de Silva, Clarence W. Vibration Engineering Vibration: Fundamentals and Practice C larence W.

de Silva Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

1 Vibration Engineering Vibration is a repetitive, periodic, or oscillatory response of a mechanical sys tem. The rate of the vibration cycles is termed frequency. Repetitive motions that are somewhat clean and regular, and that occur at relatively low frequencies, a re commonly called oscillations, while any repetitive motion, even at high frequ encies, with low amplitudes, and having irregular and random behavior falls into the general class of vibration. Nevertheless, the terms vibration and oscillation a re often used interchangeably, as is done in this book. Vibrations can naturally occur in an engineering system and may be representative of its free and natura l dynamic behavior. Also, vibrations may be forced onto a system through some fo rm of excitation. The excitation forces may be either generated internally withi n the dynamic system, or transmitted to the system through an external source. W hen the frequency of the forcing excitation coincides with that of the natural m otion, the system will respond more vigorously with increased amplitude. This co ndition is known as resonance, and the associated frequency is called the resona nt frequency. There are good vibrations, which serve a useful purpose. Also, there are bad vibrations, which can be unpleasant or harmful. For many engineering syst ems, operation at resonance would be undesirable and could be destructive. Suppr ession or elimination of bad vibrations and generation of desired forms and leve ls of good vibration are general goals of vibration engineering. This book deals with 1. Analysis 2. Observation 3. Modi cation of vibration in engineering system s. Applications of vibration are found in many branches of engineering such as a eronautical and aerospace, civil, manufacturing, mechanical, and even electrical . Usually, an analytical or computer model is needed to analyze the vibration in an engineering system. Models are also useful in the process of design and deve lopment of an engineering system for good performance with respect to vibrations . Vibration monitoring, testing, and experimentation are important as well in th e design, implementation, maintenance, and repair of engineering systems. All th ese are important topics of study in the eld of vibration engineering, and the bo ok will cover pertinent 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Theory and modeling Analysis Design Exper imentation Control In particular, practical applications and design considerations related to modif ying the vibrational behavior of mechanical devices and structures will be studi ed. This knowledge will be useful in the practice of vibration regardless of the application area or the branch of engineering; for example, in the analysis, de sign, construction, operation, and maintenance of complex structures such as the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station. Note in Figure 1.1 that long and exible components, which would be prone to complex modes of vibration, are pre sent. The structural design should take this into consideration. Also, functiona l and servicing devices such as robotic manipu2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.1 The U.S. Space Shuttle and the International Space Station with the C anadarm. (Courtesy of NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA. With permission .) lators (e.g., Canadarm) can give rise to vibration interactions that need to be controlled for accurate performance. The approach used in the book is to introdu ce practical applications of vibration in the very beginning, along with experim ental techniques, and then integrate these applications and design consideration s into fundamentals and analytical methods throughout the text. 1.1 STUDY OF VIBRATION Natural, free vibration is a manifestation of the oscillatory behavior in mechan ical systems, as a result of repetitive interchange of kinetic and potential ene rgies among components in the system. Such natural oscillatory response is not l imited, however, to purely mechanical systems, and is found in electrical and uid systems as well, again due to a repetitive exchange of two types of energy amon g system components. But, purely thermal systems do not undergo free, natural os cillations, primarily because of the absence of two forms of reversible energy. Even a system that can hold two reversible forms of energy may not necessarily d isplay free, natural oscillations. The reason for this would be the strong prese nce of an energy dissipation mechanism that could use up the initial energy of t he system before completing a single oscillation cycle (energy interchange). Suc h dissipation is provided by damping or friction in mechanical systems, and resi stance in electrical systems. Any engineering system (even a purely thermal one) is able to undergo forced oscillations, regardless of the degree of energy diss ipation. In this case, the energy necessary to sustain the oscillations will com e from the excitation source, and will be continuously replenished. Proper desig n and control are crucial in maintaining a high performance level and production ef ciency, and prolonging the useful life of machinery, structures, and industria l processes. Before designing or controlling an engineering system for good vibr atory performance, it is important to understand, represent (model), and analyze the vibratory characteristics of the system. This can be 2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.2(a) An elevated guideway transit system. accomplished through purely analytical means, computer analysis of analytical mo dels, testing and analysis of test