Ch21_LectureNotes_2012.

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CH 21 LECTURE NOTES (2012)

BRIEF HISTORY
? ? ? ? ? ?

Radiation accidentally discovered by Antoine Becquerel - 1896 - Uranium salt compounds; spots on photographic plates ierre and !arie "urie #associates o$ his% - sho&ed that rays $rom the U caused the spots' RADIOACTIVITY term $rom !arie "urie - (he process by &hich these rays are emitted RADIATION - the rays and particles that are emitted
*comes from nucleus of atom - not proven till later

RADIOISOTOPES - Unstable atoms that give o$$ radiation - )ot all atoms or isotopes are radioactive Radiation is emitted in process called RA*+,A"(+-. *."A/ #or nuclear decay%' (his occurs &hen a nucleus becomes unstable0 usually due to the presence o$ too many neutrons #1overcro&ding2%0 or too $e& neutrons #not enough binding energy%' #Binding energy0 the usual stu$$ that holds the nucleus together0 cant 3%

+n "hemical Reactions0 electrons are involved in the changes0 not the nucleus' - "hemical reactions are a$$ected by temperature0 pressure0 catalysts' Nuclear cha !e" #$ $% & '$l'e elec%r$ " and are not a$$ected by temperature0 pressure0 etc' Nuclear cha !e" ca $% (e ")e# u)* "l$+e# #$+ * $r %ur e# $,, -

TYPES OF RADIATION (. /a0$r) Al)ha 4 1heavy20 positively charged particle; structure identical to 5elium nucleus #no electrons% )otation4 5e # t&o protons0 t&o neutrons e8ected $rom nucleus%
6 and 1 - slo&est moving0 lo& penetration po&er; easily shielded - does not typically penetrate beyond top s9in layer 7

:)U";.AR ),(A(+,)4

"harge The sub and superscripted values are normally on the left side only, but its easier to type and word-process if on different sides of the element symbol.

!ass <ymbol

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Be%a 4 1light&eight particle2; negatively charged; is an electron )otation4 e= # -1 charge0 = mass% and 2 -1 #a neutron decays>changes into a proton and an electron' .lectron is e8ected% - medium energy and penetration po&er; moderate shielding required - can penetrate into deeper layers o$ s9in 3a44a4 )ot a particle' is pure energy' - )otation4 5 - no electrical charge0 no mass - <ame type o$ energy as light0 radio>micro&aves etc' e?cept -.R/ 5+@5 energy' - is .lectromagnetic #&ave% radiation : ?-rays are lo& energy gamma rays 6HAT HOLDS A NUCLEUS TO3ETHER7 ? )uclei contain protons and neutrons' rotons are positively charged and should repel each other strongly at that distance apart A yet they stay together' ? )eutrons are 9no&n to play a role0 but ho& is still uncertain' ? (he BglueB that holds the nucleus together is called Binding Energy' o "are$ul measurements o$ mass resulted in an amaCing $act3 - the mass o$ a nucleus is ;.<< than the total mass o$ the particles that ma9e it up' o (he missing mass is called a mass defect. - the mass de$ect is very small compared to the mass o$ the nucleus itsel$0 and varies &ith the actual isotope' ? "urrent theory is that the missing mass #mass de$ect% is converted into .).R@/ A and speci$ically0 the binding energy that holds the nucleus together' HO6 /UCH ENER3Y FRO/ LOST OR CONVERTED /ASS7 ? .instein made the discovery o$0 and derived the equation $or the conversion o$ mass to energy'
6

. Dmc B.B is the energy0 BmB is mass converted #mass de$ect%0 BcB is 8 the speed o$ light #in Eoules% #in Fg0 not amu% #G?1= m>s% squared of course' ? (hin9 o$ this energy value as ho& strong the nucleus is held together' ? (he e$$ectiveness o$ this binding energy depends largely on ho& many nuclear particles are being held together #total o$ protons and neutrons%' The )r$%$ " a # eu%r$ " & a a%$48" ucleu" are calle# nucleons'
Ch21_LectureNotes_2012.doc pg G of 13

