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0I+ % 'PPRO',3ES +O .'01 '1E +E',3I01 %6%6 Introduction 23ere t3ere 4as once consensus on t3e 5ri63t7 4a8 to teac3 forei6n lan6ua6es" man8 teac3ers no4 s3are t3e belief t3at a sin6le ri63t 4a8 does not e9ist. :an6ua6e teac3in6 met3ods include several approac3es to lan6ua6e teac3in6 t3at 4ill be briefl8 presented in t3is course suc3 as" t3e !ommunicative ;pproac3" t3e <rammar=0ranslation /et3od" t3e ;udio=:in6ual /et3od" etc. %f course" t3e met3ods described in t3is course of lectures represent onl8 an abstraction. >o4 a met3od is manifest in t3e classroom 4ill depend 3eavil8 on t3e individual teac3er7s interpretation of its principles. &ome teac3ers prefer to practise one of t3e met3ods to t3e e9clusion of ot3ers. %t3er teac3ers prefer to pic? and c3oose in a principled 4a8 amon6 t3e met3odolo6ical options t3at e9ist" creatin6 t3eir o4n uni@ue blend. ;ccordin6 to &t. Aras3en BPrinciples and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, 1.*1C" eac3 met3od 4ill be evaluated usin6 t3e follo4in6 criteria: i. re@uirements for optimal input ii. compre3ensible iii. interestin6)relevant iv. not 6rammaticall8 se@uenced v. @uantit8 vi. lo4 filter level: researc3ers believe t3at lan6ua6e learners all possess an affective filter 43ic3 affects lan6ua6e ac@uisition. Df a student possesses a 3i63 filter t3e8 are less li?el8 to en6a6e in lan6ua6e learnin6 because of s38ness" concern for 6rammar or ot3er factors. &tudents possessin6 a lo4er affective filter 4ill be more li?el8 to en6a6e in lan6ua6e learnin6 because t3e8 are less li?el8 to be impeded b8 ot3er factors. 03e affective filter is an important component of second lan6ua6e learnin6. vii. provides tools for conversational mana6ement. Dt is considered t3at lan6ua6e ac@uisition)learnin6 conte9ts s3ould be s3aped b8 11 principles B'ic3ards E 'enand8a" 1--1: 11ffC: i. ;utomaticit8 = control of a relativel8 infinite number of lan6ua6e forms. ii. /eanin6ful learnin6" as opposed to rote learnin6" 6rounded in lon6=term learnin6 strate6ies. iii. 03e anticipation of re4ard F tan6ible or intan6ible" s3ort= or lon6=term. E9trinsic motivation is more li?el8 to create s3ort=term re4ards" 43ereas t3e intrinsic one envisa6es lon6=term satisfaction. iv. Dntrinsic motivation F not dependent on t3e present of t3e teac3er or tutor" potentiall8 more re4ardin6. v. &trate6ic investment = t3e learner perceives 3is or 3er efforts to be directed to t3e attainment of some future 6oal. vi. :an6ua6e e6o contributin6 to t3e full8=roundin6 of t3e learner7s personalit8. vii. &elf=confidence: F t3e learnin6 of a forei6n lan6ua6e boosts self=esteem and self=confidence. Gesides" it is commonl8 believed t3at success en6enders success. viii. 'is? ta?in6: successful lan6ua6e learners are tolerant to ambi6uit8" be8ond absolute certaint8.

