Keywords: Event media, city marketing, destination branding, content analysis

B. Christine Green

B. Christine Green, Sport Management Program, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, #D3700 Austin, TX 78712, USA tel: +1 (512) 471 1273 fax: +1 (512) 471 8914 e-mail: bcgreen@mail.utexas.edu Carla Costa, University of Texas at Austin, USA e-mail: ccarla@mail.utexas.edu Maureen Fitzgerald, University of Texas at Austin, USA e-mail: mofitz@mail.utexas.edu

Marketing the Host City: Analyzing Exposure Generated By a Sport Event

Abstract: Sport events have become an important component of many city marketing plans. Media coverage is believed to increase awareness of the host city. This study reports the results of a content analysis of 2002 NCAA Womens Final Four telecasts. Event logos provide the most exposure for the host city, with little obtained via city images. Icons were found to effectively differentiate the city from competitors. Practical implications and future research extensions are suggested. Final draft received: 4 November 2002

Executive Summary
Sport events are increasingly used in the marketing of cities. Cities have justified the use of sport events as a component of their marketing mix on the basis of their power to attract event visitors, and to generate media exposure for the city. The exposure generated by an event is thought to build awareness of the host city as a desirable destination. The ability of sport events to attract visitation is well documented, but there has been little work examining the impact of event media. The purpose of this research was to determine the nature and extent of the television exposure generated for the city of San Antonio by hosting the 2002 NCAA Womens Final Four basketball tournament. The ESPN coverage of the tournament was content analyzed for any verbal mentions of San Antonio or its associated images, and for the variety and duration of San Antonio imagery that appeared in the ESPN broadcast coverage. Ten programs (11 hours and 46 minutes of coverage) were analyzed: (1) the Selection

Show; (2) ESPN Sports Center broadcasts on the Friday, Saturday, and Sunday of the tournament weekend; (3) pre-game show for each of the semi-final games and the championship game; (4) both semi-final games; and, (5) the national championship game. Over the 12 hours of coverage, San Antonio was mentioned 49 times and the Alamodome was mentioned 42 times. Further, Alamo, River Walk, and Texas were mentioned a combined total of six times. Two main categories of images appeared in the telecasts images of San Antonio and of the NCAA Womens Final Four logo. Visual imagery of San Antonio appeared for a total of 209 seconds, with the dominant images being the cityscape, River Walk, Alamodome, and Alamo. The logo appeared in 13 distinct contexts for a total of 1,716 seconds. The dominant logo context was the center court logo. Overall, the findings question the value of the exposure generated by events as a tool for place marketing. However, three key findings have practical implications for potential

International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, December/January 2003 335

implementation of event-based place marketing strategies: (1) the minimal exposure obtained for the host city via event telecasts; (2) relative exposure obtained by the event logo and by actual host city images; and (3) the need for cities to differentiate themselves from their competitors. It is recommended that future event logos prominently integrate host city images, and that effort should be made to link those images to televised shots of actual host city imagery, perhaps including athletes and event personalities in the context of the citys locations or cultural settings. The host city should provide video imagery to event broadcasters that showcases distinctive (i.e. iconographic) imagery, and should work to create associations within those video clips which expand the range of the host citys recognizable icons. Logos should be kept simple to maintain clarity in a variety of contexts and from a variety of camera angles. Further, the host city should create relationships with event announcers through a hospitality program, and create written materials with easy-to-use facts and stories about the city, its sport, and the event venue. Suggestions for future research to expand the effectiveness of host cities event leveraging are included.

Marketing the Host City: Analyzing Exposure Generated By a Sport Event Introduction
Sport events have become a significant component of the product mix used to market cities (Bramwell and Rawding, 1994; van den Berg, Braun and Otgaar, 2000).

Events serve two purposes. They attract visitors to cities during the time that events are taking place (Getz, 1998). They are also used to build awareness of the host city through the media exposure that is obtained (Brown, Chalip, Jago and Mules, 2002). Consumer awareness is thought to be valuable because it can help to build tourist visits and business relationships. There has been a great deal of work examining the attraction that events have for those who attend (e.g. Green and Chalip, 1998; Madrigal, 1995; Pearce, 1993), but there has been comparatively little work examining the media impacts of events. A recent experimental study (Chalip, Green and Hill, in press) reported that event media affect viewers perceptions of the host destination, but often not in ways that had been anticipated by the event hosts. The authors suggest that the effects of event exposure may depend on the type of exposure obtained. They suggest that further work is needed to examine the volume of exposure that events actually generate, and to determine the nature of that exposure. The nature and volume of exposure obtained by the host city was not, however, reported in that study. The nature of exposure that cities obtain through sport event telecasts is of interest for two reasons. First, by mapping the nature of exposure, it should be possible to develop specific strategies to optimize the impact that events have on the citys brand (Chalip, 2001). Second, the funding that sport events obtain may be enhanced. Sport events are often made feasible as a result of the public subsidies that they obtain (Mules, 1998; Roche, 1994). Public

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subsidies are legitimized by the claimed benefits that events have for the host city. Media coverage of an event is claimed to enhance the tourism image of a destination resulting in long-term positive effects of tourism on the economy (Dwyer, Mellor, Mistilis and Mules, 2000; Ritchie and Smith, 1991). But several analysts have questioned whether the actual benefits are as positive as those that were claimed by event organizers (e.g. Chalip and Leyns, 2002; Putsis, 1998; Whitson and Macintosh, 1996). If the value of events to development of the citys market position can be optimized, then the support that event organizers claim for their event will be better legitimized. This paper begins with a brief review of work on events and consumer awareness of cities. It then derives research questions, and reports a content analytic study of the exposure that San Antonio obtained by hosting the NCAA Womens Final Four basketball tournament. The paper then identifies specific tactics that city marketers can use to optimize the exposure that a host city obtains via event telecasts. It concludes by suggesting new directions for future research. Events and Consumer Awareness of Cities A substantial volume of research has examined the role that product awareness plays in consumer decision making. That work finds that brands which are most salient to the consumer are most likely to be chosen (Aaker and Day, 1974; Batra and Lehmann, 1995; Hoyer and Brown, 1990). The basis for this effect has been modelled with reference to the processes by which consumers develop a product choice. That

work shows that consumers first identify a pool of potential purchases that they will consider, and then evaluate the alternatives in order to make a final choice (Peter and Olson, 2001). Crompton and his colleagues (Crompton, 1992; Crompton and Ankomah, 1993; Um and Crompton, 1992) have shown that this same process drives tourists choice of destinations. The implications for city marketers are clear. In order to build tourism, they must first bring their city into the consideration set of potential tourists. In other words, they must enhance the saliency and attractiveness of their destination. The staging of a major sport event provides a city with a unique opportunity to reach a large national (and sometimes international) audience. To enhance the return on their investment in broadcast rights for the event, broadcasters provide lengthy coverage of events, often at peak viewing times. Thus, broadcasts of major events tend to provide extensive event coverage to a broad viewing audience. Coverage of the Olympic Games is a prime example of the effective exposure that an event can provide a city. Ritchie and Smith (1991) showed, in the case of the Olympic Games, media coverage increased the saliency and attractiveness of Calgary as a destination. Although the demonstration of an effect of Olympic media is encouraging, there are grounds for wondering whether the effect would be comparable for other events. The Olympic Games obtain a volume of media coverage that is not typically obtained by other events, including an array of stories that go well beyond the sport competitions themselves (Real, 1989; Whannel, 1992).

International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, December/January 2003 337

The vast majority of events obtain coverage of the competition itself with, perhaps, some pre- and post-event color commentary about the competition. The events host city may be only minimally featured in this coverage, and then only as background scenery. The coverage of a city during an event does not represent a targeted message controlled by city marketers. Rather, the images and messages communicated to audiences are a haphazard collage of images gathered, selected and edited by the broadcaster. These images and messages may last for little more than a few seconds at a time. Whether they will be processed by the audience will depend on the nature of the imagery and the commentary. Iconographic images or place references are particularly likely to be recognized and remembered (Sternberg, 1997; Vivanco, 2001). Recent work in destination iconography shows that unique architecture, natural features, or place names can play a significant role in building and reinforcing the saliency a destination has for tourists (Hill, Arthurson and Chalip, 2001). In essence, this work shows that two elements of exposure through event media are important from the standpoint of cities that seek to market themselves through events. First, it is necessary to know how often the host city is shown, mentioned, or represented. This is comparable to the measurement of exposure frequency which is standard when evaluating the effects of sponsorship (Howard and Crompton, 1995). Second, it is necessary to know what was shown or mentioned, and how it represents the city. In other words, one needs to know

whether the city was shown as a distinctive entity, or merely as an indistinguishable urban backdrop to the event itself. Despite the pivotal nature of these two forms of information, the quantity and forms of host city representation have not been the focus of previous research. Rather, previous work has considered what the effects of exposures are (e.g. Chalip et al., in press; Ritchie and Smith, 1991), but has not formulated a quantitative or qualitative examination of the exposures themselves. Research Questions This study examines the nature and extent of the television exposure generated for the city of San Antonio, Texas, as a result of hosting the 2002 NCAA Womens Final Four basketball tournament. On the basis of the literature reviewed, the following research questions were formulated: 1. How extensive is the host citys exposure during the telecast of a large and nationally significant sport event? 2. What kinds of city mentions and city images occur during the telecast?

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Method
A content analysis of 11 hours and 46 minutes of videotape forms the basis of this study. Five program types were included in the analysis: (1) the NCAA Womens Final Four selection show; (2) three ESPN Sports Center broadcasts (Friday, Saturday, and Sunday of the tournament weekend); (3) pre-game show for each of the semi-final games and the championship game; (4) both semi-final games and the

338 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, December/January 2003

championship game; and (5) two ESPN spots promoting the NCAA Womens Final Four. All programs were broadcast on ESPN, and videotaped for later analysis. Setting San Antonio is the eighth largest city in the United States, and the second largest city in Texas. The city covers 430 square miles in South Central Texas, and boasts a population of over 1.14 million. San Antonio was once a small settlement founded by Spanish missionaries in the early 1700s, and its historical charm and grace are preserved in the Alamo and its other Spanish missions, in its historic neighborhoods, and in the River Walk. Tourism is a key industry in San Antonio, with the city attracting close to seven million visitors a year. The citys most famous landmark is the Alamo, an old Spanish mission where, in 1836, 189 men defended the mission against 4,000 Mexican troops for 13 days. The cry Remember the Alamo became the rallying point of the Texan revolution against Mexico. San Antonio is so closely linked with the Alamo that the citys main indoor arena is called the Alamodome. The selection show, pre-game shows, and all basketball games for the 2002 NCAA Womens Final Four were broadcast from the Alamodome. In more recent times, San Antonio has become famous for its River Walk a series of cobblestone and flagstone paths which border both sides of the San Antonio River as it stretches for approximately two-and-a-half miles through the middle of the business district. The River Walk is quiet and park-like in some stretches, while other areas include European-style sidewalk cafes, specialty

boutiques, nightclubs and high-rise hotels. Riverboats and barges provide a unique way to experience downtown San Antonio. Tourism marketing communications make strong use of the citys association with these two landmarks (i.e. Alamo and River Walk). Procedure The content analysis followed the general guidelines proposed by Neuendorf (2002) and Weber (1990). First, coders engaged in code training for both verbal mentions and imagery. During this stage, the coders developed lists of the types of verbal mentions and visual images appearing in the broadcasts. The coders shared their lists and discussed the emerging categories and assignment rules with the other coders. This initial process allowed for the clarification of some ambiguous rules, the development of more precise definitions, and the addition of new categories. Definitions for each coding category were agreed upon and compiled in a coding manual (see Appendix). Coding matrices were developed for each analysis visual and verbal. Specific image or verbal types were listed down the left side of the matrix, and each occurrence was listed along the top. Coders then entered the duration of each occurrence by its image type. The second phase consisted of pilot coding. During this phase, coders individually analyzed a sample of the telecasts. Inter coder reliability assessed at the pilot coding phase yielded a coefficient of reliability greater than .90 for all variables, a figure deemed acceptable to all by Neuendorf (2002, p.143). Consequently, the researchers felt confident regarding the viability of the coding scheme.

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Min Selection Show Sports Center Friday Saturday Sunday

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San Alamodome Texas Antonio 8 2 2 4 0 1 0 3 1 0 0 1

River Walk 1 0 0 0

Alamo Total 0 0 0 0 10 3 2 8

Table 1: Verbal mentions by broadcast

55 55 55 55

Semi-final: Duke vs. Oklahoma Pre-game Game Semi-final Tenn vs. UConn Pre-game Game Championship UConn vs. OK Pre-game Game TOTAL

25 130

4 10

6 7

0 0

0 0

3 0

13 17

25 125

0 12

3 8

0 0

0 1

0 0

3 21

35 145 11:45

1 6 49

6 8 42

0 0 2

0 0 2

0 1 4

7 15 99

In the final analysis, two researchers independently coded each telecast twice. First, the telecast was coded for the number and type of verbal name mentions of San Antonio or San Antonio-related words (e.g. Alamodome, Alamo, River Walk). In the second analysis, coders recorded the types of San Antonio-related images (i.e. what was

shown), and the duration of those images (i.e. how many seconds the image appeared on the screen). The achieved coefficient of reliability was greater than .90 for all but two variables. In both cases, the broadcast was then analyzed by a third researcher. The two scores that correlated at .90 or higher were used to calculate aggregate scores.

340 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, December/January 2003

Aggregate scores were created by averaging the two researchers reports of the total time that an image appeared during a broadcast. The primary coders were aware of the purpose of the study. However, a blind coder was also used as a third coder in several telecasts with the specific purpose of checking for coding bias by the researchercoders (Neuendorf, 2002; Sparkman, 1996). In all cases, primary coders results matched those of the blind coder (r >.90).

Results
Results are reported in three sections. The first section focuses on verbal mentions during the broadcasts; the second examines actual images of San Antonio; and the third considers images of the NCAA Womens Final Four logo. Each section reports both the nature (i.e. type) and extent (i.e. quantity) of the message or image by broadcast. Verbal Mentions There were few name mentions during the broadcasts (see Table 1). The majority of mentions were for the city itself and for the Alamodome facility. Many of these mentions occurred as the broadcast segued from a commercial break to the event broadcast. There were no direct or indirect mentions of San Antonio in either of the ESPN promotional spots that were analyzed. San Antonio Imagery San Antonio imagery appeared for a total of 209 seconds during the telecasts examined (see Table 2). This is nearly the equivalent of seven 30-second commercial spots. Three distinctly San Antonio images appear: the Alamo, the Alamodome, and the River Walk.

The River Walk received nearly one full minute of exposure, half of that appearing in the pre-game show for the first semi-final game. The exterior of the Alamodome appeared for 36 seconds, and the Alamo itself appeared for 21 seconds. These three iconic images are strongly and distinctively associated with San Antonio. The cityscape (i.e. the downtown area of San Antonio) appeared for 83 seconds. Many of these were night images, and nearly a quarter of these images included an image of the Tower of the Americas (a structure similar to Seattles Space Needle, Torontos CN Tower, and Sydneys Centrepoint Tower). Neither images of the cityscape nor images of the Tower of the Americas could be clearly identified by coders as an image of San Antonio. Rather, these images could have been images of any number of other urban centers. The images were matched to known San Antonio landmarks during construction of the coding manual, thus were included in the final analysis. Images representing the remaining categories, Texas and other, appeared in several video montages along with images of the city and its icons. These montages nearly always appeared at the start of the broadcast. Images of the NCAA Womens Final Four Logo The logo (Figure 1) made good use of the Alamo image as a San Antonio icon, and prominently displays the words, San Antonio. The strong San Antonio associations embedded in the logo are particularly important when considering the relative exposure of San Antonio through the logo versus through actual images of the city. Total exposure gained through San

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Cityscape Selection Show Sports Center Friday Saturday Sunday

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Alamodome River Alamo Walk 3 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Texas 2 0 0 0

Other 0 0 0 0

Total 36 4 0 0

Table 2: Visual Imagery of San Antonio (seconds on-screen)

21 4 0 0

Semi-final: Duke vs. Oklahoma Pre-game Game Semi-final Tenn vs. UConn Pre-game Game Championship UConn vs. OK Pre-game Game TOTAL

1 21

0 0

34 0

1 0

0 0

5 0

41 21

0 11

0 20

0 14

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 45

0 25 83

0 13 36

0 3 59

0 18 21

0 3 5

0 0 5

0 62 209

Note: Descriptions of the imagery categories appear in Appendix 1.

Figure 1: 2002 NCAA Womens Final Four logo

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Antonio images was just 209 seconds. The logo obtained 1,716 seconds of coverage more than eight times the exposure of actual San Antonio images. The logo appeared in numerous forms and contexts throughout the broadcasts (see Appendix 1 for a description of various logo forms). The most prominent logo was the center court floor logo. The exposure time for this logo is somewhat misleading. Of the 931 seconds that this logo was visible, it was the main focus of the camera shot just 10 per cent of the time. At all other times (i.e. 90 per cent of the total time), it was shown while players moved from one end of the court to the other during play. Not surprisingly, the clarity of the center court logo varied. Its impact was greatest when it was the sole focus of the camera shot and weakest during high speed play. In general, the clarity and visibility of the logos varied dramatically. Depictions of large logos and close-ups of logos produced the highest level of clarity. The large logo on the exterior of the Alamodome was a powerful but rarely-shown image. Close-up camera shots of the large banner inside the Alamodome, the logos appearing on the set (especially the logo on the front of the anchor desk which appeared in the Selection Show), and the computergenerated logos (i.e. full screen, 1/3 screen, corner screen) that appeared on-screen throughout the broadcasts were the clearest and most recognizable of the logos. The clarity of other logos varied greatly. The scoreboard logo appeared often, but mainly in the distant background of the announcers set. Logos appearing on the scorers table, the basket supports, and the

chairbacks were never the sole focus of a camera shot. Rather, these logos appeared in the background as the camera focussed on players and coaches. Lastly, several images were so subtle that they largely went unnoticed. In several cases, the words Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas appeared at the bottom of the television screen during play. Anyone focussed on the game would have had difficulty recognizing this text. Similarly, the outline of the Alamo on the court inside the three-point line was an interesting, albeit subtle touch. The variety of the logo appearances and the duration of those appearances are shown in Table 3.

Discussion
One of the clearest yet most surprising findings from this study is the relative paucity of mentions or images obtained by the host city (San Antonio imagery appeared in only three-and-a-half minutes of the nearly 12 hours of coverage). The broadcasters focus is on the competition itself, not on the city that is hosting it. Given the fact that the broadcaster is there to cover the event, and not to promote the city, this finding makes intuitive sense. Nevertheless, the zeal with which cities compete with one another to host events suggests that they expect more exposure, at least as background, than was found here, as recent studies of event and destination marketers expectations and strategies demonstrate (Emery, 2002; Jago, Chalip, Brown, Mules and Ali, 2002). Although media exposure is only one potential objective for hosting an event, other objectives (e.g. attracting tourism, positioning the city as a site for future

International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, December/January 2003 343

Basket support

Exterior Dome

Corner screen

Scorers table

Screen words

Center Court

Chairbacks

Scoreboard

Full screen

1/3 screen

Desk logo

Set logo

Banner

Table 3: Visual Images of the NCAA Womens Final Four Logo (seconds onscreen)

Selection Show Sports Center Friday Saturday Sunday Semi-final: Duke vs. Oklahoma Pre-game Game Semi-final Tenn vs. UConn Pre-game Game Championship UConn vs. OK Pre-game Game TOTAL

0 12 3 4

0 6 0 0

0 0 10 0

0 6 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 181 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 2

0 2 0 0

0 2 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 181 4 0 0 32 13 6

17

0 0

18 0

1 24

5 5

4 3

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

240 6

0 30 308

12

0 0

17 0

9 18

0 6

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 9

0 6

250 9

0 47 345

10

10 0

56 19 37 57

22 29

2 3

0 0

2 21

1 11 135 2 7 596 7 106 1716

400 10

13 17

931 54 20 134 128 67 12 181 17

28 31

Note: Descriptions of the categories appear in the appendix.

344 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, December/January 2003

Total 49 51

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events) rely on media exposure to enhance viewer awareness of the city as a destination. In fact, the total exposure obtained by San Antonio was arguably greater than might have been obtained by a host city that lacked San Antonios distinctive iconography. The majority of the citys exposure occurred not through explicit mentions or visuals but, rather, as a consequence of a well-chosen event logo which obtained consistent exposure during the event telecast. Since the logo included the citys name and referenced the citys most famous landmark, the Alamo, its appearance gave San Antonio the lions share of its exposure. That exposure was complemented by mentions of the event venue a venue that was named after the citys most distinctive icon, the Alamo. Consequently, mentions of the venue and visuals of the logo jointly reinforced the events connection to the Alamo, and thus to San Antonio. The value of iconography to the total exposure is further illustrated by the finding that simple visuals of cityscapes do not seem to identify the host city. Researchers found it difficult to code images of downtown San Antonio because cityscapes without distinctive icons look very much like one another, there is nothing to clue viewers to the identity of what is being shown, and there is nothing to anchor the visual in memory. Thus, even if a host city were to obtain more visual exposure during an event, there is no reason to expect that the exposure would have promotional value unless it were tied to something distinctive or readily recognizable (cf. MacInnis and Price, 1987; Potter, 1999).

The nature of icons may also be important. Although the Alamo is distinctive because of its shape and its history, River Walk is much harder to encapsulate in a short visual sequence. This is, in part, because of its geographic size (two-and-a-half miles in length). It is also because River Walk is intended as an iconographic experience, rather than as an iconographic image. Experience is not easily captured in a short visual or brief mention (Pine and Gilmore, 1999; MacAloon, 1989). This suggests that the host city will be best represented when it links its events to icons that are readily captured and recognized in short televised images. In fact, most of the visual exposures obtained by San Antonio were short (lasting only a few seconds) and were embedded in the context of event actions and activities. Given their short duration and peripheral status, they may not have been perceived by many viewers. Although there is substantial work suggesting that advertising need not be noticed in order to be effective (Debner and Jacoby, 1994; Shapiro, MacInnis, and Heckler, 1997), it is not clear that these particular exposures would have value comparable to that of dedicated ads or signage. Taken as a whole, the findings of this study question the overall value of events as tools for place marketing. This is not to say that events have no effect; rather it is to suggest that event media may not be a particularly potent source of exposure. The results of this study show that the exposure that will be generated depends not on the fact of hosting an event, but on the ways that event symbols and venues represent the host city and its

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distinctive icons. Thus, the value of an event as a place marketing tool depends on the ways that hosting is leveraged. The derivative implications and recommendations for effective leveraging of events by host cities are considered in the following section.

Implications & Recommendations

From a practical standpoint, the findings suggest the utility of drawing implications in four areas: (1) maximizing total exposure for the host city; (2) incorporating city images into event logos; (3) considering the size, placement, and content of images; and (4) differentiating the host city. The following sections extend the findings of this study, consider practical implications, and derive recommendations for event and city marketing. Maximizing Total Exposure Effective place marketing starts with consumer awareness of a city as a destination. As with other forms of advertising and promotion, more frequent exposure results in increased awareness for a product or service (DSouza and Rao, 1995; Krugman, 1993), in this case, the city itself. Thus, city marketers need to find ways to increase the meager exposure obtained via event broadcasts. One could negotiate with the broadcasters to include a minimum number of name mentions during an event broadcast. However, the host city is often not included in negotiations for broadcast rights. Rather, the broadcaster contracts with the event owner directly. Fortunately, this is not the only tactic available to host cities. In the absence of a contract with the broadcaster, the host city has two indirect

routes to increased exposure. The first is through the event announcers. Sports announcers are often left to their own devices to fill airtime. As is sometimes painfully obvious, these people do not always have relevant information to share with the audience, and may resort to personal anecdotes and the like. Proactive city marketers could provide event announcers with a concise, easy-to-use reference book or card with interesting facts, figures, and narrative snippets about the city, its characters, and the competition venue. Further, host cities might consider hosting event announcers prior to the event in order to provide them with stories and experiences of the city. In many cases, broadcasters have little time to prepare for an event assignment. Thus cities could plan to provide broadcasters with an experience of the destination. A memorable experience may often find its way into the event broadcast, particularly when announcers are required to fill time. Visual exposures can be increased in much the same way by making things easy for the broadcaster. The host city can provide images to media and event owners showcasing distinctive city imagery and/or athletes and other event personalities in recognizable locations or cultural settings associated with the city. These can be provided to broadcasters in the form of video postcards, or as short montages of images. Incorporating City Images into Event Logos The findings of this study show that San Antonio obtained eight times more exposure via the event logo than was obtained via actual city images. Thus, the importance of

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a well-designed event logo cannot be understated. The logo for the 2002 NCAA Womens Final Four worked well for San Antonio insomuch as it garnered the greatest relative exposure for the city and its primary icon. The words San Antonio featured prominently, and a silhouette of the Alamo was incorporated into the design. Event hosts would do well to ensure that icons, city imagery and the city name appear prominently in their event logos. Further, it would be useful to forge positive associations among the city images, the event logo, consumers perceptions of the event, and their perceptions of the city as a destination. A good start would be to link the images provided to media and event owners to the images that appear on the logo. By assisting the audience to make associations of this type, the excitement and interest in the event can translate into increased awareness and interest in the city as a destination. Considering the Size, Placement and Content of Images Not all exposures of the logo are equivalent. Neither are all exposures of city images. Some logo images are larger than others; some are seen from a more favorable camera angle; some are the central focus, while some are not. In order to make the logo easily recognizable from a variety of camera angles and in a variety of contexts, event hosts should keep the logo design simple, and use colors in a way that clearly differentiates the name and imagery of the host city from their background. This study has also highlighted the potential value of a citys iconographic images. Some San Antonio images are

highly and uniquely identifiable with San Antonio, while others are not distinguishable from those of any other city. For example, the River Walk is a recognizable San Antonio image, whereas the Tower of the Americas could easily be mistaken for one of the many towers that have become common to American cities. The River Walk, although clearly a San Antonio image, was portrayed in a piecemeal fashion. Images of parts of the River Walk were sometimes embedded in the event broadcasts. However the experience of the River Walk may have been better communicated through a coordinated series of River Walk images and sounds (e.g. a montage created with images of the canal boats, cafes, shopping, scenery, and art backed with Mariachi music). After all, experience marketing is based on the necessity of building holistic experiences through sensory, affective, and creative associations (OSullivan and Spangler, 1998; Schmitt, 1999) Differentiating the Host City San Antonios distinctive iconography particularly the Alamo gives it a competitive advantage when seeking to build the citys brand via an event. A great deal of the citys exposure came as a result of Alamo silhouettes and the association of the Alamo with the competition venue, the Alamodome. There were also verbal references, such as: These players sure will remember the Alamo. Whenever possible, host cities should seek to build and use the icons uniquely associated with the city in order to differentiate it as a destination. The citys iconography should appear in

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logos, in venue names, as names for mascots or for a group of volunteers. Cities may also want to develop a longterm strategy to build audience recognition of two or three additional city icons in order to expand the array of potential iconographic linkages. One strategy to create associations and to expand the range of recognizable imagery of the host city is to develop short video clips for event broadcasters in which images of well known icons (e.g. the Alamo in San Antonio) segue into images of less well known features (e.g. in the case of San Antonio, the Alamodome). In this way, host cities can build the array of images which can be used to differentiate the city from other tourist destinations.

Future Research
The findings from this study hint at ways in which events can be integrated into the marketing strategies of destinations. However, further research could greatly aid cities efforts to obtain the greatest impact from telecasts of the events that they host. Content analysis looks only at source characteristics. Consequently, this study identified the nature of exposure obtained through event broadcasts, but the effect of that exposure on audiences is not clear. Future research should explore the impact that short exposures of the kinds found in this study have on audience perceptions of the host destination (cf. Shapiro et al., 1997). That work should also examine the degree to which different exposure contexts (competitive action, time outs, etc.) make a difference in the effect obtained (cf. Kumar, 2000). Indeed, the choice of event also varies the exposure context. Events appeal to different

market segments, vary in duration, and present varying opportunities for destination-specific exposure. The NCAA Womens Final Four, although growing in stature as an event, has yet to attain the same level of attention and potential for exposure that is obtained by other major events, such as the Super Bowl, the World Series, or the Olympics. Future research should compare the nature and extent of exposure generated by different events. Further, research should begin to identify the event elements that are associated with more effective exposure for the host city. The focus of this study was on television exposure. Event telecasts, albeit important, are only one source of exposure available to host cities. It would be beneficial to extend our work by examining the quantity and types of exposure generated through a variety of distribution channels (e.g. print media, outdoor advertising, attendance, word-of-mouth, Internet). The vital role played by a citys icons was also highlighted in this study. Yet we know very little about how icons develop, what makes one icon preferable to another, or how to use icons most effectively in city marketing. Research is needed that explores the development and application of urban icons (cf. Hill et al., 2001; Sternberg, 1997; Vivanco, 2001). In this study, the event logo obtained the lions share of the citys exposure during event telecasts. It was argued that the event logo should consequently make use of the host city icons and the host city name. Further work is needed to explore the features that help event logos to build an optimal association with the city and its desired brand. This includes the

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best means to incorporate the city name and images, as well as associated design characteristics, such as color, style, and layout. That work should examine the best means to combine the logos imagery with other images of the city which are likely to be televised during an event.

study of tracking data. Journal of Advertising Research, 35(5), pp.19-32. Bramwell, B., and Rawding, L., (1994), Tourism marketing organizations in industrial cities: Organizations, objectives and urban governance. Tourism Management, 15, pp.425-434. Brown, G., Chalip, L., Jago, L., and Mules, T., (2002), The Sydney Olympics and Brand Australia. In Morgan, N., Pritchard, A., and Pride, R., (eds), Destination branding: Creating the unique destination proposition (pp.163-185). Oxford, UK: ButterworthHeinemann. Chalip, L., (2001), Sport and tourism capitalizing on the linkage. In Kluka. D., and Schilling, G., (eds), The business of sport (pp.71-90). Oxford, UK: Meyer & Meyer Sport. Chalip, L., Green, B.C., and Hill, B., (in press), Effects of sport event media on destination image and intention to visit. Journal of Sport Management. Chalip, L., and Leyns, A., (2002), Local business leveraging of a sport event: Managing an event for economic benefit. Journal of Sport Management, 16, pp.132-158. Crompton, J.L., (1992), Structure of vacation destination choice sets. Annals of Tourism Research, 19, pp.420-434. Crompton, J.L., and Ankomah, P.K., (1993), Choice set propositions in destination decisions. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, pp.461-476.

Concluding Observation
It is clear that the advantages afforded by event media for city marketers will depend substantially on the ways that the citys distinctive names and imagery are deployed in the design of the event, its venue, and its symbols. These are matters over which event organizers have a significant degree of control. Nevertheless, this study suggests that there is a great deal more to be learned in order to optimally formulate the necessary tactical elements. Further research along the lines indicated here would provide a strengthened empirical base for the development and implementation of strategies to optimize the impact of hosting events. That, in turn, could give savvy marketers a competitive advantage.

Winthrop Publications 2002

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Director of Volunteer Systems for the British Olympic Holding Camp. Her research is multi-disciplinary, focussing on consumer behaviour of participants in sport, tourism, and leisure. Carla A. Costa received her PhD from The Ohio State University and is currently an Assistant Professor in sport management at the University of Texas at Austin. Her research interests include sport event leveraging, processes and outcomes of community revitalization and planned economic development. Maureen Fitzgerald received her PhD in Sport Management from The Ohio State University. She has been on the faculty at the University of Texas at Austin since 1992 and served as the Program Co-ordinator from 1994 to 2001. She has co-ordinated marketing research and planning projects for the national governing body of the Olympic sport of curling (USCA), and for the Texas Section of the USTA. Her research foci have been the effective marketing of participant-focussed sports, managerial mobility and retention, and gender equity and personnel management issues in sport law.

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Biographies
B. Christine Green is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at the University of Texas. She received a PhD in Sport Management from the University of Maryland. She has published broadly, including works in major academic journals in tourism, sport, and leisure. Her research has been supported by grants from the university as well as from the Queensland Tourist and Travel Corporation, the Australian Research Council, and the CRC for Sustainable Tourism. She has served as the Director of Planning and Marketing for Australian University Sport-north, led the research team studying Sydneys Olympic volunteers, and served as

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Appendix 1
Visual imagery of San Antonio (Table 2) Cityscape includes scenes of the Tower of the Americas in Hemisfair Park, the downtown skyline at night, and various street scenes. River Walk includes scenes of the restaurants and water, and of the shopping center area (with minimal water visible). Texas includes a plaque in the shape of Texas and the flag of Texas. Other includes a country scene (horses in a field) and a mariachi band. Visual images of the NCAA Womens Final Four Logo (Table 3) Center Court includes shots in passing during the game (80 per cent +) and shots from the top of the arena looking down on to the logo. Full screen computer generated NCAA Womens Final Four logo. 1/3 screen computer generated NCAA Womens Final Four logo. Corner screen computer generated NCAA Womens Final Four logo. Scoreboard quality/readability were an issue. The vast majority (80 per cent) of the scoreboard images containing the NCAA Womens Final Four logo are viewed from quite a distance and/or serve as background for action or interview shots. Banner quality/readability were an issue. The vast majority (80 per cent) of the banner images containing the NCAA Womens Final Four logo are viewed from quite a distance and/or serve as background for views of the whole court. Set Logo NCAA Womens Final Four logo which was located off to the side of the commentators anchor desk. Desk Logo placed on the front of the anchor desk during the Selection Show. Scorers Table logo on the banner attached to the front of the scorers table. Logo It was not often shown and was typically only visible in the background when the camera focussed on the players and/or coach. Chairbacks logo on the backrests of the players chairs and was not often shown. The few times it was visible were during player introductions or faintly in the background when the camera focussed on players. Basket Support (i.e. Basket Standard) only ones that were readable were recorded (i.e. few were clear and/or readable). Exterior Dome logo on the outside of the Alamodome it was very vibrant but not often shown. Screen Words the words San Antonio occasionally appeared at the bottom of the screen and were sometimes in conjunction with Alamodome.

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