9/16/2011

1
Simplified Power System Modeling
Balanced three phase systems can be analyzed using
per phase analysis
A per unit normalization is simplify the analysis of
systems with different voltage levels.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
To provide an introduction to power flow analysis we
need models for the different systemdevices:
Transformers and Transmission lines, generators and loads
Transformers and transmission lines are modeled as a
series impedances
Load Models
Ultimate goal is to supply loads with electricity at
constant frequency and voltage
Electrical characteristics of individual loads matter,
but usually they can only be estimated
actual loadsareconstantlychanging consistingof alarge
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
actual loads are constantly changing, consisting of a large
number of individual devices
only limited network observability of load characteristics
Aggregate models are typically used for analysis
Two common models
constant power: S
i
=P
i
+jQ
i
constant impedance: S
i
=|V|
2
/ Z
i
Generator Models
Engineering models depend upon application
Generators are usually synchronous machines
For generators we will use two different models:
a steady-state model, treating the generator as a constant
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
y , g g
power source operating at a fixed voltage; this model will be
used for power flow and economic analysis
This model works fairly well for type 3 and type 4 wind
turbines
Other models include treating as constant real power with a
fixed power factor.
Per Unit Calculations
A key problemin analyzing power systems is the
large number of transformers.
It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers
Thi bl i id db li i f ll
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
This problemis avoided by a normalization of all
variables.
This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit
base value of quantity
=
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1|
1. Pick a 1| VA base for the entire system, S
B
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
V
B
. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns
ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
3 C l l h i d b Z (V )
2
/S
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
3. Calculate the impedance base, Z
B
=(V
B
)
2
/S
B
4. Calculate the current base, I
B
=V
B
/Z
B
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion on affects magnitudes, not theangles. Also, per unit
quantities no longer have units (i.e., avoltageis 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
Three Phase Per Unit
1. Pick a 3| VA base for the entire system,
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
Procedureis very similar to 1| except weusea3| VA base, and uselineto line
voltagebases
3
B
S
|
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
V
B
. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base
2 2 2
, , ,
3 1 1
( 3 )
3
B LL B LN B LN
B
B B B
V V V
Z
S S S
| | |
= = =
Exactly thesameimpedancebases as with singlephase!
9/16/2011
2
Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd
4. Calculate the current base, I
B
3 1 1
3 1
B B
, , ,
3
I I
3 3 3
B B B
B LL B LN B LN
S S S
V V V
| | |
| |
= = = =
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Exactly thesamecurrent bases as with singlephase!
Power Flow Analysis
We now have the necessary models to start to
develop the power systemanalysis tools
The most common power systemanalysis tool is the
power flow (also known sometimes as the load flow)
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
power flow determines how the power flows in a network
also used to determine all bus voltages and all currents
because of constant power models, power flow is a
nonlinear analysis technique
power flow is a steady-state analysis tool
Bus Admittance Matrix or Y
bus
First step in solving the power flow is to create what
is known as the bus admittance matrix, often call the
Y
bus
.
TheY
bus
gives the relationships between all the bus
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
bus
g p
current injections, I, and all the bus voltages, V,
I =Y
bus
V
The Y
bus
is developed by applying KCL at each bus in
the systemto relate the bus current injections, the bus
voltages, and the branch impedances and admittances
Y
bus
General Form
The diagonal terms, Y
ii
, are the self admittance
terms, equal to the sumof the admittances of all
devices incident to bus i.
The off-diagonal terms, Y
ij
, are equal to the negative
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
of the sumof the admittances joining the two buses.
With large systems Y
bus
is a sparse matrix (that is,
most entries are zero)
Shunt terms, such as with the t line model, only
affect the diagonal terms.
Power Flow Analysis
When analyzing power systems we know neither
the complex bus voltages nor the complex current
injections
Rather, we know the complex power being
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
p p g
consumed by the load, and the power being injected
by the generators plus their voltage magnitudes
Therefore we can not directly use the Y
bus
equations,
but rather must use the power balance equations
Power Flow Slack Bus
We can not arbitrarily specify S at all buses because
total generation must equal total load +total losses
We also need an angle reference bus.
Tosolvetheseproblemswedefineonebusasthe
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
To solve these problems we define one bus as the
"slack" bus. This bus has a fixed voltage magnitude
and angle, and a varying real/reactive power
injection.
A slack bus does not exist in the real power system.
9/16/2011
3
Power Balance Equations
FromKCL we know at each bus i in an n bus system
the current injection, , must be equal to the current
that flows into the network
i
n
I
I I I I = =

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
1
bus
1
Since = we also know
i Gi Di ik
k
n
i Gi Di ik k
k
I I I I
I I I Y V
=
=
= =
= =

