Instr 12205 Elements, Transmitters, Transducers, Displacers

Elements, Transmitters, Transducers, Displacers
Module 12205
Instrumentation Trainee Task Module 12205
ELEMENTS, TRANSMITTERS, TRANSDUCERS, Objectives

Upon completion of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Given the basic instrument channel, describe the major functions of the detectors, transducers, and transmitters. 2. Define the following commonly encountered measurement terms: a. Accuracy b. esolution c. e!roducibility d. "ensitivity e. es!onsiveness #. $ist four classifications of errors associated with instrumentation. %. Given a ty!ical measurement system a!!lication, determine whether the !rocess variable is being measured directly or whether it is being inferred. &. "tate the significance of a calibration stic'er on a device. (. )e able to e*!lain the !rinci!le of o!eration of an orifice !late. +. Describe the relationshi! between flow and differential !ressure in a fluid system. ,. -*!lain at least four methods of measuring !ressure or differential !ressure. .. Discuss three common methods for measuring tem!erature. 1/.$ist the advantages and disadvantages of thermocou!les and 0D1s. 11.Given a diagram, describe the o!eration of a current to !ressure or a !ressure to current transducer. 12.12. Describe the basic function of a transducer. 1#.$ist the standard in!ut and out!ut voltages and currents for most transmitters. 1%.Given a diagram, e*!lain the o!eration of a transmitter in a system.
2rere3uisites
"uccessful com!letion of the following 0as' 4odule5s6 is re3uired before beginning study of this 0as' 4odule: 788- 8ore 8urricula9 788- 0as' 4odule 122/1, Craft-Related Mathematics; 788- 0as' 4odule 122/2, Instrumentation Drawings and Documents II; 788- 0as' 4odule 122/#, Principles of Welding; 788- 0as' 4odule 122/%, Process Control Theory.
e3uired "tudent 4aterials

1. "tudent 4odule 2. e3uired "afety -3ui!ment
:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&
8ourse 4a! :nformation

0his course ma! shows all of the Wheels of earning tas' modules in the second level of the :nstrument curricula. 0he suggested training order begins at the bottom and !roceeds u!. "'ill levels increase as a trainee advances on the course ma!. 0he training order may be adjusted by the local 0raining 2rogram "!onsor.
8ourse 4a!: :nstrument, $evel 2 $-;-$ 2 8O42$-0-
-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&
0A)$- O= 8O70-70"
Section Topic .. Page 1././ :ntroduction >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>...( 1.1./ eview of )asic :nstrument and 8onstrol 8hannels >>>>>>>> + 1.1.1 Detector 5"ensor6 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. , 1.1.2 0ransducer?8onvertor >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. . 1.1.# Am!lifier 5"ignal 8onditioner6 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 1/ 1.1.% 0ransmitter >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 1/ 1.2./ eview of 4easurement 0erminology >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 11 1.2.1 Accuracy >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 11 1.2.2 2recision vs. Accuracy >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 12 1.2.# 4easurement -rrors >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 1% 1.2.% e!roducibility and Drift >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 1+ 1.2.& "ensitivity and es!onsiveness >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 1+ 1.#./ 4easurement "tandards and -lements >>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 1, 1.#.1 Direct vs. :nferred 4easurements >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 1, 1.#.2 4easurement "tandards >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 1. 1.#.# 2rimary "tandards >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 1. 1.#.% "econdary "tandards >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 1. 1.#.& @or'ing "tandards >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 2/ 1.#.( 2rimary and "econdary -lements >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 2/ 1.#.+ 8alibration >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 21 1.#., "ignificant =igures >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. 22 2././ Detectors >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 22 2.1./ Orifice 2lates >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 22
2.2./ ;enturi 0ube >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 2+ 2.#./ 0he 2ilot 0ube >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. 2, 2.%./ Annubar 0ubes >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. #/ 2.&./ 4agnetic =lowmeters >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> #/ 2.(./ Altrasonic =lowmeters >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ## 2.+./ 8a!acitance 0y!e $evel Detectors >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> #, 2.,./ Altrasonic $evel 4easurement >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. %2 2.../ )imetallic "tri! 0hermometers >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> %% 2.1/./0hermocou!les >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> %, 2.1/.10hermoelectric 2ower >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. &/ 2.1/.20hermocou!le 4etals>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. &2 2.1/.#0hermocou!le $aws >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. &2 2.1/.%0hermocou!le 0ables>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. &% 2.1/.&Designations for 0hermocou!le @ire >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. &( 2.1/.(0hermocou!le 8onstruction >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. &, #././ "econdary -lements >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. (/ #.1./ )ourdon 0ube >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (/ #.2./ Dia!hragm 2ressure Devices >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. (& #.#./ 2ressure 8a!sules >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. (( #.%./ )ellows 2ressure Devices >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (+ #.&./ 8a!acitance 0y!e 2ressure "ensor >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. (, #.(./ Dia!hragm "eals >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. +1 %././ 0ransducers >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> +2 %.1./ 0ransducer =unctions >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +2
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Section Topic . Page
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%.2./ 0ransducer 0y!es >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +2 %.#./ :?2 0ransducers >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +# %.%./ 2?: 0ransducers >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +# %.&./ 0ransducer O!eration >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +% %.(./ :?2 0ransducer O!eration >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +% %.+./ 2?: 0ransducer O!eration >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +& %.,./ 4etallic "train Gauge >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> ++ %.,.1 "emiconductor "train Gauges >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. +, %.../ 2ressure "train Gauges >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +. %...1 ;oltageBdivider 2ressure 0ransducer>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> +. %.1/./;oltageBGenerating 0ransducers >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> +. %.1/.12ieCoelectric 0ransducers >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. +. %.11./$inearB;ariable Differential 0ransformer >>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ,/ %.11.1A!!lications >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> ,1 %.12./Accelerometer >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. ,1 &././ 0ransmitters >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. ,2 &.1./ 2neumatic 0ransmitters >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ,2 &.1.1 =orce )alance Differential 2ressure 2neumatic 0ransmitters >>>. ,2 &.1.2 2rocess 4easuring "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ,# &.1.# =orce )ar "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ,% &.1.% )alancing "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ,& &.1.& 2neumatic :n!ut?Out!ut "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ,( &.1.( 2neumatic =orce )alance 0ransmitters A!!lications >>>>>>>.. ,, &.2./ D2 8ell =low 4easurement >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> ,, &.2.1 D2 8ell $i3uid $evel 4easurement >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. ,. &.2.2 D2 8ell 2ressure 4easurement >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ./ &.#./ 2neumatic =orce )alance 0em!erature 4easurement >>>>>>.. ./
&.%./ 4otion )alance 2neumatic 0ransmitters >>>>>>>>>>>>>> .1 &.%.1 4easuring "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. .2 &.%.2 $in' and =la!!erB7oCCle "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> .# &.%.# )ellows and elay "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> .# &.%.% A!!lications of 4otion )alance 0ransmitters >>>>>>>>>>>.. .% &.%.& 2neumatic 4otion )alance 0em!erature 4easurement >>>>>>. .% &.%.( 2neumatic 4otion )alance 2ressure 4easurement >>>>>>>>.. .& (././ -lectronic 0ransmitters >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> .& (.1.1 =orce )alance Differential 2ressure -lectronic 0ransmitters>>>> .( (.1.2 "ensor Assembly >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> .( (.1.# Out!ut "ection >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. .+ (.1.% Out!ut Device >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.. ., +././ =iberBO!tics >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> ., +.1./ O!tical 0ransmitters >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. ., +.1.1 2hotodectors >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>. ..
0rade 0erms :ntroduced in this 4odule

Calibrate: 0he action of chec'ing the readings of an instrument against a 'nown standard and adjusting the instrument to correct any errors. Calibration: 0he !rocedure laid down for determining, correcting, or chec'ing the absolute values corres!onding to graduations on a measuring instrument. Drift: 0he gradual change of an instrument out!ut from the correct value. Mea !re"ent error: 0he difference between a measured value and an actual value. Noble "etal: A metal that is so inert that it is usually found as uncombined metal in nature. 2latinum, gold, and silver are noble metals. Also, the metal which does not corrode.
Preci ion: 0he degree of re!roducibility of measurement by an instrument. Pri"ar# ele"ent: 0he element in a measurement device which is acted on directly by the !rocess. Relati$e error: 0he e*!ression of an error as a !ercent of the value being measured. Re pon i$ene : 0he ability of an instrument to follow changes.
Secon%ar# ele"ent: 0he element of a measurement device which ta'es the out!ut from the !rimary element and sends a signal !ro!ortional to it to the controller. Tran %!cer: A device that !rimarily functions to convert its in!ut signal to an out!ut signal of a different form. Tran "itter: A device that !rimarily functions to !re!are and send in!ut information to a remote location.
1././ :70 ODA80:O7 0O 2 O8-"" 4-A"A -4-70B

0he industrial !lants of today re3uire the measurement and control of numerous !arameters to o!erate in the most efficient, reliable way !ossible. 8onditions must be constantly monitored to !rovide a safe and comfortable atmos!here for the wor'ers in the !lant, ensure the !roduction of high 3uality !roducts or services, and to limit emissions from the !lant that could have adverse effects on the environment. )ecause there are such a wide range of !arameters monitored in a ty!ical !lant, the instrumentation industry has become a highly diversified field. Duality technical !ersonnel are re3uired to install, o!erate, calibrate, and maintain the devices used to measure and control these various !rocess !arameters. 0o !erform these tas's you must understand the meaning of !rocess measurement and be familiar with the devices that !rovide measurements. Eou must also be familiar with the basic !rinci!les involved in detecting and sensing these !arameters. 0he more commonly used devices and the !rinci!les involved in sensing and measuring a !arameter are covered in this module.
1.1./
-;:-@ O= )A":8 :7"0 A4-70 A7D 8O70 O$ 8FA77-$"
:n 4odule 122/%, 2rocess 8ontrol 0heory, the basic instrument and !rocess control channels were introduced and described in general terms. 0hey are each shown here in !igure ".
=igure 1. )asic :nstrument and 2rocess 8ontrol 8hannels
:n this module, you will be focusing on the first four 5%6 bloc's in each of these channels. 0hese bloc's are common to almost all instrumentation a!!lications. :t is very im!ortant that you have a good understanding of them and the variety of ways they can be a!!lied. $et1s review and elaborate the functions of each bloc'. 0hey are:
Detector (or Sensor): senses the !arameter being monitored 5the !rocess
variable or the controlled variable6 and changes that !arameter to a mechanical or electrical signal which is !ro!ortionally related to the measured variable. 0hese devices are often referred to as the G!rimaryG, or GmeasuringG element of the instrument channel. N&TE: 2ro!er handling storage and !rotection is critical.
Transducer: converts the out!ut signal of the detector to a signal that can
be used easily. :f the detector signal can be used directly, this GconversionG setu! is not needed. @hen it is used, it is most often found in the GfieldG in close !ro*imity to the measuring element. :n many cases it is in the same housing or case as the measuring element and a!!ears to be one device. De!ending u!on the a!!lication, a transducer can be !art of the !rimary element or the transmitter or it can stand alone.
Amplifier: increases the !rocess signal to a usable magnitude. :n many

cases, signal conditioning also occurs along with am!lification. :t is very common for instrument manufacturers to combine both this am!lification and signal conditioning function with one of the other bloc's !hysically. 0his is more cost effective. :t is ty!ically found as a !art of either the transducer or the transmitter.
Transmitter: transmits data from one instrument com!onent to another

when com!onents are !hysically se!arated. :t may contain the detector, transducer and the am!lifier 5signal conditioning6 functions.
A s!ecific instrument channel may involve these basic com!onents in any number and any combination. 0hey need not a!!ear in the order of !igure " and not all of the com!onents described may be re3uired. 0he reason for such a variety of !otential variations is that the manufacturers of instrumentation are !roducing 5and naming6 devices in inconsistent ways with regard to these four basic functions. 4ost of the time all four functions are !erformed but it is !ossible with modem instruments to have one or more devices do them all. As you go through the e*am!les in this module you will see these variations. :t is im!ortant for you to 'now what to e*!ect when reading the s!ecification or data sheets in these instrument1s vendor manuals. )efore going on, let1s discuss these four bloc's individually.
1.1.1
Detector 5"ensor6
0he first contact that a measurement channel of instrumentation has with the !rocess !arameter to be measured is through the action of the detector or sensing device. 0o sense the !rocess !arameter, the detector receives energy from the !rocess and !roduces an out!ut that is de!endent on the measured 3uantity. :t is im!ortant to realiCe that the sensing element always e*tracts some energy from the !rocess: the measured 3uantity is always disturbed by the act of measurement. 0his effect is referred to as loading. A good instrument is designed to minimiCe this loading or disturbance of the !arameter being measured. :n measuring systems made u! of mostly electric or electronic com!onents, the loading of the signal source 5!rocess variable6 is almost e*clusively a function of the detector. Other com!onents in the electronic instrument channel receive most of the energy or !ower they need from !ower su!!lies inde!endent of the !rocess itself. 0his is one major advantage of electronic measurement and control channels. Detectors are also selected for measurement systems on the basis of the !arameter being sensed, the desired accuracy, range of measurement, and the !articular ty!e of out!ut it su!!lies. !igure # lists some ty!ical detectors, !arameters monitored, and detection !rinci!les. 0hese detection !rinci!les and associated detectors are discussed in greater detail in the following sections of this module. 2arameter
0em!erature
Detector
esistance 0em!erature Detector 5 0D6 0hermocou!le
Detection 2rinci!le
esistance of certain metals varies linearly with tem!erature. 0wo dissimilar metals, when joined, !roduce a voltage !ro!ortional to their tem!erature. "ome metals, when heated, will e*!and or distort in !ro!ortion to
-*!ansion of a 4etal
1/
the amount of heat absorbed. 2ressure -*!ansion of a $i3uid Differential 2ressure 8ell $i3uids will also e*!and when heated or contract when cooled. A bellows will e*!and when the internal !ressure is greater. "ystem !ressure can be a!!lied to the internal volume of the bellows with a fi*ed !ressure 5normally atmos!heric6 bellows. A curved, oval tube will attem!t to achieve a straight cylindrical sha!e when internal !ressure is a!!lied. "ame as for measuring !ressure. A material less dense than the fluid being monitored will float on the fluidHs surface. 0he !ressure dro! across the flow restriction is !ro!ortional to the s3uare of the flow. 0he differential !ressure cell is used to measure the !ressure dro!.
)ourdon 0ube
$evel
Differential 2ressure 8ell =loat
=low
=low estrictor 8ombined with a Differential 2ressure 8ell
=igure 2. $ist of 2arameters 4onitored and 0y!ical Detectors
Detectors measure !rocess variables such as !ressure, tem!erature, fluid level and li3uid flow. As !igure # suggests, the most common detector out!ut is a very small dis!lacement or distance moved that is !ro!ortional to the measure of the !rocess variable. 0he detector1s out!ut is usually not directly usable in the control or instrument channel. Often it must be converted, am!lified or conditioned in some way before it can be used to indicate or control the !rocess !arameter.
1.1.2 0ransducer?8onvertor
Almost immediately after being sensed by a detector the out!ut of the detector must be changed or converted to a more easily used form. 0his is the function of the GtransducerG. :t is almost always !hysically connected to the !rimary detecting element. Once the measured variable out!ut of the transducer is converted to some usable form it can be mani!ulated by the instrument channel com!onents as necessary without loading the !rocess variable which !roduced it. 0he !ur!ose of the transducer is to convert any in!ut it receives to another ty!e of out!ut signal more readily usable by the ne*t com!onent or !ortion of the instrument or control channel. @hile this conversion is easily seen as necessary at the out!ut of the detector 5few detectors !rovide out!uts directly usable6, it is also !ossible that a second or a third transducer may be found in some instrument and control channels. @herever a signal conversion must occur, you will find a transducer. :t is !ossible to have one transducer convert the detector out!ut to a form that can be am!lified and also !ossible to have another transducer
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convert the am!lified signal to a form where it can easily be transmitted to an indicator or a controller elsewhere in the !lant 5i.e. in the control room for e*am!le6. :t is just as li'ely that the controllers out!ut might need conversion or transducing again for transmission bac' into the !lant to o!erate a control element 5i.e. valve or heater, etc.6. :t is im!ortant that you understand that a transducer functions to convert signals 5i.e. mechanical, electrical, !neumatic, etc.6 from one form to another that is needed at that !oint in the channel, and that a transducer can be found anywhere in a channel, even as !art of another bloc' li'e the transmitter. 4ost detector out!uts must be converted for use by the channel, so in most diagrams you will find a transducing element also directly connected to the !rimary sensing element, or detector.
1.1.# Am!lifier 5"ignal 8onditioner6

4ost measured variable signals must be increased in either am!litude or !ower so they can be used by indicators or controllers directly or so they can be transmitted to them. 0he am!lifier bloc' indicates this usually ha!!ens somewhere in the channel. Actually, it may occur several times before the signal is able to be used. "e!arate !hysical instruments !erformed this function in the !ast9 however, more often now instrument manufacturers are including the am!lification device or stage as !art of other !hysical elements in the channel. 0he am!lification can ta'e !lace in the transducer, the transmitter or wherever the instrument manufacturer finds it is most economical. Often, if other conditioning or modification of the signal is re3uired, am!lification is !erformed also. 0herefore, an am!lifier bloc' may not a!!ear on your instrument channel diagrams, but rest assured am!lification is most li'ely being !erformed somewhere, inside another element of the channel.
1.1.% 0ransmitter
0he transmitter is a device that originally was very s!ecific in function. :t !re!ared a signal to be sent from one location to another involving some distance. 0he term GtransmitterG has now grown to the !oint where it could embrace that function and all of the others above. :t usually does not include the detector 5but it could6. Again, this has evolved due to instrument manufacturers becoming more innovative. 4uch of the time now in industry you will find that a detector is connected to the in!ut side of a transmitter directly and the out!ut side can be connected to the final indicator or controller. 0he transmitter very often will contain the transducing element, am!lifiers and signal conditioning element, and it will !rovide the out!ut in a form ready for direct transmission to a remote location. 0here are advantages to this. Obviously, it is easier to wor' with or install. :t has less !arts so it may be easier to maintain. :t will cost less to manufacture ultimately.
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0here are also disadvantages for the user. @hen it brea's, it usually must be re!laced. @hile relatively easy to do, this can be e*!ensive. :t can be difficult to maintain if you are not s!ecially trained to wor' on such a com!le* device. Eou will see e*am!les of all of the above in this module.
1.2./
-;:-@ O= 4-A"A -4-70 0- 4:7O$OGE
0he following terms a!!ly to any and all of the bloc's in the basic instrument channel. "ome have been !resented in !ast modules. "ome have only been mentioned in !assing. $et1s loo' more closely at several terms and how they a!!ly to the instrumentation in this module. 0hese terms have very s!ecific meanings but, since the areas they deal with overla!, often their usage is not !recise.
1.2.1 Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree to which the out!ut of an instrument a!!roaches an acce!ted standard or true value. 0here is no absolute accuracy9 however, often you will hear someone say that a detector is accurate to within I.1J ... I/.1J of whatK As the definition states, the out!ut of a device is com!ared or referenced to some value or standard to determine whether the instrument is !erforming as re3uired. 0herefore, when used as a !erformance s!ecification for an instrument, GaccuracyG means reference accuracy. eference accuracy is a number or 3uantity that defines the limits that errors will not e*ceed when the device is used under referenced conditions. eference accuracy can be e*!ressed in a number of ways: 1. :t can be e*!ressed in terms of the measured variable. =or a tem!erature measuring device, the reference accuracy would be e*!ressed sim!ly as L1M=. 2. eference accuracy can be e*!ressed in !ercent of s!an. 0his can be e*!lained by using the following e*am!le: A meter is used to indicate the water level in a tan' between &/ inches and 1&/ inches. 0he reference accuracy of the indicator is LNJ of s!an. 0herefore, the reference accuracy of the indicator is N inch of level. #. eference accuracy can be e*!ressed in !ercent of the u!!er range value. :f the u!!er range value of a !ressure gauge is 1// !si, and the reference accuracy is L/.1J of u!!er range value, the reference accuracy of the gauge would be /.1 !si. %. :t can be e*!ressed in !ercent of scale length. =or an indicating meter with a (Binch scale length and a reference accuracy of I1.2J of scale length, the reference accuracy would be /.# inches 5about &?1( inch6. &. =inally, reference accuracy can be e*!ressed in !ercent of actual out!ut reading. :f the &/Binch to 1&/Binch level indicator discussed !reviously has a reference accuracy of L1J of actual reading and the tan' !resently has 12& inches of water the indicator should be reading 12& inches L1.2& inches.
1#
@hen stating the accuracy of an instrument, it is very im!ortant to e*!ress the 3uantity to which the accuracy is referenced. 0o say that a com!onent is accurate to within /.1 J is meaningless. 0he !ercent s!ecification must be related to some s!ecific magnitude. "ee !igure $ for an e*am!le of e*!ressing accuracy in various ways.
1.2.2 2recision vs. Accuracy

