
No management success can compensate for failure in leadership

Efficient management without

effective leadership is like
straightening the chair as the Titanic
is sinking

RIGHT AND LEFT BRAIN THINKING

Science has proved that the human brain is divided into two sides RIGHT and LEFT.
The RIGHT side is the creative, artistic side of the brain, unfortunately the sides we use
the least. The LEFT side is the logical analytical side. Most of our education and work
experiences have taught use only the LEFT side.

RIGHT
Creative
Artistic
Analytical

LEFT
Logical

MANAGE FROM THE LEFT

LEAD FROM THE RIGHT

Leadership the ART and

Management the SCIENCE
SHORT GROUP EXERCISE

You are lost in the Zambezi valley.

You find an empty Coca-Cola bottle.
List below the things you could use it for
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

BEGIN WITH THE END IN MIND

(STEPHEN R. COVEY)
Begin with the end in mind is based on the principle of two creations. The mental or
first creation and the physical or second creation.
The skilled carpenter has a tale

MEASURE TWICE CUT ONCE

You have to make sure that the plan or the blueprint, the first creation, is really what you
want.
In business think through what you want (leadership) PRODUCT TARGET MARKET
FINANCE RESEARCH PRODUCTION PERSONNEL.
Most business failures begin in the first creation, undercapitalisation, mis-understand the
market, or lack of a business plan.

MANAGERS PREVENT
CHAOS
LEADERS INSPIRE
CHANGE

TYPES OF MANAGER

Managers (leaders) can be classified in two ways:

1. By their level in the organisation

2. By their function and duties.

First Line Managers
Supervisors and Foreman. They do not supervise other managers, they direct operating
employees.
Middle Managers
Direct Operations and implement strategies.
Direct the activities of Supervisors and sometimes operating employees.
Top Managers
A small group of top executives.
Responsible for the overall management of the organisation.
Functional Managers
Responsible for every one organisational activities, production, finance, personnel, etc.
General Managers
Oversees a complex unit, company or subsidiary, or an independent operating division.

9A

LINE AND STAFF A DEFINITION

Line and staff originate as military terms and were adopted by business and other
organisations. Some unfortunate confusion has resulted.

In the military, the combat officer is the line officer who is ultimately accountable for
attaining the military objective. He has command authority. The line officer receives
advice and service from staff officers.
We use the terms line and staff to describe the different relationships people assume as
they work to accomplish objectives. The terms tell us who has the right to make the final
decision (line) and who provides advice and service (staff).
The person who has a final, or command authority with respect to an objective is in a line
relationship to that objective.
Line/staff relationships are not static. We play different roles as relationships change.
Line has a command (decision-making) authority necessary to reach the objectives for
which line is accountable.
Staff provides advice and service to help in reaching objectives.
Thus every superior is in line relationship to his subordinates, and all subordinates are in
a staff relationship to their superiors.
Managers also often act as staff to their peers, providing other managers with advice and
service in the attainment of objectives.
Research shows that although managers endorse the idea of participation by their staff,
they typically undervalue the abilities of the subordinates
under their authority. Though
9B
they want their own superiors to make fuller use of their advice, they often fail to
recognize the needs in subordinates.

VIDEO PRESENTATION
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP
(INSEAD UNIVERSITY)
Discuss the points raised and present the main lessons learnt by your group.

THE DREAM VISION DIRECTION

PATTERN RECOGNITION
Relationship between events - bring order

MANAGEMENT OF MEANING

PERSERVERANCE

NETWORK BUILDING

EMPOWERMENT

ENACTMENT
10

PART 2
THE FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP

OBJECTIVE
At the end of this Part, participants will be able to explain the functions of leadership.
INTRODUCTION
Although we shall not be dealing in depth with the subject of Leadership until later in the
programme, the functions of leadership are closely linked to what a manager does. We
must therefore introduce leadership at this early stage and deal with it in depth later.
GROUP WORK
In your groups, discuss leadership and select a person you consider is or was a
good/effective leader. This must be a group decision.
OUR SELECTION

Having made your choice of leader, discuss and agree on three characteristics that
contributed to his/her effective leadership.
1.

2.
11

3.
Finally, comment on the statement:
he is born a leader
This does not refer to the leader you received. a general discussion. NATURE OR
NURTURE? Is a leader born or is he/she a child of the environment.

DISCUSSION NOTES

APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Before considering how improvements can be made, it is worthwhile to examine some
misconceptions about leadership. I should like to give you an example by quoting a
paragraph from Zimbabwes leading management journal.

MEMO FOR Management (June 1979)

Nine touchstones of management.
Good management is no pushover it is for real, dealing with real people
and real things and is not a game of Monopoly.
Nobody can be trained into the qualities of leadership either he has them,
or he has not

The Qualities of Approach

The assumption quoted above reflects one side of the coin, this is the qualities
approach, that leaders are both with inherent qualities that qualify them to lead; for
example, courage, intelligence, integrity. Great leaders of the past have been analysed to
see what qualities they displayed and lists of desirable
qualities were drawn up on the
12
basis of these analyses
Some
this approach
assembled
all the known
liststryofto apply it
Unfortunately,
theresearchers
concept of into
inherent
qualities presents
problems
when we
leadership
that
had
been
made
by
various
authorities.
Over
140
lists were
to training of self-development.
found, but no two agreed.
Another snag is that we can recall some very effective leaders who obviously
lacked some of the more widely accepted qualities; did Hitler have integrity,
did Churchil have tact? When we consider such men as Napoleon and Oliver
Cromwell, or such women as Queen Elizabeth and Mrs Pankhurst, it becomes
absurd to say that a leader should be well balanced, possess a sense of humour,
or a sense of justice. Some of the more successful leaders in history have been
neurotic, epileptic, humourless, narrow-minded or unjust. There have been
religious leaders with a pathological sense of guilt, political leaders with
delusions of omnipotence and military leaders with delusions of persecution.
Ford and Carnegie were by no means paragons of virtue or normality

If we could find a person with the qualities often referred to as leadership qualities he
would be of no use as a junior leader in industry, for he would inevitably be in demand
elsewhere as an archangel.

Again, we are all aware of individuals who apparently have many

desirable qualities, yet are quite incapable of leading anyone. Is
something else required?
If we could agree which qualities are needed, could we say to what
degree they are required? When does determination become
stubbornness, or even sheer pigheadedness?
If we are to train leaders, can qualities like courage or sense of humour
or integrity be developed. Or does it mean that some people are leaders
and some are not and that this state cannot be changed?

The qualities approach, therefore, does not give an adequate explanation of leadership.
However, there must be an element of truth in the approach.
13

Probably, people with certain qualities have a starting point for leadership, provided
that they recognise their assets and develop and use them. Personal qualities could be a
basis for selection for training.
The Situation - Approach
The reverse side of the coin is the situational approach to leadership. This suggests that
the skill required to deal with a situation would decide who would be the leader. It is best

illustrated by the example of a shipwrecked party on a dessert island. If it included a

builder, a sailor and a farmer, each would take charge according to the task to be
achieved. However, this theory too has weaknesses.
We all know experts, with high technical skills, who are incapable of
leading anyone.
Tasks are rarely isolated. There are often conflicting priorities. For
example, the shipwrecked party might want to build shelter, build a boat
and grow food all at the same time. who then would be the leader?
In organisations it is unacceptable to pass leadership from one expert to
another like a rugby ball.

The situational approach does not give the complete answer for leadership. However, it
also contains a grain of truth a person who has skill and knowledge relevant to his
groups tasks will make a better leader.
The qualities and situational approached do not provide an adequate answer because they
try to look at a leader in isolation. We know that leadership is an interaction of the leader
and the group he leads, their situation and their total environment. A more comprehensive
view must be taken of leadership, which I suggest can be found in the functional
approach of leadership.