I Y V
*
i
The network power injection is then S
i i
V I =
Real Power Balance Equations
* *
i
1 1
1
S ( )
(cos sin )( )
ik
n n
j
i i i ik k i k ik ik
k k
n
i k ik ik ik ik
k
P jQ V Y V V V e G jB
V V j G jB
u
u u
= =
=
= + = =
= +

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U

i
1
i
1
Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
P ( cos sin )
Q ( sin cos
n
i k ik ik ik ik Gi Di
k
n
i k ik ik ik i
k
V V G B P P
V V G B
u u
u u
=
=
= + =
=

)
k Gi Di
Q Q =
Newton-Raphson Method (scalar)
( )
( ) ( )
1. For each guess of , , define
-
v
v v
x x
x x x A =
General form of problem: Find an x such that
( ) 0 f x =
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 ( )
2
( )
2
-
2. Represent ( ) by a Taylor series about ( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 ( )
higher order terms
2
v
v v
v
v
x x x
f x f x
df x
f x f x x
dx
d f x
x
dx
A =
= + A +
+ A +
Newton-Raphson Method, contd
( )
( ) ( )
3. Approximate ( ) by neglecting all terms
except the first two
( )
( ) 0 ( )
v
v v
f x
df x
f x f x x
dx
= ~ + A
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
( )
1
( )
( ) ( )
4. Use this linear approximation to solve for
( )
( )
5. Solve for a new estim
v
v
v v
x
df x
x f x
dx

A
(
A =
(

( 1) ( ) ( )
ate of x
v v v
x x x
+
= + A
Newton-Raphson Example
2
1
( )
( ) ( )
Use Newton-Raphson to solve ( ) - 2 0
The equation we must iteratively solve is
( )
( )
v
v v
f x x
df x
x f x
d

= =
(
A =
(

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
( ) ( ) 2
( )
( 1) ( ) ( )
( 1) ( ) ( ) 2
( )
1
(( ) - 2)
2
1
(( ) - 2)
2
v v
v
v v v
v v v
v
dx
x x
x
x x x
x x x
x
+
+
(

(
A =
(

= + A
(
=
(

Newton-Raphson Example, contd
( 1) ( ) ( ) 2
( )
(0)
( ) ( ) ( )
1
(( ) - 2)
2
Guess x 1. Iteratively solving we get
v ( )
v v v
v
v v v
x x x
x
x f x x
+ (
=
(

=
A
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
3 3
6
v ( )
0 1 1 0.5
1 1.5 0.25 0.08333
2 1.41667 6.953 10 2.454 10
3 1.41422 6.024 10
x f x x

9/16/2011
4
Newton-Raphson Comments
When close to the solution the error decreases quite
quickly -- method has quadratic convergence
f(x
(v)
) is known as the mismatch, which we would
like to drive to zero
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Stopping criteria is when |f(x
(v)
) | <c
Results are dependent upon the initial guess. What if
we had guessed x
(0)
=0, or x
(0)
=-1?
A solutions region of attraction (ROA) is the set of
initial guesses that converge to the particular solution.
The ROA is often hard to determine
Multi-Variable Newton-Raphson
1 1
2 2
Next we generalize to the case where is an n-
dimension vector, and ( ) is an n-dimension function
( )
( )
x f
x f
( (
( (
( (
x
f x
x
x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
2 2
( )
( )
( )
Again define the solution so ( ) 0 and
n n
x f
x f
( (
= =
( (
( (

=
A =
x
x f x
x
x f x
x

x x
Multi-Variable Case, contd
i
1 1
1 1 1 2
1 2
1
The Taylor series expansion is written for each f ( )
f ( ) f ( )
f ( ) f ( )
f ( )
higher order terms
n
x x
x x
x
c c
= + A + A +
c c
c
A +
c
x
x x
x x
x

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U

n n
n n 1 2
1 2
n
g
f ( ) f ( )
f ( ) f ( )
f ( )
higher order terms
n
n
n
n
x
x x
x x
x
x
c
c c
= + A + A +
c c
c
A +
c
x x
x x
x

Multi-Variable Case, contd

1 1 1
1 2
1 1
2 2 2
This can be written more compactly in matrix form
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
f f f
x x x
f x
f f f
c c c
(
(
c c c
( A
(
c c c
(
(
x x x
x
x x x

(
(
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
2 2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
n n n
n
f f f
f x
x x x
f
f f f
x x x
c c c
(
(
A
(
( c c c = +
(
(
(
(

(
c c c
(
c c c (

x x x
x
f x
x
x x x

higher order terms

n
x
(
(
(
(
A

+

J acobian Matrix
1 1 1
1 2
The n by n matrix of partial derivatives is known
as the J acobian matrix, ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
f f f
x x x
c c c
(
(
c c c
(
J x
x x x