0he word !recision means shar!ly or clearly defined. :f an instrument is used to !erform a re!eated set of measurements on a !rocess, the !recision of the measurement de!ends u!on how closely the individual results agree among themselves. :t should be understood that in instrumentation, accuracy and !recision have two distinct meanings. =or e*am!le, if two detectors of the same ma'e, date and model are com!ared, it may be found that they each have the same internal !arts arranged in e*actly the same manner. @hen they are used, each re!eatedly senses the !rocess variable and !rovides an out!ut measured variable signal that is in e*act agreement with their !revious measures of the !rocess variable. -ach detector can be considered to have, therefore, a high degree of !recision.
1%
=igure #. -*am!les of Accuracy
Fowever, it is !ossible that each may !rovide a different value for the measured variable or out!ut. 0here are a number of reasons why this can ha!!en. 0he two detectors may have been installed in a slightly different manner9 they may have been adjusted or calibrated in different ways 5or to different reference standards69 or one may be e*hibiting more wear or friction than the other internally. )oth can be !recise instruments but, obviously, one is more accurate than the other. 0he !recision of a device may be high, but !recision is no guarantee of accuracy. :t is often u! to the instrument installer to ta'e the necessary !recautions to ensure that instruments are functioning !ro!erly and that no controllable outside !henomenon is influencing the accuracy of the measurements ta'en. 0his is done by reducing the !otential for error where !ractical.
1&
4easurement is the combined result of a human o!eration on instrumentation as well as the functioning of that instrumentation. Eour judgement is a !art of the nature of measurement. @hen !erforming !recision measurements, it is normal !ractice to ma'e and record a series of observations rather than be content with only one value or reading. 0his is one reason you !erform instrument Gchec'sG so fre3uently. :t is one reason why many adjustment forms and !rocedures often re3uire you to chec' and record the !erformance values of a device first when you start wor' on it and, again, when you1ve finished wor' on it. :n these instances you are using the fact that a change in the accuracy of an instrument, due to something you may have done to it, will be noticed by a change in the out!ut of the !recision instrument by your com!aring the readings before and after wor' has been done. :f a significant change is noticed, you will be re3uired to verify or recalibrate the device to a 'nown standard. 0his is the only way you can ensure the accuracy of the device is acce!table.
1.2.# 4easurement -rrors

0he error of a measurement is the numerical difference between the measured value and the true value. :n instrumentation terminology the error of a detector or sensor then would be the difference between the measured variable and the actual !rocess variable. =or e*am!le, the error of a barometric !ressure measurement might be B1 mm if the barometer read +&, mm when a more accurate measure indicated the true !ressure was re!resented by +&. mm. 0he actual error is given by: -rror 5-6 O 4easured ;alue B 0rue ;alue O +&, mm B +&. mm O B1mm
@hile is it necessary to 'now the actual error, it is often more useful to convert it into an indication of how accurate the measurement is, in general. 0o do this, we convert the actual numerical error value into a relative error value which more closely e*!resses the accuracy 5or lac' of it6 of the instrument. elative error is defined as the ratio of the actual error value to the true value. :n this instance it would be 1?+&.. :f error multi!lied this by 1//J, it would e*!ress the relative error as a !ercentage of the true value.
elative -rrorO
4easured ;alueB 0rue ;alue* P100% 0rue ;alue -rror* P1//J 0rue ;alue
elative -rrorO
0he relative error is always e*!ressed as a !ositive number, as the QabsoluteBvalue notation above signifies. Accuracy, then, is determined by the magnitude of the relative error. Of course, to obtain the various reference forms of the e*!ression the true value must be e*!ressed in those reference values.
1(
-rrors in general measurement wor' are classified as: 2ersonal -rrors andom -rror "ystematic -rrors A!!lication -rrors 2ersonal errors are those caused either by carelessness, lac' of e*!erience, or bias on the !art of the wor'er. 8arelessness is a common factor in many errors. 4isreading a measurement can be due to carelessness or the lac' of e*!erience of the wor'er. An e*am!le of ine*!erience can be an error due to !aralla*. 2aralla* occurs when a wor'er is not e*!erienced 5or careful6 enough to 'now that the measured value will change with the relative !osition of the eye reading it. 2aralla* is demonstrated in !igure %.
=igure %. -rror Due to 2aralla*
Other errors due to carelessness or ine*!erience might be mathematical errors or not 'nowing where to find or verify something in a !rocedure, technical manual or s!ecification sheet. )ias results in a more subjective ty!e of error. :t usually is caused by having some !reconceived notion or e*!ectation of the magnitude or 3uality of the variable under measurement or the device measuring it. Data are selected to substantiate the results or to ma'e your job easier, rather than being acce!ted with e3ual confidence or objectivity. A common e*am!le of bias occurs when you carefully evaluate a borderline measurement value on a calibration chec' to be within s!ecifications because you 'now someone will ma'e you go bac' and reBcalibrate the device if one measurement !oint is Gout of lineG. :n this case, you are just fooling yourself. "oon the instrument will drift further out of tolerance and you will need to reBcalibrate it anyway. :t1s also !ossible a lot of wasted !roduct could have been !roduced in the mean time, or a !lant could be o!erating a little less efficiently for the ne*t year, fouling u! the environment. )ias must be controlled by the individual wor'er. A common method of overcoming !ersonal errors is to have readings made by more than one wor'er, but this can be time consuming and e*!ensive.
1+
andom errors occur when re!eated measurements of the same 3uantity result in differing values. 0he errors !robably e*ist, but they are considered indeterminate. "ystematic errors are what can be considered builtBin errors which result from the characteristics of the materials used in construction of the instrumentation systems. "ystematic errors are caused by such things as the natural inertia of moving !arts, hysteresis, friction and bac'lash in gearing. :naccuracies arising from such causes are more or less regular in character. 0hese errors are re!eatable and result in the ty!ical hysteresis loo! of an instrument, which can be demonstrated by !lotting incremental increases in first ascending ste!s and descending ste!s. !igure & shows a ty!ical hysteresis loo!. !igure ' shows this same loo! !lotted as a statement of continuous !ercent accuracy.
=igure &. 0y!ical Fysteresis $oo!
=igure (. 0y!ical Fysteresis $oo! 2lot
0hese errors are normally small enough to Glive withG and actually ma'e u! the majority of the tolerance s!ecified by the manufacturer as the !ercent accuracy of the instrument. A!!lication errors occur from im!ro!er use or faulty installation of an instrument. A!!lication errors can be minimiCed by following the manufacturer1s s!ecifications for use and installation, as well as the design
1,
s!ecifications for use and installation, as well as the design s!ecifications and general rules of industrial Ggood !racticeG standard 5such as those of the :nstrument "ociety of America.6.
1.2.%
e!roducibility and Drift
e!roducibility is the degree of closeness with which the same value can be measured at different times. :t is usually e*!ressed as a !ercentage of s!an of the instrument. 2erfect re!roducibility indicates that an instrument or instrument channel has no GdriftG. Drift is a gradual se!aration of the measured value from the calibrated value. 0his usually occurs over a long !eriod of time during which the value of the variable is assumed not to change. Drift can be caused by !ermanent GsettingG of the mechanical or !hysical com!onents of the detector or instrument, stress on the e3ui!ment !arts, or fatigue in the metals or other materials of construction. Alternatively, drift can be due to wear, erosion, or general deterioration as a function of time. Drift is the !rimary cause for the need to reBcalibrate instruments. :ndeed, drift is defined above in terms of the variation of the measured value from the Gcalibrated valueG. :t could have been defined in terms of the change in the measured value from the true value, but it was desired to 'now what change in the calibration of device was occurring. :f you are involved in maintaining instrumentation, a good way to !lan your normal calibration cycles of instrument channels is to 'ee! a record of the GdriftG accruing with res!ect to time. 0hat way you can antici!ate when the instrument channel is most li'ely to need reBcalibration.
1.2.& "ensitivity and
es!onsiveness
0he sensitivity of a device is the ratio of a change in out!ut magnitude to the change of in!ut that causes it, after steadyBstate has been reached. :t is a ratio that describes how much the in!ut variable must change to !roduce some change in out!ut magnitude. 0he sensitivity of a device is an im!ortant !ro!erty which is determined or set by the designer based on the re3uirements of the a!!lication. 0he re3uired sensitivity will be decided by the design engineer based u!on the smallest change needed to be measured in the given !rocess variable. "ensitivity and res!onsiveness are fre3uently confused. 0he term res!onsiveness denotes the amount of change in the !rocess variable needed to cause a !erce!tible change or movement in the measured variable, or the amount of in!ut change that can cause the out!ut to start to change in any device. :n s!ea'ing of a thermometer, someone might say it is Gsensitive to /.1M8G, when it is correct to say that the thermometer will Gres!ond to a change of L/.1M8G. -*am!le: A !ressure detector at 2// !si re3uires a change of L2 !si to cause a change to be !erceived at its out!ut. An evaluation of the !ercent res!onsiveness of the !ressure detector would be:
1.
:t is 3uite !ossible that the value of res!onsiveness may vary throughout the range of the detector, just as accuracy can. es!onsiveness may be im!roved by !ro!er lubrication and adjustment of the instrument.
es!onsive nessO 8hange in :n!ut 52ressure6 P1//J ;alueof Out!ut 52ressure6
2 !si P1//J 2//!si
es!onsive nessO
O 1./J at 2// !si
1.#./ 4-A"A -4-70 "0A7DA D" A7D -$-4-70"

0he !ur!ose of measurement is to determine the value of a 3uantity, condition, !hysical !arameter, or !henomenon. A measuring instrument is sim!ly a device used to sense and relay that value to us or another device for !rocessing the information. 0he value determined by the instrument is generally, but not necessarily, 3uantitative. =or the measurement to be really useful it must be reliable and accurate. 0he way this is assured is to effectively see that measuring instruments are always functioning to com!are the !rocess variable being sensed to the e3uivalent of a 'nown measure or standard.
1.#.1 Direct vs. :nferred 4easurements

0he wide variety of measurements made in industrial !lants and the varying environmental conditions under which these measurements must be made re3uire mention of the basic nature of measurement. 4easurements for this discussion fall into two general categories: those measurements made directly and those that are inferred. Fow would you measure the length of this !ageK Eou would !robably be satisfied to use a ruler or metric rule. Eou would com!are the length of the !age to the measurement mar's or increments on the rule. :n the case of the -nglish "ystem ruler, your measurement would !robably be accurate to within 1?, of an inch9 with the 4etric "ystem rule 5or meter stic'6 it would !robably be accurate to within 1B# mm. 0his is a direct measurement. Eou have determined the length of the !a!er by direct com!arison of that !arameter to a 'nown or acce!table standard. Although to measure by direct com!arison is the sim!lest method, direct measurement is not always ade3uate or !ossible. =or one thing the human senses are not !re!ared to ma'e direct com!arisons of all 3uantities with e3ual facility. :n many cases they are not sensitive enough. @e can ma'e direct com!arisons of small distances using a rule, with a !reciseness of about 1 mm 5a!!ro*imately /./% in.6. Often we re3uire greater accuracy. Often our senses just don1t detect in a 3uantitative way what we want to measure. -*am!les of this would be !ressure, tem!erature or flow. :n these instances we rely u!on some more com!le* form of measurement system. Direct measurement is much less common than you thin'.
2/
:nferred measurement occurs when there is an indirect com!arison. 0he !arameter of interest is affecting a characteristic or !ro!erty of the material of the measuring system or detector. 0he change in the detector is what is actually being measured. =or e*am!le, when a difference in tem!erature e*ists between the junctions of a thermocou!le, a voltage is !roduced. 0he voltage is the actual !arameter being measured and the tem!erature is inferred or derived from the characteristic voltage measured. Again, it is im!ortant that inferred relationshi!s as this be traceable or com!arable to 'nown standards.
1.#.2 4easurement "tandards

A standard is an accurate 'nown 3uantity used for calibration of measurement instruments. A standard can also be an instrument of high accuracy. "tandards e*ist for every ty!e of measurement. 0he set of ultimate standards is maintained by the A.". 7ational )ureau of "tandards 57)"6. On occasion, standards used for calibration !ur!oses are set to the 7)". 0he 7)" chec's these standards against their own standards for accuracy. 0hese standards are then said to be traceable bac' to the 7)". 0hree basic levels of measurement standards are common. 0here are: 2rimary or absolute standards "econdary reference standards @or'ing standards
1.#.# 2rimary "tandards

2rimary or absolute standards are constructed to conform to the legal definitions of different fundamental units of measurement. An e*am!le of a !rimary standard is the standard meter or a set of !recision weights for ounces and !ounds. Another e*am!le is a set of containers that hold !recise amounts of li3uids for liters, !ints, 3uarts, and gallons. 0he term GabsoluteG is used to indicate these measures are finite and are, therefore, inde!endently accurate and correct. Other ty!es of standard measures are ultimately traceable to these. 0raceability is an im!ortant 3uality of instrumentation in highBtech and?or haCardous industrial a!!lications.
1.#.% "econdary "tandards

"econdary reference standards are devices that are co!ied from e*isting !rimary or absolute standards. 0hese standards are sometimes referred to as !rototy!e standards. Often these standards are maintained accurate and traceable to the 7)" !rimary standards by s!ecial com!anies that set u! regional standards laboratories. :nstead of sending your measuring e3ui!ment to the 7)" in @ashington, D.8., you can send it !eriodically to the regional laboratory and they will chec' the accuracy of your e3ui!ment against their secondary standards. "ome construction and o!erating com!anies maintain their own secondary standards laboratory onBsite.
21
1.#.& @or'ing "tandards

@or'ing standards are used to calibrate the instruments installed in systems in the field. 0he detector or sensor accuracy is thereby traceable through the local wor'ing standards to secondary reference standards to ultimately the !rimary standards at the 7)". 0his system of traceability is what ensure the reliability of the safe functioning of industrial !lant instrumentation. 0he !a!er wor' associated with the calibration and adjustment of instrumentation in the filed is the documentation of !ro!er installation and setu! of !lant systems. :n may industries, this !a!erwor' is just as im!ortant as actually installing and calibrating the e3ui!ment, for without it you would be unable to assure the government regulators, or the !lant o!erators and owners, or the !ublic that the !lant can be o!erated safely and adherence to environmental guidelines or regulations.
1.#.( 2rimary and "econdary -lements

All instrument channels contain various com!onent !arts or GelementsG which !erform the !rescribed measurement, conversion 5transducing6, conditioning 5am!lification6 and transmitting functions described earlier. 0he !rimary sensing element is the !art of the instrument or channel that first uses energy from the measured medium to !roduce a condition or signal that re!resents the value of the measured medium 5!rocess variable6. :n most cases, an industrial !rimary element converts the measured variable into a dis!lacement. Often this mechanical dis!lacement is converted by a secondary element to an electrical or electronic signal. !igure +. $ists common mechanical and electrical !rimary elements and the o!eration they ty!ically !erform. 0he !rimary element may be very sim!le, consisting of no more than a mechanical s!indle, arm or contacting member used to !rovide movement or force to the secondary element. :t, of course, may be much more com!le*. 0he !rimary elements function is to, first, sense the 3uantity of interest and, then, to !rocess the sensed information into a form that is usable by the instrument channel. :t usually does not !resent an out!ut that is !owerful enough to be a!!lied directly for indication or control of e3ui!ment. !igure + is only a re!resentative listing. 4any of these elements will be describe in more detail later. :t is significant, however, to note that many of the mechanical elements !roduce an out!ut that is a !hysical dis!lacement, which is easily converted 5or transduced6 by a secondary element to an electrical signal, and many of the electrical elements !rovide an electrical signal out!ut directly. -lectrical elements have several im!ortant advantages: 1. 2. #. %. Am!lification and signal conditioning is easily !erformed. 4assBinertia effects are minimiCed. =riction is minimiCed. An out!ut signal !ower of almost any magnitude can be !rovided.
22
&. -lectronic transducer?transmitter miniaturiCed.
combinations
can
often
be
Of course, dis!lacement and?or force can also be easily converted to a !neumatic signal for !rocessing and transmission. @hile a bit more cumbersome, it has a major advantage that a loss of !lant !ower will not immediately inca!acitate the instruments.
1.#.+
8alibration
-very measuring system must be !rovable9 that is it must !rove its ability to measure reliability. 0he !rocedure for establishing an instrument1s accuracy is called calibration.
=igure +. 4echanical and -lectrical 4easuring -lements
2#
8alibration is the testing of the validity of the measurements by an instrument in normal o!eration by com!arison with measurements made by !rimary, secondary or, more commonly, wor'ing standards. :t is essential for good !erformance to wor' to achieve a high degree of accuracy and reliability. At some !oint during the installation of instruments and systems, 'nown magnitudes of the !rocess variable 5or in!ut !arameter6 must be a!!lied to the detector and the detector, as well as the whole instrument channel, o!eration must be observed and recorded. 0he instrument manufacturer will !rovide in the accom!anying manuals sam!le !rocedures for calibrating the devices. 0his often must be combined with general good industrial !ractice guidelines and local?com!any !rocedures for testing and calibrating system installations. Eour a!!lication of a tag or stic'er to an instrument or detector means that it has been tested and adjusted in accordance with acce!ted !rocedures and !ractices and is certified as calibrated by you to its degree of accuracy recorded in accom!anying documentation. 0his means that, given the rigidness of your local calibration !lan and !ractices, the accuracy of the instrument is valid and traceable to a set standard.
1.#., "ignificant =igures

0he documentation of calibration is very im!ortant. :t is im!ortant that the values or numbers used in the calibration records be consistent with the !ossible sensitivity of the instrument and testing e3ui!ment being used. :n writing a measured value as a series of digits, some of these digits will have an element of doubt associated with them. 0he total number of significant figures is de!endent u!on the !robable error associated with the observation. :f the reading is inter!reted by the observer as being #.(,#% and the accuracy of the detector is stated to be /./& and of the test e3ui!ment is L /.//1, then the reading should be ta'en to be the least accurate limit involved 5i.e. #.(, L /./&6.
2././ D-0-80O "B

0he first major bloc' of a !rocess instrument channel is the detector. As we covered earlier, the detector senses the !arameter being measured. :t is also called the G!rimaryG or GmeasuringG element.
2.1./ O :=:8- 2$A0-"