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i9. 03e lan6ua6e = culture connection: lan6ua6e and culture are ine9tricabl8 related. 0eac3in6 t3e cultural load becomes a must as most communication brea?do4ns are caused b8 cultural" not b8 lin6uistic misunderstandin6s. 9. 03e native lan6ua6e effect: t3e learner7s mot3er ton6ue 4ill serve as a reference point to predict t3e forei6n lan6ua6e s8stem. Dn t3is respect" literature spea?s of positive transfers and ne6ative ones BinterferenceC. 9i. Dnterlan6ua6e: t3e learner passes t3rou63 several developmental sta6es until masterin6 t3e forei6n lan6ua6e. 9ii. !ommunicative competence as t3e end 6oal of lan6ua6e learnin6" understood as t3e abilit8 to appl8 ?no4led6e in unre3earsed real=life situations Ba @uestion of use rat3er t3an usa6eC. %6!6 'pproac@es to language teac@ing 03is unit provides a brief listin6 of t3e salient features of t3e met3ods used in lan6ua6e teac3in6" 6rouped in four sections: 03e 3umanistic approac3 B<rammar 0ranslation" 03e &ilent 2a8" !ommunit8 :an6ua6e :earnin6" 0otal $38sical 'esponse" &u66estopediaCH Ge3aviourism B03e ;udio=:in6ual /et3odCH !o6nitivism B03e structural situational approac3CH 03e socio=cultural turn B!ommunicative lan6ua6e teac3in6C %.!6%6 Humanistic approaches ; 3umanistic approac3 to lan6ua6e learnin6 allo4s for personal 6ro4t3 orientation and for t3e development of learners7 responsibilit8H t3e learners are encoura6ed to use discover8 tec3ni@ues" bein6 no lon6er spoon=fed b8 t3e teac3er. 1.!6%6%6 Grammar translation 03is approac3 said to 3ave a 3umanistic 6roundin6 B<renfell and >arris" 1...C" alt3ou63 ot3er sc3olars claim t3at it is not based on an8 approac3 Bnotabl8 /or6an and Ieil" 1--1C. Jurt3ermore" it can be said to emp3asize ?no4led6e for ?no4led6e7s sa?e. Dt is 3eavil8 indebted to t3e teac3in6 of classical lan6ua6es and it prevailed from t3e end of t3e 1. t3 centur8 to t3e 1.K-s. 'ic3ards and 'o6ers B1.*,C list several tenets of t3e <rammar 0ranslation" as follo4s: i. 03e main 6oal of learnin6 t3e lan6ua6e is to read t3e literature of t3e forei6n lan6ua6e and refine intellectuall8H secondl8" learners are e9pected to develop a 6reater understandin6 of :1H t3irdl8" students 4ill be able to cope 4it3 difficult learnin6 materials and situationsH ii. 'eadin6 and 4ritin6 are tau63t to t3e detriment of listenin6 and spea?in6H iii. 0eac3in6 vocabular8 is reduced to t3e 4ords encountered in t3e literar8 te9tsH vocabular8 items are listed and students are as?ed to learn t3eir translationsH iv. 0ranslation s?ills" alon6side readin6 and 4ritin6" are tau63t usin6 t3e literar8 te9tsH v. <rammar is tau63t deductivel8" t3e presentation sta6e" consistin6 of lon6 e9planations or rules and e9ceptions to t3e rules" is follo4ed b8 practiceH learners follo4 t3e prescribed route to t3e tec3nicalities of s8nta9. 03e structures to be translated are presented in a disconnected 4a8" t3e learners bein6 as?ed to identif8 t3e 6rammar items used in t3e te9t and state t3e ruleBsCH vi. En6lis3 lan6ua6e teac3in6 is done t3rou63 En6lis3. 03e <rammar=0ranslation /et3od focuses on developin6 students7 appreciation of t3e tar6et lan6ua6e7s literature as 4ell as teac3in6 t3e lan6ua6e. &tudents are presented 4it3 tar6et lan6ua6e readin6 passa6es and ans4er @uestions t3at follo4. %t3er activities include translatin6 literar8 passa6es from one lan6ua6e into t3e ot3er" memorizin6 6rammar rules" and memorizin6 native lan6ua6e e@uivalents of tar6et lan6ua6e vocabular8. !lass 4or? is 3i63l8 structured" 4it3 t3e teac3er controllin6 all activities. Features of t@e 1rammar5+ranslation /et@odA K