? (he Binding .nergy per )ucleon #ratio o$ energy to particle% is the most e$$ective measure o$ ho& BstableB a nucleus is' (he chart on pg 676 sho&s that the middle elements0 masses o$ around 7=-6=0 have the highest ratio0 and are there$ore more stable' "Stability" is term used to describe how likely an atom (isotope) is to be radioactive. "Stable isotopes" are not radioactive. "Unstable isotopes" are radioactive. ? "ollected data on stability has resulted in a graph or chart &hich sho&s &hat is called the BBand o$ <tabilityB' /ou &ill need to understand0 and use this chart on your test'

:::::::::: You do not need to know about the "nuclear shell model" or "ma ic numbers" described in the te!t.

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IMPORTANT NOTES ABOUT USING THIS CHART: The X axis is the number o !rotons "or atomi# number$ an% is use u& as is' The ( axis is the number o neutrons) an% is o ten NOT the most use u&' In most situations or usin*
the #hart) +ou ,i&& be *i-en an isoto!e.s notation) sho,n at ri*ht: The subs#ri!t is the atomi# number) the su!ers#ri!t is the MASS number'

To %etermine i the isoto!e is stab&e) +ou nee% to #a&#u&ate the number o neutrons in or%er to &oo/ it u! on the #hart' In this #ase) there are 012 3 24 5 164 neutrons' 7 isoto!e is UNSTAB8E ? Rule" ,$r u"& ! %he char% a($'e4 I"$%$)e" %ha% are l$ca%e# & %he 9#$%%e# :$ e9 are "%a(le; A < &"$%$)e %ha% +$ul# (e a($'e $r (el$+ %he #$%%e# :$ e are NOT "%a(le a # +$ul# (e ra#&$ac%&'e; D <table or Unstable I = S%a(le > "r ? .?amples4
H6 67 78

D <table or Unstable I

= U S%a(le* (el$+ %he :$ e > =S%a(le* & %he :$ e >

"d98 D <table or Unstable I +168

HG

Ch21_LectureNotes_2012.doc pg H of 13

H6

Ba

177

D <table or Unstable I

=U S%a(le* a($'e %he :$ e >

NUCLEAR CHAN3E E?UATIONS@ *escribing nuclear changes and reactions uses a notation system similar to &hat is used $or chemical reactions' ? <tarting substances are listed on the le$t side o$ an arro&0 and results or products are listed on the right side o$ an arro&' ? +n nuclear interactions0 the substances are atoms0 sub-atomic particles0 or radiations' ? (he speci$ic isotope o$ an atom must be indicated using subscripts and superscripts' ,ther involved radiation or particles must include their symbol and sub>superscript' .?ample4 Be9 J 5e 7 ?
7 6 6

"

16

J n
=

K (his describes that an atom o$ Be-9 isotope is combined &ith an alpha particle and the Beryllium changes into a "arbon-16 atom and releases a neutron "as radiation#$ b o 61= J
87 6 5e

6=6 86

K (his reaction describes ho& a olonium-61= atom changes into a ;ead-6=6 atom and releases Alpha radiation'

NUCLEAR DECAY E?UATIONS@ Nuclear Decay means and atom brea9s-do&n or changes into another element o$ its o&n accord #not made to change by particle collision or outside $orces%' (his is also call spontaneous decay' Nuclear #eca< al+a<" re"ul%" & %+$ %h& !"@ A %he a%$4 cha !e" & %$ a $%her ele4e % A "$4e %<)e $, ra#&a%&$ &" e4&%%e#; Al)ha #eca<@ Nucleu" e0ec%" %+$ )r$%$ " a # %+$ eu%r$ "* a BHe ucleu"C;