Orifice !lates are the most common ty!e of flow measuring element. 0he orifice !late is a thin circular metal !late with a shar! edged hole. 0he orifice !late is usually mounted between two flanges. 0hree 'inds of orifice !lates are used: the concentric, the eccentric and the segmental as shown in !igure (.
2%
=igure ,. Orifice 2lates
0he concentric orifice !late is the most commonly used of the three ty!es. :t is usually made of stainless steel from 1?, to 1?2 in. thic' de!ending !rimarily on the diameter of the !i!e for which it is manufactured. Other materials such as 4onel or Fastelloy are used for fluids corrosive to stainless steel. 0he !late is usually manufactured with a tab on which !ertinent orifice !late data is stam!ed such as orifice bore or hole siCe. 0he ratio of the orifice bore to the internal !i!e diameter is called the )eta. ) O d?D where: ) O orifice bore to internal !i!e diameter ratio d O orifice bore 5inches6 D O internal diameter of !i!e 5inches6 0he flow !attern and the shar! leading edge of the orifice !late that !roduces it are of major im!ortance to the accuracy of the flow measurement when using a concentric orifice !late. Any nic's or rounding of the shar! edge changes the flow !attern significantly and therefore, affects the accuracy of the measurement. 0he ty!e of flow as reflected by the eynolds number, also has a considerable influence on the flow !attern. At low eynolds number, laminar flow, the velocity !rofile of the fluid reveals that the greatest flow rates occur at the center of the !i!e. As the fluid !asses through the orifice only a small energy conversion is re3uired to constrict the flow, therefore, a relatively small differential !ressure results. At high eynolds numbers, the velocity !rofile is relatively flat so a large energy conversion ta'es !lace and as a result a relatively large differential !ressure is !roduced. 0he !attern obtained at high eynolds numbers is desirable. 8oncentric orifice !lates should be used for clean va!or free li3uids or condensate free va!ors and gases. :n li3uid flow a!!lications as the fluid converges in order to !ass through the orifice, !articles tend to dro! out and collect at the bottom of the u!stream face of the orifice !late9 gases
2&
and va!ors tend to collect at the to! of the u!stream face. :n gas or va!or flow a!!lications condensate tends to form a !uddle at the bottom of the horiContal line u!stream of the orifice !late. Any of these conditions changes the area of the u!stream fluid stream and, therefore, causes inaccurate flow measurement. 0he collection of !articles and condensate can be alleviated by drilling a small drain hole nearly flush with the inside diameter of the !i!e at the bottom of the orifice !late, as indicated in !igure ). 0his small drain hole also !ermits drainage of a horiContal !i!e that contains the orifice. 0he collection of gases or va!ors can be eliminated by drilling a small vent hole nearly flush with the inside diameter of the !i!e at the to! of the orifice !late. 0his is also indicated in !igure ).
=igure .. 8oncentric Orifice 2late with ;ent and Drain Foles
0he vent and drain holes have little effect on the flow measurement because, if the diameter of these holes is less than one tenth of orifice bore diameter, then the ma*imum flow through these holes is less than 1J of the total flow. Drain and vent holes are inade3uate for li3uid flow a!!lications where large 3uantities of solids or gases are !resent and for gas or va!or flow a!!lications where large 3uantities of condensate are !resent. =or these a!!lications, the segmental orifice or the eccentric orifice !late is normally used. 0he o!ening in a segmental orifice is a segment of a circle as shown in !igure (. 0he diameter of the o!ening is .,J of the inside diameter of the !i!e. 0he circular section of the segment should be concentric with the !i!e. 0he segmental orifice !late is useful, because it eliminates damming of foreign materials on the u!stream side of the orifice when the orifice !late is mounted in a horiContal !i!e. @hen the flow of a li3uid containing solids or of a gas containing moisture is to be measured in a horiContal !i!e, the segmental orifice is used with the circular section at the bottom of the !i!e. @hen the flow of li3uid containing gases is to be measured in a horiContal !i!e, the segmental orifice is used with the circular section at the to! of the !i!e. @hen flow is measured in vertical runs, however, the concentric orifice should always be used.
2(
0he eccentric orifice has a circular hole bored tangent to the inside diameter of the !i!e. 0he diameter of the o!ening is .,J of the inside diameter of the !i!e. 0he eccentric orifice !late is used in the same way as the segmental orifice !late. 0here are five commonly used ta! locations for measuring the differential !ressure across an orifice !late. 0hey are the flange ta!s, corner ta!s, vena contracts ta!s, radius ta!s, and !i!e ta!s. =lange ta!s are the ones most often used in the A.". for !i!e siCes of 2 inches or greater. 0hese ta!s are drilled through the orifice flanges 1 inch from the surface of the orifice !late. 0his arrangement is shown in !igure "*. 0hey are not recommended for !i!e siCes less than 2 inches, because the vena contracts may be less than 1 inch from the orifice !late. 8orner ta!s are in common use in -uro!e. 0hese ta!s are drilled through the flange so that they sense the !ressures at the edge of the orifice !late as shown in !igure "*.
=igure 1/. =lange and 8orner 0a! $ocations
;ena 8ontracts ta!s have an u!stream or high !ressure ta! located one !i!e diameter u!stream of the orifice !late and a downstream or low !ressure ta! located at the vena contracts, the !oint of minimum !ressure. 0hese ta!s are indicated in !igure "". 0heoretically, this is the o!timum location for orifice !late ta!s, because the greatest differential !ressure is available between these !oints. Fowever, the !oint of minimum !ressure varies with the d?D ratio. 0herefore, errors are introduced if the orifice !late bore is changed due to erosion. adius ta!s as shown in !igure ""+ are an a!!ro*imation of the vena contracts ta!s. 0he u!stream or high !ressure ta! is located one !i!e diameter u!stream of the orifice !late and the downstream or low !ressure ta! is located 1?2 !i!e diameter downstream of the orifice !late.
2+
=igure 11. ;ena 8ontracta and
adius 0a! $ocations
2i!e ta!s or full flow ta!s measure the !ermanent !ressure dro! across an orifice !late. 0he ta!s are drilled into the !i!e 2N !i!e diameters u!stream of the orifice !late and , !i!e diameters downstream of the orifice !late. 0his ta! arrangement is shown in !igure "#. )ecause of the distance from the orifice, e*act location of the ta!s is not critical. Fowever, there is some li'elihood of measurement errors created by head loss in the long length of the !i!e.
=igure 12. 2i!e 0a! $ocations
0he !ressure ta!s for li3uid flow are generally located along the horiContal centerline of the !i!e. $ocation of the ta!s along the side of the !i!e !revents tra!!ed gas bubbles from interfering with the measurement and !revents sludge or !articles from fouling sensing lines. =or gas flow, the ta!s are generally located at the to! vertical centerline of the !i!e. 0his location of the ta!s allows condensate to drain from the sensing lines. =or best accuracy, the !ressure ta!s for segmental orifice !lates must be at 1,/M from the center of tangency of the o!ening, as shown in !igure "$. 0he !ressure ta!s for eccentric orifice !lates must be located at 1,/M or ./M to the eccentric o!ening. 0his is also shown in !igure "$.
2,
=igure 1#. Orifice 0a! $ocations
Orifice !lates are the most widely used of the !rimary flow elements, because they are ine*!ensive and easy to install. :n addition, more em!irical data has been collected on this device than has been collected for any of the other !rimary elements. Orifice !lates, however, have two serious disadvantages. =irst of all, as !reviously mentioned, they cause a high !ermanent !ressure dro!. "econdly, they are highly susce!tible to erosion because of the shar! edges at the o!ening. -rosion of the shar! edges can cause serious inaccuracies in the flow measurement.
2.2./ ;-70A : 0A)0he venturi tube is the most accurate of all !rimary elements when it is !ro!erly calibrated. =luids that contain large amounts of sus!ended solids, such as slurries, or those that are very viscous can be measured by venturi tubes with ma*imum accuracy. 0he ty!e consists of a converging conical inlet section, a cylindrical throat and a diverging recovery cone. A ty!ical venturi tube is shown if !igure "%. 0he inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream causing the velocity to increase and the !ressure to decrease. 0he low !ressure is measured in the center of the cylindrical throat. At this !oint the velocity and !ressure are neither increasing nor decreasing. :n the diverging recovery cone, the velocity decreases and the !ressure is recovered. 0he recovery cone allows a relatively large !ressure recovery, so that the !ermanent !ressure loss is only 1/J to 2&J of the differential !ressure develo!ed by the device. 0he differential !ressure develo!ed by the venturi is sensed between an u!stream or high !ressure ta! located N !i!e diameter u!stream of the inlet cone and a low !ressure ta! located at the center of the throat.
2.
=igure 1%. ;enturi 0ube
-ccentric venturi tubes are occasionally used in systems where the flow of slurries is to be measured. :n this ty!e of venturi, the throat is flush with the bottom of the !i!e. 0his design, shown in !igure "&+ further assures that a buildu! of solids does not occur and !ermits com!lete drainage of horiContal !i!es.
=igure 1&. -ccentric ;enturi
2.#./ 0F- 2:0O0 0A)0he 2itot tube measures fluid velocity at one !oint within the !i!e. :t is a ty!e of head flowmeter. "ince the velocity of a fluid !assing through a !i!e varies with its distance from the !i!e wall, the flow indication obtained from a 2ilot tube can be highly inaccurate, !articularly in laminar flow conditions. =or this reason, the 2itot tube has limited industrial a!!lication. 7evertheless, for velocity measurements, s!ot measurements and laboratory measurements, the 2itot tube is the best and most often used device. :t is also commonly used for flow measurement in large !i!es and ducts such as in ventilation systems. A sim!le 2itot tube consists of a cylindrical !robe which is inserted into the flow stream. :t has two o!enings9 the first, called the im!act o!ening, faces into the stream9 the second, called the static o!ening, faces !er!endicular to the flow stream as indicated in !igure "'.
#/
=igure 1(. 2ilot 0ube
0he differential !ressure !roduced by the device is measured by a conventional differential !ressure measuring device such as a bellows. :t should be noted, however, that the high !ressure connection senses the im!act !ressure and the low !ressure connection senses static !ressure. 0o obtain a true measurement of flow in a !i!e, it is necessary to 'now the average velocity of the fluid. ;elocity readings from the 2itot tube !ositioned at several different distances from the !i!e wall would have to be ta'en, weighted in accordance with a factor based on distance from the wall and finally averaged in order to obtain an accurate flow measurement. 0his is fre3uently done in test wor', but it is hardly !ractical for industrial !rocess flow measurement. "everal different variations of the 2itot tube have been designed in order to !rovide a higher differential !ressure than that !roduced by im!act !ressure alone. One such variation is the 2itot ;enturi shown in !igure ",. 0he !ressure at the im!act o!ening, which is the sum of im!act !ressure and static !ressure, is develo!ed the same as in the conventional 2itot tube. 0he !ressure at the im!act o!ening is com!ared to the reduced !ressure at the throat of a small venturi that is also sus!ended in the fluid stream. Eou should recall that the !ressure at the throat of a venturi dro!s because of a velocity increase. 0he differential !ressure created by this device is measured in the same manner as with the conventional 2itot tube.
=igure 1+. 2itotB;enturi 0ube
#1
0he 2itot tube has two serious disadvantages. 0he major disadvantage is that it can measure velocity at only one !oint within a !i!e or duct. 0he second disadvantage is that the im!act o!ening is easily bloc'ed if the 2itot tube is used for the measurement of dirty or stic'y fluids. :t has several advantages. =irst of all, it !roduces no a!!reciable !ressure dro!. :n addition, it is easy to install and it is ine*!ensive.
2.%./ A77A)A
0A)-"
0he Annubar tube is a variation of the conventional 2itot tube that nearly eliminates the major disadvantage of conventional 2itot tubes. :t consists of two !robes, one that senses fluid velocity and one that senses static !ressure. 0he !robes are sus!ended in the fluid line in much the same way as the conventional 2itot tube. 0he velocity sensing !robe has four o!enings or !orts that face u!stream into the flow stream. -ach of the !orts are located at !ositions re!resenting e3ual crossBsectional areas to the flow stream. 0hese !orts are shown in !igure "(.
=igure 1,. Annubar 0ube
A line inserted into the u!stream !robe senses the average of the im!act !ressures !resent at the four o!enings. 0his average !ressure is a result of the average velocity in the !i!e. 0herefore, the differential between average im!act !ressure and the static !ressure sensed by the downstream !robe gives an accurate indication of the fluid flow rate. :n addition to the fact that this device !rovides average velocity measurement, its other advantages are similar to the conventional 2itot tube9 easy installation and low cost.
2.&./ 4AG7-0:8 =$O@4-0- "

0he magnetic flowmeter o!erates on the !rinci!le of =araday1s $aw of :nduction that states: anytime a conductor is moved through a magnetic field at right angles an electrical !otential is develo!ed. 0he magnetic flowmeter was develo!ed to measure the volumetric flow rate of electrically conductive fluids. :t is !articularly useful for measuring the flow rate of fluids that !resent -ery difficult handling !roblems such as corrosive acids, sewage, slurries and !a!er !ul! stoc'.
#2
As was stated !reviously, when an electrical conductor moves through a magnetic field in a direction !er!endicular to the magnetic lines of flu* an -4= is induced into the conductor. 0he magnitude of the induced -4= is !ro!ortional to the magnetic flu* density, the length of the conductor in the magnetic field and the s!eed or velocity of the conductor. 0he magnetic flu* density is a term which describes the strength of the magnetic field. :t is the number of magnetic lines of force !er unit area. 0he units normally used for magnetic flu* density, ), are webers !er s3uare meter, where a weber is the measure of the number of magnetic lines of force. 0o determine the -4= induced into a conductor the following e3uation is used: -4= induced OR )y where: ) ; R O magnetic flu* density O velocity of the conductor O length of the conductor
0he direction or !olarity of the induced -4= is determined by using the leftBhand rule, as illustrated in !igure "). :f the inde* finger !oints in the direction of the magnetic lines of force, that is from the north !ole to the south !ole of the magnet, and the thumb !oints in the direction of the motion of the conductor with res!ect to the field, the middle finger !oints toward the negative !otential. 0he magnetic flowmeter is com!rised of a tube, a coil, a laminated core and the -4= sensing electrodes. 0hese com!onents are shown in !igure #*. 8urrent flow through the coil !roduces a magnetic field. 0he laminated core concentrates the magnetic lines of flu* of this field around the tube. )y concentrating these lines of flu*, the magnetic flu* density is increased. 0he tube directs the !rocess fluid through the concentrated magnetic field. 0he !rocess fluid is the moving electrical conductor. As the fluid !asses through the magnetic field, an -4= is induced into it that is sensed by a !air of electrodes, which is the length of the conductor. :f the magnetic field strength and the distance between the electrodes is constant, then, the -4= sensed by the electrodes is !ro!ortional to the velocity of the fluid.
##
=igure 1.. $eftBFand
ule for :nduced -4=
=igure 2/. 4agnetic =lowmeter
At the beginning of this cha!ter, the characteristics of fluid flow were discussed. @e should remember from that discussion, that the velocity of the fluid close to the !i!e wall is less than the velocity of the fluid flowing at the center of the !i!e. 0hese variations in the velocity !rofile do not affect the flow measurement accuracy of the magnetic flowmeter. 0he electrodes sense the average -4= of the fluid. 0herefore, the magnetic flowmeter measures the average velocity of the fluid regardless of whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. 0his also allows biBdirectional flow measurement. 0he tube carrying the !rocess fluid must be made of a nonBmagnetic material to allow the field to !enetrate to the li3uid. :n addition, it must be made of a nonBconducting material so that the !otential induced into the fluid is not short circuited by the !i!e. 0y!ical materials used in the construction of the flowmeter tube are fiberglass reinforced !lastic or nonB magnetic stainless steel. @hen stainless steel is used the interior of the
#%
tube is lined with a nonBconducting material such as teflon, !olyurethane, or glass. 0he electrodes are flush with the tube interior. 0hey actually come in contact with the !rocess fluid. 0he electrodes must be made of good conducting material. 0hey are usually made of ty!e #1( stainless steel, but for highly corrosive service, !latinum electrodes are often used. :t is essential that these electrodes remain free of dirt. Dirt acts as an electrical insulator and reduces the accuracy of measurement.
2.(./ A$0 A"O7:8 =$O@4-0- "

Altrasonic flowmeters are actually a grou! of devices based on well documented theory. 0heir a!!lication to field installations has awaited the availability of costBeffective electronics ca!able of accurately measuring small changes in time or fre3uency. 0his section will discuss the two most common a!!lications of ultrasonic flow measurement9 they are the time difference method and the fre3uency shift method of flow measurement. 0he determination of fluid flow by the use of ultrasonics im!lies the transmission and rece!tion of sound waves. Altrasonic sound waves are above the range of fre3uencies audible by the human ear 52/,/// FC6. 0he ty!ical fre3uencies used by ultrasonic flowmeters are in the range of 1 4FC to 1/ 4FC. Fowever, before the use of sound waves to determine flow can be e*!lained, some characteristics of sound and the method of detecting and transmitting it must be understood. "ound is the transmission of very small !ressure variations through a medium to a receiving device. =or instrument a!!lications, the transmitter must convert an electrical signal to a mechanical motion, and the receiver must convert this motion bac' to an electrical signal. A device ca!able of ma'ing both of these conversions is the !ieCoelectric crystal. @hen a crystal is held between two flat metal !lates and the !lates are !ressed together, a small -4= is develo!ed between the two !lates. :t is as if the crystal became a battery for an instant. @hen the !lates are released, the crystal s!rings bac' to its original sha!e and an o!!osite!olarity -4= is develo!ed between the two !lates. :n this way, the crystal converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. =urthermore, when an -4= is a!!lied across the two !lates on either side of a crystal, the normal sha!e of the crystal is distorted. @hen an -4= of o!!ositeB!olarity is a!!lied, the !hysical distortion of the crystal is reversed. :n this way, the crystal converts electric energy into mechanical energy. 0hese two reci!rocal effects that occur in a crystal are 'nown as the !ieCoelectric effect. "!ecifically, !ieCoelectricity is a !ro!erty of nonconducting solids that have a nonBsymmetrical crystal lattice structure. 0y!ical deformations that can occur in a crystal are shown in !igure #".
#&
=igure 21. 2ieCoelectric 8rystal Deformation
-very crystal has a resonant fre3uency that is de!endent u!on its structure, its siCe and its sha!e. 0he electronic signal a!!lied to the transmitting crystal should be of the same fre3uency at which the crystal resonates in order for the crystal to sustain its mechanical oscillations. "imilarly, the receiving crystal should be matched to the transmitting crystal. As !reviously mentioned, sound is the transmission of small !ressure variations through a medium. @hat actually occurs is that the molecules of the transmission medium are alternately com!ressed and rarefied 5s!read out6. 0he molecules do not travel an a!!reciable distance, only the variations in !ressure actually move. :n a !revious discussion, we determined that flowrate was !ro!ortional to the density of the fluid, the crossBsectional area of the !i!e through which the fluid flows and the velocity of the flowing fluid. Asing the following e3uations, then flowrate can be determined: ; where: ; m v A S O O O O O volumetric flow rate 5ft1?min6 mass flow rate 5lbm?min6 fluid velocity in 5ft?min6 flow area in 5ft26 fluid density in 5lbm?ft#6 O v * A or m O * A * v
:f the flow area and the fluid density were 'now constants, then, flowrate could be determined by measuring the velocity of the flowing fluid. Altrasonic flowmeters are used to measure velocity. 0he method
#(
em!loyed to measure the velocity of the fluid is rather sim!le. 0he rate at which sound is !ro!agated through a given medium at rest is constant9 for water is &,/// ft?sec. :f the fluid also has a velocity, the absolute velocity of the !ressureBdisturbance !ro!agation is the algebraic sum of the two. 0his means that if sound is transmitted in the direction of the fluid flow, the actual velocity of the sound is the sum of the sound1s velocity when the fluid is at rest !lus the velocity of the fluid. 8onversely, if the sound is transmitted in a direction o!!osite the fluid flow the actual velocity will be the difference between the two velocities. !igure ## is a sim!le s'etch of the detector !lacement for ultrasonic measurement of flow. 0he detectors used are !ieCoelectric crystals identical to those discussed in the !receding !aragra!hs. 0he o!eration of this instrument re3uires that the velocity of sound in the fluid, at rest, be accurately 'nown. 0hen when flow e*ists, the sound will travel from transmitter to receiver at a greater velocity. 0he velocity of the fluid can be calculated using the following e3uation: vf then: vf O where: vf vm 8 $ t* O O O O O velocity of fluid measured velocity of sound with flow s!eed of sound with no flow distance from transmitter to receiver time for fluid to travel from transmitter to receiver $ B8 t* O vm O 8
"ince $ and 8 are constants and t can be measured, the velocity of the fluid and thus, the flow rate can be determined.
=igure 22. Altrasonic =lowmeters
A similar method of determining the flow rate is illustrated in !igure ##./0. :n this a!!lication the difference in time between transmission with the flow and transmission against the flow is measured. 7ow the increment of
#+
time can be measured directly and is larger than the difference between vm and 8 in the first e*am!le. 0he fluid velocity is calculated as shown below:
tw O $ $ andt a O 8Iv 8B v
and: so:
Tt O ta B tw
t O $ $ B 8B v 8Iv
or: if: then
t O
2$v 8 B v2
2
v2 UU c2
t O
2$v 82
or: where:
vO
t82 2$
$ 8 v tw ta
O O O O O
distance between sensors s!eed of sound with no flow velocity of fluid sound transit time with flow sound transit time against flow
0his e3uation shows that fluid velocity is linearly changing with the measured time difference. As the t increases, the fluid flow rate is also increasing. 0he two devices analyCed thus far offer little resistance to fluid flow, and therefore, cause a negligible !ermanent head loss. Fowever, both devices re3uired that the detectors be !laced within the fluid stream. An e*am!le of an ultrasonic flow measuring device that re3uires no !i!ing !enetrations is illustrated in !igure #$. Fere the detectors are mounted e*ternal to the !i!e and function as both the transmitter and the receiver 5transceiver6 for the sound. 0he e*ternal mounts re3uire the sound to be transmitted through the walls of the !i!e. 0his adds another variable for which an adjustment must be made. :n most cases the device is calibrated for only one schedule !i!e so the transit time of the sound through the !i!e is 'nown. Also, the sound is no longer traveling in a !ath !arallel to the fluid. 0he !reviously develo!ed e3uation is still valid, however, if the fluid velocity is multi!lied by the cosine of the angle /.
#,
=igure 2#. Altrasonic =low 4easurement
0he fre3uency shift method of ultrasonic flow measurement uses detectors !laced as shown in !igure #%. 0he am!lifiers are actually selfB e*cited oscillators. =ollowing the initial !ulse, each succeeding !ulse is triggered by the recei!t of the !revious !ulse. 0herefore, the fre3uency of oscillation is a function of the signal transient time through the fluid. 0he transient time, in turn, is a function of the magnitude of the fluid flow. 0he advantage of this system over the time difference method is that it can be made to be inde!endent of the s!eed of sound in the fluid at rest. 0he o!eration of this system is based on measuring a difference in fre3uency. Am!lifier A oscillates at a fre3uency that is greater than the fre3uency of am!lifier ). 0he fre3uency of either oscillator is e3ual to the inverse of its signals transient time through the fluid. 0he actual relationshi! of the fre3uency difference to fluid velocity is develo!ed below:
=igure 2%. =re3uency "hift Altrasonic =low 4easurement
=a O 1?ta and fb O 1?tb )ut:

ta O $ $ andtb O 8 I vcosV 8 B vcosV
0herefore:
fa B fb O1?ta 1 / tb O $ 8 B vcosV
#.
so:
f O
vO
2vcos $
or:
f$ 2cos V
where: fa O fre3uency of am!lifier A fb O fre3uency of am!lifier ) ta O sound transient time across fluid tb O sound transient time across fluid tb O s!eed of sound in fluid at rest v O velocity of the fluid $ O distance between detectors 0his illustrates that fluid velocity is directly !ro!ortional to the difference in am!lifier fre3uencies.
2.+./ 8A2A8:0A78- 0E2- $-;-$ D-0-80O "

A ca!acitor consists of two conductors se!arated by an insulator. 0he insulator is referred to as the GdielectricG and the conductors are referred to as the G!latesG of the ca!acitor. 8a!acitance is measured in farads. A one farad ca!acitor is ca!able of storing one coulomb of charge for each volt a!!lied. !igure #& is a sim!lified s'etch of a !late and a cylindrical ca!acitor.
=igure 2&. 8a!acitors
=or the !late ca!acitor, the ca!acitance is calculated using the following e3uation:
8 O /.22%. W A d
where: 8 O ca!acitance in !icofarads A O !late area 5* X y6 in s3uare inches d O distance between !lates in inches W O dielectric constant /.22%. O conversion factor
%/
0he dielectric constant is a factor that com!ares any material to a !erfect vacuum. A ca!acitor with a vacuum dielectric has a dielectric constant of one. e!lacing vacuum with !a!er doubles the ca!acitance9 !a!er has a W of two. Ta/le " lists the dielectric constants of some common materials. 4aterial ;acuum Air 2a!er DuartC 0eflon @ater 5#2Y6 @ater 5(,Y6 @ater 5212Y6 Dielectric 8onstant 1.// 1.//( 2.// %.# 2./ ,,./ ,/./ %,./
0able 1. Dielectric 8onstants for 8ommon 4aterials
0he ca!acitance of the cylindrical ca!acitor in !igure #& is calculated using the following e3uation: 8 O /.(1% W where: A, ), and 8 are the dimensions indicated in !igure #&./0 in inches W O dielectric constant /.(1% O conversion factor =or the measurement of level in nonBconductive materials, a bare metal !robe is used. 0he !robe serves as one !late of the ca!acitor, the tan' walls serve as the other !late. efer to !igure #' for a diagram of this ty!e of installation. 0he actual measured ca!acitance is the sum of 8 1, 8v and 8$. 8a!acitance 81 is unaffected by tan' level, it re!resents the ca!acitance of the leads and measuring system. 8a!acitor 8 v re!resents the ca!acitance of the !ortion of the !robe e*!osed to the va!or, its value is largely determined by the tan' level and dielectric constant of the va!or, Wv . 8a!acitor 8$ re!resents the ca!acitance of the !ortion of the !robe e*!osed to the li3uid, its value is a function of the tan' level and the li3uid1s
%1
=igure 2(. )are 8a!acitance 2robe
dielectric constant, W$. 0he dielectric constant of all gases is nearly unity, so, Wv is smaller than W$. efer to the !revious e3uations as necessary during the following discussion. Assuming the tan' is em!ty, 8 $ is Cero and 8v is ma*imum, but still small because W v is small. At this level, measured ca!acitance is minimum, 81 I 8v ma*. As tan' level rises, 8$ starts to increase and 8v begins to decrease. Fowever, the rate at which 8 $ increases is greater than the rate at which 8 v decreases because of the difference in their dielectric constants. @hen the tan' is full, 8 v is Cero and 8$ is ma*imum. 4easured ca!acitance is at its ma*imum value of 8 1 I 8$ ma*. 0he total s!an of measured ca!acitance is the difference between 8 1 when the tan' is full and 8v, when the tan' is em!ty, as shown in the e3uation below: "!an O u!!er range value B lower value "!an O 81 I 8$ ma* B 581 I 8v ma* 6 "!an O 8$ ma* B 8v ma* 0he change in ca!acitance is a linear function of tan' level. 8onverting from a s!an given in !icofarads to one given in inches of tan' level re3uires 'nowing only the length of the !robe. efer again to !igure #'. "ome value of resistance is also !resent between ground and the !robe. 0he actual value will vary with tan' level and the ty!e of nonBconductive material in the tan'. 0his resistance must be high when com!ared to the im!edance of the ca!acitors to ma'e its shunt !ath for current insignificant. :n this regard, there is a definite advantage to ma'ing the measurement at high fre3uencies. 0he bare ca!acitance !robe can only be used on nonBconductive fluids. :f the fluid is conductive, the shunt resistance will be small, ma'ing an accurate measurement of ca!acitance changes im!ossible. =or use with conductive li3uids, the insulated !robe has been develo!ed. !igure #, is a diagram of an insulated ca!acitance !robe level measurement system. 0he most commonly chosen insulating material is teflon. 0eflon has a dielectric constant of 2 and will for a ca!acitor with the
%2
!robe and vessel acting as the !lates. 0he ca!acitor formed by the insulator is referred to as 8a above the li3uid and 8b below the li3uid surface. @hen the tan' is em!ty, the measured ca!acitance will be as shown in the sim!lified s'etch in !igure #(.a0. )oth 8v. and 8a are at their ma*imum values at this time. 8a!acitor 8v is small due to the low
=igure 2+. :nsulated 8a!acitance 2robe
=igure 2,. 8a!acitance $evel Detector 8ircuit
dielectric constant of the va!or, therefore, the effective ca!acitance of the 8v and 8a in series is less than 8 v. As tan' level increases both 8 v and 8a decrease due to a decreasing !late area at a rate largely determined by
%#
8v. Fowever, as shown in !igure #(./0+ the series combination of $ and 8 b is now in !arallel with 8v and 8a. 0he value of $ is small because the fluid is conductive. 0he value of $ can be made insignificant com!ared to Zcb , if the !ro!er fre3uency is chosen. 0he value of 8 b is increasing linearly with level at a rate much greater than 8 v is decreasing, so the net measured ca!acitance is increasing linearly. =inally, when the tan' is full, as shown in !igure #(.c0+ the measured ca!acitance, 8b as at its ma*imum value. 0he insulated !robe can be used on nonBconductive and slightly conductive fluids as well. Fowever, the resistance of the fluids has to be ta'en into account. Although this com!licates the measurement, it does not alter the result which is a measurable change in ca!acitance as a linear function of li3uid level. 0he level and measurement system ca!acitance, 81, will re!resent a static ca!acitance value unaffected by li3uid level. 0he value of 8 1 will be added to the ca!acitances calculated in !igure #( and must be subtracted by the measurement system. )are and insulated ca!acitive !robes can use the walls of the vessel as one !late of the ca!acitor, as we have seen. Fowever, this is not necessarily the only method. :f the vessel is of nonBuniform siCe, the second ca!acitive !late can be !art of the detector. 0o accom!lish this, the e*isting !robe is surrounded by another cylindrical !late. 0he outer !late is insulated from the inner !late and s!ace is allowed for !rocess li3uid and va!or to e*ist between them. 0he outer !late is then grounded to the vessel. 0hus a ca!acitor is formed between the !robe and outer !late with a dielectric that varies with !rocess li3uid level. 0he accuracy of ca!acitive level detection systems is affected by two significant errors. 0he first is that coating or wetting of the !robe by a conductive li3uid can change the detected surface level. 0his e*!lains the common use of the teflon since few materials will adhere to it. 0he second is that anything that can change the dielectric constant of the li3uid will also affect the measured ca!acitance. As can be seen form Ta/le "+ the dielectric constant of water varies greatly with tem!erature. 0his can be com!ensated for by the use of an 0D or thermistor as another in!ut to the measurement system. 8hemical and !hysical com!osition can also influence the value of the dielectric constant. =or these reasons, careful consideration should be given before selecting ca!acitive level measurement.
2.,./ A$0 A"O7:8 $-;-$ 4-A"A -4-70

0he determination of li3uid level by the use of ultrasonics im!lies the transmission and rece!tion of sound waves. Altrasonic sound waves are above the range of fre3uencies audible by the human ear 52/,/// FC6. "ound is actually the transmission of small magnitude !ressure variations through a medium. @ithout a vibrating transmitter, a medium of transfer and a receiver sensitive to small !ressure variations, there can be no sound. "ound, li'e any wave, is reflected whenever it encounters an interface of materials. An echo is an e*am!le of sound being reflected whenever it encounters an interface of materials. An echo is an e*am!le of sound being reflected by the interface of air and a solid material. 0he amount of sound reflected varies with the combination of materials at the interface. =inally, the velocity of sound in a given material is constant at a
%%
constant tem!erature. Fowever, the velocity will vary with chemical com!osition and tem!erature.
=igure 2.. Altrasonic $evel 4easurement
Altrasonic li3uid level measuring instruments normally utiliCe !ieCoelectric crystals identical to those used for ultrasonic flow measurement as discussed in 8ha!ter %. !igure #) shows a !ossible ultrasonic installation for the continuous measurement of li3uid level. An oscillator sends an A8 signal of short duration to the transmitter. 0he !ieCoelectric crystal converts the electrical signal to mechanical motion causing sound waves at an ultrasonic fre3uency to be !roduced. 0hese sound waves are directed at the li3uid surface. "ome of the waves are reflected from the surface bac' to a receiver. 0he receiver converts the sound waves to an electrical signal and determines the time interval from transmission to rece!tion of the sound. Once the time is 'nown, the distance to the li3uid surface can be determined using the e3uation below:
Distance to "urface O
;elocity of sound P timeinterval 2
:f the distance to the surface is 'nown with res!ect to a reference !oint, normally the bottom of the tan', the height of the fluid can be found. !igure $* illustrates two other !ossible installations of ultrasonic level detectors. :n !igure $*./0+ the detectors are located at the base of the tan'. 0he sound is still reflected off the airBli3uid interface, but now the velocity of the sound wave in the li3uid is used in determining the distance traveled. :n !igure $*.a0 the detectors are located e*ternal to the tan'. 0he o!eration is identical to the circuit in !igure $*./0 e*ce!t that the time it ta'es for the sound to travel through the tan' wall is a constant value that is not related to the actual level. 0herefore, this time interval must be subtracted from the measured time before level can be accurately determined.
%&
=igure #/. "ubsurface Altrasonic $evel Detection
0he reliable determination of li3uid level using ultrasonics is limited by two factors. 0he first is that the !lacement and aiming of the detectors is critical. 8are must be ta'en to ensure that the transmitted sound is reflected bac' to the receiver with sufficient intensity to reliably sto! the timer. "econdly, and more significantly, the velocity of sound varies with tem!erature, atmos!heric conditions and the com!osition for the li3uid. "ince the measurement is based on accurately 'nowing this velocity, ultrasonic level detection is suitable only for installations where these conditions are relatively constant.
2.../ ):4-0A$$:8 "0 :2 0F- 4O4-0- "