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1oals: to be able to read literature in tar6et lan6ua6eH learn 6rammar rules and vocabular8H develop mental acuit8. RolesA 0eac3er 3as aut3orit8H students follo4 instructions to learn 43at teac3er ?no4s. +eac@ingBlearning processA &tudents learn b8 translatin6 from one lan6ua6e to t3e ot3er" often translatin6 readin6 passa6es in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e from t3e native lan6ua6e. <rammar is usuall8 learned deductivel8 on t3e basis of 6rammar rules and e9amples. &tudents memorize t3e rules" and t3en appl8 t3em to ot3er e9amples. 03e8 learn paradi6ms suc3 as verb conju6ations" and t3e8 learn t3e native lan6ua6e e@uivalents of vocabular8 4ords. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA most interaction is teac3er to studentH student= initiated interaction and student=student interaction is minimal. Dealing Dit@ Feelings: n)a Bnot available" not applicableC 'spects of .anguage t@e 1rammar5+ranslation 'pproac@ Emp@asizesA Locabular8H 6rammarH readin6" 4ritin6 are primar8 s?illsH pronunciation and ot3er spea?in6)listenin6 s?ills not emp3asized Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA native lan6ua6e provides ?e8 to meanin6s in t3e tar6et lan6ua6eH native lan6ua6e is used freel8 in class. /eans for EvaluationA tests re@uire translation from native to tar6et and tar6et to native lan6ua6eH appl8in6 6rammar rules" ans4erin6 @uestions about forei6n culture. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA 3eav8 emp3asis placed on correct ans4ersH 0eac3er supplies correct ans4ers 43en students cannot. ;ccordin6 to &t. Aras3en B1.*1C" <rammar=translation usuall8 consists of an e9planation of a 6rammatical rule" 4it3 some e9ample sentences" a bilin6ual vocabular8 list" a readin6 section e9emplif8in6 t3e 6rammatical rule and incorporatin6 t3e vocabular8" and e9ercises to practice usin6 t3e 6rammar and vocabular8. /ost of t3ese classes are tau63t in t3e student7s first lan6ua6e. 03e 6rammar=translation met3od provides little opportunit8 for ac@uisition and relies too 3eavil8 on learnin6. &t. Aras3en B1.*1C also made a distinction bet4een acFuiring a lan6ua6e and learning a lan6ua6e: t3e acFuisition of a lan6ua6e is a natural process" 43ereas learning a lan6ua6e is a conscious one. Dn t3e former BacFuisition of a lan6ua6eC t3e student needs to participate in natural communicative situations. !3ildren ac@uire lan6ua6e t3rou63 a subconscious process durin6 43ic3 t3e8 are una4are of 6rammatical rules. 03is is similar to t3e 4a8 t3e8 ac@uire t3eir first lan6ua6e. Dn order to ac@uire lan6ua6e" t3e learner needs a source of natural communication. Dn t3e latter Blearning a lan6ua6eC" on t3e ot3er 3and" lan6ua6e learnin6 is not communicative. Dt is t3e result of direct instruction in t3e 6rammatical rules of lan6ua6e = t3e stud8 of 6rammatical rules is isolated from natural lan6ua6eH error correct is also present. 1.2.1.2. The silent way 03e teac3er ?eeps 3is)3er tal?in6 time at a minimum B?eeps silentC" 8et" directin6 and controllin6 t3e learners. 03e input provided b8 t3e teac3er is reduced to model sentences t3at t3e teac3er utters onl8 once and t3e learners are as?ed to repeat. Dnformation transmission and feedbac? are 6iven t3rou63 visual aids. ; 4ell ?no4n tec3ni@ue includes !uisenaire 'ods" enablin6 t3e learners to deduce meanin6s or forms: a set of coloured rods" 4all c3arts and a pointer. 03e teac3er ta?es a rod and sa8s Ma rod to t3e students. Ie9t" b8 usin6 mime t3e teac3er induces t3e students to repeat t3e name of t3e object. 03e teac3er combines t3e names of colours to t3e object sa8in6 Ma red rod" Ma blue rod" etc. 03e students are eventuall8 e9pected to sa8 Ma red rod" Ma blue rod" etc. 4it3out t3e teac3er7s model. 2it3 reference to t3e 4all c3arts" t3e students are made to form strin6s of 4ords usin6 t3e 4ords t3e8 3ave learnt orall8 b8 pointin6 to a series of 4ords t3at t3en t3e8 read in t3e order indicated. N

