Stability : first principles

Ship theory

Definition
A ship, like any other three-dimensional body, has six degrees of freedom. That is to say, any movement can be resolved into movements related to three orthogonal axes, three translations and three rotations.

Definition

Degrees of freedom
A ship, like any other three-dimensional body, has six degrees of freedom. 3 translations : 3 rotations:
Surge (longitudinal) Sway (transverse) Heave (vertical) Roll (longitudinal) Pitch (transverse) Yaw (vertical)

Definition
Centre of buoyancy : geometrical centre of the underwater volume and point through which the total force may be considered to act vertically

Centre of flotation : geometrical centre of the water plane area

Definition
Centre of gravity : point in a body through which the total weight of the body may be considered.

Remark: resultant moment about the centre of gravity is zero

How to calculate it? System in equilibrium : F=0 et M=0 Force : F=0, So : F R F1 ... F 5 Moment : M=0
M
Rx

FR X

...

F1 X 1

...

F5 X

Fi X
R

FR

Attention to the origin. It can be choosed randomly, but take it smarlty.

Definition
If a weight is moved, added or removed, the centre of gravity will move Effect of weight displacement:M=0 F d So : GG
1

FR

Effect of added/removed weight

GG F
1

d F

FR

Definition
Plimsoll marks or freeboard mark : indicating the maximal immersion of the ship in the water, leaving a minimal freeboard for safety. The immersion will change in function of the water density (sea or fresh, temperature). GL : for Germanisher Lloyds, for example T : Tropical S : Summer W: Winter WNA : Winter North Atlantic TF : Tropical Fresh

Definition
Plimsoll mark and draft mark : rules to respect (size, spacing, etc) Draft marks : on each side, in front, aft and middle of the ship. Very useful to estimate the displacement with the hydrostatics.

Deck line: the extended line from the upper side of the freeboard deck at the ships side. Placed above the plimsoll mark, so easy to measure freeboard

Definition
List : helling to one side about the fore and aft axis

Trim : difference between the draft at the stern and the draft at the stem

Definition
Metacentre M : when the ship is heeling, the centre of buoyancy moves because the immersed shape changes. The metacentre is the point around which the centre of buoyancy rotates. The metacentre = intersection of the successive line of buoyancy. Under 5 , it is assumed that M :intersection of the buoyancy and the centerline. Beyond 5 , it is no more the case. So, M will move.

Definition
The metacentre can be longitudinal or transversal. Notation :
G: centre of gravity VCG LCG TCG Vertical centre of gravity Longitudinal centre of gravity Transversal centre of gravity B : centre of buoyancy VCB LCB TCB Vertical centre of buoyancy Longitudinal centre of buoyancy Transversal centre of buoyancy

Some remarks : centre of buoyancy moves with the ship movement. Centre of gravity doesnt change (except loading, fuel consumption etc).

Characteristic of water
The specific weight of the water depends on the amount of salt and the temperature
1030 1025 1020

Density (kg/m)

1015 1010

Fresh water Sea water

1005
1000 995 990 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Temperature (C)

Characteristics of water
Variation of the salinity

Viscosity
Change of viscosity with the temperature
1.6 1.4

Kinematic viscosity (m/s) x10-6

1.2

1
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Temperature (C)

The wind
Wind speed has been characterized by Francis Beaufort, who was looking for method to characterized the wind practically. So, wind can be estimated with the surface of the sea Beaufort scale goes from 0 to 12 bft.