96

6G8

-- L

9=

(h

6G7

J 5e

Uranium - 6G8 decays into (horium - 6G7 and emits an alpha particle' : !ass is reduced by 7; nuclear charge is reduced by 6 and ne& element results' Be%a@ A eu%r$ & %he ucleu" B")l&%"C & %$ a )r$%$ a # a elec%r$ ;

The e &" e0ec%e#;

"

17

-- L

17

-1

"arbon-17 decays into )itrogen-17 and emits an electron #beta particle%

: !ass does ),( change0 but atomic number increases by 1' A ne& element results' (he neutron decay itsel$ is represented by4

-- L

-1

3a44a@ 3a44a ra#&a%&$ &" eD%re4el< rare $ &%" $+ (u% acc$4)a &e" 4a < al)ha $r (e%a #eca<"; S& ce !a44a ra#&a%&$ &" h&!hAe er!< elec%r$4a! e%&c +a'e a # $% )ar%&cle"* %here &" $ cha !e & 4a"" $r a%$4&c u4(er a""$c&a%e# +&%h &%;

9=

(h

6G=

-- L

88

Ra

666

J 5e

(horium-6G= decays into Radium-666 by alpha emission &ith gamma' P$"&%r$ e4&""&$ * is a more rare type o$ decay and u"uall< $ccur" & a%$4" +&%h %$$ ,e+ eu%r$ "; I %h&" )r$ce""* a Pr$%$ cha !e" & %$ a Neu%r$ a # e4&%" a B)$"&%&'el< char!e# elec%r$ C* calle# a )$"&%r$ ;

1
8

-- L

1
J

= =

1H

-- L

1H

P$"&%r$ " are a eDa4)le $, +ha% &" calle# Ba %&A4a%%erC and has posed some interesting possibilities $or the $uture o$ science' All o$ the mathematical la&s and connections discovered thus $ar sho& no reason that atoms could not e?ist &ith negatively charged protons and positively charged electrons #positronsN%' Oe do not $ind these opposite0 1anti-atoms2 in nature so the discovery o$ the positron proves that such an atom might be possible' "perhaps in an alternate universe, or playin a role in the creation of the universe#$ <cientists have observed the collision bet&een a positron and an electron' Upon collision0 both particles disappear and a high energy electromagnetic &ave is created A the particles are converted to energy3 (his energy creation has inspired the idea o$ using matter and antimatter as an energy source #<tar (re9 and other sci $i % <o $ar0 no other anti-matter particles have been $ound' HALFALIFE Atoms do not decay on a regular schedule0 and can be visualiCed as a glob o$ vibrating particles &hich0 at some point &ill 1$all apart2 or change' (he unpredictability o$ &hen this &ill happen means that it is impossible to 9no& e?actly &hen a speci$ic unstable atom &ill decay' <tudies do sho& a statistical pattern o$ decay rates0 and %he %&4e %ha% &% %aEe" ,$r 1F2 $, %he ra#&$ac%&'e ele4e %" %$ #eca< ca (e cl$"el< a))r$D&4a%e#; Th&" &" calle# hal,Al&,e;

Sa4)le )r$(le4"@
1% A substance has a hal$-li$e #5;% o$ 1= days' +$ you start &ith a 7== gram sample0 ho& much o$ the original is le$t a$ter G= daysI 7== ? 6== ? 1== ? H= ? 6H N' 7== ? 6== D 1= days0 6== ? 1== D 1= days0 1== ? H= D 1= days DD G= days' G 5al$-lives pass in G= days0 so cut in hal$0 G times' A4$u % re4a& & ! a,%er .0 #a<" &" G0 !ra4"' : (his approach &or9s the same $or either grams or 1atoms2 6% A substance has a hal$-li$e o$ H years' Ohat percentage o$ the original is le$t a$ter 6= yearsI Remember that you lose H=P each hal$-li$e' 6= years D 7 5;s 1==P ? H=P ? 6HP ? 16'HP ? 6'6HP ? G'16HP = 5; 1 5; 65; G 5; 7 5; H 5;

