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Lecture 1
Introduction to Viruses and Bacteria
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

The evolution of prokaryotes

Prokaryotic organisms (Bacteria and Archaea) lack a nuclear membrane and do not have membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts The first microorganisms probably appeared within a billion years of Earths formation and would have been adapted to face hot, anaerobic conditions The cyanobacteria are thought to be the first O2-producing photosynthetic organisms and their evolution was crucial to the later evolution of plant and animal life on Earth
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Microbial Life, Perry et al; 2002

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Bacterial cultures
Early microbiologists cultured their microbes on potato slices and later media solidified with gelatin. Agar g g p plates were first used in 1887. Many bacteria adhere to each other and solid surfaces via pili and fimbriae forming surfacecoating colonies known as biofilms Bacteria in biofilms secrete signalling molecules that recruit neighbouring cells and recycle each others wastes and nutrients Pathogenic bacteria frequently form biofilms on the surfaces of implanted medical devices and are more resistant to antibiotics in such communities
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Common shapes of prokaryotes

(Campbell 27.2)

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Fimbriae and pili enable bacteria to attach to surfaces and each other
Fimbriae

1 m

(Campbell 27.5)

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

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The genomes of prokaryotes

The DNA of prokaryotes is most often a circular, double-stranded, helical molecule typically of the order of 4 x 106 base pairs long Prokaryotic DNA is tightly wound into supercoils in order to package it inside the cell Bacteria often contain other extrachromosomal circular molecules of DNA called plasmids. plasmids The genes carried on plasmids generally are not essential but may enhance the survival of bacteria that carry them
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

A prokaryotic chromosome

Campbell 27.8

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Structure of viruses
Viruses are infectious particles consisting of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat known as the viral capsid The capsid is constructed from a number of individual subunits called capsomeres and may be rod-shaped, polyhedral (round) or more complex in shape (eg the T phages of bacteria) In some viruses a membraneous envelope studded with viral glycoproteins surrounds the capsid layer. layer The phospholipids derive from the host cell in which the virus was made. Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages. The T-even phages of E. coli have an icosahedral head and attach to the bacteria via protein tail fibres
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Viral structure
RNA Capsomere DNA Membranous RNA envelope Capsid Head Capsomere of capsid Tail sheath Tail fiber Glycoprotein 18 250 nm 7090 nm (diameter) Glycoproteins 80200 nm (diameter) 80 225 nm DNA

50 nm 20 nm (a) Tobacco (b) Adenoviruses mosaic virus

50 nm (c) Influenza viruses

50 nm (d) Bacteriophage T4 BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Campbell 19.3

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Viral reproductive cycles

Viruses can reproduce only within a host cell because they lack metabolic enzymes, ribosomes and other cell organelles The host range of a virus depends on interaction between proteins on the surface of the virus and the susceptible cell Once a virus binds to the cell surface, the viral genome must t enter t the th host h t cell. ll Many M bacteriophages inject their DNA via their tail structures while most animal and plant viruses uncoat the genome after the whole virus has entered the cell.
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Viral reproductive cycles (contd)

Host cell enzymes then produce many copies of genome and together g with host cell the viral g ribosomes, produce viral proteins The viral genomes and capsid proteins selfassemble to form new viral particles The progeny virus particles are released from the infected cell and then spread to infect neighbouring cells

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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A simplified viral reproductive cycle

Campbell 19.4

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Lytic replication of T4 phages

The phage attaches to receptors on the bacterial cell via the tail fibre proteins g DNA is injected j into the bacterial cell. Phage The bacterial DNA is hydrolysed via the action of a phage-encoded nuclease enzyme Phage genomes and proteins are produced by host cell replication enzymes and translation machinery The viral proteins self-assemble to form phage heads tails and tail fibres. heads, fibres As the head assembles the phage DNA is packaged inside it. A phage-encoded enzyme degrades the bacterial cell wall resulting in rupture (lysis) of the infected cell and release of 100-200 phage particles

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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The lytic cycle of phage T4

