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For other uses, see Mandela (disambiguation). This is a good article. Click here for more information. His Excellency Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela OM AC CC OJ GCStJ QC GCH BR RSO NPK Nelson Mandela on the eve of his 90th birthday in Johannesburg in May 2008 President of South Africa In office 10 May 1994 14 June 1999 Deputy Thabo Mbeki F. W. de Klerk Preceded by F. W. de Klerk Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki Personal details Born Rolihlahla Mandela 18 July 1918 Mvezo, Union of South Africa Died 5 December 2013 (aged 95) Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Nationality South African Political party African National Congress Spouse(s) Evelyn Ntoko Mase (m. 1944 1957; divorced) Winnie Madikizela (m. 1958 1996; divorced) Graa Machel (m. 1998 2013; his death) Children Madiba Thembekile Mandela Makaziwe Mandela Makgatho Lewanika Mandela Makaziwe Mandela Zenani Mandela Zindziswa Mandela Alma mater University of Fort Hare University of London External System University of South Africa University of the Witwatersrand Profession Lawyer Social Activist Politician Philanthropist Religion Methodism Signature Signature of Nelson Mandela Website www.nelsonmandela.org Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (Xhosa pronunciation: [xo'li??a?a man'de?la]) (18 July 1918 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politic ian, and philanthropist who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 199 9. He was the first black South African to hold the office, and the first electe d in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on disma ntling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalised racism, povert y and inequality, and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African na tionalist and democratic socialist, he served as President of the African Nation al Congress (ANC) from 1991 to 1997. Internationally, Mandela was Secretary Gene ral of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999.

A Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family, Mandela attended the Fort Hare Universi ty and the University of Witwatersrand, where he studied law. Living in Johannes burg, he became involved in anti-colonial politics, joining the ANC and becoming a founding member of its Youth League. After the South African National Party c ame to power in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign, was appointed superintendent of the organisation's Transvaal chapter and presid ed over the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessful ly prosecuted in the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961. Although initially committ ed to non-violent protest, he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961 in association with the South African Communist Party, leading a sabotage c ampaign against the apartheid government. In 1962 he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the government, and sentenced to life imprisonment in th e Rivonia Trial. Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, and later in Poll smoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. An international campaign lobbied for hi s release, which was granted in 1990 amid escalating civil strife. Mandela publi shed his autobiography and opened negotiations with President F.W. de Klerk to a bolish apartheid and establish multiracial elections in 1994, in which he led th e ANC to victory. As South Africa's first black president Mandela formed a Gover nment of National Unity in an attempt to defuse racial tension. He also promulga ted a new constitution and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to in vestigate past human rights abuses. Continuing the former government's liberal e conomic policy, his administration introduced measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as me diator between Libya and the United Kingdom in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing tri al, and oversaw military intervention in Lesotho. He declined to run for a secon d term, and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder st atesman, focusing on charitable work in combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through t he Nelson Mandela Foundation. Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Denounced as a Marxist terrorist by critics,[1][2] he nevertheless gained international acclaim for his activism, having received more than 250 honours, including the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Soviet Order of Lenin and the Bharat Ratna. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata ("Father"); he is often d escribed as "the father of the nation". Contents [hide] 1 Early life 1.1 Childhood: 1918 1936 1.2 Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1936 1940 1.3 Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941 1943 2 Revolutionary activity 2.1 Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943 1949 2.2 Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950 1954 2.3 Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955 1961 2.4 Umkhonto we Sizwe and African tour: 1961 1962 3 Imprisonment 3.1 Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962 1964 3.2 Robben Island: 1964 1982 3.3 Pollsmoor Prison: 1982 1988 3.4 Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988 1990 4 End of apartheid 4.1 Early negotiations: 1990 1991 4.2 CODESA talks: 1991 1992 4.3 General election: 1994 5 Presidency of South Africa: 1994 1999 5.1 National reconciliation 5.2 Domestic programmes 5.3 Foreign affairs

5.4 Withdrawing from politics 6 Retirement 6.1 Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999 2004 6.2 "Retiring from retirement", illness: 2004 2013 7 Death and funeral 8 Political ideology 9 Personal life 10 Influence and legacy 10.1 Orders, decorations, and monuments 10.2 Tributes by musicians 10.3 Cinema and television 11 References 11.1 Footnotes 11.2 Bibliography 12 External links Early life Childhood: 1918 1936 Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtatu, then a part of South Africa's Cape Province.[3] Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",[3] in later years he became known by his cl an name, Madiba.[4] His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was ruler of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Easter n Cape province.[5] One of this king's sons, named Mandela, became Nelson's gran dfather and the source of his surname.[6] Because Mandela was only the king's ch ild by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognized as hereditary royal councillors.[6] His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he had been appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corrupt ion by a governing white magistrate.[7] In 1926, Gadla, too, was sacked for corr uption, but Nelson was told that he had lost his job for standing up to the magi strate's unreasonable demands.[8] A devotee of the god Qamata,[9] Gadla was a po lygamist, having four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in differen t villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daug hter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xh osa.[10] "No one in my family had ever attended school [...] On the first day of school m y teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom a mong Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our e ducation. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name I have no idea." Mandela, 1994[11] Later stating that his early life was dominated by "custom, ritual and taboo",[1 2] Mandela grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu , where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time outside with other b oys.[13] Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mot her sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Met hodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.[14] W hen Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.[15] Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" an d "stubborn sense of fairness".[16] His mother took Mandela to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under the guardianship of Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jong intaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongs ide their son Justice and daughter Nomafu.[17] As Mandela attended church servic es every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of hi s life.[18] He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, s