Function of a Leader
With the organisation of the three areas of need, it can be seen that any action taken by
any member of the group to satisfy any of these needs is a leadership action a
leadership function. We can, therefore, see what the job of a leader entails. First the
leader has got to be aware of the task needs, group needs, and individual needs of his
group in their particular situation.
14

Secondly, he has got to perform functions, which may be thought processed,

communications or actions, to satisfy the needs of his group, and thirdly, he must be
aware of the needs and to perform the necessary functions he has to have certain
knowledge, skill and attitudes. From this comes the concept of functional leadership.
Although the three areas of need are distinct, they are not isolated; they overlap. Needs in
one area may have side effects in other areas; functions aimed at one area of need may
have effects also in other areas. For example, if an individual is dissatisfied, the team will

be weakened and may fail in its task. If the leader does something to satisfy the needs of
the dissatisfied individual, the team will be strengthened and will be more likely to
achieve its task. Or, if the leader does something to strengthen the team, by good training
for example, it will be more likely to achieve its task. Or, if the leader does something to
strengthen the team, by good training for example, it will be more likely to achieve its
task and each individual will feel more confident.
Their areas of need do not always merit equal priority. There are occasions in any
organisation when the demands of the task needs must predominate. This is especially so
in military organisations where, in moments of crisis, or life and death situations, the
leader must concentrate every effort on the task.
In those circumstances, the leader must give priority to task needs at the expense of the
other areas of need.
To prepare for this the skilled leader will have used slack periods to build up reserves, or
credit, within the team and individual areas. In this sense the team and individual areas.
In this sense the team and individual areas could be looked upon as batteries to be
charged up in quiet periods. Similarly, after long periods of high task priority, the skilled
leader is aware that he must find and seize opportunities to look to his team and
individual needs to recharge his batteries.
Group Participation
Research into motivation and job satisfaction, however, has shown that there are
advantages in the leader sharing decision-making with his subordinates whenever the
situation permits, because in task needs, better decisions may be reached when all the
knowledge and skill within the group are employed. In addition, the group will be more
committed to achieving the task if they had a hand in making decisions.
In group needs, participation helps to develop a structure of sub-leaders, increases
communication with the group, improves team spirit and makes the group more receptive
to change. Finally, in individual needs, participation
by individuals in making decisions
15
helps to satisfy the desire for status, to use skills to contribute to the group and to be
creative. Participation also trains the individual for greater responsibility.
The skilled leader recognizes the advantages of permitting his subordinates to participate
in making decisions that affect the group and adopting a more democratic style of
leadership. He will allow such participation only after judging the circumstances; taking
into account such factors as the time available, the stress and the priority of the situation
and the knowledge, skill, attitudes and experience of the group. He will also be aware that
ultimately only he is responsible for the decisions that are made.
Analysis of Leadership

The functional approach to leadership has not developed a new style of leadership, it has
simply provided a rationale for effective leadership. Its great advance is that it explains
what a leader DOES, whereas previous approaches tried unsuccessfully, to define what
a leader IS. It looks at the interaction of the leader, the group, their situation and their
environment. The essence of the approach is that an effective leader:

Is aware of task needs and individual needs of the group;

Has the knowledge, skill and attitudes to meet those needs in
accordance with the priorities of the situation.

Because the approach provides an explanation of leadership, it also provides an analytical

method by which a leader can develop his leadership and perform his job as a leader. It
enables the individual to observe and analyse, in himself and others, the reason for
success or failure in leadership. By this it means he can build up his experience of
leadership more quickly on a rational basis.
The approach can also be used by a leader who is approaching or performing a task. He
can ask, what are the needs? Every leader in addition to commanding his own group is
also a member and subordinate in the next higher group. He can ask himself what are
the needs of this higher group and how can we contribute to it? By these means he can
ensure that he and his group are not working in a watertight compartment.
Because the approach is analytical, the skilled leader looks at things that go wrong with
his group in the way that a doctor looks at symptoms in a patient. The leader does not just
treat symptoms but looks deeper for the underlying causes the unfilled needs and
performs the functions necessary to put them right.
16

The functional leadership approach makes the assumption that people do not have to be
born leaders; that leadership can be learnt and developed. Provided that a person is
reasonably intelligent and has an awareness of what is going on around him, his ability to
lead can be improved considerably by observation, analysis, learning and practice.
The three areas of need can be recognised in any leadership situation, whether it be as
Prime Minister, an industrial manager, a shop foreman, or army officer and the functions
performed to meet these situations are broadly constant.

However each different type of leader requires different knowledge, skills and attitudes to
meet his particular groups needs. By identifying the particular knowledge, skill and
attitudes required to perform each function, it is possible to draw up a job analysis for a
leader in a particular organisation as a basis for training. By the same method, he
practising leader can identify any gaps in his own ability and can then do something to
rectify them by private study or by seeking the necessary training and experience.
TEAM LEADERSHIP

TASK
Define task
Plan
Allocate work and
resources
Check performance
Control - adjust
TEAM
INDIVIDUAL
Attend to personal
needs
Praise
Recognise
Talent
Train

Set Standards
Discipline
Motivate
Communicate
Train

17

AREA OF INTERDEPENDENCE
VIDEO PRESENTATION

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

DISCUSSION NOTES

ACTION CENTRED LEADERSHIP

TASK

THE TEAM

THE INDIVIDUAL

18

GROUP EXERCISE
Consider some of the things you do each day. For example organising work or budgeting
List the activities you identify below:
_______________________________________

__________________________________

_______________________________________

___________________________________

_______________________________________

__________________________________

_______________________________________

___________________________________

_______________________________________

__________________________________

_______________________________________

___________________________________

_______________________________________

__________________________________

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__________________________________

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GROUP DISCUSSION
Major Functions Identified

Sub-Functions Identified

_______________________________________

__________________________________

_______________________________________

___________________________________

_______________________________________

__________________________________

_______________________________________

___________________________________

_______________________________________

__________________________________

_______________________________________

___________________________________

_______________________________________

__________________________________

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_______________________________________

19

___________________________________
__________________________________

THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Planning

Organising

Managers use logic and

methods to think through
goals and actions

Managers arrange and

allocate work, authority
and resources to achieve
organisation goals

Controlling

Leading

Managers make sure an

organisation is moving
forward its objectives

Managers direct, influence,

and motivate employees to
perform essential tasks

The ideal sequence of management activities

The reality of management activities

20

THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

INTRODUCTION
A process is a systematic way of doing things. All managers, regardless of their particular
aptitudes or skills engage in certain interrelated activities in order to achieve their goals.
PLANNING

Think through goals and actions in advance. Plans give an organisation objectives and set
up the best programme and procedure for reaching them. Planning involves long and
short-term plans, forecasting, budgeting, policies, procedures and programmes.
ORGANISING
The process of arranging and allocating work, authority (delegation) and resources.
Difference goals of course will demand different organisational structures.
LEADING
Involves directing, influencing and motivating employees. Working with people,
selection of staff, communicating.
CONTROLLING
The manager must make sure the actions lead towards stated goals. Establish standards.
Measure performance. Compare performance with standard and take corrective action
where necessary.
THE PROCESS IN PRACTICE
Standards are used to control but setting standards is a part of planning and an integral
part of motivating and leading. Taking corrective action often means adjusting plans. The
functions of management PLANNING, ORGANISING, LEADING and
CONTROLLING are not four separate activities but a group of interactive functions.
THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
The management functions of PLANNING, ORGANISING, LEADING and
21 effective management of business
CONTROLLING are considered central to the
organisations.
While these functions are interrelated, at any one time, one or more may be of primary
importance.
Skills of a Manager
It is generally agreed that at least three areas of skill are necessary for carrying out the
process of management.
TECHNICAL SKILL
HUMAN SKILL
CONCEPTUAL SKILL