1 Attachment 2 Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA

5 Phage assembly

Release

4 Assembly Head Tail Tail fibers

3 Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Campbell 19.5

Phage lytic vs lysogenic replication

Phage is an example of a phage that can g lytic y replication p or alternatively y undergo replicate in a bacterial cell without killing it Such phages are called temperate phages and their non-lytic replication is described as lysogenic Lysogeny is established when the DNA genome integrates into a specific site in the bacterial chromosome The integrated DNA is known as a prophage. One of the prophage genes codes for a repressor protein that prevents transcription of most of the other prophage genes
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Phage lytic vs lysogenic replication (contd)

Each time the host E. coli cell divides, the prophage p p g DNA is replicated p along g with the bacterial chromosome A single infected cell soon gives rise to a large population of cells carrying the integrated prophage DNA In response to environmental signals such as UV radiation, the genome exits the bacterial genome re genome, re-circularises circularises and initiates a lytic cycle of replication that kills the host cell

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Phage DNA

The phage injects its DNA.

Phage Bacterial B t i l chromosome

Phage DNA circularizes.

The lytic cycle of phage p g

Lytic cycle
The cell lyses, releasing phages. Certain factors determine whether lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle is entered is induced

New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized and assembled into phages. BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Campbell 19.6

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Daughter cell with prophage Cell divisions produce a population of bacteria infected with the prophage.

Phage DNA circularizes.

Occasionally, a prophage exits the bacterial chromosome, initiating a lytic cycle.

The lysogenic cycle of phage

Lysogenic cycle Certain factors determine whether lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle Prophage is entered is induced

The bacterium reproduces, copying the prophage and transmitting it to daughter cells.

Phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome, becoming a prophage.

Campbell 19.6

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

HIV an example of a retrovirus

Viral genomes may be double-stranded or single-stranded DNA or RNA DNA viruses often use the host cell DNA polymerase to replicate their genome but RNA viruses must contain a gene that encodes their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase Retroviruses reproduce their genome by first making a DNA copy using a virally encoded reverse transcriptase enzyme HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the retrovirus that causes AIDS. The virus particle has a ssRNA genome and also contains copies of a viral reverse transcriptase enzyme
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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The structure of HIV

Campbell 19.8

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Replication of HIV
Glycoproteins on the surface of HIV bind to receptors on human T cells After the virus has entered the T cell, the viral a p a enzymes y are a released a d into o the reverse transcriptase cytoplasm where they catalyse synthesis of DNA copies of the viral genome The HIV DNA then enters the nucleus and integrates into the host cell chromosome ie it becomes a provirus Transcription of the proviral DNA provides new copies of the viral genome and also mRNA for production of viral proteins Immature viral particles assemble in the cytoplasm and mature by budding from the plasma membrane, acquiring viral glycoproteins and a viral envelope in the process
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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The reproductive cycle of HIV

Campbell 19.8

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Viruses and disease

Disease symptoms often reflect the impacts of viral replication in infected cells eg destruction of epithelial cells by herpes viruses Viral diseases may spread by different routes: - faecal-oral eg rotavirus, polio - respiratory eg influenza, chicken pox - contact/abrasions eg HIV - arthropod vectors eg Dengue fever Antiviral drugs typically target viral proteins Vaccines have been used successfully to eradicate some viral diseases eg smallpox
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Viruses and disease (contd)

Viral diseases in plants have enormous financial consequences because of the damage they cause to agricultural and horticultural crops Many M plant l t viruses i have h RNA genomes and d assemble as rod-shaped particles (eg tobacco mosaic virus or TMV) Plant viruses spread by two major routes: horizontal transmission from an external source eg insect vectors vertical transmission from parent to progeny plants (eg cuttings or infected seeds) Once inside a plant cell, plant viruses can spread rapidly throughout the plant via the plasmodesmata
BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

Viral infections in plants

Campbell 19.10 Campbell 18.3 (7th Edition)

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Emerging viruses
New viral diseases can suddenly appear as a result of: mutation/recombination of existing viruses ( (especially i ll RNA viruses) i ) spread of existing viruses to a new host species SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) is a recent example of disease caused by an emergent virus Will bird flu be next??

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

SARS a recently emergent viral disease

Campbell 18.11 (7th Edition)

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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Where will the next pandemic come from?

Campbell 19.9 (8th and 9th edns)

BIOSCI 101: Microbiology

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