tudying English, Xhosa, history and geography.[19] He developed a love of Africa n history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and be came influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of Chief Joyi.[20] At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists as benefactors, not oppress ors.[21] Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to u ndergo the circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from bo ys to men; the rite over, he was given the name Dalibunga.[22] Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1936 1940 Mandela c. 1937 Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu roya l house, Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Af ricans in Thembuland.[23] Made to socialise with other students on an equal basi s, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong lov e of gardening.[24] Completing his Junior Certificate in two years,[25] in 1937 he moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most T hembu royalty, including Justice.[26] The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a Sotho language-spe aker, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa w ho broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.[27] Spending much of his spare time long-dis tance running and boxing, in his second year Mandela became a prefect.[28] With Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cap e, with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology, politics, n ative administration, and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department.[29] Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K.D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.[30] Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing,[31] perform ed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln,[32] and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Students Christian Association.[33] Although having friends connected to the African National Congress (ANC) and the anti-imp erialist movement who wanted an independent South Africa, Mandela avoided any in volvement,[34] and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the S econd World War broke out.[35] Helping found a first-year students' house commit tee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,[36] at the end of his fi rst year he became involved in a Students' Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was temporarily suspended from the uni versity; he left without receiving a degree.[37] Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941 1943 Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arr anged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Que enstown, arriving in April 1941.[38] Mandela found work as a night watchman at C rown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fir ed when the induna (headman) discovered he was a runaway.[39] Staying with a cou sin in George Goch Township, Mandela was introduced to the realtor and ANC activ ist Walter Sisulu, who secured him a job as an articled clerk at law firm Witkin , Sidelsky and Eidelman. The company was run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, w ho was sympathetic to the ANC's cause.[40] At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Redebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend.[41] Attending communist tal ks and parties, Mandela was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians and Colo ureds were mixing as equals. He stated later that he did not join the Party beca use its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the Sout h African struggle as being racially based rather than class warfare.[42] Becomi ng increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a succ

essful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.[43] Continuing his higher education, M andela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.[44] Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; although rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexand ra always remained "a treasured place" for him.[45] Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his lan dlord's daughter.[46] In order to save money and be closer to downtown Johannesb urg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Associat ion, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was a "way station f or visiting chiefs", he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland.[47] In late 194 1, Jongintaba visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. On returning to Themb uland, the regent died in winter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late fo r the funeral.[48] After passing his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.[49] He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, b ut that he "simply found myself doing so, and could not do otherwise."[50] Revolutionary activity Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943 1949 Beginning law studies at the University of Witwatersrand, Mandela was the only n ative African student, and though facing racism, he befriended liberal and commu nist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo, Harry Schwarz and Ruth First.[51] Joining the ANC, Mandela was increasingly influenced by Sisu lu, spending much time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including old friend Oliver Tambo.[52] In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an African nat ionalist virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and i mperialism or to an alliance with the communists.[53] Despite his friendships wi th non-blacks and communists, Mandela supported Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political se lf-determination.[54] Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass mobilise Afr icans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that ap proached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiato wn; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sun day 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre in Eloff Street, with Lembede as Presi dent and Mandela as a member of the executive committee.[55] Mandela and Evelyn in 1944 At Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, an ANC activist from Engcobo, Transk ei, who was training at the time to become a nurse. Married on 5 October 1944, a fter initially living with her relatives, they rented House no. 8115 in Orlando from early 1946.[56] Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945,[57] and a daughter named Makaziwe was born in 1947, dying nine mo nths later of meningitis.[58] Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother an d sister Leabie to stay with him.[59] In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time st udent, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.[60] In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede to hospital, where he died; he was succeede d as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate wi th communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.[61] Mandela di sagreed with Mda's approach, in December 1947 supporting an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.[62] In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the Transvaal ANC, se rving under regional president C.S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the Transvaal Executive Committee by co-operating with Indians and com munists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.[63] In the South African general election, 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel Franois Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Par

ty. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with th e new apartheid legislation.[64] Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandel a and his cadres began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boyco tts and strikes, influenced by the tactics of South Africa's Indian community. X uma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant cabinet containi ng Sisulu, Mda, Tambo and Godfrey Pitje; Mandela later related that "We had now guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."[65] Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; h e was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.[66] Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950 1954 Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC National Executive in March 1950.[67] That month, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing toge ther African, Indian and communist activists to call an anti-apartheid general s trike. Mandela opposed the strike because it was not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introd uction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all p rotest groups.[68] In 1950, Mandela was elected national president of the ANCYL; at the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.[69] Thenceforth, he altered his entire perspective, embracing such an approach; influenced by friends like Moses Kotan e and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of independence, Mandela's mistrust of communism also broke down. He became influenced by the texts of Karl Marx, F riedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong, and embraced dial ectical materialism.[70] In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner la w firm,[71] though his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.[72] In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against aparthe id with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recr uit volunteers. Deciding on a path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatm a Gandhi, some considered it the ethical option, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.[73] At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled c rowd of 10,000, initiating the campaign protests, for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.[74] With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arre sts, introducing the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law.[75] In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANU President J. B. Marks from making public appear ances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although the ultra-Africanist Bafabegiya group opposed his candidacy, Mandela w as elected regional president in October.[76] On 30 July 1952, Mandela was arres ted under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as a part of the 21 a in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "sta ccused among them Moroka, Sisulu and Dadoo tutory communism", their sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years.[77] In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending mee tings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANU presidency impractical. The Defiance Campaign petered out.[78] In September 195 3, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transv aal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan , or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a mor e centralised leadership.[79] Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, befor e moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to be come a full-fledged attorney.[80] In August 1953, Mandela and Oliver Tambo opene d their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was r emoved under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their custom dwindled.[81] Though

a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationshi p with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. Evidence has eme rged indicating that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and sec retary Ruth Mompati; persistent but unproven claims assert that the latter bore Mandela a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei , and Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's obsession w ith politics.[82] Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955 1961 Main article: Treason Trial "We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to kn ow: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no go vernment can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people ." Opening words of the Freedom Charter[83] Mandela came to the opinion that the ANC "had no alternative to armed and violen t resistance" after taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the demol ition of the all-black Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955.[84] H e advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People's Republic of China, but th ough supporting the anti-apartheid struggle, China's government believed the mov ement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare.[85] With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South Afr ican Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a C ongress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rus ty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. When the charter was adopted at a June 1 955 conference in Kliptown attended by 3000 delegates, police cracked down on th e event, but it remained a key part of Mandela's ideology.[86] Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working h oliday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 195 1 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proce eding to Cape Town.[87] In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appear ances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.[8 8] His marriage broke down as Evelyn left Mandela, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for cus tody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.[89] During the divorce proceedings, h e began courting and politicising a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, who he mar ried in Bizana on 14 June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spe nding several weeks imprisoned.[90] The apartheid system pervaded all areas of life. On 5 December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC Executive for "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protest s, they underwent a preparatory examination in Drill Hall on 19 December, before being granted bail.[91] The defence's refutation began on 9 January 1957, overs een by defence lawyer Vernon Berrang, and continued until adjourning in September . In January 1958, judge Oswald Pirow was appointed to the case, and in February he ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial i n the Transvaal Supreme Court.[92] The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges all linked to the governing National Party replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a re formulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed hi gh treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.[93] In April 1959, militant Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front app