The appropriate mix of these skills varies as an individual advances in management from
supervisory to senior management positions.
Technical Skills
Ability to use knowledge, methods, techniques, and equipment for the performance of
specific tasks. Acquired from experience, education and training.
Human Skills
Ability and judgement in working with and through people (motivation and effective
leadership).
Conceptual skills
Ability to understand the complexities of business organisations. To act according to
objectives of the total organisation rather than on the goals of individual groups.
SKILLS NEEDED
TOP
Management

CONCEPTUAL

MIDDLE
Management
SUPERVISORY
Management

HUMAN
TECHNICAL

Management skills necessary at 22

various levels of an organisation

VIDEO CASE STUDY

MANAGEMENT AT WORK
GROUP DISCUSSION

Once you have viewed the video, discuss the main areas of interest to your group and the
key lessons you may have learnt
PLANNING

ORGANISING

LEADING

CONTROLLING

23

GROUP DISCUSSION
THE FUNCTIONS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP
Business leaders perform both management and technical work.
Leadership work includes:
Planning the work a leader performs to predetermine a course of action

Organizing the work a leader performs to arrange and relate the work to be
done so it can be performed effectively by people
Leading the work leader performs to influence people to take effective action
Controlling the work a leader performs to assess and regulate work in progress
and to assess the results secured.

24

DIRECTIONS
III.

Label example with the name of the leadership function it represents.

a.

Larry Kemp, EDP Manager, has established a reporting system whereby he is

informed immediately when performance falls bellow an agreed-upon level.
The function illustrated by this example is_____________________________

b.

Karen Smith has learned of a forthcoming change that will have a direct effect on
seven of the people she manages. She calls the together ad tells them of the change
and its implications.
The function illustrated by this example is_____________________________

c.

Jerry Corwin has prepared an objective that he wants to accomplish in 30 days. He

prepares a list of action steps for meeting the objective and a time sequence for
carrying them out.
The function illustrated by this example is_____________________________

d.

Dave Mesa analyses the work currently being performed in his unit and, based on
his analysis, delegates a portion of the work to several of the people reporting to
him.
The function illustrated by this example is_____________________________

25

PROGRESS CHECK

Suggested responses
I.

(2)
(3)
(1)

II.

a.

Principle of Technical Priority

b. Principle of Management Results

c. Principle of Organising Levels

III.

a.

controlling

b. leading
c. planning
d. organising

26

Progress Check Reading

DIRECTIONS

1. Weve provided the following Progress Check to help you measure your understanding of the material contained in the Reading.
2. Match the names of the various Leadership activities with the paraphrased
descriptions of the activities, which are printed below.

The activities of planning

a. Forecasting

e. Budgeting

b. Developing Objectives

f. Developing Policies

c. Programming

g. Developing Procedures

d. Scheduling
1. ____A manager establishes a time frame within which certain work must be a
mmmaccomplished
2. ___A manager studies a particular reporting process and arrives at a standardized and
bbbmore efficient reporting system.
3. ____A manager reviews government studies showing population movement and
mmmprojects a five-year growth pattern for his marketing area.
4. ____A Manager studies several action steps and writes down the cost of performing
mmmeach.
5. ____ A manager develops the organisation-wide framework by which the granting of
mmmvacation time will be governed.
6. ____ A manager lists the action steps, in sequence, necessary to accomplish a desired
mmmresult.
7. ____ A manager makes a precise statement of a result he needs to accomplish.
27

The Activities of Organizing

1.

a.

Developing Organization Structure

b.

Developing

c.

Developing Relationships

____ A manager gives a subordinate a significant portion of work he previously

mmmperformed himself.

2. _____A manager brings together a controller and a sales manager to discuss a

mmmbreakdown in cooperation between their respective units
3. _____A manager realigns the personnel in her unit to better reflect the work being
mmmperformed

The Activities of Leading

a.

Decision Making

d.

Selecting people

b.

Communicating

e.

Developing People

c.

Motivating

1. _____ A manager provides Personnel with detailed job specifications for a new
mmmposition
2. _____ A manager follows a logical, step by step approach to evaluate a problem he
mmmfaces.
3. _____ A manager rotates a trainee through several positions to provide a broad
mmmexposure to the operations of the unit.
4. _____ A manager gives a subordinate public recognition for the completion of a
mmmparticularly difficult project.
5. _____ A manager realizes that action he plans to take will affect the operations of two
mmmother units and informs the managers of those units of his intentions.

28

The Activities of Controlling

a.

developing Performance Standards

b.

Measuring Performance

c.

Evaluating Performance

d.

Correcting Performance

1. ____ A manager, in cooperation with a subordinate, lists the criteria by which he will
mmmjudge the work of that subordinate.

2. ____ A manager develops and implements a system of weekly deposit reports.

3. ____ A manager, faced with a rapid decline in the quality of work being done in his
mmmunit, meets several subordinates to review the conditions obstructing unit
mmmperformance.
4. ____ A manager compares actual performance against planned performance and
mmmdetermines that he is satisfied with the results achieved.

29

PROGRESS CHECK

Suggested responses
Planning Activities
1. Scheduling (d)
2. Developing Procedures (g)
3. Forecasting (a)
4. Budgeting (e)

5. Developing Policies (f)

6. Programming (c)
7. Developing Objectives (b)

Organizing Activities
1. Delegating (b)
2. Developing Relationships (c)
3. Developing Organization Structure (a)

Leading Activities
1. Selecting People (d)
2. Decision Making (a)
3. Developing People (e)
4. Motivating (c)
5. Communicating (b)
30

Controlling Activities

1. Developing Performance Standards (a)

2. Measuring Performance (b)
3. Correcting Performance (d)
4. Evaluating Performance (c)

31

LEADERSHIP AND DEVELOPMENT

To a great extent, effective leaders are made not born. They do tend to share the
following three characteristics:

The need to manage

They want to influence and affect the performance of
others
The need for power
They rely on superior knowledge and skill rather than
the authority of their positions
The capacity for empathy
Understand and cope with the often unexpressed
emotional reactions of others.

DO YOU HAVE THESE CHARACTERISTICS?

Remember, no course or textbook can teach you to be an effective leader. However,

formal study can expose you to relevant information, theories and case studies based on
the work of others experience. This supplemented by practical experience will help you
to develop and start the journey towards being a more effective leader.

32

BUSINESS LEADERSHIP

FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

VIDEO CASE STUDY

FUNCTIONS
TASK

Selling Objectives
Briefing

Planning
TEAM

INDIVIDUAL

Controlling
Informing

CHARACTERISTICS

Problem Solving

Low social distance

Supporting

Lead by example

Reviewing

MBWA

Delegating

Men first you last

Recruiting

Integrity Honesty

Appraisal

Low power

Motivating

Tolerate deviancy
Firm but fair

33

FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP REVISION

CONQUERING MOUNT EVEREST

1.

TASK NEEDS
Was there a clear goal?
Interim Steps
Flexible
Allocate Resources
Control and Adjust

2.

TEAM NEEDS
Did the leader style match the team maturity
Balance of Role and Functions
Teamwork

3.