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U

1 2
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
n n n
n
x x x
f f f
x x x
f f f
x x x
c c c
(
c c c
(
(
c c c =
(
(
(
c c c
(
c c c (

x x x
J x
x x x

Multi-Variable N-R Procedure

1
Derivation of N-R method is similar to the scalar case
( ) ( ) ( ) higher order terms
( ) 0 ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

= + A +
= ~ + A
A ~
f x f x J x x
f x f x J x x
x J x f x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
( 1) ( ) ( )
( 1) ( ) ( ) 1 ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Iterate until ( )
v v v
v v v v
v
c
+
+
A ~
= + A
=
<
x J x f x
x x x
x x J x f x
f x
9/16/2011
5
Multi-Variable Example
1
2
2 2
1 1 2
2 2
x
Solve for = such that ( ) 0 where
x
f ( ) 2 8 0 x x
(
=
(

= + =
x f x
x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
2 2
2 1 2 1 2
1 1
1 2
2 2
1 2
f ( ) 4 0
First symbolically determine the J acobian
f ( ) f ( )
( ) =
f ( ) f ( )
x x x x
x x
x x
= + =
c c
(
(
c c
(
c c
(
(
c c

x
x x
J x
x x
Multi-variable Example, contd
1 2
1 2 1 2
1
1 1 2 1
4 2
( ) =
2 2
Then
4 2 ( )
x x
x x x x
x x x f

(
(
+

A
( ( (
J x
x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
1 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 2
(0)
1
(1)
( )
2 2 ( )
1
Arbitrarily guess
1
1 4 2 5 2.1
1 3 1 3 1.3
f
x x x x x f

( ( (
=
( ( (
A +

(
=
(

( ( ( (
= =
( ( ( (


x
x
x
Multi-variable Example, contd
1
(2)
2.1 8.40 2.60 2.51 1.8284
1.3 5.50 0.50 1.45 1.2122
Each iteration we check ( ) to see if it is below our

( ( ( (
= =
( ( ( (

x
f x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
(2)
specified tolerance
0.1556
( )
0.0900
If =0.2 then we wou
c
c
(
=
(

f x
ld be done. Otherwise we'd
continue iterating.
Real Power Balance Equations
* *
i
1 1
1
S ( )
(cos sin )( )
ik
n n
j
i i i ik k i k ik ik
k k
n
i k ik ik ik ik
k
P jQ V Y V V V e G jB
V V j G jB
u
u u
= =
=
= + = =
= +

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U

i
1
i
1
Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
P ( cos sin )
Q ( sin cos
n
i k ik ik ik ik Gi Di
k
n
i k ik ik ik i
k
V V G B P P
V V G B
u u
u u
=
=
= + =
=

)
k Gi Di
Q Q =
Newton-Raphson Power Flow
In the Newton-Raphson power flow we use Newton's
method to determine the voltage magnitude and angle
at each bus in the power system.
Weneedtosolvethepower balanceequations
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
i
1
We need to solve the power balance equations
P ( cos
n
i k ik ik
k
V V G u
=
= +

i
1
sin )
Q ( sin cos )
ik ik Gi Di
n
i k ik ik ik ik Gi Di
k
B P P
V V G B Q Q
u
u u
=
=
= =

Power Flow Variables

2 2 2
Assume the slack bus is the first bus (with a fixed
voltage angle/magnitude). We then need to determine
the voltage angle/magnitude at the other buses.
( )
G
P P u + ( x
2 D
P
(
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
2 2 2
n
2
( )
( )
G
n
P P
V
V
u
u
+ (
(
(
(
= =
(
(
(
(

x
x f x

2
2 2 2
( )
( )
( )
D
n Gn Dn
G D
n Gn Dn
P
P P P
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
(
(
(
+ (
(
+
(
(
(
+

x
x
x

9/16/2011
6
N-R Power Flow Solution
( )
( )
The power flow is solved using the same procedure
discussed last time:
Set 0; make an initial guess of ,
v
v = x x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
( )
( 1) ( ) ( ) 1 ( )
While ( ) Do
( ) ( )
1
End While
v
v v v v
v v
c
+
>
=
= +
f x
x x J x f x
Power Flow J acobian Matrix
1 1 1
1 2
The most difficult part of the algorithmis determining
and inverting the n by n J acobian matrix, ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
f f f
x x x
c c c

c c c

J x
x x x

(
(
(
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
1 2
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
n n n
n
x x x
f f f
x x x
f f f
x x x
c c c

c c c

c c c =
c c c
c c c

x x x
J x
x x x

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

Power Flow J acobianMatrix, contd

i
i
J acobian elements are calculated by differentiating
each function, f ( ), with respect to each variable.
For example, if f ( ) is the bus i real power equation
n

x
x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
i
1
f ( ) ( cos sin )
i k ik ik ik ik Gi
k
x V V G B P P u u
=
= + +

i
1
i
f ( )
( sin cos )
f ( )
( sin cos ) ( )
Di
n
i k ik ik ik ik
i k
k i
i j ik ik ik ik
j
x
V V G B
x
V V G B j i
u u
u
u u
u
=
=
c
= +
c
c
= =
c