roach founded the Pan-African Congress (PAC); Mandela's friend Robert Sobukwe wa s elected president, though Mandela thought the group "immature".[94] Both parti es campaigned for an anti-pass campaign in May 1960, in which Africans burned th e passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organized demon strations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. In solidarity, Mandela publicly burned his pass as rio ting broke out across South Africa, leading the government to proclaim martial l aw.[95] Under the State of Emergency measures, Mandela and other activists were arrested on 30 March, imprisoned without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison, and the ANC and PAC were banned in April.[96] This ma de it difficult for their lawyers to reach them, and it was agreed that the defe nce team for the Treason Trial should withdraw in protest. Representing themselv es in court, the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August.[97] Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In Afri can Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March, at which 1,400 anti-apart heid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at home protest to mark 31 May, the day S outh Africa became a republic.[98] On 29 March 1961, after a six-year trial, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, embarrassing the government.[99] Umkhonto we Sizwe and African tour: 1961 1962 Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid Mandela House in the Johannesburg township of Soweto was Mandela's home before h is 27-year imprisonment, and his home immediately after being released from pris on. The property is now a national museum. Disguising himself as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled the country incognito, orga nising the ANC's new cell structure and a mass stay-at-home strike for 29 May. R eferred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press a reference to Emma Orczy's 190 5 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel the police put out a warrant for his arrest.[100] Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo.[101] He believed that th e ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence, convincing bo th ANC leader Albert Luthuli who was morally opposed to violence and allied acti vist groups of its necessity.[102] Inspired by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 196 1 Mandela co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK) w ith Sisulu and the communist Joe Slovo. Becoming chairman of the militant group, he gained ideas from illegal literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guev ara. Officially separate from the ANC, in later years MK became the group's arme d wing.[103] Most early MK members were white communists; after hiding in commun ist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesle af Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.[104] Although Mandela himself denied ever being a Communist Party member, historical research has suggested that he might have be en for a short period, starting from the late 1950s or early 1960s.[105] After h is death, the Communist Party and the ANC confirmed that he was a Communist Part y member when he was arrested in 1962.[106] Operating through a cell structure, the MK agreed to acts of sabotage to exert m aximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties, bombing military inst allations, power plants, telephone lines and transport links at night, when civi lians were not present. Mandela himself stated that they chose sabotage not only because it was the least harmful action, but also "because it did not involve l oss of life [and] it offered the best hope for reconciliation among the races af terward." He noted that "strict instructions were given to members of MK that we would countenance no loss of life", but should these tactics fail, MK would res ort to "guerilla warfare and terrorism".[107] Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the MK publicly

announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, f ollowed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.[108] The ANC agreed to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 Pan-African Fr eedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[109] Traveling there in secret, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.[110] After the conference, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President H abib Bourguiba gave him 5000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President Will iam Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Skou Tour.[111] Leaving Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and prominent leftist politi cians.[112] Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warf are, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa.[113] Imprisonment Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962 1964 Police shots of several accused in the Rivonia Trial. The portrait at the top is of Mandela, the chief accused. The photograph in the lower right-hand corner is of Walter Sisulu. On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with Cecil Williams near Howick. [114] South African authorities were reportedly tipped off about Mandela's where abouts by the C.I.A..[115][116][117] Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square pr ison, he was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country with out permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intend ed to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while sup porters demonstrated outside the court.[118] Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie cou ld visit him, in his cell he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London.[119] His hearing began on 15 Octobe r, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to cal l any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Fou nd guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroo m, supporters sang Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika.[120] "In a way I had never quite comprehended before, I realized the role I could pla y in court and the possibilities before me as a defendant. I was the symbol of j ustice in the court of the oppressor, the representative of the great ideals of freedom, fairness and democracy in a society that dishonoured those virtues. I r ealized then and there that I could carry on the fight even in the fortress of t he enemy." Mandela, 1994[121] "I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all person s live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die. " Rivonia Trial Speech, 1964[122] On 11 July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned M andela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court on 9 October, with Man dela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to vio lently overthrow the government. Their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar, who cal led for them to receive the death penalty.[123] Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.[124 ] With the exception of James Kantor, who was innocent of all charges, Mandela and the accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their poli

tical cause. At the opening of the defence's proceedings Mandela gave a four hou r long speech. That speech which was inspired by Castro's "History Will Absolve Me" speech was widely reported in the press despite official censorship, and has been hailed as one of his greatest speeches.[125] The trial gained internationa l attention, with global calls for the release of the accused from such institut ions as the United Nations and World Peace Council. The University of London Uni on voted Mandela to its presidency, and nightly vigils for him were held in St. Paul's Cathedral, London.[126] Deeming them to be violent communist agitators, S outh Africa's government ignored all calls for clemency, and on 12 June 1964 de Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges, sentenci ng them to life imprisonment rather than death.[127] Robben Island: 1964 1982 Lime quarry on Robben Island Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robbe n Island, remaining there for the next 18 years.[128] Isolated from non-politica l prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuri ng 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with a straw mat on which to sleep.[129] Ve rbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Tria l prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wea r sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.[130] At night, he worked on his LLB degree, but newspapers were forbidden, and he wa s locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for possessing smuggled ne ws clippings.[131] Classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was p ermitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavil y censored.[132] The political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes the latter consider ed largely ineffective by Mandela to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.[133] ANC prisoners elected him to th eir four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners on the isla nd, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. [134] Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured o n their own areas of expertise, he debated topics such as homosexuality and poli tics with his comrades, getting into fierce arguments on the latter with Marxist s like Mbeki and Harry Gwala.[135] Though attending Christian Sunday services, M andela studied Islam.[136] He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual r espect with the warders and convert them to his cause.[137] Various official vis itors met with Mandela; most significant was the liberal parliamentary represent ative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outs ide prison.[138] In September 1970 he met British Labour Party MP Dennis Healey. [139] South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, b ut he and Mandela did not get on.[140] His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.[141] His wife was rarely ab le to visit, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughter s first visited in December 1975; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forci bly settled in Brandfort, still unable to visit him.[142] Mandela's cell and the prison yard on Robben Island, where he was imprisoned From 1967, prison conditions improved, with black prisoners given trousers rathe r than shorts, games being permitted, and food quality improving.[143] In a FIFA documentary, Mandela commented on how football gave hope to his fellow inmates; "the game made us feel alive and triumphant despite the situation we found ours elves in".[144] In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruc e, but it was abandoned after being infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escap