INDIVIDUAL NEEDS
Delegation
Praise and motivation
Communication
Social needs

34

CONQUERING MOUNT EVEREST

How well did Chris Bonnington handle the vital function of Leadership?
Rank his on a cach key characteristic against a scale of 1 5 (1 = poor, 5= very good)
VITAL LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS

ACTIVITY

POINTS

1. Planning Thinking ahead strategy

2. Organising Resources etc. Think on paper
3. Staffing Selection of the team
4. Leading Inspiring Motivating
5. Communicating Meetings, one on one etc.
6. Decision Making Careful thought
7. Delegating Allocating task and responsibility
8. Controlling Monitoring progress against plan
Total Points

35

TASK

TEAM

INDIVIDUAL

DEFINE OBJECTIVES

IDENTIFY TASK AND

CONSTRAINTS

INVOLVE TEAM
SHARE
COMMITMENT

CLARIFY OBJECTIVES

PLAN

ESTABLISH
PRIORITIES
CHECK RECORDS
DECIDE
SET STANDARDS

CONSULT
ENCOURAGE IDEAS
AND ACTIONS
DEVELOP
SUGGESTIONS
STRUCTURE

ASSESS SKILLS
SET TARGETS
DELEGATE

BRIEF

BRIEF THE TEAM

CHECK
UNDERSTANDING

ANSWER QUESTIONS LISTEN

OBTAIN FEEDBACK
ENTHUSE

SUPPORT MONITOR

REPORT PROGRESS
MAINTAIN
STANDARDS
DISCIPLINE

COORDINATE
RECONCILE
CONFLICT

ADVISE
ASSIST / REASSURE
RECOGNISE EFFORT
COUNSEL

EVALUATE

SUMMARISE
PROGRESS
REVIEW OBJECTIVES
REPLAN IF
NECESSARY

RECOGNIZE
SUCCESS
LEARN FROM
FAILURE

ASSESS PERFORMANCE
APPRAISE
GUIDE AND TRAIN

ACTION CENTRED LEADERSHIP: KEY ACTIONS

KEY ACTION

36

PART 3

What I Want

Page Comms (Pvt.) Ltd.

Action Centred Learning Systems

37

THE MASTER MANAGER.

It is important to realise that the quality
of management cannot be separated from
the quality of life of the person who does the
managing. The level of managing is, in fact,
a consequence of the personal level of
being of the manager. The competencies
that are now being increasingly required, in
order to cope with the changing demands of
the environment cannot be acquired by
traditional training methods, but are largely
a consequence of different consciousness
and vision of reality, of life.

Attitude accounts for

80 % of success

38

Flight by machines heavier than air is impractical

and insignificant, if not utterly impossible.
Simon Newcomb,
An astronomer of some note, 1902

Who is stopping
YOUR dream?

39

VIDEO CASE STUDY

RELATING THE LEARNING POINTS TO MY CIRCUMSTANCES
Learning Point

Where it applies in my work/life

Recognise and seize

opportunities
Visualize your goal
Go for your goal
100%
Dont be afraid of
failure
Motivate yourself
through interim
targets
Train and prepare
thoroughly
Stay focused and
determined
Be an integral part
of the team
Other lessons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

40

PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOUR

ONE OF THE BIGGEST PROBLEMS

ZIMBABWEAN BUSINESS LEADERS HAVE IS
WEANING THE LINE MANAGERS OFF THE
TRADITIONAL CONTROL STRUCTURE.
ITS A HEARTS AND MINDS ISSUE,
AND NOT BOTH ARE IMPORTANT

41

IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES FOR MANAGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In presenting this subject, I should first like to acknowledge the work
of Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher, whose work has made a major
contribution to understanding the role of sociocultural factors in
management.

THE NATURE OF MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Management in its broadest sense exists in the coordination of the efforts of people and
the use of economic and technical resources. Management is a sociotechnical activity.
Technical skills are the easiest to transfer. A properly trained technician can exercise his
skills anywhere. Think of a dentist, a typist, a cook. If management were only a technical
activity, there would hardly be a management skill transfer problem.
The problem has its roots on the human side, but because in organisations human and
technical factors interact, the human problems affect the transfer of technical skills.
Over the past thirty years, the development of management skills has been mainly treated
as a problem of the transfer of techniques. Many of these techniques have proved
irrelevant or at least ineffective in the different cultural context of the receiving country.

CULTURE
Culture as defined by Hofstede means:

The collective programming of the mind

which distinguishes the members of one group
from those of another.

42

Culture consists of patterns of thinking which are constantly changing. Parents to

children, teachers to students, leaders to followers. Culture is reflected in meanings
people attach to aspects of their life, their way of looking at the world and their role in it.
in their values, what they consider good and evil. In their collective beliefs and what
they consider true and false. Culture becomes crystallized in schools and institutions
and tangible products of a society.
Management within a society is very much constrained by its cultural make-up because it
is impossible to coordinate the actions of people without a deep understanding of their
values, beliefs and expressions.

MANAGEMENT IS A SYMBOLIC ACTIVITY

Managers influence other people by wielding symbols that have meaning for these
persons and motivate them towards the desired action. An example being a written
memorandum. Its effect depends on a complex set of interpretations by receivers:
Can they read?
Do they understand the language used?
Do they respect the legitimacy of the content?
Is the style appropriate to status?
Are they accustomed to receiving memoranda?
Are they competent to take the action requested?

Symbols developed in one cultural context may have a different meaning in another
cultural context.
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
In his research which covered 115 000 people in 100 companies in 67 countries,
Hofstede identified four basic dimensions which represent the common structure in the
cultural system of countries.
1. INDIVIDUALISM vs. COLLECTIVISM
Individualism stands for:
Loosely knit social framework
Nuclear family system
People take care of themselves.

43

Collectivism stands for:

Tightly knit social framework
Relatives, clan and in-group look after each
other.
Extended family
The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension relates to peoples self-concept:
I or We.
In order to maintain harmony the truth may have to be strained a little.
The role of the family in a collective society nepotism etc. is accepted. The
relatives loyalty can often compensate for a lack of technical competence.
Culture also affects the attractiveness of economic systems; free market capitalism
often appeals less to the state in a collective society. These are political choices but
underneath are cultural roots.
2. LARGE vs SMALL POWER DISTANCE
Power distance is the extent to which members of a society accept that power in
organisations is distributed unequally. This effects the behaviour of the less powerful
as well as the more powerful members.
Large Power Distance
Hierarchical order
Everyone has his place, no need for justification
Small Power Distance
Strive for power equalization
Demand justification

The fundamental issue is how do societies handle inequalities.

3. STRONG vs. WEAK AVOIDANCE
Avoidance is the degree to which people feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and
risk. This leads to maintaining organisations, policy, rules and procedures that protect
conformity.

43

Strong Risk Avoidance

Rigid codes of behaviour
Intolerant of deviance (low innovation)
Unity approach (one only)
Weak Risk Avoidance
Pluralism
Practice counts more than principles
Deviance is more tolerated.

The fundamental issue is how a society reacts on the fact that time only runs one
way and that the future is unknown. Does it try to control the future or let it
happen. Like Power, Distance, Risk Avoidance, has consequences for the way
people build their organisations.
4. MASCULINITY vs. FEMININITY

Masculinity
Achievement
Heroism
Assertiveness
Material success
Task orientation
Femininity
Relationship orientation
Modesty
Caring for the weak
Quality of life

It must be noted that the culture of any group is dynamic and always changing. Japan, for
example, is now a highly individualistic society this shift is due to a high per capita
income (wealth). Individualism follow wealth. It makes people less dependent on
collectivities: it creates more wage earners, fewer poor dependents, more private houses,
private cars, television sets. All this makes it less necessary for people to do things
together.
In Zimbabwe many urban dwellers are becoming more individualistic, particularly the
senior management class.
The management skill gap becomes evident in a number of respects:

45

The validity of capitalistic economies based on self-interest

(Adam Smith)
The validity of motivation theories based on self-actualization
(A. Maslow)
Priority in business to task or relationship. The importance of
face and harmony.

Examples
In Zimbabwe, before a task can be completed, one has to invest in
personal relationships. This may be considered time wasted in the
U.S.A.
An integration is necessary between private life and business life this
develops the relationship which is essential in business life.
This also involves the giving of presents and the rendering of services
which would perhaps be considered as bribes in the U.S.A. Such acts
are morally acceptable and we must not feel morally superior.
Where in the U.S.A. openness and directness is considered a virtue
and conflict resolution is preferred over conflict suppression
(Sensitivity Training), in collective societies there is generally a set of
expectations of how people should behave.