All metals e*!and when heated9 some metals e*!and more than others. 0he coefficient of linear e*!ansion, symboliCed [, is the 3uantity that describes how much a metal increases in length when it is heated. :t is defined as the change in length when it is heated. :t is defined as the change in length !er unit of original length !er degree change in tem!erature.
O
where:
2 B 1 1 ( 02 B 01 )
O a coefficient of linear e*!ansion l1 O length of the material at 01 l2 O length of the material at 02 01 O initial tem!erature 5M = or M 86 02 O new tem!erature 5M = or M 86 7ote: any unit of length may be used
%(
0he coefficient of linear e*!ansion for metals is linear over only a small range of tem!eratures. 0he coefficients listed in Ta/le # are referenced at (,M =. :n !igure $" two !ieces of metal, aluminum, and iron have been joined together. Ta/le # illustrates that the aluminum will e*!and twice as much as the iron when increased in tem!erature by the same amount. "ince both stri!s of metal are joined, they will always be at the same tem!erature. 0hus, when the stri! is heated, it will be forced to bend, as shown, in order to accommodate the increased length of the aluminum. 4any thermostats use this !rinci!le. An e*am!le of a thermostat is shown in !igure #2. @hen the room in which the stri! is located is cool, the stri! is sufficiently straight to ma'e contact between !oints A and ), !erha!s turning on a furnace. As the room is heated, the stri! bends until contact between A and ) is bro'en, shutting off the furnace. 0he bimetallic stri! thermometer is a sim!le rugged device for measuring tem!erature. :t is made by bonding together stri!s of metal that have different coefficients of linear e*!ansion. As the tem!erature of the bonded metal stri!s increases, the device tends to bend toward the side whose metal has the lower coefficient of linear e*!ansion. 8oefficients of $inear -*!ansion 56 Aluminum )rass )ronCe 8o!!er Gold :ron :nvar 57iB=e6 7ic'el "ilver "teel 0in 1?Y8 22 * 1/B( 1, * 1/B( 1, * 1/B( 1( * 1/B( 1% * 1/B( 12 * 1/B( /.. * 1/B( 1# * 1/B( 1, * 1/B( 11 * 1/B( #/ * 1/B(
0able 2. 8oefficient of $inear -*!ansion
1?Y= 12 * 1/B( 1/ * 1/B( 1/ * 1/B( . * 1/B( , * 1/B( + * 1/B( /.& * 1/B( + * 1/B( 1/ * 1/B( ( * 1/B( 1& * 1/B(
=igure #1. )imetallic 0em!erature Detector
%+
=igure #2. )imetallic "witch
:n the e*am!le, if the aluminum stri! had been bonded with :nvar, an alloy of nic'el and iron, the deflection caused by heating the new element would have been much greater because aluminum e*!ands 2% times as much as :nvar when the tem!erature of the materials is changed by the same amount. 0he amount of deflection !roduced by a bimetallic element, therefore, becomes larger as the change in tem!erature becomes larger or as the difference between the coefficient of linear e*!ansion of the materials becomes larger. :n the manufacturing of bimetallic thermometers, the alloy, :nvar, is most fre3uently used for the low e*!ansion metal. Alloys of 7ic'elB:ronB8hromium or 7ic'elB:ronB4agnesium are used for the high e*!ansion metal more often than !ure metals because they have relatively higher and more linear coefficients of e*!ansion. :n a bimetallic thermometer, as illustrated in !igure $$+ one end of a s!iral or helical element is fastened to the inside of the thermometer case. 0he other end of the element is attached to a shaft. 0he shaft and bimetallic element are su!!orted and centered in the case by guide bushings and bearings. A !ointer is fastened to the to! of the shaft. @hen heat is transferred to the thermometer, the element e*!ands causing the shaft to rotate. 0he resultant motion moves the !ointer over a circular scale to indicate the tem!erature. )ecause the deflection caused by a change in tem!erature is linear over only a small range of tem!eratures, the scale of bimetallic thermometer is no linear over its entire range. Generally the range of bimetallic element is from B2//M = to 1///M =.
%,
0he reason for winding the bimetallic element into a heli* or s!iral is to ma'e the length of the bimetal longer than the available containing s!ace. :ncreasing the length of bimetal !roduces a greater movement. 0he following e*am!le illustrates this !oint.
=igure ##. :ndustrial )imetallic 0hermometer Asing Felical -lement
0he following e*am!le shows that the greater the initial length of a given bimetallic stri!, the greater the difference will be in final metal lengths following a given tem!erature change. "ince a difference in metal length is what causes stri! deformation, we may conclude that a larger instrument deflection may be obtained by utiliCing a longer bimetal.
%.
2.1/./
0F- 4O8OA2$-"
A thermocou!le is a device that can convert a difference in tem!erature directly to electrical energy. 0he actual !hysical !rinci!les that underlie the thermoelectric effect are still not fully understood. Fowever, the e*isting em!irical data allows very accurate and reliable tem!erature measurement with thermocou!les. Our understanding of the thermoelectric !henomenon is based on the observations of three men: 0homas "eebec', \ean 2eltier and @. 0. 0homson.
&/
0he first thermocou!le was formed by 0homas "eebec', a German scientist, in 1,21. "eebec'1s thermocou!le circuit is shown in !igure $%. Fe observed a current flow that was directly related to the difference in tem!erature between the hot and cold junctions of two dissimilar metals. 0hat is, when heat was a!!lied to one junction of the iron and co!!er wire, and electric current began to flow in the circuit. 0he larger the difference in tem!erature, the larger the observed current flow. 0he -4= that causes this current flow is 'nown as the "eebec' -4= and the thermoelectric !henomenon is referred to as the "eebec' -ffect. :t was later demonstrated that the "eebec' -ffect is actually the sum of two se!arate !henomenon9 the 0homson -ffect and the 2eltier -ffect.
=igure #%. "eebec'1s 0hermocou!le 8ircuit
0hirteen years after "eebec'1s discovery, \ean 2eltier modified the basic thermocou!le circuit with the addition of a battery. 2eltier observed that by a!!lying an electric current he could cause one junction to become warmer and the other cooler than ambient tem!erature. 8onversely, if the direction of current flow is reversed, the junction that was warm becomes cool and vice versa. 0his !henomenon is referred to as the 2eltier -ffect. 0he 2eltier -ffect relates an a!!lied current to the resultant differential tem!erature. 0his effect may be reversed to e*!lain the current flow that results from an a!!lied differential tem!erature. One conse3uence of the 2eltier -ffect is the heating or cooling of the measured junction in a thermocou!le circuit when current flows. 0his is 'nown as 2eltier heating and although small, it is one source of error in thermocou!le circuits. :t is also one reason that most thermocou!le measuring devices are of the nullBbalance ty!e. 0his minimiCes the actual current flow in the circuit. 2eltier heating should not be confused with \oulian 52 6 heating which e*ists in every electrical circuit. Another a!!lication of the 2eltier -ffect is the thermoelectric refrigeration or heating unit. ecall that the tem!erature difference is a function of thermocou!le current flow. )y controlling the current flow to a ban' of thermocou!le junctions, the tem!erature at the junction may be controlled. )oth heating and cooling are !ossible from a single device by reversing the direction of current flow. 0he 2eltier -4= is not sufficient to e*!lain all of the -4= observed by "eebec'. 0his discre!ancy was successfully e*!lained by @. 0. 0homson in 1,&%. 0homson theoriCed that an -4= is induced into a homogeneous material if a differential tem!erature e*ists across it. 0his -4= is generally small and is inca!able of sustaining a current flow. 0homson was only able
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to !rove his theory using inferred measurements and electrostatics. 0he fact that a thermocou!le circuit cannot sustain a current flow due solely to a differential tem!erature in often referred to as the $aw of Fomogeneous 8ircuits. Although generally small, the 0homson -4= is distinctly nonB linear and may even reverse !olarity as the tem!erature difference varies. =or this reason, it a major cause of inaccuracies in thermocou!le circuits. 0he 0homson -4= e*actly accounts for the discre!ancy between the "eebec' and 2eltier -ffects.
2.1/.1
0hermoelectric 2ower
0o ma'e thermocou!le junctions useful, a method must be established to com!are the -4= resulting from one combination of metals with other !ossible combinations. 2ure !latinum has been chosen because it has an e*tremely small and linear 0homson -4= associated with it. 0he thermoelectric !ower of a material is the -4= !roduced by a 1M8 tem!erature differential im!osed on a thermocou!le made of 2latinum and the material under test. 0o ensure the resulting -4=s will be com!arable, the 1M 8 tem!erature difference is im!osed while one of the thermocou!le junctions is held at /M8. 0his junction is referred to as the reference junction. 0hermoelectric !ower is designated by the symbol GDG and has units of microvolts?M8. 0he thermoelectric !ower of some common thermocou!le materials is listed in Ta/le $. 4aterial Aluminum 52ure6 8onstantan 5(/J 8u, %/J 7i6 8hromel Alumel 8o!!er D 5micrivolts?Y8 at /Y8 B/.%+ B#,.1 2(.. B1%.1 2.+( Asefol 0em!. ange 5Y86 B2// B2// B1// B2// B2// 1// 1/// 11// 11// 2//
0able #. 0hermocou!le 4aterials
0he magnitude of the voltage change !er degree 8elsius for a thermocou!le com!osed of any two materials is the difference of their thermoelectric !owers. =or e*am!le, if a 8hromelAlumel thermocou!le is constructed, its out!ut voltage !er M8 would be e*!ressed as 2(.. ]v?Y8 B 5B 1%.1 B ]v?Y86 O %1./ ]v?Y8. Assuming that a thermocou!le1s out!ut voltage has a !erfectly linear relationshi! with changes in tem!erature, the following formula may be used to determine the out!ut voltage for an a!!lied differential tem!erature. -out O 5D1BD2650B0r6 @here: -out O Out!ut voltage D1, D2 O 0ermoelectric !owers f thermocou!le materials 0 O 0em!erature of measurement junction 0r O 0em!erature at reference junction
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0he terms measurement and reference junction are terms that are used when a thermocou!le is used to measure an un'nown tem!erature. 0he measurement junction is located in the un'nown tem!erature environment and the reference junction is located in an area of stable tem!erature. ecall that the -4= !roduced by a thermocou!le circuit is !ro!ortional to a differential tem!erature. Only if the tem!erature at the reference junction does not change, or is com!ensated for these changes, can the out!ut -4= be !ro!ortional to the tem!erature at the measurement junction. 0he formula is seldom used to determine actual thermocou!le circuit out!ut voltage because it assumes that the out!ut voltage is linearly related to the differential tem!erature. 0his, however, is not the case. ecall that the 0homson -4= is distinctly nonBlinear. =or this reason, thermocou!le charts are used to determine the out!ut -4= of a thermocou!le for a given tem!erature differential. 0he use of thermocou!le charts is e*!lained later in this cha!ter. Any two dissimilar metals can, in !rinci!le, be used for a thermocou!le. 8hoosing metals that !roduce a large change in out!ut voltage !er degree change in tem!erature is only one consideration in the choice of thermocou!le metals. :n order for a thermocou!le to be of !ractical use the metals must meet several re3uirements: 1. 0he melting tem!erature of the metals must be greater than the highest tem!erature to be measured by the thermocou!le. 2. 0he difference in the thermoelectric !owers, D, of the two metals must be large enough so that the -4= !roduced can be measured accurately. :n addition, the values of D should change as little as !ossible over the tem!erature range to be measured by the thermocou!le. :f the value of D for each wire is constant with tem!erature, then the thermally induced -4= will increase linearly with tem!erature. :n !ractice, the value of D is rarely a constant over an a!!reciable range of tem!eratures. =or this reason, the useful range of the thermocou!le is limited to that tem!erature range over which the values of D of the two metals do not differ greatly from some constant value. #. 0he wires must be able to withstand the environment in which they are to be !laced. 0hey must not corrode, o*idiCe or otherwise be contaminated by their environment. :f this were to occur, the values of D might be a!!reciably altered. %. 0he thermocou!le wires must be easily and economically manufactured into uniform, re!roducible, homogenous wire. &. 0he !air of metals selected must be easily attached to each other, by welding, for e*am!le. All of these restrictions considerably limit the metals which can be used in thermocou!les.
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2.1/.2
0F- 4O8OA2$- 4-0A$"
0hermocou!le materials are available for use within the a!!ro*imate limits ofB#// to I#2//M = 5B1,& to I1+(/M86. 7o single thermocou!le meets all a!!lication re3uirements, but each !ossesses characteristics desirable for selected a!!lications. 0hermocou!les are classified into two grou!s identified as noble metals and base metals:
Noble Metals
1. 2latinum B 1/J rhodium vs. !latinum 50y!e "6 is used for defining the :nternational 0em!erature "cale from (#/.&M 8 511((M =6 to 1/(#M 8 51.%&.%M =6. :t is chemically inert and stable at high tem!eratures in o*idiCing atmos!heres. :t is widely used as a standard for calibration of baseBmetal thermocou!les. 0his thermocou!le will match the standard reference table to L./&J of the measured -4=. 2. 2latinum B 1#J rhodium vs !latinum 50y!e 6 is similar to 0y!e " and !roduces a slightly greater -4= for a given tem!erature. #. 2latinum B #/J rhodium vs !latinum B (J rhodium 50y!e )6 is similar to 0y!es " and , but yields somewhat greater !hysical strength and stability and can withstand somewhat higher tem!eratures.
)ase 4etals
1. 8o!!er vs constantan 50y!e 06 is used over the tem!erature range of B#// to I+//M = 5B1,% to I#+/M86. 0he constantan is an alloy of a!!ro*imately &&J co!!er and %&J nic'el. 2rimary uses are found in the measurement of subBCero tem!eratures and has su!erior corrosion resistance in moist atmos!heres. 2. :ron vs constantan 50y!e \6 is used over the tem!erature range of B2// to I1%//M= 51#/ to I+(/M86 and e*hibits good stability at 1%//M= 5+(/M86 in nono*idiCing atmos!heres. #. 8hromel vs alumel 50y!e W6 is used over the tem!erature range of B2// to 2#//M= and is more resistant to o*idation than other baseBmetal combinations. 8hromel is an alloy of a!!ro*imately ./J nic'el and 1/J chromium. Alumel is a!!ro*imately .%J nic'el, #J manganese, 2J aluminum, and 1 J silicon. 0his combination must be !rotected against reducing atmos!heres. Alternate cycling between o*idiCing and reducing atmos!heres is !articularly destructive. %. 8hromel vs constantan 50y!e -6 !roduces the highest thermoelectric out!ut of any conventional thermocou!les. :t is used u! to 1%//M= 5+(/M86 and e*hibits a high degree of calibration stability at tem!eratures not e*ceeding 1///M= 5&#,M86.
2.1/.#
0hermocou!le $aws
0here are two basic laws of thermoelectricity which govern thermocou!le theory and !ractice. 0hey are 'nown as the $aw of :ntermediate 0em!eratures and the $aw of :ntermediate 4etals.
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0he $aw of :ntermediate 0em!eratures !rovides a means for relating the -4= generated by a thermocou!le under ordinary circumstances to the -4= generated by the thermocou!le with a standardiCed reference tem!erature 5normally /M 86. :n effect, the law states that the sum of the -4=s generated by two thermocou!les9 one with its reference junction at /M 8 and its measurement junction at some intermediate reference tem!erature, the other with its reference junction at the same intermediate tem!erature and its measurement junction at the tem!erature to be measured9 is e3uivalent to the -4= !roduced by a single thermocou!le with its reference junction at / M 8 and its measurement junction at the tem!erature to be measured. 0his relationshi! is shown gra!hically in !igure $&. "im!ly stated, the law means that if the tem!erature to -4= relationshi! is 'now for some reference tem!erature, then the -4= generate at any other reference tem!erature is !redictable.
if and and then
: : : :
A ) 8 8
voltas volts volts volts
O O O O
out!ut of thermocou!le A with a ^0 of 02 _ 01 out!ut of thermocou!le ) with a ^0 of 0# _ 02 out!ut of thermocou!le 8 with ^0 of 0# _ 01 5A I )6 volts
=igure #&. $aw of :ntermediate 0em!eratures
:t would seem that the introduction of a third metal into a thermocou!le circuit would modify the -4= develo!ed by the thermocou!le and affect its calibration. Fowever, by observing the $aw of :ntermediate 4etals, this can be avoided. 0he $aw of :ntermediate 4etals states that the introduction of a third metal into a thermocou!le will have no effect u!on the -4= generated, as long as the junctions of the two thermocou!le metals with the third metal occur at the same tem!erature. 0his law is illustrated in !igure #(.
=igure #(. $aw of :ntermediate 4etals
&&
Any number of different metals may be introduced, !roviding all the junctions are at the same tem!erature. 0his ma'es it !ossible to use welded or soldered thermocou!les and to use measuring instruments 5!robably co!!er6 with various connections in thermocou!le circuits. 0he $aw of :ntermediate 4etals also ma'es it !ossible to use e*tension wires of metals less e*!ensive than the thermocou!le wire to connect the thermocou!le to the measuring instrument. :f the tem!erature of the junctions of the two thermocou!le wires and the e*tension wires is the same, then co!!er could be used as the e*tension wire. Fowever, if this is not the case, according to the $aw of :ntermediate 4etals, the e*tension wire must be of the same material as the thermocou!le wire, or it must have the same tem!eratureB-4= relationshi! as the thermocou!le wire over the range of the ambient tem!eratures to which the e*tension wire is e*!ected to be e*!osed. :t is essential that when the thermocou!le e*tension wires are connected, the correct wires are joined together. :f !ro!er connections are not made, new thermocou!les could be formed and incorrect tem!erature indications will result. Ta/le % lists the ty!es of e*tension wire used in industry along with the ty!e of thermocou!le for which it is used.
0hermocou!le 0y!e ) \ W or " 0 -*tension wire )Z -Z \Z WZ "Z 0Z -*tension @ire -lements )2Z 8o!!er )7Z 8o!!er -2Z 7ic'el 8hromium -7Z 8o!!er 7ic'el \2Z :ron \7Z 8o!!er 7ic'el W2Z 7ic'el 8hromium 27Z 7ic'el Aluminum "2Z 8o!!er "7Z 8o!!er 7ic'el Alloy 02Z co!!er 07Z 8o!!er 7ic'el
0able %. -*tension @ire?0hermocou!le used in industry.
2.1/.%
0hermocou!le 0ables
0hermocou!le data is usually !resented in tables of -4= 5mv6 vs 0em!erature 5M8 or M=6 with /M8 or #2M= used as the reference junction tem!erature. 0ables are used because the relationshi! of -4= generated with res!ect to tem!erature is not !erfectly linear. Ta/les & and ' !resent the data for si* common thermocou!le ty!es in degrees =ahrenheit and 8elsius, res!ectively. 0he use of these tables is e*!lained on the following !age. :f the reference junction is at #2M= and the -4= is measured, the measurement junction tem!erature can be determined directly from the table. =or e*am!le, assume a 0y!e 0 thermocou!le with a reference junction tem!erature of #2M= !roduces 11./2+ mv. 0he actual tem!erature, from the table is %&/M=. Fowever, in a more !ractical situation, the reference junction will not be at #2M=. :n this case, the $aw of
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:ntermediate 0em!eratures must be a!!lied before the charts may be used to determine the actual tem!erature. Assume a 0y!e " thermocou!le with a reference junction tem!erature of &/M= generates and -4= of 2.((, mv. 0he actual measured tem!erature is determined as follows. )y a!!lication of the $aw of :ntermediate 0em!eratures, we find the out!ut of a thermocou!le with a 5&/B#26M= differential tem!erature !lus the out!ut of a thermocou!le with a #2M= to actual measured tem!erature differential a!!lied. 0herefore, the corrected thermocou!le out!ut referenced to #2M= is /./&& my 5-4= associated with reference junction tem!erature6 !lus 2.((, my 5the actual thermocou!le out!ut6 which e3uals 2.+2# mv. =rom the table, 2.+2# my is (&/Y. :n the charts usually su!!lied with thermocou!le devices, the tem!erature interval is smaller than the &/Y= 5or &/Y86 intervals used here. 0his reduces the labor of inter!olation and allows more accurate results.
5I6 8hromel :ron 8o!!er 8hromel 5B6 vs vs vs vs Y= Alumel 8onstanta 8onstanta 8onstanta 50y!e W6 n n n 50y!e \6 50y!e 06 50y!e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latinum vs 2latinum I 1/J rhodium 50y!e "6 /./// /./&& /.221 /.%/2 /.&.+ /.,/# 1./2/ 1.2%& 1.%+, 1.+1+ 1..(2 2.211 2.%(& 2.+2# 2..,& #.2%. #.&1( #.+,( %./&, %.### %.(/. %.,,, %.1(. &.%&# &.+%/ (./2. (.#21 (.(1( 2latinum vs 2latinum I 1/J rhodium 50y!e 6 /./// /./&% /.21, /.%// /.&., /.,/. 1./#2 1.2(& 1.&/, 1.+&, 2./1+ 2.2,2 2.&&2 2.,2. #.11/ #.#.( #.(,( #..,/ %.2+, %.&,/ %.,,& &.1.% &.&/+ &.,2# (.1%# (.%(( (.+.% +.12& +.%(/
&+
12& / 1#/ / 1#& / 1%/ / 1%& / 1&/ /
1 2#.%# & 2%.(1 , 2&.+. . 2(..+ & 2,.1% , 2..#1 & #/.%+ & #1.(2 . #2.++ & ##..1 #
(/./(# (2.2%/
(..1# +.212 +.&1%
+.+.. ,.1%1
0able &. -lectromotive =orce vs. 0em!erature 5M=6 for 0hermocou!les ef . 5I6 8hromel :ron vs 8o!!er 8hromel vs 2latinum vs 2latinum vs 5B6 vs 8onstanta vs 8onstantan 2latinum I 2latinum I Y8 Alumel n 8onstanta 50y!e -6 1/J rhodium 1/J rhodium 50y!e W6 50y!e \6 n 50y!e "6 50y!e 6 50y!e 06 / &/ 1// 1&/ 2// 2&/ #// #&/ %// %&/ &// &&/ (// (&/ +// +&/ ,// ,&/ .// .&/ 1// / 1/& /./// 2./22 %./.& (.1#+ ,.1#+ 1/.1&1 12.2/, 1%.2.2 1(.#.& 1,.&1# 2/.(%/ 22.++2 2%../2 2+./22 2..12, #1.21% ##.2++ #&.#1% #+.#2& #..#1/ %1.2(. %#.2/2 %&.1/, /./// 2.&,& &.2(, ,.//, 1/.+++ 1#.&&# 1(.#2& 1../,. 21.,%( 2%.(/+ 2+.#,, #/.21/ ##./.( #(.//( #..1#/ %2.2,# %&.&# %,.+# /./// 2./#& %.2++ (.+/2 ..2,( 12./11 1%.,(/ 1+.,1( 2/..%# /./// #./%+ (.#1+ ..+,+ 1#.%1. 1+.1+, 21./## 2%..(1 2,..%# #2..(/ #(.... %1./%& %&./,& %..1/. &#.11/ &+./,# (#./22 (%..2% (,.+,# +2.&.# +(.#&, /./// /.22. /.(%& 1./2. 1.%%/ 1.,+# 2.#2# 2.+,( #.2(/ #.+%# %.2#% %.+#2 &.2#+ &.+&1 (.2+% (.,/& +.#%& +.,.2 ,.%%, ../12 ..&,& 1/.1(& 1/.+&% /./// /.2.( /.(%+ 1./%1 1.%(, 1..2# 2.%// 2..,( #.%/+ #..## %.%+1 &./21 &.&,2 (.1&& (.+%1 +.##. +..%. ,.&+/ ..2/# ..,%, 1/.&/# 11.1+/ 11.,%(
&,
/ 11/ / 11& / 12/ / 12& / 1#/ / 1#& / 1%/ / 1%& / 1&/ / 1&& /
%(..,& %,.,2, &/.(## &2.#., &%.12&
11.#%, 11..%+ 12.&&/ 1#.1&& 1#.+(1 1%.#(, 1%..+# 1&.&+( 1(.1+(
12.&22 1#.22% 1#...2 1%.(2% 1&.#2, 1(./#& 1(.+%1 1+.%%& 1,.1%%
0able (. -lectromotive =orce 5m;6 vs. 0em!erature 5M86 for 0hermocou!les ef. \unction at /M8
2.1/.&
Designations for 0hermocou!le @ire
0he trainee must be able to recogniCe the ty!e of thermocou!le and the !olarity of thermocou!le wires in order to ensure that thermocou!le circuits are !ro!erly installed. 0rainees should be familiar with both the letter designations and the color codes used to identify thermocou!le leads and thermocou!le e*tension wires. 0o ma'e this tas' easier, the :nstrument "ociety of America 5:"A6 has develo!ed a standard, 48.(.1 0em!erature 4easurement 0hermocou!les, for the !ur!ose of establishing uniformity in the designation of thermocou!le wire. $etter designations have been used for many years to identify thermocou!le ty!es. Although the letter designation is often associated with a !articular thermocou!le material, the letter designation a!!lies only to the tem!eratureB-4= relationshi! and not to the material. Other materials having the same tem!eratureB-4= relationshi! and better !hysical !ro!erties for a !articular a!!lication may be given the same letter designation. 0he !receding !age lists the ty!e and the materials used to define the tem!eratureB-4= relationshi!s 2olarity is also indicated by the thermocou!le letter designations. :n the letter designation, 2 re!resents the !ositive wire and 7 re!resents the negative wire. -*tension wires are fre3uently used the thermocou!le circuits. 0hey are designated by the letter Z. Ta/le , lists the lead designations for thermocou!les.
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0hermocou!le @ire
0y!e ) \ W " 0 2ositive )2 -2 \2 W2 2 "2 02 7egative )7 -7 \7 W7 7 "7 07
0able +. "ymbols for :ndicating 2ositive and 7egative
0he use of color codes in electronics for indicating the value and !olarity of com!onents has been an acce!ted !ractice for many years. 0he manufacturers of thermocou!les also use color coding to designate both the ty!e and the !olarity of thermocou!les and thermocou!le e*tension wires. =or thermocou!les and thermocou!le e*tension wires, the color red designates the negative wire. 0his redBnegative designation is endorsed by the :"A for all thermocou!le ty!es. Ta/le ( summariCes the !ractice of color coding leads of thermocou!les and thermocou!le e*tension leads. Another common method of designating the !ositive and negative !olarity of thermocou!le wire is by the order in which the material of the leads is written or s!o'en. 0he first wire named is !ositive and the second is negative. =or e*am!le, in the :ron vs. 8onstantan thermocou!le 50y!e \6, the :ron wire is !ositive and the 8onstantan wire is negative. 0he indicated !olarity of the thermocou!le leads a!!ly for conditions where the measuring junction is at a higher tem!erature than the reference junction.
Du!le* :nsulated 0hermocou!le @ire