e.[145] In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, s eeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to v isiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.[146] He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.[147] By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A pr isoner,[148] allowing greater numbers of visits and letters; he corresponded wit h anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu.[149] That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained un published at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his stud y privileges were stopped for four years.[150] Instead he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980.[151] By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists w ere imprisoned on Robben Island.[152] Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.[153] Renewed international interest in his p light came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.[154] He was award ed an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for Internationa l Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotla nd in 1981.[155][156][157] In March 1980 the slogan "Free Mandela!" was develope d by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release.[158] Despite increasing foreign press ure, the government refused, relying on powerful foreign Cold War allies in US P resident Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela a communist terrorist and supported the suppression of the ANC.[159] Pollsmoor Prison: 1982 1988 In April 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town al ong with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and R aymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influ ence on younger activists.[160] Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robb en Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.[16 1] Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden,[162] also reading voraciously and corres ponding widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.[163] He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms imple mented by South African President P.W. Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments whi ch had control over education, health, and housing, but black Africans were excl uded from the system; like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.[164] Bust of Mandela erected on London's Southbank by the Greater London Council admi nistration of socialist Ken Livingstone in 1985 Violence across the country escalated, with many fearing civil war. Under pressu re from an international lobby, multinational banks stopped investing in South A frica, resulting in economic stagnation. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela then at the height of his international fame to defuse the v olatile situation.[165] Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist", [166] in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison on condition that he '"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating "What freed om am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."[167] In 1985 Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being gi ven new solitary quarters on the ground floor.[168] He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha 's government refused to co-operate, in June calling a state of emergency and in itiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back

, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. Utilising the arm y and right-wing paramilitaries to combat the resistance, the government secretl y funded Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha to attack ANC members, furthering the violence.[169] Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secre tly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, having a further 11 meetings over 3 years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that th ey permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party and not i nsist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the AN C would only end the armed struggle when the government renounced violence.[170] Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, notably with the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadiu m.[171] Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal proble ms when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a cri minal gang, the "Mandela United Football Club", who had been responsible for tor turing and killing opponents including children in Soweto. Though some encourage d him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by t rial.[172] Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988 1990 Mandela on a 1988 Soviet commemorative stamp Recovering from tuberculosis caused by dank conditions in his cell,[173] in Dece mber 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. Here, he was ho used in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, using the time to complete his LLB degree.[174] There he was permitted many visitors, suc h as anti-apartheid campaigner and longtime friend Harry Schwarz.[175][176] Mand ela organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.[177] In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, retaining the state presidency but stepping down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by the conservative F. W. de Kl erk.[178] In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in Jul y 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.[179] Botha was replaced as stat e president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that aparthe id was unsustainable and unconditionally released all ANC prisoners except Mande la.[180] Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before releasing Mandela unconditionally and legalising all formerly banned political parties on 2 February 1990.[181] The first photographs of Mandela were allowed to be publi shed in South Africa for 20 years.[182] Leaving Victor Verster on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of am assed crowds and press; the event was broadcast live across the world.[183] Driv en to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commi tment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but made it clear tha t the ANC's armed struggle was not over, and would continue as "a purely defensi ve action against the violence of apartheid." He expressed hope that the governm ent would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for th e armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the bl ack majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.[18 4] Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu, in the following days Mandela met with f riends, activists, and press, giving a speech to 100,000 people at Johannesburg' s Soccer City.[185] End of apartheid Main article: Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa Early negotiations: 1990 1991

Luthuli House in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991 Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zamb ia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, continuing to Sweden where he was reun ited with Tambo, and then London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An In ternational Tribute for a Free South Africa concert in Wembley Stadium.[186] Enc ouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government , in France he was welcomed by President Franois Mitterrand, in Vatican City by P ope John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom he met Margaret Thatcher. In the Uni ted States, he met President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African-American community.[187] In Cuba he met President Fidel Castro, whom he had long admired , with the two becoming friends.[188] In Asia he met President R. Venkataraman i n India, President Suharto in Indonesia and Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in M alaysia, before visiting Australia to meet Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Japan; h e notably did not visit the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.[189] In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiati ons with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them wit h his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Sc huur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August Ma ndela recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage offered a ceasefire, th e Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.[190] He s pent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg co nference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more mod erate than expected.[191] At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted the party's faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was el ected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mi xed gendered national executive was elected.[192] Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell Hou se, central Johannesburg, and moved with Winnie to her large Soweto home.[193] T heir marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mp ofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Souther n Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 Apr il 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced h er to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mand ela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton.[194] Mandela's reputation was further damaged by the increase in "black-on-black" violence, par ticularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, in which thousand s died. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela recognised that there was a "third force" wi thin the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk whom he increasingly distrusted for the Sebokeng massacre .[195] In September 1991 a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg in which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violenc e continued.[196] CODESA talks: 1991 1992 The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's viol ence, he took to the stage to denounce him as "head of an illegitimate, discredi ted minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiatio n was achieved.[197] CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, in which de Klerk insisted t hat post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presid ency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demand ing a unitary system governed by majority rule.[198] Following the Boipatong mas sacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Uni