Two Bus Newton-RaphsonExample

LineZ= 0 1j
For thetwo bus power systemshown below, usethe
Newton-Raphson power flow to determinethe
voltagemagnitudeand angleat bus two. Assume
that bus oneis theslack and S
Base
=100 MVA.
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
LineZ = 0.1j
One Two 1.000 pu 1.000 pu
200 MW
100 MVR
0 MW
0 MVR
2
2
10 10
10 10
bus
j j
V j j
u ( (
= =
( (

x Y
Two Bus Example, contd
i
1
General power balance equations
P ( cos sin )
Q ( i )
n
i k ik ik ik ik Gi Di
k
n
V V G B P P
V V G B Q Q
u u
u u
=
= + =

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U

i
1
2 1 2
2
2 1 2 2
Q ( sin cos )
Bus two power balance equations
(10sin ) 2.0 0
( 10cos ) (10) 1.0 0
i k ik ik ik ik Gi Di
k
V V G B Q Q
V V
V V V
u u
u
u
=
= =
+ =
+ + =

Two Bus Example, contd

2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
P ( ) (10sin ) 2.0 0
( ) ( 10cos ) (10) 1.0 0
Now calculate the power flow J acobian
P ( ) P ( )
V
Q V V
u
u
= + =
= + + =
c c
(
x
x
x x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
P ( ) P ( )
( )
Q ( ) Q ( )
10 cos 10sin
10 sin 10cos 20
V
J
V
V
V V
u
u
u u
u u
c c
(
(
c c
(
=
c c (
(
c c

(
=
(
+

x x
x
x x
9/16/2011
7
Two Bus Example, First Iteration
(0)
2 2
(0)
0
Set 0, guess
1
Calculate
(10sin ) 2.0
2.0
f( )
v
V u
(
= =
(

+ (
(
(
x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
(0)
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 (0)
2 2 2 2
(1)
f( )
1.0
( 10cos ) (10) 1.0
10 cos 10sin 10 0
( )
10 sin 10cos 20 0 10
0 10 0
Solve
1 0 10
V V
V
V V
u
u u
u u
(
= =
(
(
+ + (

( (
= =
( (
+

(
=
(

x
J x
x
1
2.0 0.2
1.0 0.9

( ( (
=
( ( (

Two Bus Example, Next Iterations
(1)
2
(1)
0.9(10sin( 0.2)) 2.0 0.212
f( )
0.279 0.9( 10cos( 0.2)) 0.9 10 1.0
8.82 1.986
( )
1.788 8.199
+ ( (
= =
( (
+ +
(
=
(

x
J x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
1
(2)
0.2 8.82 1.986 0.212 0.233
0.9 1.788 8.199 0.279 0.8586
f(

( ( ( (
= =
( ( ( (

x
(2) (3)
(3)
2
0.0145 0.236
)
0.0190 0.8554
0.0000906
f( ) Done! V 0.8554 13.52
0.0001175
( (
= =
( (

(
= = Z
(

x x
x
Two Bus Solved Values
Oncethevoltageangleand magnitudeat bus 2 areknown wecan
calculateall theother systemvalues, such as thelineflows and the
generator reactivepower output
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Line Z= 0.1j
One Two 1.000 pu 0.855 pu
200 MW
100 MVR
200.0 MW
168.3 MVR
-13.522 Deg
200.0 MW
168.3 MVR
-200.0 MW
-100.0 MVR
PV Buses
Since the voltage magnitude at PV buses is fixed
there is no need to explicitly include these voltages
in x or write the reactive power balance equations
the reactive power output of the generator varies to
i t i th fi dt i l lt ( ithi li it )
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
maintain the fixed terminal voltage (within limits)
optionally these variations/equations can be included by
just writing the explicit voltage constraint for the
generator bus
|V
i
| V
i setpoint
=0
Three Bus PV Case Example
LineZ=0 1j
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
For this three bus case we have
( )
( ) ( ) 0
V ( )
G D
G D
D
P P P
P P P
Q Q
u
u
+ ( (
( (
= = + =
( (
+ ( (

x
x f x x
x
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
LineZ=0.1j
LineZ=0.1j LineZ=0.1j
One Two 1.000 pu
0.941 pu
200 MW
100 MVR
170.0 MW
68.2 MVR
-7.469 Deg
Three 1.000 pu
30 MW
63 MVR
Solving Large Power Systems
The most difficult computational task is inverting the
J acobianmatrix
inverting a full matrix is an order n
3
operation, meaning
the amount of computation increases with the cube of the
sizesize
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
size size
this amount of computation can be decreased substantially
by recognizing that since the Y
bus
is a sparse matrix, the
J acobianis also a sparse matrix
using sparse matrix methods results in a computational
order of about n
1.5
.
this is a substantial savings when solving systems with
tens of thousands of buses
9/16/2011
8
DC Power Flow
The DC power flow makes some approximations to
the power balance equations to simplify the problem
completely ignore reactive power, assume all the voltages
are always 1.0 per unit, ignore line conductance, assumes
l th li ll
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
angles across the lines are small.
Line flow is then approximated as (u
i
u
j
)/X
ij
This makes the power flow a linear set of equations,
which can be solved directly u =B
-1
P
While the DC power flow is approximate, it is widely
used to get a feel for power systemMW flows.
400MVA
15kV
T1
T2
800MVA
345/15kV
800MVA
15kV
520MVA
Line3
345kV
50mi
1 4 3 5
Five Bus Power Flow Example
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
400MVA
15/345kV
80MW 40Mvar
280Mvar 800MW
L
i
n
e

2
L
i
n
e

1
345kV
100mi
345kV
200mi
2
Single-linediagram
DC Power Flow Example
For the systemshown in the previous slide with bus 1 as
the systemslack and with the below B matrix (100 MVA
base) numbered frombuses 2 to 5, determine the bus
angles using the DC power flow approximation the and
theflowonthelinebetweenbus1and5 whichhasapu
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
the flow on the line between bus 1 and 5, which has a pu
X of 0.02.
P
15
=(u
1
u
5
)/X
15
=0.072/0.02 =3.6 pu =360 MW
37 Bus Power Flow Example
slack
Metropolis Light and Power Electric Design Case 2
SLACK345
SLACK138
RAY345
RAY138
RAY69
FERNA69
A
MVA
BOB138
WOLEN69
PETE69 HI SKY69
TI M69
TI M138
TI M345
PAI 69
GROSS69
MORO138
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
1.03 pu
1.02 pu
1.03 pu
1.03 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu
1.00 pu
1.02 pu
1.02 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
SystemLosses: 10.70MW
220 MW
52 Mvar
12 MW
3 Mvar
37 MW
13 Mvar
12 MW
23 MW
7 Mvar
33 MW
13 Mvar 15.9 Mvar 18 MW
5 Mvar
58 MW
40 Mvar
4.9 Mvar
39 MW
13 Mvar
17 MW
3 Mvar
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
DEMAR69
BLT69
BLT138
BOB69
SHI MKO69
ROGER69
UI UC69
HANNAH69
AMANDA69
HOMER69
LAUF69
LAUF138
HALE69
PATTEN69
WEBER69
BUCKY138
SAVOY69
SAVOY138
J O138 J O345
A
MVA
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
1.00 pu
1.02 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu
0.99 pu
0.99 pu
1.00 pu
1.02 pu
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu 1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu 1.02 pu
1.02 pu 1.03 pu
A
MVA
LYNN138
1.02 pu
A
MVA
1.00 pu
A
MVA
20 MW
12 Mvar
124 MW
45 Mvar
12 MW
5 Mvar
150 MW
0 Mvar
56 MW
13 Mvar
15 MW
5 Mvar
14 MW
2 Mvar
38 MW
3 Mvar
45 MW
0 Mvar
25 MW
36 Mvar
36 MW
10 Mvar
10 MW
5 Mvar
22 MW
15 Mvar
60 MW
12 Mvar
20 MW
28 Mvar
60 MW
19 Mvar
14.2 Mvar
25 MW
10 Mvar
20 MW
3 Mvar
23 MW
6 Mvar 14 MW
3 Mvar
7.3 Mvar
12.8 Mvar
28.9 Mvar
7.4 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
55 MW
25 Mvar
150 MW
0 Mvar
16 MW
-14 Mvar
14 MW
4 Mvar
KYLE69 A
MVA
Good Power System Operation
Good power systemoperation requires that there be no reliability
violations for either the current condition or in the event of
statistically likely contingencies
Reliability requires as aminimumthat therebeno transmission
line/transformer limit violations and that bus voltages bewithin acceptable
limits(perhaps095to108)
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
limits (perhaps 0.95 to 1.08)
Examplecontingencies aretheloss of any singledevice. This is known as n-
1 reliability.
North American Electric Reliability Corporation now has legal
authority to enforce reliability standards (and there are now lots of
them). See
http://www.nerc.comfor details (click on Standards)
Looking at the Impact of Line Outages
slack
Metropolis Light and Power Electric Design Case 2
SLACK345
SLACK138
RAY345
RAY138
RAY69
FERNA69
A
MVA
DEMAR69
BOB138
WOLEN69
PETE69 HI SKY69
TI M69
TI M138
TI M345
PAI 69
GROSS69
HANNAH69
MORO138
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
1.03 pu
1.02 pu
1.03 pu
1.03 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu
A
MVA
1.02 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
SystemLosses: 17.61MW
227 MW
43 Mvar
12 MW
3 Mvar
37 MW
13 Mvar
12 MW
5 Mvar
23 MW
7 Mvar
33 MW
13 Mvar 16.0 Mvar 18 MW
5 Mvar
58 MW
40 Mvar
60 MW
19 Mvar
4.9 Mvar
28.9 Mvar
39 MW
13 Mvar
17 MW
3 Mvar
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
BLT69
BLT138
BOB69
SHI MKO69
ROGER69
UI UC69
AMANDA69
HOMER69
LAUF69
LAUF138
HALE69
PATTEN69
WEBER69
BUCKY138
SAVOY69
SAVOY138
J O138 J O345
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
1.00 pu
1.02 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu 0.90 pu
0.90 pu
0.94 pu
1.01 pu
0.99 pu
1.00 pu
1.00 pu
1.00 pu 1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu 1.02 pu
1.02 pu 1.03 pu
LYNN138
1.02 pu
A
MVA
1.00 pu
A
MVA
20 MW
12 Mvar
124 MW
45 Mvar
150 MW
4 Mvar
56 MW
13 Mvar
15 MW
5 Mvar
14 MW
2 Mvar
38 MW
9 Mvar
45 MW
0 Mvar
25 MW
36 Mvar
36 MW
10 Mvar
10 MW
5 Mvar
22 MW
15 Mvar
60 MW
12 Mvar
20 MW
40 Mvar
19 Mvar
11.6 Mvar
25 MW
10 Mvar
20 MW
3 Mvar
23 MW
6 Mvar 14 MW
3 Mvar
7.2 Mvar
12.8 Mvar
7.3 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
55 MW
32 Mvar
150 MW
4 Mvar
16 MW
-14 Mvar
14 MW
4 Mvar
KYLE69 A
MVA
80%
A
MVA
135%
A
MVA
110%
A
MVA
Opening oneline(Tim69-Hannah69) causes an overload. This would not be
allowed (i.e., wecant operatethis way when lineis in.
9/16/2011
9
Contingency Analysis
Contingency
analysis provides
an automatic
way of looking
at all the
i i ll
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
statistically
likely
contingencies. In
this example the
contingency set
Is all the single
line/transformer
outages
Generation Changes and The Slack Bus
The power flow is a steady-state analysis tool, so
the assumption is total load plus losses is always
equal to total generation
Generation mismatch is made up at the slack bus
Whendoinggenerationchangepower flowstudies
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
When doing generation change power flow studies
one always needs to be cognizant of where the
generation is being made up
Common options include systemslack, distributed across
multiple generators by participation factors or by
economics
Generation Change Example 1
slack
SLACK345
SLACK138
RAY345
RAY138
RAY69
FERNA69
A
MVA
DEMAR69
BOB138
BOB69
WOLEN69
UI UC69
PETE69
HI SKY69
TI M69
TI M138
TI M345
PAI 69
GROSS69
HANNAH69
MORO138
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA A
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
0.00 pu
-0.01 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
-0.03 pu
-0.01 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
A
MVA
-0.01 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
LYNN138
A
MVA
0.00 pu
162 MW
35 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
-157 MW
-45 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar -0.1 Mvar 0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar 0 MW
0 Mvar
-0.1 Mvar
-0.1 Mvar
-0.1 Mvar
-0.2 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
BLT69
BLT138
SHI MKO69
ROGER69
AMANDA69
HOMER69
LAUF69
LAUF138
HALE69
PATTEN69
WEBER69
BUCKY138
SAVOY69
SAVOY138
J O138 J O345
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
0.00 pu
-0.03 pu
-0.01 pu
0.00 pu
-0.002 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu 0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu 0.00 pu
0.00 pu 0.00 pu
0.00 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
0 MW
2 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
3 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