data, or a combination of these approaches. A s an example, a schematic diagram of an innovative elevated guideway transit sys tem is shown in Figure 1.2(a). This is an automated transit system that is opera ted without drivers. The ride quality, which depends on the vibratory motion of the vehicle, can be analyzed using an appropriate model. Usually, the dynamics ( inertia, exibility, and energy dissipation) of the guideway, as well as the vehic le, must be incorporated into such a model. A simpli ed model is shown in Figure 1 .2(b). It follows that modeling, analysis, testing, design, and control are all important aspects of study in mechanical vibration. The analysis of a vibrating system can be done either in the time domain or in the frequency domain. In the time domain, the independent variable of a vibration signal is time. In this cas e, the system itself can be modeled as a set of differential equations with resp ect to time. A model of a vibrating system can be formulated by applying either force-momentum rate relations (Newton's second law) or the concepts of kinetic and potential energies. Both Newtonian (force-motion) and Lagrangian (energy) appro aches will be utilized in this book. In the frequency domain, the independent va riable of a vibration signal is frequency. In this case, the system can be model ed by input-output transfer functions which are algebraic, rather than different ial, models. Transfer function representations such as mechanical impedance, mob ility, receptance, and transmissibility can be conveniently analyzed in the freq uency domain, and effectively used in vibration design and evaluation. Modeling and vibration-signal analysis in both time and frequency domains will be studied in this book. The two domains are connected by the Fourier transformation, whic h can be treated as a special case of the Laplace transformation. These transfor m techniques will be studied, rst in the purely analytical and analog measurement situation of continuous time. In practice, however, digital electronics and com puters are commonly used in signal analysis, sensing, and control. In this situa tion, one needs to employ concepts of discrete time, sampled data, and digital s ignal analysis in the time domain. Correspondingly, then, concepts of discrete o r digital Fourier transformation and techniques of fast Fourier transform (FFT) will be applicable in the frequency domain. These concepts and techniques are al so studied in this book. An engineering system, when given an initial disturbanc e and allowed to execute free vibrations without a subsequent forcing excitation , will tend to do so at a particular preferred frequency and maintaining a particu lar preferred geometric shape. This frequency is termed a natural frequency of the s ystem, and the corresponding shape (or motion ratio) of the moving parts of the system is termed a mode shape. Any arbitrary motion of a vibrating system can be r epresented in terms of its natural frequencies and mode shapes. The subject of m odal analysis primarily concerns determination of natural frequencies and mode s hapes of a dynamic system. Once the 2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.2(b) A model for determining the ride quality of the elevated guideway transit system. modes are determined, they can be used in understanding the dynamic nature of th e systems, and also in design and control. Modal analysis is extremely important in vibration engineering, and will be studied in this book. Natural frequencies and mode shapes of a vibrating system can be determined experimentally through procedures of modal testing. In fact, a dynamic model (an experimental model) of the system can be determined in this manner. The subject of modal testing, expe rimental modeling (or model identi cation), and associated analysis and design is known as experimental modal analysis. This subject will also be treated in this book. Energy dissipation (or damping) is present in any mechanical system. It al ters the dynamic response of the system, and has desirable effects such as stabi lity, vibration suppression, power transmission (e.g., in friction drives), and control. Also, it has obvious undesirable effects such as energy wastage, reduct ion of the process ef ciency, wear and tear, noise, and heat generation. For 2000 CRC Press

these reasons, damping is an important topic of study in the area of vibration, and will be covered in this book. In general, energy dissipation is a nonlinear phenomenon. But, in view of well-known dif culties of analyzing nonlinear behavior , and because an equivalent representation of the overall energy dissipation is often adequate in vibration analysis, linear models are primarily used to repres ent damping in the analyses herein. However, nonlinear representations are discu ssed as well; and how equivalent linear models can be determined for nonlinear d amping are described. Properties such as mass (inertia), exibility (spring-like e ffect), and damping (energy dissipation) are continuously distributed throughout practical mechanical devices and structures to a large extent. This is the case with distributed components such as cables, shafts, beams, membranes, plates, s hells, and various solids, as well as structures made of such components. Repres entation (i.e., modeling) of these distributed-parameter (or continuous) vibrati ng systems will require independent variables in space (spatial coordinates) in addition to time; these models are partial differential equations in time and sp ace. The analysis of distributed-parameter models will require complex procedure s and special tools. This book studies vibration analysis, particularly modal an alysis, of several types of continuous components, as well as how approximate lu