ty in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Counc il and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to pre vent "state terrorism". The UN sent special envoy Cyrus Vance to the country to aid negotiations.[199] Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organ ised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.[200] De Klerk and Mandela shake hands at the World Economic Forum, 1992 Following the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were sh ot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised tha t mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in Septem ber. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be releas ed, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenc ed off, the latter two measures to prevent further Inkatha attacks; under increa sing pressure, de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multi racial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year coalition govern ment of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Part y continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.[201] The duo agreed on an interim constitution, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and Mandela's for unitary g overnment.[202] The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COS AG), an alliance of far-right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist gr oups like Inkatha; in June 1993 the white supremacist Afrikaner Weerstandsbewegi ng (AWB) attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre.[203] Following the murder of ANC leader Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soo n after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died from a str oke.[204] In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal.[205] Soon a fter, they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.[206] Influenced by young ANC leader Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figure s, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC member s, he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switze rland.[207] Mandela also made a cameo appearance as a schoolteacher reciting one of Malcolm X's speeches in the final scene of the 1992 film Malcolm X.[208] General election: 1994 Main article: South African general election, 1994 Mandela casting his vote in the 1994 election With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and hiring advisor Stanley Greenberg. Greenberg orchestrated th e foundation of People's Forums across the country, at which Mandela could appea r; though a poor public speaker, he was a popular figure with great status among black South Africans.[209] The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Developme nt Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan wa s "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development wo uld be funded.[210] With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, So uth Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party.[211] Mandela devoted much t ime to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet w ealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.[212] He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this po

licy became the subject of ridicule.[213] Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of t he Battle of Bop and Shell House Massacre incidents of violence involving the AW B and Inkatha, respectively Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P.W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work w ithin the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.[214] As leaders of th e two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; althou gh de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's off er to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to consider it a v ictory for Mandela.[215] The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School i n Durban, and though he was elected President, he publicly accepted that the ele ction had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.[216] Having taken 62% of the national vote, the ANC was just short of the two-thirds majority needed t o unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in 7 provinc es, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another.[217] Presidency of South Africa: 1994 1999 Main article: Presidency of Nelson Mandela Mandela's inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a bil lion viewers globally. The event was attended by 4000 guests, including world le aders from disparate backgrounds.[218] South Africa's first black President, Man dela became head of a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC which al one had no experience of governance but containing representatives from the Nati onal Party and Inkatha. In keeping with earlier agreements, de Klerk became firs t Deputy President, and Thabo Mbeki was selected as second.[219] Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him t hroughout his presidency, allowing him to organise policy details.[220] Moving i nto the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk t o retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settlin g into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "Genadendal", meaning "Vall ey of Mercy" in Afrikaans.[221] Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around t he area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.[222] Mandela moved into the presidential office at Tuynhuys, Cape Town. Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.[223] He often entertained celebrities, such as Michae l Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich busin essmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo-American, as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism fro m ANC anti-capitalists.[224] Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived sim ply, donating a third of his 552,000 rand annual income to the Nelson Mandela Ch ildren's Fund, which he had founded in 1995.[225] Although speaking out in favou r of freedom of the press and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too much on scaremongering around crime.[226] Changing clothes several times a day, after assuming the pre sidency, one of Mandela's trademarks was his use of Batik shirts, known as "Madi ba shirts", even on formal occasions.[227] In December 1994, Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, was finally pub lished.[228] In late 1994 he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfon tein, at which a more militant National Executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated di vorce proceedings in August 1995.[229] By 1995 he had entered into a relationshi p with Graa Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was t he widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990, whe n she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with

Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her t ime between Mozambique and Johannesburg.[230] National reconciliation Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural de mocracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presiden cy.[231] Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the depart ure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the Rainbow Nation".[232] Mandela a ttempted to create the broadest possible coalition in his cabinet, with de Klerk as first Deputy President. Other National Party officials became ministers for Agriculture, Energy, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, and Buthelezi was nam ed Minister for Home Affairs.[233] The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and D ullah Omar had long been comrades, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jef f Radebe, were much younger.[234] Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strai ned; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk f elt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995 , Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.[235] Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including He ndrik Verwoerd's widow Betsie Schoombie and the lawyer Percy Yutar; emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."[236] He encouraged black South Afri cans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Springboks won an epic f inal over New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back . This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."[237] Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew criticism from more militant blacks. His estranged wife , Winnie, accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing whites than in h elping blacks.[238] More controversially, Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliatio n Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the governm ent and the ANC, appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation o f martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it he ld two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appeal ed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was suc cessful.[239] Mandela praised the Commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".[240] Domestic programmes Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998 Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, ar ound 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, 12 million lacked cle an water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the popu lation illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the popula tion lived below the poverty line.[241] Government financial reserves were nearl y depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, m eaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation .[242] Instead, the government adopted liberal economic policies designed to pro mote foreign investment, adhering to the "Washington consensus" advocated by the

World Bank and International Monetary Fund.[243] Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.[244] The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.[244] In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for childr en under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996.[245] By the 1999 election, th e ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 5 00 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 hou ses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.[246] The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their land, leading to the s ettlement of tens of thousands of land claims.[247] The Land Reform Act 3 of 199 6 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants who live and grow crops or graze live stock on farms. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of sixty-five.[248] The Skill s Development Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of mechanisms to financ e and promote skills development at the workplace.[249] The Labour Relations Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy, orderly collective bargaining, and the ef fective resolution of labour disputes.[250] The Basic Conditions of Employment A ct of 1997 improved enforcement mechanisms while extending a "floor" of rights t o all workers;[250] the Employment Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an end t o unfair discrimination and ensure the implementation of affirmative action in t he workplace.[250] Many domestic problems remained. Critics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's go vernment of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, leaving it for Mbeki to deal with.[251] M andela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime, South A frica having one of the world's highest crime rates; this was a key reason cited by the 750,000 whites who emigrated in the late 1990s.[252] Mandela's administr ation was mired in corruption scandals, with Mandela being perceived as "soft" o n corruption and greed.[253] Foreign affairs Mandela with US President Bill Clinton. Though publicly criticising him on sever al occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported him during his imp eachment proceedings.[254] Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation.[255] He echoed Mbeki's calls fo r an "African Renaissance", and was greatly concerned with issues on the contine nt; he took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abach a's regime increased human rights violations.[256] In 1996 he was appointed Chai rman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsucces sful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire.[257] In South Africa's fi rst post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in Se ptember 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili afte r a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings.[258] In September 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Mo vement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to critici se the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling ne gotiations to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Is rael and India.[259] Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought grea ter economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although thi