Given the power differences we can now identify areas of difficulty in:
The feasibility of western appraisal systems
The feasibility of MBO and various leadership packages
Respect of old age
The meaning of status
Ways of address
Subordinate consultation versus paternalistic management
HIGH POWER
The word democracy is inflated. Rulers de facto are less likely to consult.

46

Power is translated into visible differences in status. Status differences contribute to the
superiors authority. Open door policies are contradicted by psychological door that is
often closed. Ascribed status based on rank as opposed to achieved status. Examinations
are seen as an entry to a higher status group. Subordinates wait for superiors instructions
through respect for the hierarchy. Openness, directness and two-way communication in
superior-subordinate relationships are not likely to occur. Managing by walking is not
effective due to the high social distance.

RISK AVOIDANCE
Emotional need for rules
Models of organisations tall or flat
Showing or hiding of emotions
Low tolerance for deviant ideas
Type of planning

Innovations will be more easily welcomed in a low risk avoidance culture. Becoming
emotional (pounding the table, etc.) will be less accepted in high-risk avoidance societies.
Strategic planning, etc. is more popular in Great Britain than in Korea.
MASCULINITY vs. FEMININITY
This dimension refers to:

Competitiveness (individual) vs. solidarity, equity vs.

equality.
Achievement motivation vs. relationship motivation.
Acceptability of macho manager behaviour
Sympathy for strong or the weak

In closing this short introduction to some of the problems we shall have to tackle, I feel
that the solution lies in the adoption of an open minded and inquisitive approach. Reading
current management journals, one is impressed by the lack of depth and the view that any
platitudes and shorthand prescriptions that have no culturally proven validity will do.
Others believe that an appearance of modernity based on liberalistic ideas, on the premise
that man is the same all over the world, will do. Attempts in Zimbabwe to epitomise such
things as modern trade unionism,

47

Collective bargaining, delegation of authority and consultation are becoming a feature of

all management training. To do otherwise will mark one out as a reactionary or
colonialist. All this is not helpful.
We must also note that since independence in 1980, which coincided with the boom of
the information age, there has been a dramatic cultural shift in Zimbabwe.
I have observed the emergence of a new class of manager with changed cultural values.
More individualistic, more competitive. (individualism follows wealth.) I have also
noticed that this new manager has adopted an approach of completing the task through
people. A style perhaps appropriate to the new generation worker. As they become more
confident in their work, the avoidance of risk factor decreases and they are not dissimilar
to their counterparts of European descent. I believe that the only restraining cultural
characteristic, which needs to be overcome, is that of high power. This creates
organisational structures and styles of management that are not really appropriate in this
changed world. However, it is my opinion that the work force (lower paid workers) still
display many of the cultural characteristics suggested by Hofstede, and we have to
manage and lead people accordingly. It matters little what we think of the culture of a
people management must to a large degree derive from the culture.

47A

In your groups plot Zimbabwe, USA and England on the X Y Continuum.

Also plot Management Group and Worker Group in Zimbabwe.

INDIVIDUAL

COLLECTIVISM

Loosely knit social framework

Nuclear family
People take care of themselves

Tightly knit social framework

Relatives, clan look after each other
Extended families

X
50

Y
50

......................................

SMALL POWER DISTANCE

LARGE POWER DISTANCE

Strive for power equalization

Demand for justification for inequities

Hierarchical order
Everyone has his place, no need for
justification

X
50

Y
50

......................................

WEAK RISK AVOIDANCE

STRONG RISK AVOIDANCE

Practice more than principles

Deviance more tolerated
Pluralism

Rigid codes of behaviour

Intolerance of deviancy
Unitary approach

X
50

Y
50

...................................

MASCULINITY

FEMININITY

Achievement/assertiveness
Material success
Task orientation
Heroism

Relationship orientation
Modesty
Caring for the weak
Caring for the weak
Quality of life

X
50

Y
50

...................................

48

CHARACTERISTICS OF
AMERICAN AND JAPANESE ORGANISATIONS

American Organisations
Short-term Employment
Rapid Evaluation and Promotion
Specialized Career Paths
Explicit Control Mechanisms
Individual Decision Making
Individual Responsibility
Segmented Concern

Japanese Organisations
Life Employment
Slow Evaluation and Promotion
Non-Specialized Career Paths
Implicit Control Mechanisms
Collective Decision Making
Collective Responsibility
Holistic Concern

49

VALUE DRIVEN LEADERSHIP

HIGH

LOSE

WIN

WIN

WIN

CONSIDERATION

LOSE
LOSE

WIN
LOSE

LOW

WIN/LOSE Strong, dominant, ego centred. Courage of my convictions, not

considered of yours.

LOSE/WIN High consideration, low courage. Considerate of your convictions, no

courage to express my own.

WIN/WIN

High courage and consideration are essential to WIN/WIN. I can act, I

can listen, is can understand, I can courageously confront, confident,
considerate, empathetic.

50

FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

PART 4

OBJECTIVE
On completing this part, you should be able
to discuss the underlying assumptions that
dictate certain styles of management.

INTRODUCTION

Many of the problems we face in industry today are because of the differing assumptions
managers have about their subordinates. This affects the organisations they develop and
the leadership styles they adopt.
Douglas McGregor identified two sets of assumptions. He termed these Theory X and
Theory Y.
THEORY X ASSUMPTIONS

Most people have dislike of work

What they do is less important that what they earn.
Most people must be controlled, directed, punished or
coerced to put forward adequate effort.
Most people avoid responsibility.
People seek security above all.
Creativity is narrowly distributed.

51

THEORY ASSUMPTIONS

People want to work and feel useful

People seek responsibility
People will display self-discipline and control.
Creativity is widely distributed.
Non-materialistic rewards can motivate.
Peoples potential is only partially utilized.

I believe that a Theory X manager will be completely limited

inflexible and have a predisposition to develop autocratic or
paternalistic solutions.
Edgar H Schein
I believe that a Theory Y manager by virtue of his more realistic
appraisal of human nature will involve employees as the task and
situation allow
Edgar H Schein

McGregors theory is perhaps better illustrated by a continuum running from X to Y. If

the situation demands, one can return along the continuum from Y to X.
X

......................................

Managers holding Theory X assumptions will usually develop organisations and their
personal leadership styles along traditional lines.
Managers holding Theory Y assumptions will usually develop organisations along
modern (Human Resources Model) lines.
THEORY X
High structure (tall)
Narrow spans of control
Downward communication
Rules and Regulations
Autocratic
Unitary
Money motivation
Centralised control

THEORY Y
Flat structure
Wide spans of control
Omni-communication
Self-control
Democratic
Pluralistic
Psychological &
Psychological
Decentralised

52

GROUP WORK
In your groups discuss McGregors Theory X and Theory Y and list those forces that are
pushing management along the continuum from X to Y and those forces that are resisting
change.
X

......................................

Pushing Forces

Resisting Forces

Current position
Discussion Notes:

53

A CONTINUUM OF A LEADERS BEHAVIOUR

Developed by Tannernbaum and Schmidt, the Leaders Behaviour Continuum depicts a

broad range of styles, from authoritarian (Theory X) to a democratic (Theory Y).
X = Management Power and Influence.
Y = Non Manager Power and Influence.

......................................

USE OF AUTHORITY
BY MANAGER
AREA OF FREEDOM
FOR SUBORDINATE

TELLS

SELLS

CONSULTS

SHARES

DELEGATES

Makes decision
Announces it.