H Re4a& & ! a,%er I HLJ" K L;2GH G% (here is currently H= grams o$ a radioactive sample that has a hal$-li$e o$ 1== years' 5o& many grams o$ this substance &ere present H== years agoI H== years D H hal$-lives' Oor9 1bac9&ards2 $or H changes' H= ? 1== ? 6== ? 7== ? 8== ? 16== ? G6== 1 6 G 7 H G00 <ear" a!$ %here +a" 1L00 !ra4" o$ the element in the sample'

Deca< Ser&e"@ see diagram0 pg 6H=

? A radioactive substance &ill be o$ concern until it changes into a non-radioactive one ? !ost radioactive elements go through a series o$ decays0 to other radioactive substances0 be$ore $inally becoming stable' .ach ne& isotopes hal$-li$e must be included in determining ho& long it ta9es $or the material to become Qsa$e'

URANIU/ 2.M DECAY SERIES

U062 U064

a a

Pa064 b Th069 a Ra00: a Rn000 a Po012 a/b Pb014 b At012 a/b Bi014 a/b T&019 b Po014 a Pb019 b Bi019 b Po019 a Pb09: not radioactive Thorium decay series ne!t pa e#

THORIU/ 2.2 DECAY SERIES

Th060 Ra002 A#002 Th002 Ra004 Rn009 Po01: Pb010 Bi010 T&092 Po010 Pb092

TRANSURANIU/ ELE/ENTS - .lements &ith higher atomic numbers than Uranium - none occur naturally0 and all are radioactive # decay or 1transmute2% FISSION@ 5 The s!&ittin* o a hea-+ atom or e&ement into sma&&er atoms "or e&ements$

Usually caused by the collision o$ a neutron particle &ith a nucleus that is unstable enough that such a collision &ill 1split it2' * %eutron radiation is another type of radiation no discussed in your te!t. (here are only (O, $issionable isotopes o$ elements used $or this purpose4 U6GH0 u-6G9 * &-'() makes up only an e!tremely small percenta e of &ranium isotopes. * *u-'(+ does not e!ist in nature, but can be created by some other nuclear reactions. rimary products o$ U6GH $ission4 Fr-91 0 Ba-176 and G neutrons' (he three neutrons emitted are able to $ission other nearby Uranium atoms' Oith su$$icient concentration o$ those atoms0 a Chain Reaction &ill occur0 resulting a nuclear e?plosion #Atomic bomb%'

6EB LINNS@ "ontrolled vs Uncontrolled Rissions4 http4>>&&&'visionlearning'com>library>$lashSvie&er'phpIoidDG6=6 @eneral +n$o0 A)* Rlash simulation o$ po&er plant4 http4>>&&&'h9-phy'org>energy>po&er>print>nuclearSphySprintSe'html 5iroshima Bomb Run and citiCen unpreparedness4 : /ou(ube:
http4>>&&&'youtube'com>&atchIinde?D6TvD)R7;UaOER*gTlistD ;*MR1A=6".1M8=A*H

Atomic bombs have tremendous destructive po&er both $rom its 1blast2 and the radiation released to the ;AR@. surrounding area' "iviliCed nations are unli9ely to use an atomic &eapon again as a $irst stri9e because o$ the number that other nations have' 1!utually Assured *estruction2 A )o &inner in such an attac9'

CONTROLLED FISSION REACTIONS A NUCLEAR PO6ER +$ the concentration o$ U $uel atoms #density o$ them in a mi?ture% is lo& enough0 and the rate o$ collisions $rom neutrons can be controlled0 a $ission reaction chain can be controlled'

(his is done in nuclear reactors4

U.S. NUCLEAR PLANT DESI N Y$u ee# %$ E $+ %he a4eF,u c%&$ $, /AOOR )ar%" $, reac%$r "<"%e4* AND BC$ %r$l r$#"C* BFuel r$#"C* B/$#era%$r"C* Breac%$r c$reC; N!TE" A s#$g%e ur&$#u' fue% pe%%et the s#(e of & f#$gert#p co$t&#$s &s 'uch e$erg) &s 1*+000 cu,#c feet of $&tur&% g&s+ 1+*-0 pou$ds of co&% or 1./ g&%%o$s of o#%.

NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS@ (here have no& been three ma8or nuclear plant accidents' A Cher $(<l (S$'&e% U &$ )@ April 1986 - *uring a reactor test0 operators removed too many control rods and the reactor rapidly overheated' (he heat cause melting o$ the core0 e?treme pressure buildup and a large e?plosion in the building' - Released large amounts o$ radiation and radioactive material to the surrounding area' Radiation levels spi9ed to the northeast o$ the reactor as &ind carried the material in that direction' - <oviets did not ac9no&ledge the problem until con$ronted by other nations &hich bac9trac9ed the radiation level changes to the "hernobyl location' !any people died #$e&er than you might thin9%'

(he surrounding to&n &as evacuated but in loo9ing bac90 that &as considered to be slo&er than should have been' - the to&n is still vacant' (he reactor is encased in a thic90 concrete T steel 1sarcophagus2' (his structure is sho&ing signs o$ crac9ing0 and people are trying to determine &hat to do ne?t &ith it' A Three 4&le I"la # (U;S;)@ arch 19!9

- most serious U'<' accident' - combination o$ equipment>human error' A de$ective sensor indicated coolant levels in the reactor &ere too high' ,perators $ailed to double chec9 &ith other sensors and released &ater A causing the reactor to overheat' - the problem &as detected early enough that the reactor &as shut do&n be$ore any e?plosion occurred' (here &as a 1minor lea92 o$ radioactive material into the atmosphere0 but no long term e$$ects have resulted' - o$ all reactors currently operating0 construction on all o$ them began B.R,R. 19M7' <ome reactor construction &as completed a$ter that0 but no ne& ones started0 and several &ere 1scrapped2' - a small number o$ ne& reactors have been approved $or construction this year0 but it ta9es years to build one' ", have not seen the -new desi ns. for these. The basic components we have discussed must still be used/$ A FuEa"h&4a (Oa)a )@ - result o$ natural disaster' (he area around the reactor has been evacuated' - http4>>&&&'nytimes'com>interactive>6=11>=G>16>&orld>asia>8apan-nuclearevaculation-Cone'html - $ull e?tent o$ contamination and environmental damage &ill ta9e years to assess

FUSION@ "ombining o$ lighter nuclei into heavier ones' - Results in higher atomic number element or isotope - more energy per gram o$ $uel than Rission - currently not controllable so result is 15ydrogen bomb2' - requires e?tremely high temps0 1millions o$ degrees2 - only ta9es place in stars #sun% and hydrogen bomb - 6e ha'e NOT (ee a(le %$ c$ %r$l %h&" )$+er l&Ee +e ha'e ,&""&$ ; The rePu&re# %e4)era%ure" are "$ h&!h %ha% %here are $ 4a%er&al" %ha% ca (e u"e# a" Bc$ %a& er"CQ - !U"5 research going on to try to $ind &ay to control it "usin -ma netic fields or similar#$ because $uel is virtually limitless' 6 G 7 1 5 J 5 - - - L 5e J n J ..)).RR@@@/// 1 1 6 =

5 Bomb test A aci$ic ,cean4

http4>>&&&'youtube'com>&atchIvD5VHbGH5v8W.
IONIRIN3 RADIATION@ - nuclear radiation that can 1ioniCe2 other atoms by 9noc9ing a&ay their electrons @.+@.R ",U)(.R4 detects radiation by detecting ions in a gas0 created &hen the radiation causes them to lose electrons R+;! BA*@.4 photographic $ilm is sensitive to nuclear0 ioniCing radiation and gets dar9er &ith e?posure' By chec9ing ho& 1blac92 the $ilm is0 sa$ety people can monitor to ma9e sure people are less li9ely to be e?posed to e?cessive radiation' *,<+!.(.R4 :not in boo9: - *evice similar to R+;! BA*@. but had a visibly readable e?posure meter' : ro$essionals &ho &or9 &ith radiation on a daily basis have limits to their e?posure levels' !any must be ta9e paid leave i$ they e?ceed acceptable levels' /e#&cal U"e"@ L )eutron Activation - A neutron emitter is used to shoot at areas o$ the body to chec9 on speci$ic isotopes there' (he neutrons can be absorbed0 causing certain elements to become radioactive and emit detectable radiation' L (racers - Radioactive chemicals that are 1ingested2 into the organism and is spread throughout the body' (he emissions $rom this can be detected and measured' <ome elements tend to build up in speci$ic areas o$ a body0 such as +odine in the thyroid0 &hich can then be used to test the $unction o$ those organs' L Radiation (herapy - speci$ic levels o$ radiation &ill harm or disrupt cell replication' "ancer cells reproduce and gro& much more rapidly than normal cells' Radiation to areas that are cancerous &ill 9ill those cells #as &ell as some normal ones%' (he idea is that you &ill 9ill more cancer than normal cells' (eletherapy - highly $ocused0 high-intensity gamma radiation shot at cancer )e&er techniques involve implanting a non-radioactive substance into the cancerous tumor area0 then ma9ing it radioactive by neutron bombardment0 and since the radiation source is in the e?act desired location0 less damage &ill occur to surrounding healthy cells' B+,-5AWAR*4 !ost damage to living things is caused by the radiation +,)+W+)@ atoms or molecules in the organism' +ons do have the same chemical0 reactivity properties as neutrals' (his cause the normal chemical reactions in the organism to change - &hich causes problems &ith electrical activity; enCyme>protein reactions; potentially *)A changes'

Cher $(<l V&#e$ Ne< )$& %"@ ? (he reactor did ),( e?plode li9e an atomic bomb' N$ reac%$r +&ll eD)l$#e l&Ee uclear ($4( A %he ,uel &" $% c$ ce %ra%e# e $u!h; <oviet reactor design is di$$erent than U'<' #(he 1RB!F2 design is not used in any other country besides $ormer U<<R% - (hey surround core &ith graphite0 and i$ &ater level drops the rate o$ reaction increases' U'<' reactors use a di$$erent design &here i$ &ater level gets lo& the rate o$ reaction slo&s do&n' "hernobyl reactors do not have containment buildings li9e U'<' reactors do' "ontainment buildings are designed to trap any radiation or particles that might be released during a nuclear accident' Accident &as caused primarily by lac9 o$ training o$ the operators and overcon$idence that nuclear reactor &as very save' - ,vercon$idence led to poor decision to continue their planned test0 even though things &ere going &rong' Also gave them the con$idence to violate control rod protocols and pull too many out' Radiation is spread by t&o means4 - radioactive particles being carried into the air and spread by the &inds - direct radiation by being in the immediate vicinity o$ the reactor itsel$' rotection $rom radiation4 *+<(A)". is best de$ense' Ra#&a%&$ le'el #ecrea"e" a" %he & 'er"e "Puare $, #&"%a ce a+a<; .?posure proportional to 1 d 6 "$ &, 4$'e %+&ce a" ,ar a+a<* eD)$"ure &" 1FI a" 4uch@ 1F2 K 1FI &, <$u 4$'e 10 %&4e" a" ,ar a+a<* <$ur eD)$"ure &" 1F100 as much as &here you &ere' 4$'& ! %$ 1F. %he #&"%a ce %ha% <$u +ere* <$ur eD)$"ure +&ll (e S %&4e" h&!her'

0e1&'p%e o$%) L