s was scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[260] He attracted controvers y for his close relationship with Indonesian President Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although privately urged him to withd raw from the occupation of East Timor.[261] Mandela faced similar criticism from the West for his personal friendships with Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi. Castro visited in 1998, to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope.[2 62] When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambaste d the criticisms as having racist undertones.[263] Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indi cted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela propo sed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; g overned by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in Apr il 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.[264] Withdrawing from politics The new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to check political and administrative author ity within a constitutional democracy.[265] De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, withdrawing from the coalition government in protest.[266] The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the National Party, wi th Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President.[267] When both Mandela and Mbeki were o ut of the country in one occasion, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", m arking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.[268] Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the December 1997 conference, and altho ugh hoping that Ramaphosa would replace him, the ANC elected Mbeki to the positi on; Mandela admitted that by then, Mbeki had become "de facto President of the c ountry". Replacing Mbeki as Deputy President, Mandela and the Executive supporte d the candidacy of Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, but he was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at th e election.[269] Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998 he publicly stated that "I'm in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from his f riend Desmond Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he set a w edding for his 80th birthday, in July.[270] The following day he held a grand pa rty with many foreign dignitaries.[271] Mandela had never planned on standing fo r a second term in office, and gave his farewell speech on 29 March 1999, after which he retired.[272] Retirement Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999 2004 Mandela visiting the London School of Economics in 2000 Retiring in June 1999, Mandela sought a quiet family life, to be divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. He set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiograp hy, to be titled The Presidential Years, but it was abandoned before publication .[273] Finding such seclusion difficult, he reverted to a busy public life with a daily programme of tasks, meeting with world leaders and celebrities, and when in Johannesburg worked with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to f ocus on combating HIV/AIDS, rural development and school construction.[274] Alth ough he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the pandem ic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wa rs", and urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV+ South Africans had access to retrovirals.[275] In 2000, the Nelson Mandela Invitational charity golf tourn ament was founded, hosted by Gary Player.[276] Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001.[277] In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the

Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were follo wed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AI DS.[278] He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference i n Durban in 2000,[279] and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conferenc e in Bangkok, Thailand.[280] Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly o pposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the worl d's powerful nations to police the entire world.[281] In 2003 he spoke out again st the plans for the US and UK to launch the War in Iraq, describing it as "a tr agedy" and lambasting US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Bla ir for undermining the UN. He attacked the US more generally, asserting that it had committed more "unspeakable atrocities" across the world than any other nati on, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy , although he later reconciled his relationship with Blair.[282] Retaining an in terest in Libyan-UK relations, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".[283] "Retiring from retirement", illness: 2004 2013 Nelson Mandela and President George W. Bush in the Oval Office, May 2005 In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "re tiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking "Don't call m e, I will call you."[284] Although continuing to meet with close friends and fam ily, the Foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events a nd denied most interview requests.[285] He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the N elson Mandela Legacy Trust,[286] travelling to the U.S., to speak before the Bro okings Institute and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa.[28 6][287] He spoke with U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama.[287] Mandela also encouraged Zimba bwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2 007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity."[2 88] That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leade rs in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new g roup, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.[289] Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,[290] and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, L ondon.[291] In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help t he poor across the world.[290] Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, although usually overshadowed Mbeki at any public events tha t the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor Jacob Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation were upset when his grandson, Mandla Mand ela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.[292] In 2004, Mandela had successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 F IFA World Cup, declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us in the yea r" marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Mandela emotionally raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy after South Africa was awarded host status.[293] Despite m aintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his fi nal public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received a "rapturous reception".[294][295] Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in fam ily trusts for the benefit of his descendants.[296] In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, a nd ultimately Mandela himself.[297][298][299]

Senator Barack Obama meets for the first time with Nelson Mandela, 17 May 2005 In February 2011, he was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attr acting international attention,[300] before being re-hospitalised for a lung inf ection and gallstone removal in December 2012.[301] After a successful medical p rocedure in early March 2013,[302] his lung infection recurred, and he was brief ly hospitalised in Pretoria.[303] On 8 June 2013, his lung infection worsened, a nd he was rehospitalised in Pretoria in a serious condition.[304] After four day s, it was reported that he had stabilised and remained in a "serious, but stable condition".[305] En route to the hospital, his ambulance broke down and was str anded on the roadside for 40 minutes. The government was criticised for the inci dent, but Zuma countered that throughout, Mandela was given "expert medical care ."[306] On 22 June 2013, CBS News stated that he had not opened his eyes in days and was unresponsive, and the family was discussing how much medical intervention shoul d be given.[307] Former bodyguard Shaun van Heerden, described by CBS News as "M andela's constant companion for the last 12 years", had publicly asked the famil y to "set him free" a week prior.[308] On 23 June 2013, Zuma announced that Mand ela's condition had become "critical".[309][310][311] Zuma, accompanied by the D eputy President of the ANC, Cyril Ramaphosa, met Mandela's wife Graa Machel at th e hospital in Pretoria and discussed his condition.[312] On 25 June Cape Town Ar chbishop Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Graa Mache l Mandela "at this hard time of watching and waiting".[313] The next day, Zuma v isited Mandela in the hospital and canceled a visit scheduled for the next day t o Mozambique.[314] A relative of Mandela told The Daily Telegraph newspaper he w as on life support.[315] On 4 July, it was reported that David Smith, a lawyer acting on behalf of Mandel a family members, claimed in court on 26 June that Mandela was in a permanent ve getative state and life support should be withdrawn.[316][317][318] The South Af rican Presidency stated that the doctors treating Mandela denied that he was in a vegetative state.[319][320] On 10 July, Zuma's office announced that Mandela r emained in critical but stable condition, and was responding to treatment.[321] On 1 September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital[322] although his cond ition remained unstable.[323] Death and funeral See also: Death of Nelson Mandela Mandela died of a lung infection on 5 December 2013 at around 20:50 UTC at his h ome in Houghton, Johannesburg surrounded by his family. He was 95.[324] His deat h was announced by President Jacob Zuma.[324][325] On 6 December, Zuma announced a national mourning period of ten days, with the m ain event being an official memorial service to be held at the FNB Stadium in Jo hannesburg on Tuesday 10 December. He declared Sunday 8 December a national day of prayer and reflection: "We call upon all our people to gather in halls, churc hes, mosques, temples, synagogues and in their homes to pray and hold prayer ser vices and meditation reflecting on the life of Madiba and his contribution to ou r country and the world." Mandela's body will lie in state from 11 to 13 Decembe r at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral will be held on Sunday 15 December in Qunu.[326][327] Cape Town mayor Patricia de Lille announced that Cape Town will host an interfai th service on the Grand Parade, which has been designated as Cape Town's primary public mourning space, on Sunday 8 December. A public night vigil will be held there on the evening before Mandela's funeral. Cape Town will also host a free t ribute concert at the Cape Town Stadium on Wednesday 13 December.[328] Political ideology