0y!e \ W 0 0hermocou!le 2ositive -2 \2 W2 02 7egative -7 \7 W7 07 OverallQ )rown )rown )rown )rown 8olor of :nsulation 2ositiveQ 7egative 2ur!le ed @hite ed Eellow ed )lue ed
"ingle 8onductor :nsulator -*tension @ire

-*tension @ire 0y!e 0y!e 2ositive 7egative ) )2Z )7Z -2Z -7Z \ \2Z \7Z W W2Z W7Z or " "2Z "7Z 0 02Z 07Z 8olor of :nsulation 2ositive 7egativeQ Gray edBGray 0race 2ur!le edB2ur!le 0race @hite edB@hite 0race Eellow edBEellow 0race )lac' edB)lac' 0race )lue edB)lue 0race
0able ,. 8olor 8oding of 0hermocou!le @ire
(/
Du!le* :nsualted -*tension @ire

-*tension @ire 0y!e 0y!e ) \ W or " 0 2ositive )2Z -2Z \2Z W2Z "2Z 02Z 7egative )7Z -7Z \7Z W7Z "7Z 07Z Overall Gray 2ur!le )lac' Eellow Green )lue 8olor of :nsulation 2ositive Gray 2ur!le @hite Eellow )lac' )lue 7egativeQ ed ed ed ed ed ed
0able , 58ontinued6. 8olor 8oding of 0hermocou!le @ire
2.1/.(
0hermocou!le 8onstruction
0here are various fabrication methods used in the manufacture of thermocou!les. 0he factors that are considered in determining the correct fabrication !rocess include the ty!es of material used, the thermal and chemical environment to which the thermocou!le is to be subjected, and the electrical insulation and mechanical strength re3uirements. Analysis of these factors determines how to join the dissimilar metals, and what ty!e of insulation and !rotection tube to use. 0he !rimary re3uirement when joining thermocou!le wires is to maintain good thermal and electrical conductivity, without damaging the metallurgical !ro!erties of the wires. "everal joining methods are illustrated in !igure $,. 4ethod 5a6 is em!loyed in the manufacture of 0y!e \ and W thermocou!les using 7o. , and 7o. 1% gauge wire, and utiliCes the resistance welding techni3ue. 4ethod 5b6 is 'nown as a butt weld, and is used to join 7o. , through 7o. 2/ gauge wires in 0y!e -, \, and W thermocou!les. 0his joint is also made with resistance welding. 0he twisted wires shown in method 5c6 of the figure are either arc welded or gas welded. 0his manufacturing method can be used in the fabrication of 0y!es -, \, W and 0 thermocou!les using 7o. , through 7o. 2, gauge wire. =inally, method 5d6 illustrates the G;G joint which may be arc, gas or 0:G welded, and is utiliCed to join 0y!es ), , and " thermocou!les as well as all ty!es !reviously discussed.
(1
=igure #+. ;arious 0hermocou!le \oints
0here are several insulating materials that can be used to cover the sensing wires in order to !revent electrical shorts and to !rovide abrasion !rotection. "ome materials such as teflon and !olyvinyl chloride are used because of their natural resistance to absorbing moisture. 8ertain fiber ty!e materials may also be used when im!regnated with a wa*, resin or similar substance. 0hese im!regnated fibers should not be used in a!!lications where tem!erature e*ceeds %//M=, as this would va!oriCe the wa* or resin, leaving the thermocou!le wire un!rotected. =or high tem!erature a!!lications, materials li'e fibrous silica, fiberglass, and asbestos are among the best of the nonBceramic ty!es. 0hese insulators are ca!able of withstanding o!erating tem!eratures u! to 12//M=. :f it is desired to measure tem!eratures greater than 12//M=, then a ceramic ty!e such as mullite or stellite must be used. 8eramic insulators can o!erate in environments e*ceeding 2&//M=. 8overing the insulator, a !rotective tube is used to !revent mechanical damage to the sensing element. 0he tube also !rovides a layer of se!aration between the element and any !otentially harmful environmental conditions. 4aterials utiliCed for tube construction are various metals, such as carbon steel, austenitic stainless steel, and high nic'el alloys9 ceramics li'e mullite9 and combinations of metals and ceramics, called cermets. @hile metals !rovide ade3uate !rotection against mechanical damage, they are sometimes unsuitable due to their susce!tibility to corrosion, and because of their tendency to become !orous at elevated tem!eratures. 8eramic or 8ermet tubes are used at tem!eratures e*ceeding a!!ro*imately 21//M=. because of their highB strength, highBdensity, and resistance to corrosion. Another ty!e of construction that is becoming increasingly more !o!ular is the sheathed thermocou!le. 0his device consists of a matched !air of thermocou!le wires surrounded by a metal case. 0he inside of the case is filled with a noncom!acted ceramic insulating material. 0he metal is then reduced in diameter by some mechanical !rocess which thereby tightly com!acts the insulation around the thermocou!le wires. 0his ty!e of construction !ossesses the most desirable characteristics of the !reviously discussed ty!es and in addition, it is easier and less costly to fabricate. A sheathed thermocou!le is shown in !igure $(.
=igure #,. "heathed 0hermocou!le
#././ "-8O7DA E -$-4-70"B
(2
A secondary element is often used with a !rimary element in order to obtain a usable out!ut from a detector. =or e*am!le, an orifice !late causes a !ressure dro!, which can be measured to calculate flow. 0he orifice !late is the !rimary element, since it causes the !ressure dro!. 0he device which measures the resulting !ressure dro! is called the secondary element. 0here are many ty!es of secondary elements to choose from, with some !o!ular ones now discussed.
#.1./ )OA DO7 0A)Another device that uses dis!lacement distance to measure !ressure, is the bourdon tube. :n this case, however, it is the device itself that dis!laces. )ourdon tubes come in three basic ty!es: 8Bty!e, s!iral ty!e, and helical ty!e. !igure $) shows a 8Bty!e bourdon tube.
=igure #.. 8B0y!e )ourdon 0ube
A 8Bty!e bourdon tube is fabricated by flattening the side of a hollow tube, then bending the tube into the sha!e of a G8G. One end of the tube is sealed, and the other o!en end is fi*ed to a su!!ort base. 0he material of the tube is selected for having elastic !ro!erties, so that it can deform under !ressure, then return to its original sha!e when !ressure is removed. 0he !rinci!le under which the 8Bty!e bourdon tube wor's is not com!letely definable. 0he basic observation is that a bent tube with a crossBsection that is not a !erfect circle, straightens out as !ressure is a!!lied. 2resent designs are based on data collected, and a subse3uent e3uation derived from !ractical observation. 0he amount that the tube straightens out, or the angular deflection of the ti!, is e*!ressed in various forms of the following derived e3uation:
O W
2
-
` 5A,),t, 6
0he terms of this e3uation are shown in !igure %*.
(#
0he e3uation is not given in this cha!ter for !ur!oses of a!!lication. :t is !rovided for a better understanding of the factors affecting bourdon tube o!eration. 0he actual amount of ti! dis!lacement is relatively small, generally about 1?% in. eferring to the e3uation, note that as the tube straightens out, terms , A, And ) change for a given
T W tubes 2 tube A,) t
O Angular Deflection, of the ti! O 8onstant, determined by test on a number of )ourdon O 0otal Arc, of the )ourdon element O differential 2ressure, between inside and outside of the O O O O -lsticity, of the tube material 8rossectional $ength and @idth, of the tube 0hic'ness, of the tube radius, of the curvature
=igure %/. 8B0y!e )ourdon 0ube 2arameters
change in 2. 0he result is that the angular dis!lacement does not change in a linear manner. 0he small and nonBlinear ti! motion characteristics are com!ensated for mechanically, as shown with the direct indicating !ressure gauge in !igure %".
(%
=igure %1. 2ressure Gauge
0he !inion and movement sector !rovides mechanical am!lification. A 1?%B inch ti! movement e3uates to an arc dis!lacement of 2/ M. A movement sector to !inion gear ratio of 1#.& to 1 results in a gauge needle dis!lacement of 2+/M. $inearity com!ensation is !rovided by the angle formed between the connecting lin' and the tail of the movement sector. 0his angle is called the traveling angle because the angle changes the bourdon tube moves, as shown in !igure %#. :n !igure %#.a0+ the bourdon tube ti! is !ositioned so such that the connecting lin' and the movement sector tail form a ./M traveling angle. 0his results in an effective tail section length e3ual to the actual length between the !ivot !oint and the connection !oint. :n !igure %#./0+ the bourdon tube ti! is !ositioned so such that the traveling angle is less than ./M, and the effective tail section length is decreased. @hen the effective tail section length is reduced, smaller ti! movement in 5b6 causes an e3ual !inion movement com!ared to a larger ti! movement in 5a6.
(&
=igure %2. 0raveling Angle of a 2ressure Gauge
As a!!lied !ressure to the bourdon tube increases, the change in ti! motion decreases9 therefore, the traveling angle is designed to increase for an increasing !ressure. Ta/le . lists different ty!es of materials used to ma'e bourdon tubes. 0heir characteristics are stated as G2G for !oor, G=G for fair and GGG for good.
0ube 4aterial 2hos!horus )ronCe )erryllium 8o!!er #1( "tainless "teel %/# "tainless "teel 7iB"!an 8Q 8orrosion esistanc e 2 2 G G G "!ring ate = G 2 2 G 0em!. 8oeff. 2 2 2 2 G Fystersis 4a*. 2ressure ,// 2sig &// 2sig 1/,/// 2sig 2/,/// 2sig 12,/// 2sig
= G 2 2 G
0able .. )ourdon 0ube 4aterials
8orrosion resistance B Ability to avoid chemical interaction with the li3uid or gas a!!lied to the tube "!ring rate B Amount of ti! angular dis!lacement for a given amount of a!!lied !ressure. 0em!erature coefficient B Andesired ti! angular dis!lacement due to change in tem!erature of the tube Fysteresis B Difference in ti! angular dis!lacement between an increasing and a decreasing !ressure. 4a*imum !ressure B Fighest !ressure that can be safely a!!lied to the tube and still give satisfactory dis!lacement characteristics. 8Bty!e )ourdon tubes have some disadvantages. 0he first is the large overhang of the tube, which ma'es it susce!tible to shoc' or vibration. Another disadvantage is that using the gauge to monitor li3uid !ressure might yield a different indication than monitoring an e3ual gas !ressure,
((
due to the weight of the li3uid in the tube. A third disadvantage is that the internal gears and lin's can become dirty or worn and cause severe loss of accuracy. As described earlier, one limitation of the 8Bty!e bourdon tube is the relatively small amount of ti! movement. !igure %$ shows a s!iral ty!e bourdon tube that !rovides more ti! movement. "ince the s!iral length is #?% times longer than 8Bty!e length, the ti! movement is #?% times greater.
=igure %#. "!iral 0y!e )ourdon 0ube
0he s!iral ty!e wor's under the same observed !rinci!les as the 8Bty!e: as the a!!lied !ressure increases, the s!iral uncoils. )ecause of the increased ti! movement, mechanical am!lification is not normally needed. 0his results in an increase in sensitivity and accuracy because there is no lost motion from loose or stic'ing lin's, levers, or gears. 0he same materials that are used for 8Bty!e are also used for s!iral ty!e bourdon tubes. "!iral ty!es are normally used in the range of / to %,/// !sig, however, some unflattened, heavy wall, s!irals are available that can measure !ressure u! to 1//,/// !sig. 0he effects of nonBlinear ti! motion, if not mechanically com!ensated for, can be minimiCed by o!erating the s!iral ty!e over only a !ortion of its range. !igure %% shows a Felical 0y!e )ourdon 0ube which !rovide even more ti! movement.
(+
=igure %%. Felical 0y!e )ourdon 0ube
0he observed !rinci!les of o!erations are again the same as for the 8B ty!e. Figh !ressure helical ty!es might have as many as twenty coils, while low !ressure helical ty!es might have only two or three coils. ecall that the change in ti! motion decreases as the a!!lied !ressure becomes larger. Adding more coils com!ensates for this motion decrease. Felical ty!es are generally used for !ressure ranges above %/// !sig, u! to a ma*imum range of ,/,/// !sig. =or a given !ressure gauge a!!lication, the decision over what ty!e of bourdon tube 5i.e. 8Bty!e, s!iral ty!e, or helical ty!e6 to use is generally made by the manufacturer.
#.2./ D:A2F AG4 2 -""A - D-;:8-"

0he metallic dia!hragm gauge consists of a metal disc built into a housing with one side of the disc e*!osed to the !ressure to be measured and the other side e*!osed to atmos!heric !ressure. A basic dia!hragm gauge is shown in !igure %&.
=igure %&. )asic Dia!hragm Gauge
0he distortion of the dia!hragm under !ressure is transmitted to the gauge dial by a lin'age connected to the center of the dia!hragm. Ander !ressure, a circular metallic dia!hragm will e*hibit a deflection curve sha!ed roughly li'e the letter G"G, starting at the origin and a!!roaching astm!totically the !oint of bursting !ressure. 0he !ro!ortional limits occurs at a!!ro*imately /.&J of the bursting load. 0herefore, the deflection of a flat metallic dia!hragm is !ro!ortional to !ressure in a linear fashion only for a small range of low !ressures and low vacuums.
(,
0he deflection characteristics of a metal dia!hragm can be somewhat im!roved by corrugating the surface of the disc. A corrugated dia!hragm !roduces a!!ro*imately four times the deflection of a flat dia!hragm subjected to the same !ressure. :n addition, the deflection curve is slightly more linear in character. !igure %' shows a corrugated dia!hragm.
=igure %(. 8orrugated Dia!hragm
0he actual deflection de!ends on the diameter of the dia!hragm, the thic'ness of the dia!hragm, the sha!e of the corrugations, the number of corrugations, the elasticity of the dia!hragm and the magnitude of !ressure a!!lied. 0he single metallic dia!hragm is not generally used as a !ressure gauge element because of the following disadvantages: 1. 0he dia!hragm must be large enough to !roduce a satisfactory deflection under !ressure. 0his limits the !ressure range to low ranges. 2. 0he dial scale must be hand calibrated to account for the !eculiarities of each dia!hragm. 0his is not an unusual !ractice 5!recision bourdon tubes re3uire it6 but it does add to the cost of the instrument. #. -ven a small !ressure overrange of the gauge can cause a !ermanent set, causing inaccuracies in subse3uent readings. %. 0he elastic modulus coefficient of the metal is sensitive to tem!erature changes. 0he !ressure readout must, therefore, be corrected in some way for tem!erature. 7onBmetallic dia!hragms are used to measure e*tremely low !ressures or vacuums. $eather, teflon, im!regnated sil', and neo!rene are ty!ical materials used in these gauges.
#.#./ 2 -""A - 8A2"A$-"

=re3uently, two circular dia!hragms are soldered or welded together to form a !ressure ca!sule. 0hese ca!sules can be used singularly or stac'ed, as shown in !igure %,.
(.
=igure %+. "tac'ed 2ressure 8a!sule Gauge
0he !ressure ca!sules are commonly made of !hos!hor bronCe, stainless steel, and 7iB"!an 8Q 5a nic'el alloy6. 0he !hos!hor bronCe ca!sules are suitable for most a!!lications from / to #/ !si. 0he advantage of the 7iB "!an 8 ca!sule is that it is virtually unaffected by tem!erature changes. 0heir range is a com!romise: /B#/ !si.
#.%./ )-$$O@" 2 -""A - D-;:8-"

0he need for a !ressureBsensing element more sensitive than the )ourdon tube or the basic metallic dia!hragm to low !ressures and !roviding greater !ower for actuating recording and indicating mechanisms resulted in the develo!ment of the metallic bellows. 0he use of metallic bellows has been most successful on !ressures ranging from /.& to +& !sig. !igure %( illustrates a basic bellows sensing element.
=igure %,. )asic )ellows
0he bellows ty!e !ressure gauge is usually built as a oneB!iece, colla!sible, seamless metallic unit with dee! folds formed from very thinB walled tubing. 0he moving end of the bellows is usually connected with a sim!le lin'age to an indicator !ointer. 0he fle*ibility of a metallic bellows is similar to that of a helical, coiled com!ression s!ring. 0he relationshi! between increments of load and deflection is linear u! to the elastic limit. Fowever, this linear relationshi! e*ists only when the travel of the bellows occurs under the influence of a minium com!ressive force. :t is necessary to arrange that all travel of the bellows be made on the com!ressive side of the !oint of !ressure e3uilibrium. =or this reason, the s!ring in !igure
+/
%, is e*erting on the bellows, a com!ressive force that the movement or measuring action of the bellows must overcome. :n !ractice, the bellows is always o!!osed by a s!ring, and the deflection characteristics of the unit is the net result of the s!ring and the bellows, or: d O2 where: d 2 A Wb Ws O O O O O Deflection of the bellows 5in6 A!!lied !ressure 5!si6 -ffective area of the bellows 5in26 "!ring rate of the bellows 5lb?in6 "!ring rate of the restraining s!ring 5lb?in6 A W b IW s
:f the bellows must o!erate an electric switch or some other mechanism:
2O
where: 2 = D
= I d 5W b IW s A
O A!!lied !ressure value when the switch is o!erated 5!si6 O =orce re3uired to actuate the switch 5:b6 O Deflection re3uired to o!erate the switch
#.&./ 8A2A8:0A78- 0E2- 2 -""A - "-7"O

As described earlier, !ressure a!!lied to a metallic dia!hragm causes the dia!hragm to deflect. As the dia!hragm deflects, it moves away from the stationary metal housing. :f the dia!hragm and housing were viewed as the two !lates of a ca!acitor, a change in a!!lied !ressure would cause !ro!ortional change in ca!acitance. !igure %. shows a dia!hragm assembly arranged as a 8a!acitance 2ressure "ensor.
+1
=igure %.. 8a!acitance 2ressure "ensor
0he !ressure to be measured is a!!lied to :solating Dia!hragm A. :solating Dia!hragm ) can be referenced to a6 atmos!here for !sig readings, b6 vacuum for !sia readings, or c6 another !ressure for differential !ressure readings. 0hese two dia!hragms are called isolating because they !revent the fluid being measured from coming into contact with the sensing dia!hragm. 0he a!!lied !ressure is transmitted by the isolating dia!hragm to the silicone oil. 0his oil serves as a nonBcorrosive !ressure transmitting fluid, and also as the ca!acitor dielectric. 0he sensing dia!hragm deflects by an amount and in a direction as determined by the net a!!lied !ressure. :f the !ressure that is a!!lied to :solating Dia!hragm A is larger than that a!!lied to :solating Dia!hragm ), the sensing dia!hragm will deflect to the right. !igure &* shows the sensing dia!hragm and ca!acitor !lates as actually two ca!acitors, A and ). As the sensing dia!hragm deflects to the right in !igure &*+ the ca!acitance of ) increase and the ca!acitance of A decreases.
+2
=igure &/. 8a!acitance 2ressure "ensor as 0wo 8a!acitors
0he device is connected to a ca!acitance measuring instrument, with the resultant change in ca!acitance being directly !ro!ortional to a change in !ressure. 0he ca!acitance measuring device !rovides a stable A8 voltage. 0he ca!acitor current then is !ro!ortional to the change in ca!acitance. =rom basic electricity:
:O andZcO : 2f8
therefore:
:O
or:
or : O Zc
1 2f8
: O- P 2 f8
)ecause the change in out!ut current is de!endent on the change in ca!acitance of the two ca!acitors A and ):
8O
therefore:
8a P 8b 8a I 8b
: O - P 2f
where: : -,f 2
8a P 8b 8a I 8b
O Out!ut current O 8onstant voltage and fre3uency su!!lied to the sensor from a reference source O 4athematical constant
+#
8a8b O 8a!acitanc e of the"ensor=or an A!!lied 2ressure 8a I8b