Makes decision
Explains it

Gets
suggestions
Makes them
Then decides

Defines
Limits
Lets group
Make decision

Allows
subordinates
to function
within defined
limits

TANNENBAUM & SCHMIDT

HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW

54

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
In this brief discussion we cannot cover Transactional Analysis in depth. We may
however learn to understand better the kind of response our actions may evoke from
people.
All people (adult and child) have three personality characteristics:

P
Parent

A
Adult

Personality

C
Child

The ego states have nothing to do with chronological age, only psychological age. These
states are a result of conditioning through life.
PARENT
When a person is operation from a Parent ego state he is playing back old recordings
from his childhood.
stop playing with your food
Where did the father learn to say that?
He probably learned it from his father.
Our parent state is evaluative its wrong, its good, its bad, you shouldnt.
There are two kinds of parent ego state.

Nurturing Parent

55

Nurturing Parent
Critical Parent

Understanding and caring about people sets limits and provides direction but does not put
people down.
Critical Parent
Evaluative, judgemental, attack personalities, respond should or ought. They do not
feel too good about themselves.
ADULT
This state can be described as logical, reasonable, rational but unemotional.
CHILD
Responses are emotional, three kinds of ego state are possible.
Happy Child
Destructive Child
Compliant Child

Happy Child
Spontaneous, have fun, show feelings.
Destructive Child
Screaming, shouting and emotional. This is how they have learned to get things done.
Will not solve their own problems.
Compliant Child
Yes men, others have all the power.
A HEALTHY PERSONALITY
The healthy personality people balance of three ego states:

Nurturing Parent
Adult
Happy Child

56

They learn from experience and develop values that aid in such techniques as effective
decision making.

THEY ARE IM OK PEOPLE

LIFE POSITION

INTRODUCTION
In growing up, people through their experiences, how they are managed, etc., make basic
assumptions about their own self-worth as well as about the worth of other people in their
environment. Life positions tend to be dominant or more permanent that ego states. Four
possible relationships result from these life positions.
IM NOT OK YOURE NOT OK
Neither person has value. Feel bad about themselves and see the world as a miserable
place. Usually give-up. Cannot meet challenges. Dont trust other people and have no
self-confidence. Ineffective leaders, poor communicators.
IM NOT OK YOURE OK
Usually come from the compliant ego state.
They feel that:
Others are more capable. Others have fewer problems. They always get the short end of
the stick. High deference for authority, yes-men. I dont have any control. Poor
communicators, ineffective leaders.
IM OK YOURE NOT OK
This comes from the critical ego state. They regard other people as a source of criticism.
They rebel from authority figures. They want to be independent but are not sure how to
do it. they have had unpleasant life experiences. (A few zaps along the way). Dont want
to be honest and share with others for fear of being punished. Listen stops. While acting
with self-confidence they are really hiding IM57NOT OK feelings. This is expressed in
their need for power and control.
IM OK YOURE OK

Self-confidence, trust, confidence in others. Good communicators. Behaviour comes

from their Adult, Nurturing parent and Happy Child ego states.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
We have attempted to provide you with a framework for analysis and understanding
behaviour.
We can isolate two polar positions:

Theory X Domination
Organisations usually managed by Critical Parent
managers. Bureaucratic/Pyramidal. IM OK
YOURE NOT OK positions. Subordinates
passive, dependent and childlike with IM NOT
OK YOURE NOT OK or IM NOT OK
YOURE OK feelings.
Theory Y Domination
The ideal organisation. Humantic and
democratic values. Managed by people with Adult,
Parent, Happy Child egos. IM OK YOURE
OK feelings. Adult problem solving behaviour.
Esteem, affiliation as well as money motivation.
Flat structures. Participative.

The journey from X to Y is not an easy one. Analysis and understanding are necessary.
Skills in directing changing and controlling behaviour are also required. This programme
as it progresses may get us on the road.

58

M2

IM NOT OK / YOURE OK
I WONT

EVADING

I CANT

PROCRASTINATING

IRRESPONSIBLE

WITHDRAWING

CHILDISH

RUNNING AWAY

UPTIGHT

NEEDING

SHALLOW

TRYING HARD

REBELLIOUS

HURRYING

DISINTERESTED

PLEASING OTHERS

59

FINDING FAULT

HELPFUL

JUDGING

OBJECTIVE

CONTROLLING

CREATIVE

CRUSADING

WINNER

REVOLTING

CONSTRUCTIVE

WORKING HARD

CONFIDENT

IM THE BEST

RELAXED

INTERESTED

RESPONSIBLE

60

A LITTLE PSYCHOLOGY
We have been discussing:
ADULT
PARENT
CHILD

And OKAYNESS to give you a basic understanding of human personality. This

understanding is essential to the study and analysis of the organisation of business
organisations and organisational behaviour.
IMMATURITY TO MATURITY

ARYIL
(Chris Argyms)

IMMATURITY CHARACTERISTICS

MATURITY CHARACTERISTICS

Passivity
dependence
Few ways of behaving
Shallow interests
Short term perspective
Subordinate position
Lack of self awareness

Activity
Independence
Diverse behaviour
Deep interests
Long term perspective
Superordinate position
Self-awareness and control

THE POWER MOTIVE

(Alfred Adler)

To explain the POWER need, the need to manipulate others or the drive
for superiority, Adler developed the concepts of INFERIORITY
COMPLEX and COMPENSATION.
When a feeling of inferiority is combined with a need for superiority the
two rule all behaviour. Striving for power is to61compensate for the feelings
of inferiority.
THE ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE
The high achiever takes moderate risks.
Needs immediate feedback
Seeks accomplishment
Seeks challenge rather than pay off
Seen as a loner.

(David C. McClelland)

Only about 10% of the population are high achievers.

Self-reliance and independence are encouraged at an early age.
There is a positive relationship between the level of achievement
motivation and the level of economic development of a given society.

THE AFFILIATION MOTIVE

(S Schachter)

Affiliation in the WEST is seen as a secondary drive. It is an inherent

human motive (or appears so). Humans are gregarious.
Strength
Anxiety reduction
Social comparison
Reduces feelings of insecurity
MISERY LOVES COMPANY

THE STATUS MOTIVE

(Various)

Along with security, status is especially relevant to a dynamic society. Man

is a status seeker. Material symbols, clothes, the right car, the right
address.
Status displays the relative ranking one holds in a group.
Culture has a big impact on status.
62

THE SECURITY MOTIVE

(Morgan and King)

The need for security seems to develop in childhood. This child who
experiences the world as uncontrollable will tend to have an intense
security need as an adult. They like jobs and situations that are secure and
predictable.
Security is based largely on fear and is avoidance orientated. Job
insecurity has a great effect on organisation behaviour.
(Delegation) (Planning) (Freedom of expression)

THE IMPACT OF SELF-CONCEPT

(Henry Knowles)

The persons self-concept gives him a sense of meaningfulness and

consistency. Self-concept has an effect on behaviour.
An authoritarian leadership behaviour applied to a person with a selfconcept of independence, intelligence, security and confidence will
probably be ineffective.
On the other hand, the same authoritarian leadership style applied to an
insecure person with a self-concept of dependence and indecisiveness will
probably be effective. This points out the potential applicability to
organisational behaviour.

62A

VIDEO CASE STUDY

LEADERSHIP IN DIFFICULT SITUATIONS

In your group comment on the leadership characteristics and methods used by the
Lewisham Managers in the Video:

Low Social Distance:

Low Power

Communication

Motivation

Respect

Win the hearts and minds

General Conclusion and Comments

63

FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

PART 5

2 Farrer Way
Hillside
HARARE
P. O. Box 6199
Telephone:

The currency of winners

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Action Centred Learning Systems
64
BUSINESS CONSULTANTS AND MANAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT SPECIALISTS

WINNING LEADERS

MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION

PART 3

OBJECTIVE
At the end of this module, participants will be able to explain and evaluate the major
theories of motivation.
INTRODUCTION
No organisation can succeed without a certain level of commitment and effort from its
members. Motivation the factors that cause, channel and sustain an individuals
behaviour.
GROUP WORK
Discuss motivation and list what the members of your group believe motivates them at
work.
1. ________________________________ 4. ________________________________
2. ________________________________ 5. ________________________________
3. ________________________________ 6. ________________________________
AN INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION AT WORK
Needs
People have many conscious, complex and competing needs.
Most behaviour is consciously need
65 direction
People have affected reactions to the outcomes they obtain as a result
of their behaviour.
THE LAW OF EFFECT
A great deal of your effectiveness as the team leader will depend on you meeting the
teams needs and the needs of the individuals.