 Force 6 and 7 : Warning for small craft Force 8 and 9 : gale warning Force 10 and 11 : storm warning Force 12 : hurricane force wind warning

Beaufort scale
Bft
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Description
Calm Light air Light breeze Gentle breeze Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Strong breeze Near gale Gale Severe gale Storm Violent storm Hurricane

Limite of wind speed [knots] [m/s] [km/h] <1 <1 0.5-1.5 13 1-2 1.6-5 46 2-3 6-11 710 4-6 12-19 1116 6-8 20-28 1721 9-11 29-38 2227 11-14 39-49 2833 14-17 50-61 3440 17-21 62-74 4147 21-24 75-88 4855 25-28 89-102 5663 29-32 103-117 64+ 33+ 118+

Pdyn [kg/m] 0 0.05 0.4 1.2 2.9 5.4 9.5 15.2 22.8 32.2 44.2 58.7 77.2

Wind speed (2)

Wind exerts a pressure on the vessel The pressure depends on the force :
35
30 Wind speed (m/s) 25 20 Wind speed Dynamique pressure

90
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 Wind force (bft) 10 12 Dynamic pressure (kg/m)

80

15
10 5 0

Sea state
The sea state depends on the wind, but also on the fetch (the distance on which the wind blows) and on the duration. Difference between wave from the wind and swell Wave from the wind : the waves present when the wind is blowing Swell : waves which continue without wind (the wind changes or they leave the wind area). We can have cross swells (attention to interference)

Sea state (2)

Sea state :
Code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Wave Height (meters) 0 0 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.25 1.25 to 2.5 2.5 to 4 4 to 6 6 to 9 9 to 14 Over 14 Characteristics Calm (glassy) Calm (rippled) Smooth (wavelets) Slight Moderate Rough Very rough High Very high Phenomenal

Volumes and weights

Register ton : 100 ft = 2.83m Gross Register Tonnage or Gross Tonnage (GRT or GT) : a way to calculate the volume under the deck, with a formula. Cost following the GT, so architect try to decrease it. Net Register Tonnage : GT space occupied by crew, navigation and propulsions equipment, work stations, ballast. Can not be less than 30% of GT. Administrative values

Coefficients
To characterize the shape Waterline coefficient : ratio waterplane area and rectangular plane.
CW AW L PP B Mld

Midship section coefficient : ratio midship section and the area bounded by B and T
CM AM T B Mld

Coefficients (2)
Block coefficient CB : ratio underwater body and the rectangular block bounded by LPP, BMld and T.
Ship type Barge Bulk carrier-Tanker General cargo Container ship Ferryboat Cb 0.9 0.80-0.85 0.55-0.75 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.7 Speed (kts) 5-10 12-17 13-22 14-26 15-26

CB

Volume L PP B Mld T

Prismatic coefficient Cp : ration underwater volume and volume formed by the midship section and Lpp. The smallest Cp = smallest power needed

CP

Volume L PP AM

Curve of area
Representation of the surface of the section, in function of the frames Give an idea of the distribution of the volume
Area (m)

Position of the frame (m)

Bonjean curves
Curves representing the area of the sections in function of the height

With the Bonjean curves, it is possible to calculate (with Simpsons rules) the volume of the hull for each draft and each trim
And also KB and LCB

Bonjean curves (2)

4.5 4

Example
Height (m)

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fr(-3m) Fr(-1.2) Fr(1.2) Fr(2.4) Fr(4.8) Fr(8.4) Fr(12)

Section area (m)

Hydrostatics
Characteristics of the hull are given by the hydrostatics. Datas for different trims
D/BASE (m) 0.1 0.2 0.3 DEXT (m) 0.2 0.3 0.4 DISPLT (t) 1.05 4.55 10.38 TPCM (t) 0.22 0.46 0.7 BMT (m) 1.159 2.031 3.044 MCT/CM LCB (t.m) 0.366 0.791 1.186 BML (m) 1571.525 785.331 516.797 (m) 20.564 21.304 21.655 LCF (m) 20.777 21.689 22.008 KMT (m) 2.163 3.244 CB (-) 0.2206 0.2743 0.2682 KML (m) 1.216 1571.58 785.46 517 CW (-) 0.4677 0.5556 0.5392 KB (m) 0.057 0.133 0.201 CP (-) 0.7684 0.6265 0.5924

D/BASE VOLUME WL Area (m) 0.1 0.2 0.3 (m3) 1.01 4.39 10.02 (m2) 21.5 44.46 67.18

WT.SURF. MID.AREA (m2) 30.14 55 79.68 (m2) 0.03 0.17 0.41

Hydrostatics (2)
Also, graphically:

Flotation
Attention will be confined to static behaviour, i.e. conditions applying when the ship is still. Generally, it is the change from one static condition to another that will be of interest and so it is convenient to imagine any movement occurring very slowly. Dynamic behaviour, involving time, motion and momentum.