Asing different ty!es of material to ma'e the sensing dia!hragm results in ca!acitance ty!e !ressure sensors of different !ressure ranges.
#.(./ D:A2F AG4 "-A$"

"tainless steel dia!hragm seals can be used when a sensor is not corrosion resistant or is subject to !ossible contamination. 0he s!ace between the sealing dia!hragm and the sensor is filled with a suitable li3uid whose !ressure du!licates that of the !rocess side of the dia!hragm. 0he seals are usually assembled in the factory to ensure com!lete filling, which is very im!ortant. Dia!hragm seals are commonly used on sensing instrument lines where the movement of the sensor is minimal. -*cessive dis!lacement may involve an error arising from the straining of the dia!hragm seal. !igure &" shows a dia!hragm seal used with a !ressure gauge to !revent the corrosive li3uid of the !rocess from coming into contact with the bourdon tube.
=igure &1. Dia!hragm "eal
2ulsation Dam!eners
:n some !rocess systems, the !ressure can vary ra!idly or !ulsate. 0hese !ulsations can cause e*cessive wear of the internal moving !arts of a !ressure sensor. Dam!eners that act to bloc' the !ulsations and !ass the steadyBstate !ressure can be included in sensing lines. One design consists of a sintered stainless steel disc or cylinder held in a stainless steel body9 another is a ca!tive stainless steel !in in a orifice o!ening.
+%
)ecause !lugging may !resent a !roblem, !eriodic cleaning of !ulsation dam!eners may be re3uired.
2ressure "ensor 2ositioning

0he !ressure detector should be !ositioned on a stable, shoc' mounted housing adjacent to the !rocess line in such a way as to reduce the transmission of !i!ing or vessel e*!ansion strains, !rocess heat, or system vibration to the sensor mechanism. 0he res!onse of most !ressure sensors to a full scale !ressure change is e*tremely ra!id. :t will, however, be affected by the length and diameter of the !i!e or tubing used to connect the sensor to the !rocess ta'eBoff !oint. 0he longer the sensing line, the slower the res!onse. =or low !ressure measurement, the length of the sensing line should be short and the diameter small.
%././ 0 A7"DA8- "B

0ransducers are used in instrument systems to ensure !ro!er signal transmission to the system1s final element or controller. :n most cases, the final element is a !neumatically o!erated control valve. 0ransducers convert in!ut signals of one form into out!ut signals of another form.
%.1./ 0 A7"DA8-
=A780:O7"
An industrial !lant contains many ty!es of instrument systems. 0he transducers used in these instrument systems must acce!t a signal generated by a controller or transmitter and convert it into a usable signal for another com!onent in the loo!. =or e*am!le, an instrument system that has an electronic controller and a !neumatic final element re3uires a transducer that will convert an electrical or current signal into a !ro!ortional !neumatic signal.
%.2./ 0 A7"DA8-
0E2-"
4any ty!es of transducers are available for different a!!lications. 0able 1/ lists common transducer ty!es. -lectronics and !neumatics are used most often for signal transmission. :n order for an instrument system to use both electronic and !neumatic com!onents together, transducers are re3uired. 0he following sections e*!lain the two most common ty!es of transducers: :?2 and 2?: transducers. T'PE :?2 2?: :? ?: 4; ? : 2F ? : INPUT SI(NAL 8urrent 2neumatic 8urrent esistance 4illivolts !F &UTPUT SI(NAL 2neumatic 8urrent esistance 8urrent 8urrent 8urrent
+&
0able 1/. 8ommon 0ransducer 0y!es
%.#./ :?2 0 A7"DA8- "

4ost :?2, or currentBtoB!neumatic transducers are fieldBmounted instruments. A transducer is usually mounted close to its receiving instrument to avoid long, sluggish, !neumatic signal transmission. :n many cases, a transducer is mounted directly onto a receiving instrument such as a control valve actuator. !igure &# shows a ty!ical :?2 transducer mounting.
=igure &2. 0y!ical :?2 0ransducer 4ounting
%.%./ 2?: 0 A7"DA8- "

2?:, or !neumaticBtoBcurrent transducers are generally used in a chemical or humid area where !neumatic measuring instruments are used. -lectrical measuring instruments are rarely used in these areas because of high corrosion. :n order for the !neumatic signals to reach their controller with minimal lag time, these signals must be converted to a !ro!ortional mA signal. 2?: transducers are usually mounted in a cabinet on a wall just outside these contaminated areas. !igure &$ shows a ty!ical 2?: transducer mounting.
+(
=igure &#. 0y!ical 2?: 0ransducer 4ounting
%.&./ 0 A7"DA8-
O2- A0:O7
)oth 2?: and :?2 transducers o!erate li'e a ty!ical electro!neumatic instrument. 0he transducer circuitry relies on electronic and !neumatic com!onents. 4ost 2?: transducers receive a # to 1& !si signal from a controller or transmitter. "ignals received out of this range cause an incorrect out!ut signal or no out!ut signal at all. 4ost :?2 transducers re3uire either a % to 2/ mA or a 1/ to &/ mA signal for !ro!ortionate signal conversion. 0he following sections e*!lain the o!eration of 2?: and :?2 transducers.
%.(./ A2 0 A7"DA8-
O2- A0:O7
An :?2 transducer receives a D8 milliam!ere in!ut signal in the range of % to 2/ mA or 1/ to &/ mA. 0his signal is received by a coil !ositioned in the electrical field of a !ermanent magnet. 0he coil reacts to the mA signal by !roducing a thrust !arallel to the sha!e of the magnet. 0his thrust varies the ga! between a fla!!er noCCle and fla!!er. !igure &% shows the relationshi! between coil movement and fla!!er movement.
++
=igure &%.
elationshi! )etween 8oil 4ovement and =la!!er 4ovement
0he change in distance between the fla!!er and fla!!er noCCle changes the out!ut !ressure of the relay. 0his relay out!ut !ressure, also called the transducer out!ut !ressure, is fed to a feedbac' bellows. 0he bellows !ivots on an adjusting fulcrum and moves the fla!!er noCCle. As the fla!!er noCCle moves, a throttling relationshi! is established between the fla!!er and fla!!er noCCle. !igure && shows the o!eration of an :?2 transducer.
=igure &&. O!eration of :?2 0ransducer
%.+./ 2?: 0 A7"DA8-
O2- A0:O7
2?: transducers convert a !neumatic signal to a !ro!ortional mA out!ut. 0his ty!e of transducer usually consists of a !neumatic receiver and solidB state circuitry. 0he solidBstate circuitry includes the following com!onents: 4agnetic coils B create or induce an electromotive force 5-4=6. Oscillator B generates a constantly changing electrical signal
+,
Detector B receives a constantly changing electrical signal Am!lifier B receives a constantly changing signal from an oscillator and res!onds to a voltage dro! across a resistor. Driver B energiCes the out!ut transistor.
!igure &' shows the arrangement of a ty!ical 2?: transducer.
=igure &(. Arrangement of 0y!ical 2?: 0ransducer
@hen a 2?: transducer receives an in!ut signal, it a!!lies it to a bellows. As the bellows e*!ands and contracts, a connecting lin'age changes the inductance of the coils. !igure &, shows the relationshi! of the bellows and coils. 0he change in inductance alters the am!litude of an oscillator inside the transducer. A detector receives the am!litude change and !roduces a !ro!ortional voltage dro! across a resistor. 0his voltage dro! is fed to an am!lifier that drives the out!ut transistor to !roduce an out!ut current. efer to !igure &' for a schematic of a ty!ical 2?: transducer.
=igure &+.
elationshi! of )ellows and 8oils
@hen a transducer receives an in!ut signal of . !si and its out!ut is 12 mA, the transducer is in a balanced mode. 0he oscillator am!lifier
+.
regulates the oscillator am!litude. 0his creates an e3ual balance between the total number of milliam! currents sent to the coils and the reference current !roduced by the regulator. !igure &( shows the location of the regulator in a 2?1 transducer.
=igure &,. $ocation of
egulator in a 2?: 0ransducer
A change in the . !si in!ut signal disru!ts the transducer1s balanced mode. 0his causes a different current to flow through the coils and decreases the oscillator am!litude. A !ositive change in current flow in a 2?: transducer !roduces an increase in out!ut current. A negative change in current flow results in a decrease in out!ut current.
%.,./ 4-0A$$:8 "0 A:7 GAAG0he strain gauge is a transducer em!loying electrical resistance variation to sense the strain or other results of force. :t can be utiliCed as a very versatile detector for measuring weight, !ressure, mechanical force or dis!lacement. :n basic construction, a bonded strain gauge, as seen in !igure &)+ is an electric conductor of fine wire loo!ed bac' and forth on a fle*ible mounting !late, which is usually bonded or cemented to the member of test !iece undergoing
=igure &.. A!!lication of a "train Gauge
,/
stress. 0he e*tension in length of the hair!in loo!s increases the effect of a stress a!!lied in the direction of length. :n short, a tensile stress would elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its crossB sectional area. 0he result would be an increase in its resistance, because the resistance of a metallic conductor, at a constant tem!erature, varies directly with length $ and inversely with crossBsectional area A. "ymbolically,
'$ A
where ' is a constant de!ending u!on the wire. @ith a good bond between the strain gauge and the test !iece, either tensile or com!ressive strains can be measured. Generally, the current !assed through the gauge is about 2& mA, the diameter of the conductor is about /.//1 in., and the resistance of the conductor is about 1// ohms. "ince a current flow through the strainBgauge element will have a heating effect which is !ro!ortional to the s3uare of the current, any resulting change in resistance will have to be a!!lied as a correction. One way to correct for the heating effect is to use a dummy gauge, in the o!!osite arm of the bridge circuit, which has the same current flowing through it. 0he schematic arrangement is shown in !igure '*.
=igure (/. A
esistance )ridge 8ircuit for 4easuring "train
0he ty!e of measuring device used to balance the bridge circuit, or to measure its unbalance, de!ends u!on the re3uired s!eed of res!onse. =or highBs!eed analysis, as used in research laboratories, an oscillosco!e is used to measure the degree of unbalance, whereas in industrial a!!lications a !otentiometer is sufficient. "train gauges are available in length from 1?1( to 1B1?2 in. with a resistance range of (/ to (,/// ohms. 0hey are calibrated to determine strain due to tensile and com!ressive loads.
%.,.1 "emiconductor "train Gauges

"trainBgauge sensitivity has been im!roved by using semiconductors. 0he fle*ible silicon strain gauge is a very !ractical device. :t is as stable as the metallic ty!e and has a higher out!ut level. "emiconductor strain gauges
,1
can detect microBinches of change in length !er unit inch of length. A semiconductor element used in microstrain systems is shown in !igure (1.
=igure (1. A "emiconductor Ased in 4icrostrain "ystems
%.../ 2 -""A - "0 A:7 GAAG-"

A means of detecting very small variations in !ressure, as seen in !igure '#+ incor!orates strain gauges cemented or bonded on both sides of a fle*ible cantilever. -ach gauge will be in either com!ression or tension de!ending on the vertical motion of the bellows. :n turn, the motion of the bellows de!ends on the !ressure. Any slight !ressure variation can be detected by the strain gauge bridge circuit and read on a suitable meter. 0he bellowscantilever beam ty!e of strain gauge device is suitable for measuring !ressures from / to &/,/// !si.
=igure (2. A!!lication of the "train Gauge for 2ressure 4easurement
%...1 ;oltageBdivider 2ressure 0ransducer

A sim!le method of using the motion of a !ressure Bsensitive element such as a bellows or dia!hragm is to actuate the arm of a !otentiometer voltage divider. 0he moving arm of the voltage divider !roduces a voltage out!ut !ro!ortional to the !ressure variable, instead of a sim!le resistance variation. 0he voltageBdivider !otentiometer is suited to a D8 indicating and recording system which may not re3uire am!lification.
%.1/./ ;O$0AG-BG-7- A0:7G 0 A7"DA8- "B %.1/.1 2:-aO-$-80 :8 0 A7"DA8- "
0he deformation of various crystals, such as 3uartC, ochelle salt, tourmaline, and barium titanate, creates electrical !ressure !ro!ortional to
,2
the a!!lied force or !ressure. 0his action of generating a voltage by the a!!lication of a force or !ressure is the !rinci!le used in the !ieCoelectric crystal transducer. A sectional view of a voltageBgenerating 5!ieCoelectric6 !ressure transducer is shown in !igure (#. 2ieCoelectric crystals are found in such devices as !honogra!h !ic'u! cartridges and ceramic micro!hones.
=igure (#. ;oltageBgenerating 52ieCoelectric6 0ransducer in a 2ressureB4easuring "ystem
:n instrument !ractice, because of the high out!ut voltage, am!litude, and fre3uency res!onse, the !ieCoelectric crystal transducer is used in highB fre3uency accelerometers. As mentioned, the !ieCoelectric crystal is inherently a dynamic res!onding sensor and is not really suitable for steadyBstate conditions. 0he crystal sensing element has a high out!ut im!edance and low current out!ut. 0his ty!e of transducer is used with an aBc am!lifier to increase the crystal out!ut signal for readout !ur!oses. )ecause it is a highBim!edance measuring system, careful shielding is re3uired, as is true of most highBim!edance devices. 0he main advantages of !ieCoelectric !ower, dynamic res!onse, small siCe, disadvantages are the highBim!edance signalBconditioning systems, sensitivity with long leads, the generation of noise. transducers are selfBgenerating and rugged construction. 0he out!ut necessitating electronicB to tem!erature variations, and,
%.11./
$:7-A B;A :A)$- D:==- -70:A$ 0 A7"=O 4-
0he differential transformer may be designed to !rovide an electrical out!ut which is linearly !ro!ortional to a mechanical dis!lacement. 0he transducer is generally referred to as the linearBvariable differential transformer 5$;D06. 0he $;D0 is an electromechanical transducer of the variableBinductance ty!e. 0he basic !rinci!le, shown in the schematic diagram in !igure (%, is as follows: 0hree coils are wound on a cylindrical coil form or tube. 0he center coil is the !rimary, which induces a voltage in each of two secondary coils, would in o!!osite directions, on either side of it. 0he magnetic core is free to move a*ially inside the assembly as a result of a dis!lacement.
,#
=igure (%. $inearBvariable Differential 0ransformer "chematic and $inear =unction
@hen the !rimary coil is energiCed by alternating current, voltages are induced in the two secondary coils. "ince these coils are connected in series o!!osition, the two voltages in the secondary circuit are o!!osite in !hase. 0he resulting out!ut of the transformer circuit is thus the difference between the two voltages. :n the null, or balance, !osition the movable magnetic core is at a central !oint. :f the core is now moved from the null !osition, owing to dis!lacement variation, the voltage induced in the secondary coil will either increase or decrease according to the direction of the dis!lacement change. :n measuring systems, transformer is designed to !roduce a differentialBvoltage out!ut which varies linearly as seen in !igure '%. @hen the $;D0 out!ut is connected to an am!lifier grid in!ut, vacuumB tube voltmeter, or other highBim!edance load, a high out!ut voltage is re3uired. =or this reason, the secondary coil is wound with many turns to !roduce a large o!enBcircuit voltage. 4any differential transformers are actuated by direct current, because there is a builtBin converter for changing the D8 to A8 e*citation and there is a demodulator for su!!lying a D8 out!ut. 0he entire device is com!act occu!ying only about half a cubic inch.
%.11.1
A!!lications
0he linearBvariable differential transformer can be used as a transducer to measure other variables having the characteristic of force, such as !ressure, weight, or acceleration. A variety of designs, assemblies, and techni3ues are available to meet the demands of research and industry. 0o select one, the accelerometer is a good e*am!le which em!loys the $;D0.
%.12./
A88-$- O4-0-
:n accordance with 7ewton1s basic law of motion, =orce5=6 O mass 5m6 * acceleration 5a6 the elastic deformation of the sensitive measuring element, instead of being !roduced directly by an e*ternal force, may be a function of
,%
acceleration. "chaevitC -ngineering manufactures the accelerometer shown in !igure '&.
=igure (&. $inearBvariable Differential 0ransformer Ased to 4easure Acceleration
0he secondaryBcircuit out!ut signal, which can be !ic'ed u! by any of the conventional measuring circuits described in this and !receding sections, is a function of the dis!lacement of the moving magnetic core caused by acceleration. Accelerometers of the baseBmounting ty!e, ca!able of withstanding the e*treme conditions of missile testing, o!erate on a similar !rinci!le.
&././ 0 A7"4:00- "B

0ransmitters usually consist of a sensor and an out!ut device. 0he sensor detects a signal from a !rimary element that is measuring a !rocess variable. 0he out!ut device converts this initial signal to a transmittable signal that is !ro!ortional to the measurement. 0his signal can then be used to indicate, record, or control the !rocess variable. 0ransmitters can be !neumatic or electronic. 0he s'illed craftwor'er should understand transmitters and how they function.
&.1./ 27-A4A0:8 0 A7"4:00- "

0he two main o!erating ty!es of !neumatic transmitters are force balance transmitters and motion balance transmitters. 0hese units differ in their basic o!erating !rinci!les.
&.1.1 =orce )alance Differential 2ressure 2neumatic 0ransmitters

0he most common ty!e of !neumatic transmitter is the force balance differential !ressure transmitter. 0his ty!e transmitter is also called a D2 cell. 0he D2 cell usually o!erates on a regulated 2/ !si air su!!ly. 0he out!ut signal of the D2 is usually #B1& !si.
,&
A !neumatic D2 cell can be divided into four basic sections: 2rocess measuring section =orce bar section )alancing section 2neumatic in!ut?out!ut section
!igure (( shows a !neumatic D2 cell.
=igure ((. 2neumatic D2 8ell
&.1.2 2rocess 4easuring "ection

0he !rocess measuring section of a D2 cell consists of a transmitter body and a dia!hragm ca!sule. 0he dia!hragm ca!sule s!lits the transmitter body into a high !ressure chamber and a low !ressure chamber. !igure ', shows a transmitter measuring section.
,(
=igure (+. 0ransmitter 4easuring "ection
2rocess fluid is !i!ed to the high and low !ressure sides of the transmitter body. 2ressure acts on the sealed metallic dia!hragm and causes a small movement of the dia!hragm lin'.
&.1.# =orce )ar "ection

0he bottom of a D2 cell force bar section is connected to the dia!hragm lin'. A force bar seal !revents !rocess fluid from lea'ing out of the transmitter body. 0he to! of the force bar is connected to the !neumatic fla!!erBnoCCle. !igure (, shows a force bar section.
=igure (,. =orce )ar "ection
,+
Any difference in !ressure in the transmitter body causes a movement of the dia!hragm lin'. 0his movement is transferred to the force bar at the lin' connection. An increase in the high !ressure side causes the base of the force bar to move toward the low !ressure side. 0his action draws the fla!!er closer to the noCCle. An increase in !ressure on the low !ressure side moves the fla!!er away from the noCCle. !igure (. shows the effect of dia!hragm movement on fla!!erBnoCCle !osition.
=igure (.. -ffect of Dia!hragm 4ovement on =la!!erB7oCCle 2osition
&.1.% )alancing "ection

0he balancing section of a D2 cell consists of a feedbac' bellows, range rod, range wheel, and Cero adjustment. !igure ,* shows this balancing section. 4ovement of the fla!!erBnoCCle by the force bar causes changes in the amount of air su!!lied to the feedbac' bellows. 0he bellows air su!!ly is changed until the bellows e*erts enough !ressure on the range rod to balance the original movement of the force bar. 0he term, force balance, comes from these counterbalancing actions. 0he Cero adjustment establishes Cero, usually # !si, by allowing a manual setting of the fla!!erBnoCCle !osition. 0he range wheel is the balancing !oint for the motion of the range rod. )y adjusting the range wheel u! or down on the range rod, the total measuring range of the instrument can be changed.
,,
=igure +/. )alancing "ection
&.1.& 2neumatic :n!ut?Out!ut "ectionB