STRENGTHEN THE INDIVIDUAL AND YOU

STRENGTHEN THE TEAM:

STRENGTHEN THE TEAM AND YOU

STRENGTHEN THE TEAM MEMBER:

NEED(Recog
nition)

BEHAVIOUR
(Work Hard)

REWARD
(Promotion)

Applying the Law of Effect to the work situation

The team member has an individual need for recognition. Hard work is the resulting
behaviour to gain recognition and satisfy the need.
If the person is reward (by promotion) then the cycle continues. If the behaviour is
ignored or punished then the behaviour (hard work) will decrease or terminate.

Behaviour that is rewarded tends to strengthen

Behaviour that is ignored will weaken.
66

Remember, if ignored the need will still be there the person will try to satisfy the need
in other ways and you lose the energy and motivation at work.
DISCUSSION

MOTIVATION

The ability to understand why people behave as they do

and the ability to motivate them to behave in a specific
manner are two interrelated qualities, which are
important to managerial effectiveness. Fortunately, they
are qualities that a manager can acquire.

The law of effect

NEED

BEHAVIOUR
TO SATISFY
NEED

REWARD

PUNISHMENT

1. Behaviour that is reward will tend to strengthen and repeat itself.

2. Behaviour that is punished will tend to weaken or cease.
67

Discuss the Law of Effect in your groups

and give an example of its application:
In the Home
At School
At work

MASLOWS NEED HIERARCHY

The need hierarchy shown below was viewed by Abraham Maslow as applying to people
in general. Moving from the lowest to the highest it is described as follows:Physiological Needs Food, water, rest, etc.
Safety Needs protection from danger and threats.
Economic and job security. Insurance and pension
funds.
Belonging or Social Needs - Need for acceptance by
the team, affection, friendship (affiliation needs)
Esteem Needs Self-respect and the respect of others.
Based on real self capacity and achievement.
Self Actualization to do what one is best suited for to
achieve at ones highest potential.

SELF ACTUALIZATION
TH

5
4TH

3RD

ESTEEM

BELONGING

2ND
1ST

SAFETY
PHYSIOLOGICAL

68

POSITIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF MASLOWS THEORY

1. Satisfied needs do not motivate we must focus on current needs.
2. We should expect a shift in needs depending on general economic conditions.
3. Large numbers of people are increasing developing needs at the self-fulfillment level.
Some of these expectations are in all probability currently unrealistic. They must
however be dealt with in some way. The expectation does not cease merely because it
is objectively unrealistic .

QUESTIONABLE CONCEPTS
1. What happens when a person reaches level five (self-actualization)?
Presumably a reversal occurs and needs satisfaction results in increased rather than
decreased motivation.
2. Although it may be true that satisfied needs do not motivate, humans have memory
and the ability you to anticipate the future when hunger will occur again. How then
can it be said that even the lower needs are ever satisfied?
The executive whose self-actualization needs are strong may still be motivated to act
out of self-esteem, belonging and safety.
(recent research has found very little support for the multi-level theory.)
HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR THEORY

The theory proposed by Frederick Herzberg suggests that many of the environmental
factors which managers have traditionally believed to be motivators, such as pay and
style of supervision, do not really motivate at all.

Job factors are divided into two groups:MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS (Satisfiers)

MAINTENANCE FACTORS (Dissatisfiers)

69

The motivational factors are intrinsic or job content factors.

Job maintenance factors are extrinsic or job context factors.
Herzberg refers to the factors as:-

Intrinsic -

Motivators

Extrinsic

Hygiene Factors

Herzbergs two-factor theory attempts to explain that only the intrinsic motivators which
come from the job can truly satisfy.
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
The work itself
Growth possibilities

Extrinsic (hygiene) factors will not satisfy, they will only reduce dissatisfaction and are
short term in nature.
Policy and administration
Supervision
Status
Pay
Job security
Working conditions

THE TWO FACTOR THEORY

INTRINSIC
SATISFACTION

DISSATISFACTION

70

EXTRINSIC
COMMENT

NEUTRAL

NEUTRAL

Few theories have received as much attention as

the 2 Factor Theory. There is still not
complete agreement about its value.

ALDERFERS E.R.G. THEORY

Alderfers theory overcomes many of the problems associated with Maslows hierarchy.
The needs are seen as being plotted along a continuum. This indicates that two or more
needs may be dominant at any one time. the continuum approach also suggests the way in
which needs are continually changing (moving along the continuum and regressing).
NEEDS
V.
E.R.G Theory

(E)

(R)

(G)

EXISTENTIAL

RELATEDNESS

GROWTH

71

IF WE HOLD ONLY THEORY X BELIEFS

AND LOW EXPECTATIONS ABOUT
PEOPLE, WE WILL USUALLY END UP
WITH LOW PERFORMERS
TO DEVELOP CHAMPIONS WE NEED TO
DEVELOP HIGH EXPECTATIONS.

the managers
expectations

affect

which
reinforces

his behaviour towards

the subordinate

which
influences

the subordinates
performance
72

THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY

VIDEO DISCUSSION
TEAM EXERCISE
In your teams discuss the SPF and comment on the following points:-

(a)

How does the SFP affect peoples behaviour?

(b)

Consider the four factors which affect the SFP and the
managers influence on each factor.
CLIMATE
FEEDBACK
INPUT
OUTPUT

(c)

What do you consider to be the negative effects of

Management by Exception?

(d)

How can you improve your leaders effectiveness as a

result of the points in the film?

The types of behaviour which show an employee what his managers expectations
actually are, include:
Climate: - the atmosphere the manager creates with the employee by eye contact,
facial expression, body language, tone of voice, etc.
Feedback: - the amount and type of information the manager gives the employee
on the employees performance. Is his criticism specific and constructive? Does
he praise where praise is due?
Input: - the amount and quality of information, guidance, equipment, materials,
etc. which the manager gives a subordinate
73 which to do the job.
Output the amount and quality of work the
manager expects of his subordinates. Is he
constantly stretching them and helping
them grow?
The most important message conveyed by the video is WE GET WHAT WE
EXPECT. This is largely because, unless we really concentrate on hiding them, our
beliefs and expectations about our people will be easily apparent to them.

The self-fulfilling Prophecy (SFP) depends on certain variable factors in relationships

between the manager and the subordinate. Comment on these:
Managers Style

Downward Communication

Upward Communication

Feedback

Praise and Reward

74

THE MOTIVATING POTENTIAL OF YOUR JOB

INSTRUCTIONS:
Using your current job, rate its key dimensions on a scale of 1 to 7
(7 being the highest degree).
TO WHAT DEGREE
(a)

Does your job require you to perform a variety of different work activities and
allow you to use a wide range of your skills and talents.

rating 1 to 7 :_______________
(b)

Does your job allow you to do something from beginning to end which results in a
visual outcome.
rating 1 to 7 :_______________

(c)

Does your job have an impact on the lives or work of other people
rating 1 to 7 :_______________

(d)

Does your job provide you with freedom and discretion to schedule your own
work and determine how it will be done.
rating 1 to 7 :_______________

(e)

Does your job provide you with clear and direct feedback on how you are doing.
rating 1 to 7 :_______________

75

Rate your jobs Motivating Potential

Place the scores for questions (a) to (e) into the following formula:M.P.S =

(a) + (b) + (c)

X (d) x (e)

3
a high or low score on (d) or (e) will carry a heavy weight.

A total M.P.S of 200 or higher suggest high motivating potential. Scores below 50
suggest very low potential.
LEADERSHIP
Case Study 1
James Wilson had completed a number of years study at an American University and
worked in a highly automated car factory for some ten years.
He is now the Technical Director of a Zimbabwean agricultural implement
manufacturing company.
His first move was to introduce worker participation and a Quality Circle programme.
The majority of workers have been with the company for over ten years. They have
minimum education and are mainly unskilled or general hands. The average monthly
wage was $278.00. most workers are married men and although a number have houses in
the high-density townships, the majority live in hostels or loge with relatives.
The programme is not the success that Wilson expected and his comment at a board
meeting
workers in this country are not interested, all they want is money an to do as
little as possible
why dont we reward them for constructive suggestions? he was asked.
because that will defeat the whole concept. Have you not studied the Japanese
models?, and Wilson slammed his hand on the table and shook his head.

76

Using Maslows Needs Theory

Comment:

Case Study 2

Charles Dondo, having completed his apprenticeship worked for a number of years in the
companys main workshop. He proved an excellent technical, willing and highly
motivated worker. He was always willing to spend long hours of his own time solving
problems.
On being promoted to foreman, his service manager told him We done Charles, just
carry on and you will have a great future, come to me if you have any problems.
After three months the number of customer complaints increased and three skilled
artisans left the company. He wants to do it all himself. Said one technician.
The service manager only visited the workshop on rare occasions Charles can handle
the problem, hes a great technician, was his usual comment.

Using Maslows Needs Theory

Comment:

Case Study 3
Bill Godwin was a self-taught accountant who had been with the company for over 30
years. Recently a bright young C.A had been recruited to provide a successor to Godwin
who was to retire in nine months.
Bill was asked to ensure that Smith, the young C. A was given all the training.
77

Bill put smith in charge of certain functions, salaries, bank signatory panels, insurance,
etc.
After three months Godwin was still signing all letters and insisted that all the work was
checked personally before being signed off.
Smith felt frustrated and discussed the matter with the M.D. Well, Godwins been with
us a long time he knows our systems. Was the reply.
The next month Smith resigned.

Using Herzberg Motivational Theory

Comment:

Case Study 4
Robert Gara competed his O levels and then tried to secure employment. At school he
was the captain of the soccer team and an active member of the tennis club. He came
from a large family of 3 brothers and 5 sisters and was the youngest. He was also a
member of the scout group.
He eventually secured employment as a switchboard/telex operator in a large company.
His work areas was designated a confidential area and no visitors were allowed. Robert
enjoyed the challenge in the first month and his salary was well above average for a
school lever.
After some months, a number of managers complained that Robert was often missing
from the information room and was found talking to the sales staff in an adjoining office.
Despite warning, this habit continued and Robert was eventually dismissed.

Using Maslows Needs Theory

Comment:
77A

EXPECTANCY THEORY
Expectancy theory provide one of the most promising frameworks for combining our
knowledge of motivation into a comprehensive theory.
VALENCE = means the value a person places on a particular outcome. For example
promotion for working hard valence would be high for a person who has a strong desire
for promotion and negative for a person who does not want promotion.

MOTIVATIONAL FORCE
(Valence Range)
STRONG
DISLIKE

-100

-75

INDIFFERENCE
NEUTRAL

-50

-25

+25

STRONG
PREFERENCE

+50

+75

+100

EXPECTANCY this is the persons judgment that a specific outcome will follow an
action. Expectancy is a probability estimate. ( Highly realistic to unrealistic.

77B

LOW EXPECTANCY 5
IF YOUR MANAGER HAD NEVER KEPT
HIS PROMISE WHY SHOULD HE NOW?

EQUAL EXPECTANCY + 50
IT IS NOT GUARANTEED BUT
I HAVE A FAIR CHANCE!

HIGH EXPECTANCY + 99
I F I COMPLETE MY MBA I WILL
GET THE JOB

MOTIVATIONAL FORCE
Both high expectancy and high valence are necessary for motivation.

MOTIVATIONAL FORCE (MF) = EXPECTANCY

(E) X VALENCE (V)
E (5) X V (20) = MF .80

78

VIDEO PRESENTATION

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

DISCUSSION NOTES

MOTIVATION

MASLOW

HERZBERG

SKINNER

GENERAL NOTES
79

TEAM MOTIVATION
TEAM EXERCISE

WHY IS SPORTS FUN? WHY WILL YOUR WORKERS

PLAY SOCCER ON SATURDAY AFTERNOON (OFTEN IN
THE RAIN) AND EXPEND MORE ENERGY IN ONE GAME
THAN THEY DO IN A WEEK AT WORK. WHAT
MOTIVATES THEM?
LIST SOME OF THE POINTS THIS PICTURE TELLS YOU.

80

WHY IS SPORT FUN?

Suggestions that managers could adopt:
The players have clear visual goals
The goals are attainable
They receive recognition
They receive immediate feedback
They satisfy social (group) needs
They satisfy esteem needs
They are motivated and highly influenced by group pressure
They strive to achieve higher individual standards
They plan their tactics together
They evaluate performance as a team and on a regular basis
There is a high degree of trust among all team members
The captain is also a member of the team although at times he has a specific role to
play

IS IT MOTIVATION PROBLEM OR A
MATTER OF POOR SELECTION?
Why do we motivate people at work?
To improve their performance.
PERFORMANCE P = Ability A x Motivation M
P=A x M
Where
Ability = Aptitude x (Training x experience)
A low factor, say 0 1 must be used. you cannot compensate greatly for lack of ability by
increased motivation.

81

Ability = 0 x 5 = 0
We must select staff with the right skills or growth
potential.
you cannot make a silk purse out of a sow ear.

EXHIBIT 17
Employee Needs Maintenance and Motivation

82

HIGH EXPECTANCY
RESPECT FOR
INDIVIDUAL
HONEST
RELATIONSHIPS
FREEDOM TO ACT
TEAM
ORIENTATION

UNDERSTANDABLE
DESIRABLE
ATTAINABLE
SYNERGISTIC
OPPORTUNITY TO
INFLUENCE

INTERPERSONAL
COMPETENCE

ACHIEVEMENT
SELF ACTUALIZATIO

MEANINGFUL
GOALS

HELPFUL
SYSTEMS

PROFITABLE
ORGANISATIONAL
GROWTH
PERSONAL &
PROFESSIONAL
GROWTH
COMMITMENT TO
GOALS
HIGH MOTIVATION
DISSATISFACTION
MINIMISED.
HIGH TRUST FACTOR

UNDERSTANDABLE
GOAL-ORIENTED
CONTROLLABLE
ADAPTIVE
FEEDBACK TO USE

83

DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS LEADERSHIP

MODULE 1 FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

ASSIGNMENT NO 1
ORGANISATIONAL HEALTH

Analyse the organisational health of your company under the headings given below and
write a report reflect your findings, opinions and recommendations.
Leadership
Confidence in subordinates
Subordinates feel free to discuss problems
Participation Theory Y
Motivation
Characteristics of motivation (fear or praise)
Subordinates commitment to goals
Communication
Degree of interaction
Communication flow - upwards, downward?
Accuracy of upward communication
Extent of acceptance of downward communication
Psychological closeness of managers and workers.

84

Teamwork
Amount of interaction between departments
Amount of cooperative teamwork
Decision making
At what level are decisions made,
Are workers aware of company problems,
To what extent are subordinates involved in decision making
Is decision making used as motivator
Goal Setting
How much participation is used (X or Y)
Do forces normally accept or resist
Control Process
Who controls the process
How are controls used (police or guidance)

YOU MAY WISH TO RANK

EACH OF THE 21 FACTORS
SHOWN ABOVE ON A SCALE OF
1 (LOW) TO 5 (HIGH).
Low Score = Theory X
High Score = Theory Y