Flotation
The mass density of a fluid p, is the mass of the fluid per unit volume. The weight density w, of a fluid is the weight of the fluid per unit volume. In SI units, w = pg so that, if p is in kg/m3, w is in newtons/m3. Since they vary with pressure and temperature, the values must be related to a standard condition of pressure and temperature. The former is normally taken to be one atmosphere, 105Pa = 1 Bar and the latter sometimes 15 C and for water sometimes 4 C when its density is a maximum.

Definitions
Material Mass density, p (kg/m3) 1000 996 1025 947 841 697 7689 849 1.293 Mass densities for fresh water

Fresh water (standard) Fresh water (British preferred value) Salt water Furnace fuel oil Diesel oil Petrol Steel Mahogany Air

c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

999.79 999.79 999.89 999.89 999.89 999.89 999.89 999.79 999.79 999.69

c 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

999.59 999.49 999.40 999.30 999.10 999.00 998.91 998.71 998.51 998.32

c 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

998.12 997.92 997.72 997.43 997.24 996.94 996.75 996.45 996.16 995.87 995.57

ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE
This states that when a solid is immersed in a liquid, it experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Thus, the tension in a piece of string by which a body is suspended, is reduced when the body is immersed in fluid by an amount equal to the volume of the body times the weight density of the fluid; a diver finds an article heavier to lift out of water than under it, by an amount equal to its volume times the weight density of water

Definitions
This upthrust is called the buoyancy of the object. If, by chance, the body has the same weight density as the fluid, the upthrust when it was totally immersed would be equal to its weight; the diver would find the object to be apparently weightless. If the body were to have a smaller weight density than the fluid, only sufficient of the body to cause an upthrust equal to its weight could be immersed without force; if the body is pushed further down the buoyancy exceeds the weight and it bobs up, like a beach ball released from below its natural position in the sea.

Definitions
This leads to a corollary of Archimedes' principle known as the Law of Flotation. When a body is floating freely in a fluid, the weight of the body equals the buoyancy, which is the weight of the fluid displaced. The buoyancy of a body immersed in a fluid is the vertical upthrust it experiences due to displacement of the fluid.

Definitions
The body, in fact, experiences all of the hydrostatic pressures which obtained before it displaced the fluid. The buoyancy is the resultant of all of the forces due to hydrostatic pressure on elements of the underwater portion. Now, the hydrostatic pressure at a point in a fluid is equal to the depth of the point times the weight density of the fluid, i.e. it is the weight of a column of the fluid having unit cross-section and length equal to the depth of immersion, T p = Tw
Txw Resultant = buoyancy/j A /\

Definitions
Let us examine the pressure distribution around a rectangular block a x b x c floating squarely in a fluid at a draught T. The pressures on the vertical faces of the block all cancel out and contribute nothing to the vertical resultant; the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom face is Tw and so the total vertical upthrust is this pressure multiplied by the area: upthrust = (Tw)ab

Vertical movement
The figure shows the forces acting upon a floating body which are - The weight, vertically downwards, which may be taken for static considerations as acting as if it were all concentrated at the centre of gravity, as for any rigid body; - The buoyancy, vertically upwards, which may be assumed concentrated at the centre of buoyancy, which is the centre of volume of the underwater shape. It must be made clear that when the ship is still, the weight and buoyancy forces must act in the same straight line BG, otherwise a couple would act upon the ship, causing it to change its attitude.

Definitions
What happens when a small weight is placed on the vertical line through BG? The ship undergoes a parallel sinkage having a buoyancy W and the centre of buoyancy B moves towards the addition by an amount BB. Taking moments about B WBb = ( + W )BB

BB= WBb/( +W)

Definitions
In the same way, the ship has a new centre of gravity. Taking moments about G