0he !neumatic in!ut?out!ut section of a D2 cell consists of a regulated 2/ !si air su!!ly, a !neumatic relay, a noCCle, and an out!ut connection. !igure ," shows a !neumatic in!ut? out!ut section. 0he !neumatic relay o!erates from a 2/ !si air su!!ly. A fi*ed restrictor within the relay body !rovides a constant su!!ly of air to the noCCle. 0he noCCle !ressure acts on a dia!hragm inside the relay. 0he dia!hragm acts on a ball chec' valve that su!!lies air to the feedbac' bellows and out!ut signal. !igure ,# shows a !neumatic relay.
,.
=igure +1. 2neumatic :n!ut?Out!ut "ection
estrictor
=igure +2. 2neumatic
elay
An increase in !rocess !ressure on the high !ressure side of the ca!sule causes the fla!!er to cover the noCCle. 0his causes air !ressure to build u! on the noCCle su!!ly side of the dia!hragm. 0he downward movement of the dia!hragm causes the ball chec' valve to o!en and increase the air !ressure to the feedbac' bellows and out!ut signal. 0his continues until
./
the !ressure of the bellows against the range rod counterbalances the original movement of the force bar. :f the fla!!er moves away from the noCCle, the dia!hragm within the relay allows less air !ressure to the feedbac' bellows and out!ut signal. 0his action occurs until the unit is again in balance.
&.1.( 2neumatic =orce )alance 0ransmitters A!!lications

2neumatic force balance transmitters can be used in most !rocess measurement a!!lications where differential !ressure measurement devices are used. 8ommon !rocess measurements made with !neumatic force balance transmitters are: =low measurement $i3uid level measurement 2ressure measurement 0em!erature measurement
&.2./ D2 8-$$ =$O@ 4-A"A -4-70

=or flow measurement, a D2 cell is most commonly used with an orifice !late. !igure ,$ shows a D2 cell flow installation.
=igure +#. D2 8ell =low :nstallation
0he D2 cell can be mounted on the !rocess !i!ing or a location as close as !ossible to the orifice !late. 0he valves located near the orifice !late can be closed to ma'e re!air or removal !ossible without shutting off the !rocess flow.
.1
0he e3ualiCing valve on the !rocess tubing is used in re!lacement or removal !rocedures. @hen the valve is o!en, it !ermits e3ual !ressure to be a!!lied to both sides of the dia!hragm ca!sule. Figh !ressure a!!lied to only one side of the dia!hragm ca!sule can cause damage.
&.2.1 D2 8ell $i3uid $evel 4easurement

@ith a slight modification in tubing connections, a D2 cell can be used to measure the li3uid level in both o!enBnon!ressuriCed tan's and closedB !ressuriCed tan's. !igure ,% shows D2 cell li3uid level a!!lications.
=igure +%. D2 8ell $i3uid $evel A!!lications
0an' A in !igure ,% is an o!enBnon!ressuriCed vessel. 0he high !ressure side of the D2 cell is connected near the bottom of the tan'. 0he low !ressure side is vented to atmos!heric !ressure. :ncreasing the level in the tan' causes more !ressure to be a!!lied to the high side of the ca!sule. 0his causes an increase in the out!ut signal. 0he low side of the D2 cell is o!en to the atmos!here. :ncreasing or decreasing li3uid !ressure on the high side are the only !ressure changes that affect the signal from the D2 cell. 0an' ) in !igure +% is a closedB!ressuriCed vessel. 0he high side of the D2 is connected near the bottom and the low side at the to!. 8hanges in the tan' !ressure not related to li3uid level are e3ually sensed by both sides of the transmitter. 0he only change in !ressure that is not sensed by the low side is an increase or decrease in !ressure cause by a rise or fall of the li3uid level. 0an' 8 in !igure ,% is also a closedB!ressuriCed vessel. Due to some !rocess conditions, the low leg can fill u! with the !rocess fluid and cause measurement errors. =or e*am!le, if steam from a container of hot water fills the low !ressure !i!ing leg, this steam will condense into a li3uid as it cools off. 0his will create a false li3uid level !ressure on the low side and cause errors in measurement.
.2
0o eliminate the !roblem of li3uid collecting in the low leg, the low leg is intentionally filled with li3uid. 0he D2 cell can then be mechanically adjusted to balance out the li3uid !ressure on the low leg.
&.2.2 D2 8ell 2ressure 4easurement

=or !ressure measurement, the D2 cell is constructed with only a high side connection. 0he low side is usually a metal blan' with a small vent for atmos!heric !ressure. !igure ,& shows a D2 cell used for !ressure measurement.
=igure +&. D2 8ell Ased for 2ressure 4easurement
0he D2 cell can be mounted directly on a vessel or !i!eline to measure !ressure. 0he valve !ermits removal or re!lacement of the D2 cell without !rocess shutdown. "!ecial construction of the dia!hragm allows e*!osure to high !ressure on one side of the unit without damage.
&.#./ 27-A4A0:8 =O 8- )A$A78- 0-42- A0A - 4-A"A -4-70

0he body of a !neumatic force balance tem!erature transmitter is different from a normal D2 cell. !igure ,' shows a force balance tem!erature transmitter.
.#
=igure +(. =orce )alance 0em!erature 0ransmitter
A !neumatic force balance tem!erature transmitter has a thermal element that senses tem!erature changes. 0he bellows on the end of this thermal element res!onds to tem!erature changes by e*!anding and contracting. 0his force is transferred to the force bar causing fla!!erBnoCCle !osition changes. 0he change in the fla!!erBnoCCle !osition is sensed by the relay and balancing !ressures are sent to the feedbac' bellows. A com!ensation bellows unit on the force bar eliminates the effects of ambient tem!erature.
&.%./ 4O0:O7 )A$A78- 27-A4A0:8 0 A7"4:00- "

4otion balance transmitters convert the in!ut motion of basic measuring elements into a !neumatic out!ut that is directly !ro!ortional to the measured variable. )asic measuring elements such as bourdon tubes, bellows, and dia!hragm assemblies can move distances of u! to 1?2 inch. 2neumatic motion balance transmitters convert this in!ut motion into an out!ut !ressure. !igure ++ shows a motion balance transmitter. 4otion balance transmitters receive an air su!!ly in!ut of 2/ !si. :ts out!ut of # to 1& !si is !ro!ortional to the measured value. 0he three sections of a motion balance transmitter are: 4easuring section $in' an fla!!erBnoCCle section )ellows and relay section .(
.%
=igure ++. 4otion )alance 0ransmitter
&.%.1 4easuring "ection

0he measuring section of a motion balance transmitter is the basic measuring element. :n most motion balance transmitters, this basic element is either a bourdon tube, a dia!hragm assembly, or a bellows unit. 0hese measuring elements rely on a lin' to transfer the measurement motion. !igure +. shows some common measuring elements used in motion balance transmitters. 0he measuring element section !rovides the initial motion to the transmitters.
.&
=igure +,. 8ommon 4otion )alance 4easuring -lements
&.%.2 $in' and =la!!erB7oCCle "ection

8hanges in the measured variable move the connecting lin' on the measuring element. 0his motion is transferred to the lin' assembly. 0he lin' assembly moves u! or down on its !ivot !oint. 0his movement causes the fla!!erBnoCCle relationshi! to change. !igure +. shows the lin' and fla!!erBnoCCle assembly.
=igure +.. $in' and =la!!erB7oCCle Assembly
&.%.# )ellows and
elay "ection
8hanges in the fla!!erBnoCCle !osition affect the out!ut of the !neumatic relay. At this !oint the action of the motion balance transmitter is the same as the action of a force balance transmitter.
.(
As the noCCle is covered or uncovered, the bac' !ressure changes in the !neumatic relay assembly. 0hese changes are fed bac' to the bellows. Any movement of the fla!!er toward or away from the noCCle causes a !ressure change in the bellows. 0he !ressure change continues until the unit is in balance. 0he !ressure change continues until the unit is in balance. As in a force balance transmitter, the feedbac' !ressure is the out!ut signal of the transmitter. A Cero adjustment is !rovided for an initial # !si out!ut. !igure (* shows the bellows and relay assembly.
=igure ,/. )ellows and
elay Assembly
&.%.% A!!lications of 4otion )alance 0ransmitters

4otion balance transmitters are most commonly used in tem!erature and !ressure measurement.
&.%.& 2neumatic 4otion )alance 0em!erature 4easurement

A thermal e*!ansion system is used as the basic measuring element in !neumatic motion balance tem!erature measurement. 0he filled thermal !i!ing is connected to a bourdon tube inside the transmitter housing. As the tem!erature of the !rocess rises and falls, the thermal fluid e*!ands and contracts within the bourdon tube causing a motion at its connecting lin'. 0his motion activates the transmitter. !igure (" shows a motion balance tem!erature measurement installation.
.+
=igure ,1. 4otion )alance 0em!erature 4easurement :nstallation
&.%.( 2neumatic 4otion )alance 2ressure 4easurement

:n a !neumatic motion balance !ressure measurement system, the transmitter is connected directly into the !rocess !i!ing or vessel. A bourdon or bellows assembly is located in the transmitter housing and is used as the basic measuring element. A change is !rocess !ressure moves the connecting lin' of the measuring element. A change in !rocess !ressure moves the connecting lin' of the measuring element. 0his motion activates the transmitter. !igure (# shows a motion balance !ressure measurement installation.
=igure ,2. 4otion )alance 2ressure 4easurement :nstallation
(././ -$-80 O7:8 0 A7"4:00- "B

-lectronic transmitters offer higher degree of accuracy than !neumatic transmitters. 0hey also have a faster and longer range transmission system. 0heir o!eration varies with the manufacturer. 0wo common electronic transmitter systems are the force balance system and variable ca!acitance cell.
.,
(.1.1 =orce )alance Differential 2ressure -lectronic 0ransmitters

An electronic force balance transmitter has a su!!ly voltage of u! to .& ;dc. :ts out!ut can be 1/ to &/ mA or % to 2/ mA. 7ew systems are commonly % to 2/ mA. 0he sensor system of an electronic force balance transmitter is similar to a !neumatic D2 cell. 0he major difference is the out!ut device. !igure ($ shows an electronic force balance D2 transmitter. .
=igure ,#. -lectronic =orce )alance D2 0ransmitter
(.1.2 "ensor Assembly

A sensor assembly is a sealed metallic dia!hragm. 2ressure on this dia!hragm causes a small movement of the dia!hragm lin'. 0his lin' movement is transferred to a force bar that transmits it to the range rod. 0he range rod transmits the force to the armature, causing it to move. !igure (% shows a sensor assembly.
..
=igure ,%. "ensor Assembly
(.1.# Out!ut "ection

0he armature !ortion of a range rod can move bac' and forth within the transformer. =or e*am!le, if the armature is moved toward the secondary winding, the voltage at that winding will increase. !igure (& shows an out!ut section.
1//
=igure ,&. Out!ut "ection
0his increase in voltage causes an increase in the out!ut signal of an oscillatorBam!lifier. Fowever, if the armature moves in the other direction, the out!ut signal decreases.
(.1.% Out!ut Device

0he out!ut device of a variable ca!acitance cell is an electronic ca!acitance bridge circuit. "mall lead wires from the circuit assembly area attached to the ca!acitor !lates and sealed in the dia!hragm. A constant electric current is !assed through these wires to the ca!acitor !lates. 8hanges in ca!acitance caused by !ressure changes within the dia!hragm cause the current to change. 0hese changes are converted by the bridge circuit to a % to 2/ mA signal that is a linear out!ut directly !ro!ortional to the !ressure changes.
+././ =:)- BO20:8"B

During the !ast ten years, fiberBo!tics have started to !lay a larger role in transmitter technology. Due to the e*cellent noise !ro!erties, low signal loss, and clarity of signal, fibero!tics are used more and more with transmitters.
+.1./ O20:8A$ 0 A7"4:00- "

0he two ty!es of o!tical sources which have been used widely are the light emitting diode 5$-D6 and the injection laser diode 5:$D6. 0hese are solid state devices that !roduce an increased light out!ut with an increasing forward bias current. -lectrons injected across a forward biased 27 junction combine with holes to !roduce !hotons of light which esca!e from
1/1
the structure. ;arious semiconductor com!ounds of gallium, arsenic, indium and !hos!horous are used to !roduce devices which have a !ea' light emission at wavelengths from (// nanometer 5nm6 in the visible range to 1/// nor in the infrared range. :ncluded also are other gas and solid state lasers used in o!tical communications. 0he choice of $-D or :$D o!tical source rests on understanding the differences between the devices. =or e*am!le, the :$D has a shorter rise time than the $-D, which ma'es the :$D more suitable for wide bandwidth and high data rate a!!lications. :n addition more o!tical !ower can be cou!led into a fiber with an :$D, which is im!ortant for long distance transmission. Fowever the laser diode is strongly tem!erature de!endent and has a significantly higher cost. @hich device ty!e, $-D or :$D, and what carrier wavelength to select de!ends on transmission range, data rate, fiber ty!e, detector, and total system cost.
+.1.1 2hotodetectors
0he o!tical receiver must detect the received o!tical !ower and am!lify the resulting electrical signal with minimal distortion. :t consists of a !hotodetector and a !reBam!lifier. 0wo general classes of !hotodetectors e*ist. 0hey are the reverse biased 27 junction diode and the !hoto transistor. 8ommon reverse biased diodes are the 2:7 diode and the avalanche !hotodiode 5A2D6. :n a !hoto transistor the light detection diode becomes the baseBcollector junction of the transistor.
1/2
"A44A E
0his module has covered the basics of elements, transducers, and transmitters. 0he various items regarding accuracy, sensitivity, range, etc. were covered as a!!lies to measuring devices. 4ajor com!onents involved in measuring !ressure, flow, tem!erature, and level were covered. 0he !rinci!le of o!eration as well as ty!ical a!!lication were discussed. 0ransducers were discussed and the role they !lay in a !rocess. 0he various ty!es of transducers were shown, along with a!!lications and e*!lanations of their o!eration. 0ransmitters were shown to be found in both electrical as well as !neumatic ty!es. 0he ty!ical range which transmitters o!erate in were given, as well as the theory of o!eration of each ty!e of transmitter. 0he interBrelationshi! of all these different devices was stressed. Also various trade ti!s were given to hel! the trainee better utiliCe the information discussed on the job.
eferences
=or advanced study of to!ics covered in this 0as' 4odule, the following wor's are suggested: Process Measurement !undamentals+ G2", 1.++. 1asic Instrumentation+ 2atric' \. Figgins, 4cGrawBFill )oo' 8om!any, 1.((. Instrumentation+ American 0echnical "ociety, =ran'lin Wir', 1.(,.
1/#
"-$=B8F-8W
1.
-;:-@ : 2 A80:8- DA-"0:O7"
@hen a measurement is com!ared to a 'nown standard, it re!resents of that measurement. a. 0he true value. b. 0he measured value. c. 0he re!resentative value. d. 0he recorded value. An error in measurements caused by wear from normal use is bbbbbbbbbbbbb. a. Offset. b. Fysteresis. c. Drift. d. )ac'lash. :nstrumentation systems are used for measuring andbbbbbb!rocess variables. a. 8ontrolling b. e!lacing c. eversing d. :ncreasing A measurement error caused by !aralla* isbbbbbbbbbbbbberror. a. A systematic. b. A !ersonal. c. An installation. d. A random. 0he li3uidBinBglass thermometer is based on the !rinci!le of bbbbbbb. a. A change in tem!erature causes a metal to e*!and or contract. b. A change in tem!erature causes an electrical current !ro!ortional to tem!erature. c. A change in tem!erature causes volumetric e*!ansion or contraction of a li3uid. d. A change in tem!erature causes a change in resistance !ro!ortional to tem!erature. An orifice !late used in measurement causesbbbbbbbbbbbto develo! across it. a. A vacuum. b. 0em!erature. c. 2ressure. d. Differential !ressure. of !rocess flow
2.
#.
%.
&.
(.
+.
A bourdon tube is a basicbbbbbbbbbbbbmeasuring device. a. 2ressure. b. Density. c. =low. d. $i3uid level.
1/%
,.
A bellowsBty!e element is normally used to measure bbbbbbbbbbb a. Figh !ressure. b. $ow !ressure or vacuum. c. Figh tem!erature. d. $ow tem!erature. A rotameter is used in measuring !rocess bbbbbbbbbbbbb. a. 0em!erature. b. $i3uid level. c. =low. d. 2ressure. =iber o!tics are desirable because: a. $ow susce!tibility to electrical noise. b. 7arrow band width. c. ugged. d. 8hea!.
..
1/.
2- =O 4A78- ? $A)O A0O E -Z- 8:"-"
1/&
1. Given a measurement element, discuss the o!eration, advantages, and disadvantages of the device. Discuss at least three different devices. 2. Given a diagram of !ressure to current transducer, describe its o!eration. 2oint out inlet and outlet !orts and describe the installation !rocedure. #. Draw a 1Bline diagram showing the relationshi! between measuring element, transducer, and transmitter. 2oint out different ty!es of each.
A7"@- " 0O "-$=B8F-8W

1. b 2. c #. a %. b &. c (. d +. a ,. b .. c 1/.a
-;:-@ ? 2 A80:8- DA-"0:O7"
1/(

Instr 12205 Elements, Transmitters, Transducers, Displacers

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Elements, Transmitters, Transducers, Displacers

Instrumentation Trainee Task Module 12205

ELEMENTS, TRANSMITTERS, TRANSDUCERS, Objectives

e3uired "tudent 4aterials

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

8ourse 4a! :nformation

8ourse 4a!: :nstrument, $evel 2 $-;-$ 2 8O42$-0-

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

0rade 0erms :ntroduced in this 4odule

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

1././ :70 ODA80:O7 0O 2 O8-"" 4-A"A -4-70B

-;:-@ O= )A":8 :7"0 A4-70 A7D 8O70 O$ 8FA77-$"

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

=igure 1. )asic :nstrument and 2rocess 8ontrol 8hannels

Amplifier: increases the !rocess signal to a usable magnitude. :n many

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

Transmitter: transmits data from one instrument com!onent to another

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

Differential 2ressure 8ell =loat

=low estrictor 8ombined with a Differential 2ressure 8ell

=igure 2. $ist of 2arameters 4onitored and 0y!ical Detectors

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

1.1.# Am!lifier 5"ignal 8onditioner6

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

-;:-@ O= 4-A"A -4-70 0- 4:7O$OGE

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

1.2.2 2recision vs. Accuracy

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

=igure #. -*am!les of Accuracy

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

1.2.# 4easurement -rrors

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

=igure %. -rror Due to 2aralla*

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

=igure &. 0y!ical Fysteresis $oo!

=igure (. 0y!ical Fysteresis $oo! 2lot

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

e!roducibility and Drift

1.2.& "ensitivity and

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

O 1./J at 2// !si

1.#./ 4-A"A -4-70 "0A7DA D" A7D -$-4-70"

1.#.1 Direct vs. :nferred 4easurements

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

1.#.2 4easurement "tandards

1.#.# 2rimary "tandards

1.#.% "econdary "tandards

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

1.#.& @or'ing "tandards

1.#.( 2rimary and "econdary -lements

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

&. -lectronic transducer?transmitter miniaturiCed.

=igure +. 4echanical and -lectrical 4easuring -lements

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

1.#., "ignificant =igures

2././ D-0-80O "B

2.1./ O :=:8- 2$A0-"

:nstrument 0rainee 0as' 4odule 122/&

=igure ,. Orifice 2lates

-lements, 0randucers, and transmitters < 4odule 122/&

=igure .. 8oncentric Orifice 2late with ;ent and Drain Foles