"Free Mandela" protest in Berlin, 1986

Mandela was an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joinin g the ANC,[329] also being "a democrat, and a socialist".[330] Although he prese nted himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout b eliever in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreei ng with them.[331] He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and fr eedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy,[332] and was driven by a be lief in natural and human rights.[333] This belief drove him to not only pursue racial equality but also to promote gay rights as part of the post-apartheid ref orms.[334] A democratic socialist, Mandela was "openly opposed to capitalism, private landownership and the power of big money".[335] Influenced by Marxism, during the re volution Mandela advocated scientific socialism,[336] although he denied being a communist during the Treason Trial.[337] Biographer David James Smith thought t his untrue, stating that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, though was a "fellow traveller" rather than a party memb er.[338] In the 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, it called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines, and land, believing it necessary to ensure equal distribution of wealth.[339] Despite these beliefs, Mandela nati onalised nothing during his presidency, fearing that this would scare away forei gn investors. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.[340] Personal life Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in ve ry few people.[341] Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcoh ol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed,[342] although was also reno wned for his mischievous sense of humour.[343] He was known for being both stubb orn and loyal,[344] and at times exhibited a quick temper.[342] He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, inc luding his opponents.[345] Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to everyone, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or s ervants.[346] In later life he always looked for the best in people, even defend ing political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.[347] He was highly image conscious, and throughout his life always soug ht out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried hi mself in a regal manner.[348] His official biographer Anthony Sampson commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himse lf well in press photographs and producing soundbites.[349] In describing his li fe, Mandela stated that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."[350] Mandela House museum, Soweto Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, had 17 grandchildren,[35 1] and many great-grandchildren.[352] He could be stern and demanding of his chi ldren, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren.[353] His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944;[56] they divorced after 13 ye ars in 1957 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, de votion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a member of the Jeh ovah's Witnesses, a religion requiring political neutrality.[89] The couple had two sons whom Mandela survived, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile (1945 1969) and Makgath o Mandela (1950 2005); his first son died in a car crash, and his second son died of AIDS. The couple had two daughters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (born 1947 an d 1954); the first died at the age of nine months, the second, known as "Maki", survived Mandela.[354] Makgatho's son, Mandla Mandela, became chief of the Mvezo tribal council in 2007.[355] Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei ar ea, although they, too, met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first blac k social worker.[356] They had two daughters, Zenani (Zeni), born 4 February 195 8, and Zindziswa (Zindzi) Mandela-Hlongwane, born 1960.[356] Zindzi was only 18

months old when her father was sent to Robben island. Later, Winnie was deeply t orn by family discord which mirrored the country's political strife; separation (April 1992) and divorce (March 1996), fuelled by political estrangement.[357] M andela's third wife was Graa Machel (ne Simbine), whom he married on his 80th birt hday in 1998.[358] Influence and legacy By the time of his death, Mandela had come to be widely considered "the father o f the nation" within South Africa,[359] and "the founding father of democracy",[ 360] being seen as "the national liberator, the saviour, its Washington and Linc oln rolled into one".[361] Mandela's biographer Anthony Sampson commented that e ven during his life, a myth had developed around him that turned him into "a sec ular saint" and which was "so powerful that it blurs the realities."[362]Within a decade after the end of his Presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony".[350] Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering ra cial reconciliation,[342] coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a grea t "concern for truth".[363] Throughout his life, Mandela had also faced criticism. UK Prime Minister Thatche r attracted international attention for describing the ANC as "a typical terrori st organisation" in 1987,[364] although she later called on Botha to release Man dela.[365] Mandela has also been criticized for his friendship with political le aders such as Fidel Castro, Muammar Gaddafi, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, and Suhar to as well as his refusal to criticize their various human rights violations.[36 6][367] On his death, various Twitter tweets repeated the denunciations that he was a communist and a terrorist.[368] Orders, decorations, and monuments Main article: List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela Bridge in Johannesburg Nelson Mandela graffiti by Thierry Ehrmann in the Abode of Chaos museum, France In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the freedom of the city,[369] and the Sand ton Square shopping centre was renamed Nelson Mandela Square, after a Mandela st atue was installed there.[370] In 2008, another Mandela statue was unveiled at G root Drakenstein Correctional Centre, formerly Victor Verster Prison, near Cape Town, standing on the spot where Mandela was released from the prison.[371] He has also received international acclaim. In 1993, he received the joint Nobel Peace Prize with de Klerk.[372] In November 2009, the United Nations General As sembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "Mandela Day", marking his con tribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela h ad been a part of the movement.[373] Awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom,[374] and the Order of Canada,[375] he was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen.[376] Th e last recipient of the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union,[ 377] and first recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights, [378] in 1990 he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the government of India,[3 79] and in 1992 received Pakistan's Nishan-e-Pakistan.[380] In 1992 he was award ed the Atatrk Peace Award by Turkey. He refused the award, citing human rights vi olations committed by Turkey at the time,[381] but later accepted the award in 1 999.[377] Elizabeth II awarded him the Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. J ohn and the Order of Merit.[382] Tributes by musicians Many artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One of the most popular was from T he Special AKA who recorded the song "Free Nelson Mandela" in 1983, which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a hit with. Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Osca r for the song "I Just Called to Say I Love You" to Mandela, resulting in his mu