4 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar 0 MW
0 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
0 MW
51 Mvar
0 MW
2 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
Display shows DifferenceFlows between original 37 bus case, and casewith
aBLT138 generation outage; noteall thepower changeis picked up at theslack
Generation Change Example 2
slack
SLACK345
SLACK138
RAY345
RAY138
RAY69
FERNA69
A
MVA
DEMAR69
BOB138
BOB69
WOLEN69
UI UC69
PETE69
HI SKY69
TI M69
TI M138
TI M345
PAI 69
GROSS69
HANNAH69
MORO138
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
A
A
MVA
A
MVA
0.00 pu
-0.01 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
-0.03 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
A
MVA
0.00 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
LYNN138
A
MVA
0.00 pu
0 MW
37 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
-157 MW
-45 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar -0.1 Mvar 0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar 0 MW
0 Mvar
-0.1 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
-0.1 Mvar
-0.2 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
BLT69
BLT138
SHI MKO69
ROGER69
AMANDA69
HOMER69
LAUF69
LAUF138
HALE69
PATTEN69
WEBER69
BUCKY138
SAVOY69
SAVOY138
J O138 J O345
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
MVA
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
0.00 pu
-0.03 pu
-0.01 pu
-0.01 pu
-0.003 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu 0.00 pu
0.00 pu
0.00 pu 0.00 pu
0.00 pu 0.00 pu
0.00 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
42 MW
-14 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
99 MW
-20 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar 0 MW
0 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
-0.1 Mvar
0.0 Mvar
19 MW
51 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
Display repeats previous caseexcept now thechangein generation is picked
up by other generators using aparticipation factor approach
Sitting New Wind Generation Example
sl
SLACK138
RAY345
RAY138
RAY69
FERNA69
A
MVA
DEMAR69
BOB138
PETE69
HISKY69
TIM69
TIM138
TIM345
PAI69
GROSS69
HANNAH69
MORO138
A
MVA
A
MVA
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
1.02 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu
1.03 pu
1.00 pu
0.99 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu
1.00 pu
1.02 pu
A
1.02 pu
A
MVA
A
MVA
SystemLosses: 8.73 MW
12 MW
3 Mvar
12 MW
5 Mvar
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
BLT69
BLT138
BOB69
SHIMKO69
ROGER69
UIUC69
AMANDA69
HOMER69
LAUF69
HALE69
PATTEN69
WEBER69
A
MVA
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
A A
A
MVA
A
MVA
A
MVA
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.01 pu
0.99 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu
1.00 pu
1.00 pu
1.00 pu
1.01 pu
1.02 pu
1.01 pu
1.00 pu 1.00 pu
MVA
1.00 pu
A
MVA
20 MW
12 Mvar
0 MW
0 Mvar
5 Mvar
56 MW
13 Mvar
14 MW
2 Mvar
Wind69
50 MW
-2Mvar
What does the Future Hold for Wind?
Wind has experienced rapid growth over the last decade;
but with a large drop in installations expected for 2010.
Nuclear and renewal generation are running into strong
head winds
db l
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
caused by low
natural gas prices.
Expiring tax credits is a
continual concern.
State renewable
portfolio standards will
help with growth.
9/16/2011
10
Hurricanes Impact Energy Prices
Many oil refineries
and natural gas
pipelines off the coast
Needtobeshut down
HurricaneIke, Sept. 2008
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Need to be shut down
and evacuated
Takes time to get the
systems back up and
running afterwards
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/special/hurricanes/
gustav_091308.html
Hurricanes Impact Energy Prices
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/steo/pub/special/pdf/2008_sp_03.pdf
What does the Future Hold for Wind?
Vestasto Cut 3000 J obs (14%) (10/26/10)
Vestas Stock PriceOver Last FiveYears
Closed
at 176 on
Wednesday and
169.4 on
Thursday!
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Long-termtheoutlook for wind is probably good. On 9/1/10 EIA reduced their 2010 forecast
for US capacity
additions to 4.3 GW in 2010 and 6.5 GW in 2011; thetotals for 2007 were5.2 GW, 2008 8.4
GW and 200910.0GW
Distributed Generation (DG)
Small-scale, up to about 50 MW
Includes renewable and non-renewable
sources
M b i l t df th id id
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
May be isolated from the grid or grid-
connected
Usually near the end user
Integrated Generation, Transmission,
Buildings, Vehicles
kWh
Renewables
Grid
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
PHEV
N. Gas
Heat kWh
kWh
Smart
meters
Vehicle-to-Grid
Combined
Heatand
Power (CHP)
Source: Masters
Pluggable Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(PHEVs) as Distributed Generation
Can chargeat night when electricity is
cheap
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Can provide services
back to the grid
Source: www.calcars.org
Source: http://www.popularmechanics.com/automotive/new_cars/4215489.html
9/16/2011
11
San Francisco charging stations, 2009
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charging_stations_in_SF_City_Hall_02_2009_02.jpg
DG Technologies, Excepting Solar
Microturbines
Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines
Biomass
Micro-Hydro
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
y
Fuel Cells (well be skipping)
Concentrated solar power is talked about in Chapter 4,
but well skip until after we cover Chapter 7.
Reasons for Distributed Generation
Good for remote locations
Renewable resources
Reduced emissions
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Can use the waste heat
Can sell power back to the grid
Terminology
Cogeneration and Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
capturing and using waste heat while generating electricity
When fuel is burned one product is water; if water vapor
exits stack then its energy is lost (about 1060 Btu per
pound of water vapor)
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
p p )
Heat of Combustion for fuels
Higher Heating Value (HHV) gross heat, accounts for latent
heat in water vapor
Lower Heating Value (LHV) net heat, assumes latent heat in
water vapor is not recovered
Both are used - Conversion factors (LHV/HHV) in Table 4.2
HHV and LHV Efficiency
Find LHV efficiency or HHV efficiency from
the heat rate:
HHV( )
HHV( )
3412 Btu/kWh
(3.16)
Heat Rate (Btu/kWh)
LHV
LHV
q =
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Convert to get the other efficiency:
HHV( ) LHV
HHV LHV
LHV
(4.1)
HHV
q q
(
=
(

NotetheLHV is less than theHHV
Microturbines
Small natural gas turbines,
500 W to 100s kW
Only one moving part
Combinedheat andpower
230 kW fuel
120 kW hot
water output
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Combined heat and power
High overall efficiency
Source: http://www.capstoneturbine.com
Capstone65 kW Microturbine
80% CHP
Efficiency
65 kW electrical
output
45 kW wasteheat
9/16/2011
12
Microturbines
1. Incoming air is
compressed
2. Moves into cool side of
recuperator & is heated
3. Mixes with fuel in
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
combustion chamber
4. Expansion of hot gases
spins shaft
5. Exhaust leaves
Figure4.1
Microturbines and Renewable Energy
Microturbinesare not a renewable energy source since they
ultimately use natural gas as their fuel. But when used for
combined heat and electricity they can be quite efficient and emit
significantly less CO2 than coal.
A possible scenario: If natural gas prices remain low,
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
commercial/industrial entities will increasingly go off grid.
Hence they will not be subject to state renewable portfolio
standards or utility taxes. This will mean renewable energy
subsidies will increasingly be born by residential customers.
Average residential price per thermis $0.57 in October in Illinois;
with a heat rate of 8.5 this gives electricity at 4.8 cents/kWh.
Biomass Current Conditions
Biomass, including waster, currently provides about 4% of the US
total energy, a value that is projected to grow to about 7% by
2030.
In 2008 the 3.85 quad of biomass was split between biofuelssuch
as ethanol (1.37 quad), waste such as landfill gas (0.436 quad)
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
and wood (2.04 quad).
About 1/10 of thewood was used to produceelectricity, primarily by the
paper industry; total generation capacity in US is about 11.3 GW
Wearenot considering liquid fuels for non-electricity usein ECE 333;
ethanol usagewas growing at 30% per year
Little to no fuel cost for wood waste but little growth
Biomass Future Possibilities for
Electricity
Newer crops are being considered for future biomass,
including various grasses (such as Miscanthusand
Switch Grass) along with algae
Potential uses include both fuel to
t l t i it ( i il th
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
create electricity (primarily the
grasses), and conversion to liquid
fuels such as ethanol.
On campus 320 acres in the South
Farms are devoted to biofuel research
Biomass Future Possibilities for Electricity
A full consideration of biomass is beyond our scope of since it
gets into agricultural economics issues
Miscanthuscan be harvested at rates of about 15 tons per acre in
Illinois Onceestablishedit doesnot needtobereplanted This
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
Illinois. Once established it does not need to be replanted. This
allows the energy potential of about 225 Mbtuper acre; income
depends on energy price, say $2/Mbtu=$450 per acre. For
comparison corn can yield up to 200 bushels per acre at say
$5.50/bushel =$1100 per acre
Energy yield is about 225/15 =15 Mbtu/ton which is similar to coal
Not anativespecies so containment could bean issue
Cofiring
Burn biomass and coal
Modified conventional steam-cycle plants
Allows use of biomass in plants with higher
ffi i i
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
efficiencies
Reduces overall emissions
9/16/2011
13
Gas Turbines and Biomass
Cannot run directly on biomass without
causing damage
Gassifythe fuel first and clean the gas before
combustion
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
combustion
Coal-integrated gasifier/gas turbine
(CIG/GT) systems
Biomass-integrated gasifier/gas turbine
(BIG/GT) systems
Biomass and Transportation
A key issue associated with biomass is the transportation
costs these grasses are quite bulky.
A rough estimate of the cost per ton for transportation is
about $1 +0.1 * round trip distance in miles +
h ti t f b t $22 t S if th
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U
harvesting costs of about $22 per ton. So if the power
plant is 50 miles distant, total cost would be $33 per ton,
or about $33/ton/($15 Mbtu/ton) =$2.2 per Mbtu
Total US corn planting is about 87 million acres, which
if planted in grass could yield about 20 quad of energy.
Wont meet all our needs but could play a major role
A Biomass plant
Energy Systems Research Laboratory, FI U