mped-parameter models can be developed for continuous systems, using procedures such as modal analysis and energy equivalence. Vibration testing is useful in a variety of stages in the development and utilization of a product. In the design and development stage, vibration testing can be used to design, develop, and ve rify the performance of individual components of a complex system before the ove rall system is built (assembled) and evaluated. In the production stage, vibrati on testing can be used for screening of selected batches of products for quality control. Another use of vibration testing is in product quali cation. Here, a pro duct of good quality is tested to see whether it can withstand various dynamic e nvironments that it may encounter in a specialized application. An example of a largescale shaker used for vibration testing of civil engineering structures is shown in Figure 1.3. The subject of vibration testing is addressed in some detai l in this book. Design is a subject of paramount signi cance in the practice of vi bration. In particular, mechanical and structural design for acceptable vibratio n characteristics will be important. Modi cation of existing components and integr ation of new components and devices, such as vibration dampers, isolators, inert ia blocks, and dynamic absorbers, can be incorporated into these practices. Furt hermore, elimination of sources of vibration for example, through component alig nment and balancing of rotating devices is a common practice. Both passive and a ctive techniques are used in vibration control. In passive control, actuators th at require external power sources are not employed. In active control, vibration is controlled by means of actuators (which need power) to counteract vibration forces. Monitoring, testing, and control of vibration will require devices such as sensors and transducers, signal conditioning and modi cation hardware (e.g., lte rs, ampli ers, modulators, demodulators, analog-digital conversion means), and act uators (e.g., vibration exciters or shakers). The underlying subject of vibratio n instrumentation will be covered in this book. Particularly, within the topic o f signal conditioning, both hardware and software (numerical) techniques will be presented. 1.2 APPLICATION AREAS The science and engineering of vibration involve two broad categories of applica tions: 1. Elimination or suppression of undesirable vibrations 2. Generation of the necessary forms and quantities of useful vibrations Undesirable and harmful types of vibration include structural motions generated due to earthquakes, dyna mic interactions between vehicles and bridges or guideways, noise generated by c onstruction equipment, vibration transmitted from machinery to its supporting st ructures or environment, and 2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.3 A multi-degree-of-freedom hydraulic shaker used in testing civil engi neering structures. (Courtesy of Prof. C.E. Ventura, University of British Colum bia. With permission.) damage, malfunction, and failure due to dynamic loading, unacceptable motions, a nd fatigue caused by vibration. As an example, dynamic interactions between an a utomated transit vehicle and a bridge (see Figure 1.4) can cause structural prob lems as well as degradation in ride quality. Rigorous analysis and design are ne eded, particularly with regard to vibration, in the development of these ground transit systems. Lowering the levels of vibration will result in reduced noise a nd improved work environment, maintenance of a high performance level and produc tion ef ciency, reduction in user/operator discomfort, and prolonging the useful l ife of industrial machinery. Desirable types of vibration include those generate d by musical instruments, devices used in physical therapy and medical applicati ons, vibrators used in industrial mixers, part feeders and sorters, and vibrator y material removers such as drills and polishers ( nishers). For example, product alignment for 2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.4 The SkyTrain in Vancouver, Canada, a modern automated transit system. (Photo by Mark Van Manen, courtesy of BC Transit. With permission.) FIGURE 1.5 An alignment shaker. (Key Technology, Inc., of Walla Walla, WA. With permission.) 2000 CRC Press

industrial processing or grading can be carried out by means of vibratory convey ors or shakers, as shown in Figure 1.5. Concepts of vibration have been used for many centuries in practical applications. Recent advances of vibration are quit e signi cant, and the corresponding applications are numerous. Many of the recent developments in the eld of vibration were motivated perhaps for two primary reaso ns: 1. The speeds of operation of machinery have doubled over the past 50 years and, consequently, the vibration loads generated due to rotational excitations a nd unbalances would have quadrupled if proper actions of design and control were not taken. 2. Mass, energy, and ef ciency considerations have resulted in lightwe ight, optimal designs of machinery and structures consisting of thin members wit h high strength. Associated structural exibility has made the rigid-structure ass umption unsatisfactory, and given rise to the need for sophisticated procedures of analysis and design that govern distributed-parameter exible structures. One c an then visualize several practical applications where modeling, analysis, desig n, control, monitoring, and testing, related to vibration are important. A range of applications of vibration can be found in various branches of engineering: p articularly civil, mechanical, aeronautical and aerospace, and production and ma nufacturing. Modal analysis and design of exible civil engineering structures suc h as bridges, guideways, tall buildings, and chimneys directly incorporate theor y and practice of vibration. A ne example of an elongated building where vibratio n analysis and design are crucial is the Jefferson Memorial Arch, shown in Figur e 1.6. In the area of ground transportation, vehicles are designed by incorporat ing vibration engineering, not only to ensure structural integrity and functiona l operability, but also to achieve required levels of ride quality and comfort. Speci cations such as the one shown in Figure 1.7, where limits on root-mean-squar e (rms) levels of vibration (expressed in units of acceleration due to gravity, g) for different frequencies of excitation (expressed in cycles per second, or h ertz, or Hz) and different trip durations, are used to specify ride quality requ irements in the design of transit systems. In particular, the design of suspensi on systems, both active and passive, falls within the eld of vibration engineerin g. Figure 1.8 shows a test setup used in the development of an automotive suspen sion system. In the area of air transportation, mechanical and structural compon ents of aircraft are designed for good vibration performance. For example, prope r design and balancing can reduce helicopter vibrations caused by imbalance in t heir rotors. Vibrations in ships can be suppressed through structural design, pr opeller and rudder design, and control. Balancing of internal combustion engines is carried out using principles of design for vibration suppression. Oscillatio n of transmission lines of electric power and communication signals (e.g., overh ead telephone lines) can result in faults, service interruptions, and sometimes major structural damage. Stabilization of transmission lines involves direct app lication of the principles of vibration in cables and the design of vibration da mpers and absorbers. In the area of production and manufacturing engineering, me chanical vibration has direct implications of product quality and process ef cienc y. Machine tool vibrations are known to not only degrade the dimensional accurac y and the nish of a product, but also will cause fast wear and tear and breakage of tools. Milling machines, lathes, drills, forging machines, and extruders, for example, should be designed for achieving low vibration levels. In addition to reducing the tool life, vibration will result in other mechanical problems in pr oduction machinery, and will require more frequent maintenance. Associated downt ime (production loss) and cost can be quite signi cant. Also, as noted before, vib rations in production machinery will generate noise problems and also will be tr ansmitted to other operations through support structures, thereby interfering wi th their performance as well. In general, vibration can degrade performance and production ef ciency of 2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.6 Jefferson Memorial Arch in St. Louis, MO. FIGURE 1.7 A typical specification of vehicle ride quality for a specified trip duration. 2000 CRC Press

FIGURE 1.8 Cone suspension system installed on a Volvo 480ES automobile for test ing. (Copyright Mechanical Engineering magazine; the American Society of Mechani cal Engineers International. With permission.) manufacturing processes. Proper vibration isolation (e.g., mountings) will be ne eded to reduce these transmissibility problems. Heavy machinery in the construct ion industry (e.g., cranes, excavators, pile drivers, impacting and compacting m achinery, and bulldozers) rely on structural integrity, reliability, and safety. Their design must be based on sound principles of engineering. Although the dyn amic loading in these machines is generally random, it is also quite repetitive from the point of view of both the excitation generated by the engine and the fu nctional operation of the tasks performed. Design based on vibration and fatigue is an important requirement for these machines: for maintaining satisfactory pe rformance, prolonging the useful life, and reducing the cost and frequency of ma intenance. 1.3 HISTORY OF VIBRATION The origins of the theory of vibration can be traced back to the design and deve lopment of musical instruments (good vibration). It is known that drums, utes, an d stringed instruments existed in China and India for several millennia B.C. Als o, ancient Egyptians and Greeks explored sound and vibration from both practical and analytical points of view. For example, while Egyptians had known of a harp since at least 3000 B.C., the Greek philosopher, mathematician, and musician Py thagoras (of the Pythagoras theorem fame) who lived during 582 to 502 B.C., expe rimented on sounds generated by blacksmiths and related them to music and physic s. The Chinese developed a mechanical seismograph (an instrument to detect and r ecord earthquake vibrations) in the 2nd century A.D. The foundation of the moder n-day theory of vibration was probably laid by scientists and mathematicians suc h as Robert Hooke (16351703) of the Hooke's law fame, who experimented on the vibra tion of strings; Sir Isaac Newton (16421727), who gave us calculus and the laws o f motion for analyzing vibrations; Daniel Bernoulli (17001782) and Leonard Euler (17071783), who studied beam vibrations (Bernoulli-Euler beam) and also explored dynamics and uid mechanics; Joseph Lagrange (17361813), who studied vibration of s trings and also explored the energy approach to formulating equations of dynamic s; Charles Coulomb (17361806), who studied 2000 CRC Press

torsional vibrations and friction; Joseph Fourier (17681830), who developed the t heory of frequency analysis of signals; and Simeon-Dennis Poisson (17811840), who analyzed vibration of membranes and also analyzed elasticity (Poisson's ratio). A s a result of the industrial revolution and associated developments of steam tur bines and other rotating machinery, an urgent need was felt for developments in the analysis, design, measurement, and control of vibration. Motivation for many aspects of the existing techniques of vibration can be traced back to related a ctivities since the industrial revolution. Much credit should go to scientists a nd engineers of more recent history, as well. Among the notable contributors are Rankine (18201872), who studied critical speeds of shafts; Kirchhoff (18241887), who analyzed vibration of plates; Rayleigh (18421919), who made contributions to the theory of sound and vibration and developed computational techniques for det ermining natural vibrations; de Laval (18451913), who studied the balancing probl em of rotating disks; Poincar (18541912), who analyzed nonlinear vibrations; and S todola (18591943), who studied vibrations of rotors, bearings, and continuous sys tems. Distinguished engineers who made signi cant contributions to the published l iterature and also to the practice of vibration include Timoshenko, Den Hartog, Clough, and Crandall. 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK This book provides the background and techniques for modeling, analysis, design, instrumentation and monitoring, modi cation, and control of vibration in engineer ing systems. This knowledge will be useful in the practice of vibration, regardl ess of the application area or the branch of engineering. A uniform and coherent treatment of the subject is given by introducing practical applications of vibr ation in the very beginning of the book, along with experimental techniques and instrumentation, and then integrating these applications, design and experimenta l techniques, and control considerations into fundamentals and analytical method s throughout the text. The book consists of 12 chapters and 5 appendices. The ch apters have summary boxes for easy reference and recollection. Many worked examp les and problems (over 300) are included. Some background material is presented in the appendices, rather than in the main text, in order to avoid interference with the continuity of the subject matter. The present introductory chapter prov ides some background material on the subject of vibration engineering, and sets the course for the study. It gives the objectives and motivation of the study an d indicates key application areas. A brief history of the eld of vibration is giv en as well. Chapter 2 provides the basics of time response analysis of vibrating systems. Both undamped and damped systems are studied. Also, analysis of both f ree (unforced) and forced response is given. The concept of a state variable is introduced. Some analogies of purely mechanical and structural vibrating systems speci cally, translatory, exural, and torsional; to electrical and uid oscillatory systems are introduced. An energy-based approximation of a distributedparameter system (a heavy spring) to a lumped-parameter system is developed in detail. The logarithmic decrement method of damping measurement is developed. Although the chapter primarily considers single-degree-of-freedom systems, the underlying con cepts can be easily extended to multi-degree-of-freedom systems. Chapter 3 conce rns frequency response analysis of vibrating systems. First, the response of a v ibrating system to harmonic (sinusoidal) excitation forces (inputs) is analyzed, primarily using the time-domain concepts developed in Chapter 2. Then, its inte rpretation in the frequency domain is given. The link between the time domain an d the frequency domain, through Fourier transform, is highlighted. In particular , Fourier transform is interpreted as a special case of Laplace transform. The r esponse analysis using transform techniques is presented, along with the associa ted basic ideas of convolution integral, and the impulse response function whose Laplace transform is the transfer function, and Fourier transform is the freque ncy response function. The half-power bandwidth approach of measuring damping is given. Special types of frequency transfer functions speci cally, force transmiss ibility, 2000 CRC Press

motion transmissibility, and receptance are studied and their complementary rela tionships are highlighted. Their use in the practice of vibration, particularly in vibration isolation, is discussed. Chapter 4 presents the fundamentals of ana lyzing vibration signals. First, the idea of frequency spectrum of a time signal is given. Various types and classi cations of signals encountered in vibration en gineering are discussed. The technique of Fourier analysis is formally introduce d and linked to the concepts presented in Chapter 3. The idea of random signals is introduced, and useful analytical techniques for these signals are presented. Practical issues pertaining to vibration signal analysis are raised. Computatio nal techniques of signal analysis are given and various sources of error, such a s aliasing and truncation, are indicated; and ways of improving the accuracy of digital signal analysis are given. Chapter 5 deals with the modal analysis of lu mped-parameter vibrating systems. The basic assumption made is that distributed effects of inertia and exibility in a vibrating system can be represented by an i nterconnected set of lumped inertia and spring elements. The total number of pos sible independent, incremental motions of these inertia elements is the number o f degrees of freedom of the system. For holonomic systems, this is also equal to the total number of independent coordinates needed to represent an arbitrary co n guration of the system; but for non-holonomic systems, the required number of co ordinates will be larger. For this reason, the concepts of holonomic and non-hol onomic systems and the corresponding types of constraints are discussed. The rep resentation of a general lumped-parameter vibrating system by a differential equ ation model is given, and methods of obtaining such a model are discussed. Apart from the Newtonian and Lagrangian approaches, the in uence coef cient approach is g iven for determining the mass and stiffness matrices. The concepts of natural fr equencies and mode shapes are discussed, and the procedure for determining these characteristic quantities, through modal analysis, is developed. The orthogonal ity property of natural modes is derived. The ideas of static modes and rigid bo dy modes are explored, and the causes of these conditions will be indicated. In addition to the standard formulation of the modal analysis problem, two other mo dal formulations are developed. The analysis of the problem of forced vibration, using modal analysis, is given. Damped lumpedparameter vibrating systems are st udied from the point of view of modal analysis. The conditions of existence of r eal modes for damped systems are explored, with speci c reference to proportional damping. The state-space approach of representing and analyzing a vibrating syst em is presented. Practical problems of modal analysis are presented. Chapter 6 s tudies distributed-parameter vibrating systems such as cables, rods, shafts, bea ms, membranes, and plates. Practical examples of associated vibration problems a re indicated. Vibration of continuous systems is treated as a generalization of lumped-parameter systems, discussed in Chapter 5. In particular, the modal analy sis of continuous systems is addressed in detail. The issue of orthogonality of modes is studied. The in uence of system boundary conditions on the modal problem in general and the orthogonality in particular is discussed, with special emphas is on inertial boundary conditions (e.g., continuous systems with lumped masses at the boundaries). The in uence of damping on the modal analysis problem is discuss ed. The analysis of response to a forcing excitation is performed. Chapter 7 exc lusively deals with the problem of energy dissipation or damping in vibrating sy stems. Various types of damping present in mechanical and structural systems are discussed, with practical examples, and particular emphasis on interface dampin g. Methods of representation or modeling of damping in the analysis of vibrating systems are indicated. Techniques and principles of measurement of damping are given, with examples. Chapter 8 studies instrumentation issues in the practice o f vibration. Applications range from monitoring and fault diagnosis of industria l processes, to product testing for quality assessment and quali cation, experimen tal modal analysis for developing experimental models and for designing of vibra ting systems, and control of vibration. Instrumentation types, basics of operati on, industrial practices pertaining to vibration exciters, control systems, moti on sensors and transducers, torque and force sensors, and other types of transdu cers are addressed. Performance speci cation

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of an instrumented system is discussed. Issues and implications of component int erconnection in the practical use of instrumentation are addressed. Chapter 9 ad dresses signal conditioning and modi cation for practical vibration systems. These considerations are closely related to the subject of instrumentation discussed in Chapter 8 and signal analysis discussed in Chapter 4. Particular emphasis is given to commercial instruments and hardware that are useful in monitoring, anal yzing, and control of vibration. Speci c devices considered include ampli ers, analo g lters, modulators and demodulators, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-an alog converters, bridge circuits, linearizing devices, and other types of signal modi cation circuitry. Commercial spectrum analyzers and digital oscilloscopes co mmonly employed in the practice of vibration are discussed as well. Chapter 10 d eals with vibration testing. This is a practical topic that is directly applicab le to product design and development, experimental modeling, quality assessment and control, and product quali cation. Various methods of representing a vibration environment in a test program are discussed. Procedures that need to be followe d prior to testing an object (i.e., pre-test procedures) are given. Available te sting procedures are presented, with a discussion of appropriateness, advantages , and disadvantages of various test procedures. The topic of product quali cation testing is addressed in some length. Chapter 11 studies experimental modal analy sis, which is directly related to vibration testing (Chapter 10), experimental m odeling, and design. It draws from the analytical procedures presented in previo us chapters, particularly Chapters 5 and 6. Frequency domain formulation of the problem is given. The procedure of developing a complete experimental model of a vibrating system is presented. Procedures of curve tting of frequency transfer f unctions, which are essential in model parameter extraction, are discussed. Seve ral laboratory experiments in the area of vibration testing (modal testing) are described, giving details of the applicable instrumentation. Features and capabi lities of several commercially available experimental modal analysis systems are described, and a comparative evaluation is given. Chapter 12 addresses practica l and analytical issues of vibration design and control. The emphasis here is in the ways of designing, modifying, or controlling a system for good performance with regard to vibration. Ways of speci cation of vibration limits for proper perf ormance of an engineering system are discussed. Techniques and practical conside rations of vibration isolation are described, with an emphasis on the use of tra nsmissibility concepts developed in Chapter 3. Static and dynamic balancing of r otating machinery is studied by presenting both analytical and practical procedu res. The related topic of balancing multi-cylinder reciprocating machines is add ressed in some detail. The topic of whirling of rotating components and shafts i s studied. The subject of design through modal testing, which is directly relate d to the material in chapters 10 and 11, is discussed. Both passive control and active control of vibration are studied, giving procedures and practical example s. The background material that is not given in the main body of the text, but i s useful in comprehending the underlying procedures, is given in the appendices. Reference is made in the main text to these appendices, for further reading. Ap pendix A deals with dynamic models and analogies. Main steps of developing analy tical models for dynamic systems are indicated. Analogies between mechanical, el ectrical, uid, and thermal systems are presented, with particular emphasis on the cause of free natural oscillations. Development procedure of state-space models for these systems is indicated. Appendix B summarizes Newtonian and Lagrangian approaches to writing equations of motion for dynamic systems. Appendix C review s the basics of linear algebra. Vectormatrix techniques that are useful in vibra tion analysis and practice are summarized. Appendix D further explores the topic of digital Fourier analysis, with a special emphasis on the computational proce dure of fast Fourier transform (FFT). As the background theory, the concepts of Fourier series, Fourier integral transform, and discrete Fourier transform are d iscussed and integrated, which leads the digital computation of these quantities using FFT. Practical procedures and applications of digital Fourier analysis ar e given. Appendix E addresses reliability considerations for multicom2000 CRC Press

ponent devices. These considerations have a direct relationship to vibration mon itoring and testing, failure diagnosis, product quali cation, and design optimizat ion. PROBLEMS 1.1 Explain why mechanical vibration is an important area of study for engineers . Mechanical vibrations are known to have harmful effects as well as useful ones . Brie y describe ve practical examples of good vibrations and also ve practical exa mples of bad vibrations. Under some conditions it may be necessary to modify or redesign a machine with respect to its performance under vibrations. What are po ssible reasons for this? What are some of the modi cations that can be carried out on a machine in order to suppress its vibrations? On the one hand, modern machi nes are designed with sophisticated procedures and computer tools, and should pe rform better than the older designs, with respect to mechanical vibration. On th e other hand, modern machines have to operate under more stringent speci cations a nd requirements in a somewhat optimal fashion. In general, design for satisfacto ry performance under vibration takes an increased importance for modern machiner y. Indicate some reasons for this. Dynamic modeling both analytical and experime ntal (e.g., experimental modal analysis) is quite important in the design and de velopment of a product, for good performance with regard to vibration. Indicate how a dynamic model can be utilized in the vibration design of a device. Outline one practical application of mechanical vibration in each of the following bran ches of engineering: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Civil engineering Aeronautical and aerospace engineering Mechanical engineering Manufacturing engineering Electrical enginee ring 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING The book has relied on many publications, directly and indirectly, in its evolut ion and development. The author's own work as well as other excellent books have p rovided a wealth of knowledge. Although it is not possible or useful to list all such material, some selected publications are listed below. AUTHOR'S WORK 1. De Silva, C.W., Dynamic Testing and Seismic Quali cation Practice, D.C. Heath a nd Co., Lexington, MA, 1983. 2. De Silva C.W. and Wormley, D.N., Automated Trans it Guideways: Analysis and Design, D.C. Heath and Co., Lexington, MA, 1983. 3. D e Silva, C.W., Control Sensors and Actuators, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N J, 1989. 4. De Silva, C.W., Control System Modeling, Measurements and Data Corp. , Pittsburgh, PA, 1989. 5. De Silva, C.W., A technique to model the simply suppo rted timoshenko beam in the design of mechanical vibrating systems, Internationa l Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 17, 389-393, 1975. 6. Van de Vegte, J. and de Silva, C.W., Design of passive vibration controls for internally damped beams by modal control techniques, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 45(3), 417-425, 1976. 7. De Silva, C.W., Optimal estimation of the response of internally damped beam s to random loads in the presence of measurement noise, Journal of Sound and Vib ration, 47(4), 485-493, 1976. 2000 CRC Press

8. De Silva, C.W., Dynamic beam model with internal damping, rotatory inertia an d shear deformation, AIAA Journal, 14(5), 676-680, 1976. 9. De Silva, C.W. and W ormley, D.N., Material optimization in a torsional guideway transit system, Jour nal of Advanced Transportation, 13(3), 41-60, 1979. 10. De Silva, C.W., Buyukozt urk, O., and Wormley, D.N., Postcracking compliance of RC beams, Journal of the Structural Division, Trans. ASCE, 105(ST1), 35-51, 1979. 11. De Silva, C.W., Sei smic quali cation of electrical equipment using a uniaxial test, Earthquake Engine ering and Structural Dynamics, 8, 337-348, 1980. 12. De Silva, C.W., Loceff, F., and Vashi, K.M., Consideration of an optimal procedure for testing the operabil ity of equipment under seismic disturbances, Shock and Vibration Bulletin, 50(5) , 149-158, 1980. 13. De Silva, C.W. and Wormley, D.N., Torsional analysis of cut out beams, Journal of the Structural Division, Trans. ASCE, 106(ST9), 1933-1946, 1980. 14. De Silva, C.W., An algorithm for the optimal design of passive vibrat ion controllers for exible systems, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 74(4), 495-50 2, 1982. 15. De Silva, C.W., Matrix eigenvalue problem of multiple-shaker testin g, Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division, Trans. ASCE, 108(EM2), 457-461 , 1982. 16. De Silva, C.W., Selection of shaker speci cations in seismic quali catio n tests, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 91(2), 21-26, 1983. 17. De Silva, C.W., Shaker test- xture design, Measurements and Control, 17(6), 152-155, 1983. 18. De Silva, C.W., On the modal analysis of discrete vibratory systems, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education, 12(1), 35-44, 1984. 19. De Silva, C.W. and Palusamy, S.S., Experimental modal analysis A modeling and design tool, Mechanical Engineering, ASME, 106(6), 56-65, 1984. 20. De Silva, C.W., A dynami c test procedure for improving seismic quali cation guidelines, Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Trans. ASME, 106(2), 143-148, 1984. 21. De S ilva, C.W., Hardware and software selection for experimental modal analysis, The Shock and Vibration Digest, 16(8), 3-10, 1984. 22. De Silva, C.W., Computer-aut omated failure prediction in mechanical systems under dynamic loading, The Shock and Vibration Digest, 17(8), 3-12, 1985. 23. De Silva, C.W., Henning, S.J., and Brown, J.D., Random testing with digital control Application in the distributio n quali cation of microcomputers, The Shock and Vibration Digest, 18(9), 3-13, 198 6. 24. De Silva, C.W., The digital processing of acceleration measurements for m odal analysis, The Shock and Vibration Digest, 18(10), 3-10, 1986. 25. De Silva, C.W., Price, T.E., and Kanade, T., A torque sensor for direct-drive manipulator s, Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, 109(2), 122-127, 1987. 26. De Silva, C.W., Optimal input design for the dynamic testing of mechanical syste ms, Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Trans. ASME, 109(2), 1 11-119, 1987. 27. De Silva, C.W., Singh, M., and Zaldonis, J., Improvement of re sponse spectrum speci cations in dynamic testing, Journal of Engineering for Indus try, Trans. ASME, 112(4), 384-387, 1990. 28. De Silva, C.W., Schultz, M., and Do lejsi, E., Kinematic analysis and design of a continuously-variable transmission , Mechanism and Machine Theory, 29(1), 149-167, 1994. 29. Bussani, F. and de Sil va, C.W., Use of nite element method to model machine processing of sh, Finite Ele ment News, 5, 36-42, 1994. 30. Caron, M., Modi, V.J., Pradhan, S., de Silva, C.W ., and Misra, A.K., Planar dynamics of exible manipulators with slewing deployabl e links, Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 21(4), 572-580, 1998. OTHER USEFUL PUBLICATIONS 1. Beards, C.F., Engineering Vibration Analysis with Application to Control Syst ems, Halsted Press, New York, 1996. 2. Bendat, J.S. and Piersol, A.G., Random Da ta: Analysis and Measurement Procedures, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1971. 3. Blevins, R.D., Flow-Induced Vibration, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1977. 4. Brigham, E.O., The Fast Fourier Transform, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974. 2000 CRC Press

5. Broch, J.T., Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, Bruel and Kjaer, Na erum, Denmark, 1980. 6. Buzdugan, G., Mihaiescu, E., and Rades, M., Vibration Me asurement, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1986. 7. Cra ndall, S.H., Karnopp, D.C., Kurtz, E.F., and Prodmore-Brown, D.C., Dynamics of M echanical and Electromechanical Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968. 8. Den Har tog, J.P., Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956. 9. Dimarogonas, A ., Vibration for Engineers, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1996. 10. Ewins, D.J., Modal Testing: Theory and Practice, Research Studies Pres s Ltd., Letchworth, England, 1984. 11. Inman, D.J., Engineering Vibration, Prent ice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1996. 12. Irwin, J.D. and Graf, E.R., Industrial Noise and Vibration Control, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979. 13. McC onnell, K.G., Vibration Testing, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995. 14. Meirovit ch, L., Computational Methods in Structural Dynamics, Sijthoff & Noordhoff, Rock ville, MD, 1980. 15. Meirovitch, L., Elements of Vibration Analysis, 2nd edition , McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986. 16. Randall, R.B., Application of B&K Equipment t o Frequency Analysis, Bruel and Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark, 1977. 17. Rao, S.S., Mec hanical Vibrations, 3rd edition, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1995. 18. Shearer, J.L. and Kulakowski, B.T., Dynamic Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems, MacMillan Publishing, New York, 1990. 19. Shearer, J.L., Murphy, A.T., and Rich ardson, H.H., Introduction to System Dynamics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1971 . 20. Steidel, R.F., An Introduction to Mechanical Vibrations, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1979. 21. Volterra, E. and Zachmanoglou, E.C., Dynamics of Vibrations, Charles E. Merrill Books, Columbus, OH, 1965. 2000 CRC Press