sic being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation.[383] In 1985, Yo ussou N'Dour's album Nelson Mandela was the Senegalese artist's first US release . Other artists who released songs or videos honouring Mandela include Johnny Cl egg,[384] Hugh Masekela,[385] Brenda Fassie,[386] Beyond,[387] Nickelback,[388] Raffi,[389] and Ampie du Preez and AB de Villiers.[390] South African songstress Zahara, who happens to be an ambassador of the Nelson Mandela Children's Hospit al, released Nelson Mandela, an extended play that pays tribute to Mandela whils t celebrating his lifetime accomplishments. The EP's lead single titled "Nelson Mandela" was released at a time when Mandela was critically ill but stable at th e Medi-Clinic Heart Hospital in Pretoria.[391][392] Cinema and television Mandela has been depicted in cinema and television on multiple occasions. He was portrayed by Danny Glover in the 1987 HBO telefilm Mandela.[393] The 1997 film Mandela and de Klerk starred Sidney Poitier as Mandela,[394] and Dennis Haysbert played him in Goodbye Bafana (2007).[395] In the 2009 BBC telefilm Mrs Mandela, Mandela was portrayed by David Harewood,[396] and Morgan Freeman portrayed him in Invictus (2009).[397] Terrence Howard portrayed him in the 2011 film Winnie M andela.[398] He is portrayed by Idris Elba in the 2013 film Mandela: Long Walk t o Freedom.[399] References Footnotes Jump up ^ "When Conservatives Branded Nelson Mandela A Terrorist". Forbes. 201311-25. Retrieved 2013-12-07. Jump up ^ Posted: 12/06/2013 6:33 pm EST. "Here Are 6 Moments From Mandela's Mar xist Past That You Won't Hear On CNN". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2013-12-07. ^ Jump up to: a b Mandela 1994, p. 3; Sampson 2011, p. 3; Smith 2010, p. 17. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 4; Smith 2010, p. 16. Jump up ^ Guiloineau & Rowe 2002, p. 23; Mafela 2008. ^ Jump up to: a b Guiloineau & Rowe 2002, p. 26; Mafela 2008. Jump up ^ Smith 2010, p. 19. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 8 9; Sampson 2011, p. 4; Smith 2010, pp. 21 22. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 17. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 7 8; Sampson 2011, p. 4; Smith 2010, pp. 16, 23 24. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 19. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 15. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 12; Smith 2010, pp. 23 24. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 18 19; Sampson 2011, pp. 5,7; Smith 2010, p. 24. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 20; Sampson 2011, p. 7; Smith 2010, p. 25. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 8, 20. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 22 25; Sampson 2011, pp. 7 9; Smith 2010, pp. 26 27. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 27 29. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 25; Smith 2010, p. 27. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 31 34; Smith 2010, p. 18. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 43. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 36 42; Sampson 2011, p. 14; Smith 2010, pp. 29 31. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 45 47; Sampson 2011, p. 15; Smith 2010, p. 31. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 48 50. Jump up ^ Sampson 2011, p. 17. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 52; Sampson 2011, pp. 17 18; Smith 2010, pp. 31 32. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 53 54; Sampson 2011, pp. 18 21; Smith 2010, p. 32. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 56; Smith 2010, p. 32. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 62 65; Sampson 2011, pp. 21, 25; Smith 2010, pp. 33 34; Meredith 2010, p. 18. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 62 63; Sampson 2011, pp. 24 25; Smith 2010, pp. 33 34; Mer edith 2010, pp. 17 18. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, pp. 67 69; Sampson 2011, p. 25; Smith 2010, p. 34. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 68; Sampson 2011, p. 25; Smith 2010, p. 35. Jump up ^ Mandela 1994, p. 68; Meredith 2010, p. 18 Jump up ^ Sampson 2011, p. 25.

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Kalumba, Kibujjo M. (1995). "The Political Philosophy of Nelson Mandela: A Prime r". Journal of Social Philosophy 26 (3): 161 171. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9833.1995.tb0 0092.x. Mandela, Nelson (1994). Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 1918 1962. Little, Brown an d Company. ISBN 978-0754087236. Mandela, Nelson (2004) [1994]. Long Walk to Freedom Volume II: 1962 1994 (large pr int edition). London: BBC AudioBooks and Time Warner Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0754087 243. Muthien, Yvonne; Khosa, Meshack; Magubane, Bernard (2000). "Democracy and Govern ance in Transition". In Yvonne Muthien, Meshack Khosa and Bernard Magubane. Demo cracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994 1999. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council Press. pp. 361 374. ISBN 978-0796919700. Meredith, Martin (2010). Mandela: A Biography. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978 -1586488321. Sampson, Anthony (2011) [1999]. Mandela: The Authorised Biography. London: Harpe rCollins. ISBN 978-0007437979. Smith, David James (2010). Young Mandela. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 97 8-0297855248. External links Find more about Nelson Mandela at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory Nelson Mandela Children's Fund Nelson Mandela Foundation Mandela Rhodes Foundation The Elders Nelson Mandela Museum Nelson Mandela Day Works by or about Nelson Mandela in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Nelson Mandela at the Open Directory Project Political offices Preceded by F. W. de Klerk President of South Africa Succeeded by 1994 1999 Thabo Mbeki Party political offices Preceded by Oliver Tambo President of the African National Congress 1991 1997 Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki Diplomatic posts Preceded by Andrs Pastrana Arango Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement 1998 1999 Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki [show] Nelson Mandela Authority control WorldCat VIAF: 98029748 LCCN: n85153068 ISNI: 0000 0001 2144 7715 GND: 118730541 LIBRIS: 74042 BNF: cb120379994 ULAN: 500198443 Categories: 1918 births2013 deathsAfrican and Black nationalistsAlumni of the Un iversity of London External SystemAnti-apartheid activistsCongressional Gold Med al recipientsThe Elders (organization)Inmates of Robben IslandLenin Peace Prize recipientsMarxist writersMembers of the National Assembly of South AfricaNelson MandelaNobel Peace Prize laureatesPeople acquitted of treasonPeople from the Eas tern CapePresidential Medal of Freedom recipientsPresidents of South AfricaPresi

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Ti?ng Vi?t Vro Walon West-Vlams Winaray Wolof ?? Xitsonga ?????? Yorb ?? Zeuws emaite ka ?? Edit links This page was last modified on 8 December 2013 at 18:02. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; add itional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and P rivacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-prof it organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersMobile viewWi kimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki