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Size of Earthquakes
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Measuring Earthquakes
Seismogram is visual record of arrival time and magnitude of shaking associated with seismic wave. Analysis of seismogram allows measurement of size of earthquake.
Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer Depends On: Distance to hypocenter/epicenter Geology of site Type of building /structure Observers feeling Value varies from Place to Place Modified Mercalli Scale - I to XII
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Ref: Wikipedia
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Earthquake Magnitude
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Richter Scale
Richter Scale
Amplitude scale is logarithmic (10-fold increase for every whole number increase) Scale 0 ---- 0.001 mm; 1---- 0.01 mm; 4---- 10mm; 6---- 1 meter Earthquake Energy: Each whole number represents a 33fold increase in Energy; Energy difference between 3 & 6 means ~1000 times Drawbacks: Based on Antiquated Wood-Anderson Seismographs Measurement Past Magnitude 7.0 ineffective Requires Estimates
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Here A is the amplitude, in millimeters, measured directly from the photographic paper record of the Wood-Anderson seismograph, a special type of instrument. The distance factor comes from a table given by Richter (1958). 13
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original method to measure a seismogram for a magnitude estimate After you measure the wave amplitude you have to take its logarithm and scale it according to the distance of the seismometer from the earthquake, estimated by the S-P time difference. The S-P time, in seconds, makes t. The equation behind this nomogram, used by Richter in Southern California, is:
M=6: Damage to poorly constructed buildings and other structures within 10's km
M=7: "Major" earthquake, causes serious damage up to ~100 km (Gujarat 2001 earthquake). M=8: "Great" earthquake, great destruction, loss of life over several 100 km
M=9: Rare great earthquake, major damage over a large region over 1000 km
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Correlations
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T = period of P-wave
= Distance of seismograph from the epicenter, in degrees.
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Moment Magnitude
Moment-Magnitude Scale Seismic Moment = Strength of Rock x Fault Area x Total amount of Slip along Rupture M0 = A D (in N.m) [Idriss, 1985] Where, = shear modulus of material along the fault plane in N/m2 (= 3x1010 N/m2 for surface crust and 7x1012 N/m2 for
mantle)
A = area of fault plane undergoing slip (m2) D = average displacement of ruptured segment of fault (m)
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The distribution of M W versus M L is shown Fig. and the correlation is given by Kolathayar et al. (2012) for India by considering 69 earthquake data, MW=0.815(0.04)ML+0.767(0.174), 3.3ML7, R2=0.884
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Seismic Energy
Both the magnitude and the seismic moment are related to the amount of energy that is radiated by an earthquake. Gutenberg and Richter (1956), developed a relationship between magnitude and energy. Their relationship is: logES = 11.8 + 1.5Ms
Energy ES in ergs from the surface wave magnitude Ms. ES is not
Gujarat (2001)
Size of an earthquake using the Richters Local Magnitude Scale is shown on the left hand side of the figure above. The larger the number, the bigger the earthquake. The scale on the right hand side of the figure represents the amount of high explosive required to 28 produce the energy released by the earthquake.
Frequency of earthquakes
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Frequency of earthquakes
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Example Problem
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Ground Motion
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Seismogram interpretation
Seismograms can provide information on
epicenter location Magnitude of earthquake source properties
Most seismograms will record P, S & surface waves First arrival is P wave After a pause of several seconds/10s seconds the higher amplitude S wave arrives Defines S-P interval
- surface waves follow and may continue for tens of seconds - surface waves are slower but persist to greater distances than P & S waves
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Wave terminology
Wave amplitude
height of a wave above its zero position time taken to complete one cycle of motion number of cycles per second (Hertz) felt shaking during quake has frequencies from 20 down to 1 Hertz
Wave period
Frequency
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Accelerometer
Types of Accelerometers: Electronic : transducers produce voltage output Servo controlled: use suspended mass with displacement transducer Piezoelectric: Mass attached to a piezoelectric material, which develops electric charge on surface.
Principle: An acceleration a will cause the mass to be displaced by ma/k or alternatively, if we observe a displacement of x, we know that the mass has undergone an acceleration of kx/m.
Generally accelerometers are placed in three orthogonal directions to measure accelerations in three directions at any time. Sometimes geophones (velocity transducers) are attached to accelerometers to measure the seismic wave velocities.
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Frequency Content: The frequency content of an earthquake history is often described using Fourier Spectra, Power spectra and response spectra.
Duration: The duration of an earthquake history is somewhat dependent on the magnitude of the earthquake.
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u
2
u t
k u m ug
seismograph and ground), ug is the ground displacement, c is the damping coefficient, k is the stiffness coefficient.
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from the trace displacement amplitude using the equation of acceleration response ratio: u 2 2 ug 1 0 2 t where
0
1
2 2
c 2 km
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Amplitude Parameters
From the time histories of acceleration, velocity and displacement are obtained by integrating the acceleration records. All other amplitude parameters are calculated from these time histories.
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Peak Acceleration
Most commonly used measure of amplitude of a ground motion is the Peak horizontal acceleration (PHA). It is the absolute maximum value obtained from accelerogram. Maximum resultant PHA is the vector sum of two orthogonal components. Estimation of PHA is most important for any design. PHA and MMI relationship (Trifunac and Brady, 1975) are often used. PVA is not that important and PVA = (2/3)PHA is commonly assumed for design (Newmark and Hall, 1982). Peak acceleration data with frequency content/duration of earthquake is important. Because for e.g. 0.5g PHA may not cause significant damage to structures if earthquake duration is very small.
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Peak Acceleration
Proposed relationships between PHA & MMI (Trifunac & Brady, 1975).
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Peak displacements are associated with low frequency components of earthquake motion. Hence signaling and filtering error of data is common and hence not recommended for practical uses over PHA or PHV.
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x(t )
c0
cn sin( nt
n 1
n)
where cn and n are the amplitude and phase angle respectively of the nth harmonic in the Fourier series.
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Shows how the amplitude of the motion varies with frequency. Expresses the frequency content of a motion
n
versus
Phase angles control the times at which the peaks of harmonic motion occur.
Fourier phase spectrum is influenced by the variation of ground motion with time.
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The Fourier amplitude spectra of actual earthquakes are often plotted on logarithmic scales, so that their characteristic shapes can be clearly distinguished from the smoothed curves. Two frequencies that mark the range of frequencies for largest Fourier acceleration amplitude are corner frequency (fc) and cutoff frequency (fmax)
fc
fmax
Frequency (log)
fc is a very important parameter because it is inversely proportional to the cube root of seismic moment, thus indicating that large earthquakes produce greater low-frequency motions.
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The power spectrum is a plot of G( ) versus n . The power spectrum density (PSD) function is defined by the following equation and is closely related to the Fourier amplitude spectrum:
G( )
1 2 cn Td
where G( ) is the PSD, Td is the duration of the ground motion, and cn is the amplitude of the nth harmonic in the Fourier series. PSD function is used to characterize an earthquake history as a random process.
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Duration
Duration of an earthquake is very important parameter that influences the amount of damage due to earthquake. A strong motion of very high amplitude of short duration may not cause as much damage to a structure as a motion with moderate amplitude with long duration can cause. This is because the ground motion with long duration causes more load reversals, which is important in the degradation of stiffness of the structures and in building up pore pressures in loose saturated soils. Duration represents the time required for the release of accumulated strain energy along a fault, thus increases with increase in magnitude of earthquake. Relative duration does not depend on the peak values. It is the time interval between the points at which 5% and 95% of the total energy has been recorded.
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Duration
Bracketed duration is the measure of time between the first and last exceedence of a threshold acceleration 0.05 g.
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arms
1 Td a t Td 0
dt
Where a(t) is the acceleration over the time domain and Td is the duration of strong motion AI - The Arias Intensity is a measure of the total energy at the recording station and is proportional to the sum of the squared acceleration. It is defined as
2
AI
2g
at
0
dt
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Dominant frequency of ground motion (Fd) is defined as the frequency corresponding to the peak value in the amplitude spectrum. Thus, Fd indicates the frequency for which the ground motion has the most energy. The amplitude spectrum has to be smoothed before determining Fd.
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Fourier Amplitude
GM1 GM2
Tp
Period
Tp is same for the two ground motions, though the frequency content is different
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n n 0
G ( )d
n n 0
G ( )d
2 0
Td 2
Shape Factor It indicates the dispersion of the power spectral density function about the central frequency, 2 It lies between 0 and 1, higher value 1 1 indicates larger bandwidth. 0 2
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Latest mostly used relationship in western North America is given by Boore et al. (1993)
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(Site classes are defined next slide on the basis of the avg. Vs in the upper 30 m).
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Attenuation Relationship for peak horizontal rock acceleration by Toro et al., 1994 (for mid continent of North America)
ln PHA (g) = 2.2+0.81(Mw-6)-1.27 lnRm+0.11 max[ln (Rm/100), 0]-0.0021Rm
lnPHA =
2+
2 1/2 r )
Where Rm = (R2+9.32)1/2, R being closest horizontal distance to earthquake rupture (in km), m = 0.36 + 0.07(Mw-6), and
= 0.54 for R < 5 km
r
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R = (r02+j72)1/2, and r0 is the shortest distance (km) from the site to the vertical projection of the EQ fault rupture on the surface of the earth.
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1/ 3
fc
4.9 10 vs
M0
Where vs is in km/sec, M0 is in dyne-cm, and is referred to as stress parameter or stress drop in bars. Values of 50 bars and 100 bars are common for stress parameters of Western & Eastern North America respectively.
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Ratio vmax/amax
This ratio is proportional to the magnitude and distance dependencies proposed by McGuire (1978) as shown in the table below:
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arms
0.119
f max / f c R
where fc is the corner frequency, fmax is the cutoff frequency, and R is in kilometer.
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Kavazanjian et al. (1985) used the definition of duration proposed by Vanmarcke and Lai (1980) with a database of 83 strong motion records from 18 different earthquakes to obtain
arms 0.472 0.268M w 0.966 0.129 log R2 0.255 R 0.1167 R
where R is the distance to the closest point of rupture on the fault. The database was restricted to Mw > 5, R < 110 km (68 mi), rupture depths less than 30 km (19 mi), and soil thicknesses greater than 10 m (33 ft).
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Arias Intensity
Campbell and Duke (1974) used data from California earthquakes to predict the variation of Arias intensity within 15 to 110 km (9 to 68 mi) of magnitude 4.5 to 8.5 events.
I a m / sec 313 e
M s 0.33M s 1.47 3.79
for basement rock for sedimentary rock for alluvium 60ft thick for alluvium > 60ft thick
and R is the distance from the center of the energy release in kilometers.
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Wilson (1993) analyzed strong motion records from California to develop an attenuation relation which, using the Arias intensity definition of equation which can be expressed as
log I a m / sec
Mw
where R D2 h2 D is the minimum horizontal distance to the vertical projection of the fault plane, h is a correction factor (with a default value of 7.5 km (4.7 mi)), k is a coefficient of inelastic absorption (with default value of zero), and P is the exceedance probability.
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Questions?