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03e t3eoretical basis of <atte6no7s &ilent 2a8 B1.+1G is t3e idea t3at teac3in6 must be subordinated to learnin6 and t3us students must develop t3eir o4n inner criteria for correctness. ;ll four s?ills F readin6" 4ritin6" spea?in6 and listenin6 F are tau63t from t3e be6innin6. &tudents7 errors are e9pected as a normal part of learnin6: t3e teac3er7s silence 3elps foster self=reliance and student initiative. 03e teac3er is active in settin6 up situations" 43ile t3e students do most of t3e tal?in6 and interactin6. 1oals: to use lan6ua6e for self=e9pression: to develop independence from t3e teac3er" to develop inner criteria for correctness. RolesA 0eac3in6 s3ould be subordinated to learnin6. 0eac3ers s3ould 6ive students onl8 43at t3e8 absolutel8 need to promote t3eir learnin6. :earners are responsible for t3eir o4n learnin6. +eac@ingBlearning processA &tudents be6in 4it3 sounds" introduced t3rou63 association of sounds in native lan6ua6e to a sound=colour c3art. 0eac3er t3en sets up situations" often usin6 !uisenaire rods" to focus students7 attention on structures. &tudents interact as t3e situation re@uires. 0eac3ers see students7 errors as clues to 43ere t3e tar6et lan6ua6e is unclear" and t3e8 adjust instruction accordin6l8. &tudents are ur6ed to ta?e responsibilit8 for t3eir learnin6. ;dditional learnin6 is t3ou63t to ta?e place durin6 sleep. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA 03e teac3er is silent muc3 of t3e time" but ver8 active settin6 up situations" listenin6 to students" spea?in6 onl8 to 6ive clues" not to mode speec3. &tudent=student interaction is encoura6ed. Dealing Dit@ Feelings: 0eac3ers monitor students7 feelin6s and activel8 tr8 to prevent t3eir feelin6s from interferin6 4it3 t3eir learnin6. &tudents e9press t3eir feelin6s durin6 feedbac? sessions after class. 8ieD of .anguageH ,ultureA :an6ua6e and culture are inseparable" and eac3 lan6ua6e is seen to be uni@ue despite similarities in structure 4it3 ot3er lan6ua6es. 'spects of .anguage t@e 'pproac@ Emp@asizesA ;ll four s?ills areas 4or?ed on from be6innin6 Breadin6" 4ritin6" spea?in6" listenin6CH pronunciation especiall8" because sounds are basic and carr8 t3e melod8 of t3e lan6ua6e. &tructural patterns are practiced in meanin6ful interactions. 'eadin6 and 4ritin6 e9ercises reinforce oral learnin6. Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA ;lt3ou63 translation is not used at all" t3e native lan6ua6e is considered a resource because of t3e overlap t3at is bound to e9ist bet4een t3e t4o lan6ua6es. 03e teac3er s3ould ta?e into account 43at t3e students alread8 ?no4. /eans for EvaluationA ;ssessment is continualH but onl8 to determine continuall8 c3an6in6 learnin6 needs. 0eac3ers observe students7 abilit8 to transfer 43at t3e8 3ave learned to ne4 conte9ts. 0o encoura6e t3e development of inner criteria" neit3er praise nor criticism is offered. &tudents are e9pected to learn at different rates" and to ma?e pro6ress" not necessaril8 spea? perfectl8 in t3e be6innin6. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA Errors are inevitable" a natural" indispensable part of learnin6. 1.2.1.3. Community language learning/ counseling learning 0eac3in6 lan6ua6es is paralleled to ps8c3ot3erapeutic counselin6" 43ere t3ere is concern 4it3 removin6 tension and ne6ative feelin6s. ;dmittedl8" t3e teac3er is t3e counsellor)?no4er and t3e learner is t3e client. 03e8 6raduall8 build a trustin6 or ma9imum securit8 relations3ip compared to t3e 6ro4t3 of t3e individual from c3ild3ood dependence t3rou63 adolescent rebellion and self= assertion to adult independence. 03ere is a 3i63 de6ree of fle9ibilit8 in t3e s8llabus desi6n" 43ic3 virtuall8 develops as t3e teac3in6 unfolds B/urar" 1-11C 1.2.1.4. Total physical response (TPR ,

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$38sical action and learnin6 are lin?ed in lan6ua6e teac3in6. $roduction is dela8ed until learners feel confident Bcompre3ension s?ills are developed firstC. O. 'oberts B1..*: 3NC states t3at Mlearners e9ecute teac3er7s commands for about 11- 3ours before conversation is encoura6ed. Dmperative forms BcommandsC are used b8 t3e teac3er to elicit learners7 action. 03e teac3er pla8s a traditional role BcontrollerC and t3e s8llabus is 6rammar=based. 0$' is a met3od developed b8 Oames ;s3er" professor of ps8c3olo68" to aid learnin6 second lan6ua6es. ;s3er7s approac3 be6ins b8 placin6 primar8 importance on listenin6 compre3ension" emulatin6 t3e earl8 sta6e of mot3er ton6ue ac@uisition" and t3en movin6 to spea?in6" readin6" and 4ritin6. &tudents demonstrate t3eir compre3ension b8 actin6 out commands issued b8 t3e teac3erH teac3ers provide novel and often 3umorous variations of t3e commands. ;ctivities are desi6ned to be fun and to allo4 students to assume active learnin6 roles. ;ctivities eventuall8 include 6ames and s?its BP s3ort performancesC. Features of t@e +otal P@Isical ResponseA 1oals: to provide an enjo8able learnin6 e9perience" 3avin6 a minimum of t3e stress t3at t8picall8 accompanies learnin6 a forei6n lan6ua6e. RolesA at first t3e teac3er 6ives commands and students follo4 t3em. %nce students are Mread8 to spea?" t3e8 ta?e on directin6 roles. +eac@ingBlearning processA :essons be6in 4it3 commands b8 t3e teac3erH students demonstrate t3eir understandin6 b8 actin6 t3ese outH teac3er recombines t3eir instructions in novel and often 3umorous 4a8sH eventuall8 students follo4 suit. ;ctivities later include 6ames and s?its. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA 0eac3er interacts 4it3 individual students and 4it3 t3e 6roup" startin6 4it3 t3e teac3er spea?in6 and t3e students respondin6 nonverball8. :ater t3is is reversedH students issue commands to teac3er as 4ell as to eac3 ot3er. Dealing Dit@ Feelings: 03e met3od 4as developed principall8 to reduce t3e stress associated 4it3 lan6ua6e learnin6H students are not forced to spea? before t3e8 are read8 and learnin6 is made as enjo8able as possible" stimulatin6 feelin6s of success and lo4 an9iet8. 8ieD of .anguageH ,ultureA %ral modalit8 is primar8H !ulture is t3e lifest8le of native spea?ers of t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. 'spects of .anguage t@e 'pproac@ Emp@asizesA <rammatical structures and vocabular8 are emp3asized" embedded in imperatives. (nderstandin6 precedes productionH spo?en lan6ua6e precedes t3e 4ritten 4ord. Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA met3od is introduced in students7 native lan6ua6e" but rarel8 used later in course. /eanin6 is made clear t3rou63 actions. /eans for EvaluationA 0eac3ers can evaluate students t3rou63 simple observation of t3eir actions. Jormal evaluation is ac3ieved b8 commandin6 a student to perform a series of actions. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA &tudents are e9pected to ma?e errors once t3e8 be6in spea?in6. 0eac3ers onl8 correct major errors" and do t3is unobtrusivel8. Jine tunin6 occurs later. ;ccordin6 to &t. Aras3en B1.*1C" 0otal $38sical 'esponse involves t3e students listenin6 and respondin6 to commands 6iven b8 t3e teac3er suc3 as Msit do4n and M4al?" 4it3 t3e comple9it8 of t3e commands 6ro4in6 over time as t3e class ac@uires more lan6ua6e. &tudent speec3 is dela8ed" and once students indicate a 4illin6ness to tal?" t3e8 initiall8 6ive commands to ot3er students. 03eor8 predicts t3at 0$' s3ould result in substantial lan6ua6e ac@uisition. Dts content ma8 not be al4a8s interestin6 and relevant for t3e students" but s3ould produce better results t3an t3e audio=lin6ual and 6rammar=translation met3ods. 1. 2.1.!. "uggestope#ia :earnin6 ta?es place in a tension=free atmosp3ere" special attention bein6 paid to furniture and surroundin6s. /usic is pla8ed BGaro@ue instrumental musicC to en3ance learnin6. 03e t8pical +

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scenario BMt3e concertC runs as follo4s: students sit comfortabl8 43ile t3e teac3er reads a len6t38 dialo6ue. &tudents are provided 4it3 t3e te9t and t3e :1 translation. &lo4 movement music is pla8ed. ;fter t3e interval Bno smo?in6 and no drin?in6C" t3e teac3er re=reads t3e dialo6ue 43ile students listen 4it3out readin6 t3e te9t t3is time. 03us" learners are supposed to remember best from t3e teac3er pla8in6 an aut3oritative role. :ozanov7s met3od see?s to 3elp learners eliminate ps8c3olo6ical barriers to learnin6. 03e learnin6 environment is rela9ed and subdued" 4it3 lo4 li63tin6 and soft music in t3e bac?6round. &tudents c3oose a name and c3aracter in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e and culture" and ima6ine t3at person. ialo6ues are presented to t3e accompaniment of music. &tudents just rela9 and listen to t3em bein6 read and later pla8full8 practice t3e lan6ua6e durin6 an Mactivation p3ase. Features of t@e met@od Jcf. /urar" 1-11C: 1oals: to learn" at accelerated pace" a forei6n lan6ua6e for ever8da8 communication b8 tappin6 mental po4ers" overcomin6 ps8c3olo6ical barriers. RolesA 0eac3er 3as aut3orit8" commands trust and respect of studentsH teac3er Mdesu66ests ne6ative feelin6s and limits to learnin6H if teac3er succeeds in assumin6 t3is role" students assume c3ildli?e role" spontaneous and unin3ibited. +eac@ingBlearning processA &tudents learn in a rela9in6 environment. 03e8 c3oose a ne4 identit8 Bname" occupationC in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e and culture. 03e8 use te9ts of dialo6ues accompanied b8 translations and notes in t3eir native lan6ua6e. Eac3 dialo6ue is presented durin6 t4o musical concertsH once 4it3 t3e teac3er matc3in6 3is or 3er voice to t3e r38t3m and pitc3 of t3e music 43ile students follo4 alon6. 03e second time" t3e teac3er reads normall8 and students rela9 and listen. ;t ni63t and on 4a?in6" t3e students read it over. 03en students 6ain facilit8 4it3 t3e ne4 material t3rou63 activities suc3 as dramatizations" 6ames" son6s" and @uestion=to=ans4er sessions. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA ;t first" teac3er initiates all interaction and students respond onl8 nonverball8 or 4it3 a fe4 4ords in tar6et lan6ua6e t3at t3e8 3ave practiced. Eventuall8 students initiate interaction. &tudents interact 4it3 eac3 ot3er t3rou63out" as directed b8 teac3er. Dealing Dit@ Feelings: <reat importance is placed on students7 feelin6s" in ma?in6 t3em feel confident and rela9ed" in Mdesu66estin6 t3eir ps8c3olo6ical barriers. 8ieD of .anguageH ,ultureA :an6ua6e is one planeH nonverbal parts of messa6es are anot3er. !ulture includes ever8da8 life and fine arts. 'spects of .anguage t@e 'pproac@ Emp@asizesA Locabular8 emp3asized" some e9plicit 6rammar. &tudents focus on communicative use rat3er t3an formH readin6" 4ritin6 also 3ave place. Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA 0ranslation clarifies dialo6ue7s meanin6H 0eac3er uses native lan6ua6e" more at first t3an later" 43en necessar8. /eans for EvaluationA &tudents7 normal in=class performance is evaluated. 03ere are no tests" 43ic3 4ould t3reaten rela9ed environment. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA Errors are not immediatel8 correctedH teac3er models correct forms later durin6 class. ;ccordin6 to &t. Aras3en B1.*1C" &u66estopedia classes are small and intensive" and focus on providin6 a ver8 lo4=stress" attractive environment Bpartl8 involvin6 active and passive MsQances complete 4it3 music and meditationC in 43ic3 ac@uisition can occur. &ome of t3e students7 first lan6ua6e is used at t3e be6innin6" but most in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. 03e role of t3e teac3er is ver8 important in creatin6 t3e ri63t atmosp3ere and in actin6 out t3e dialo6ues t3at form t3e core of t3e content. &u66estopedia seems to provide close to optimal input 43ile not 6ivin6 too muc3 emp3asis on 6rammar. %6!6!6 $eha%iourism *

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+@e audio5lingual met@odBt@e aural5oral met@od 03e approac3 is based on stimulus Belicitin6 be3aviourC and 'esponse Btri66ered b8 a stimulusC" endorsin6 3abit formation t3rou63 fre@uent e9posure Breinforcement" mar?in6 t3e response as appropriate or inappropriateC. Dn lin6uistics" it emer6ed in t3e 1.3-s: lan6ua6e ac@uisition Bmec3anical natureC is anot3er form of 3uman be3aviour. 03e correspondin6 met3od is ;( D%:DI<(;:D&/ )0>E ;(';:= %';: /E0>% J3i63l8 popular in t3e 1.,-sC" bein6 complemented b8 t3e ;( D%=LD&(;: /E0>% 6 Dn relation to lin6uistic developments" t3e ;udio=:in6ual met3od is said to be fed b8 p3onetics. i. :an6ua6e learners are e9posed to stoc? p3rases presented in t3e 3ierarc3ical order of difficult8 Bon tape or read b8 t3e teac3erC. 03e principle is called incrementalismH ii. :earners 3ave to assimilate t3e lan6ua6e items Bdialo6uesC via imitation or repetition drills Bindividuall8 and in c3orusC" 4it3 t3e teac3er modelin6 t3e learners B3abit formation t3rou63 repetitionCH iii. 03e teac3er provides immediate feedbac? on pronunciation" intonation and fluenc8H iv. $rimac8 is 6iven to t3e spo?en lan6ua6e over t3e 4ritten form" 8et spo?en lan6ua6e samples do not dra4 on collo@uial lan6ua6e in aut3entic situations. v. 03e de6ree of creativit8 allo4ed for students is reduced to t3e c3an6es of certain ?e8 4ords ) p3rases. vi. 03ere is separation of t3e four lan6ua6e s?ills F readin6 and 4ritin6 are developed in follo4= up activities. vii. <rammar is tau63t inductivel8 after t3e selection of 6rammar structures and t3e provision of minimal 6rammatical e9planation. viii. Error occurrence is eliminated t3rou63 furt3er controlled practice. i9. Dt contains" in embryo" man8 tec3ni@ues later developed b8 t3e !ommunicative ;pproac3. Dn ps8c3olo68" be3aviourism is a t3eor8 t3at presents be3aviour as t3e product of 3eredit8 and environment" and in particular of a process of conditioning in 43ic3 certain stimuli promote certain responses. D. $avlov" 4as a forerunner" and J. &?inner 4as a major proponent of t3e t3eor8. Dt influenced E&: teac3in6 from t3e mid=1.N-s to t3e late 1.*-s" especiall8 in t3e (&" part of an association of structural lin6uistics" be3avioural ps8c3olo68" and lan6ua6e teac3in6 promoted b8 :. Gloomfield. 03is led in t3e 1.N-s to t3e audio=lin6ual met3od" in 43ic3 3uman learnin6 4as compared to t3at of rats in laborator8 mazes and pi6eons tau63t to pla8 table tennis. :an6ua6e learnin6 4as seen as a process of 3abit formation. Dn 1.N." Ioam !3oms?8 c3allen6ed bot3 be3aviourism and structuralism in a criti@ue of &?inner7s 4or?" as a result of 43ic3 t3e use of teac3in6 tec3ni@ues and materials based on be3aviourism 3ad b8 1.*- 6reatl8 declined. 03e audio= lin6ual met3od is based on t3e be3aviourist belief t3at lan6ua6e learnin6 is t3e ac@uisition of a set of correct lan6ua6e 3abits. 03e learner repeats patterns until able to produce t3em spontaneousl8. %nce a 6iven pattern" for e9ample" subject F verb F prepositional p3rase F is learned" t3e spea?er can substitute to ma?e novel sentences. 03e teac3er directs and controls students7 be3aviour" provides a model" and reinforces correct responses. Features of t@e audio5lingual met@odA 1oals: uses t3e tar6et lan6ua6e communicativel8" overlearn it" so as to be able to use it automaticall8 b8 formin6 ne4 3abits in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e and overcomin6 native lan6ua6e 3abits. RolesA 0eac3er directs" controls students7 lan6ua6e be3aviour" provides 6ood model for imitationH students repeat" respond as @uic?l8 and accuratel8 as possible. +eac@ingBlearning processA ne4 vocabular8" structures presented t3rou63 dialo6ues" 43ic3 are learned t3rou63 imitation" repetition. 03e drills are based on patterns in dialo6ue. &tudents7 correct responses are positivel8 reinforcedH 6rammar is induced from models. !ultural information is .

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conte9tualized in t3e dialo6ues or presented b8 t3e teac3er. 'eadin6" 4ritin6 tas?s are based on oral 4or?. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA &tudents interact durin6 c3ain drills or 43en ta?in6 roles in dialo6ues" all at teac3er7s direction. /ost interaction is bet4een teac3er and student" initiated b8 t3e teac3er. Dealing Dit@ Feelings: not available" not applicable 8ieD of .anguageH ,ultureA descriptive lin6uistics influence: ever8 lan6ua6e seen as 3avin6 its o4n uni@ue s8stem of p3onolo6ical" morp3olo6ical and s8ntactic patterns. 03e met3od emp3asizes speec3 and uses a 6raded s8llabus from simple to difficult lin6uistic structures. !ulture comprises ever8da8 lan6ua6e and be3aviour. 'spects of language t@e approac@ emp@asizes B/urar" 1-11C: lan6ua6e structures emp3asizedH vocabular8 conte9tualized in dialo6ues but is limited because s8ntactic patterns are foremostH natural priorit8 of s?ills F listenin6" spea?in6" readin6" 4ritin6 4it3 emp3asis on t3e first t4oH pronunciation tau63t from be6innin6" often 4it3 lan6ua6e lab 4or? and minimal pair drills. Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA &tudents7 native lan6ua6e 3abits are considered as interferin6" t3us native lan6ua6e is not used in classroom. !ontrastive anal8sis is considered 3elpful for determinin6 points of interference. /eans for EvaluationA iscrete=point tests in 43ic3 students distin6uis3 bet4een 4ords or provide an appropriate verb for a sentence" etc. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA 0eac3ers strive to prevent student errors b8 predictin6 trouble spots and ti63tl8 controllin6 43at t3e8 teac3 students to sa8. ;ccordin6 to &t. Aras3en B1.*1C" an audio=lin6ual lesson usuall8 be6ins 4it3 a dialo6ue 43ic3 contains t3e 6rammar and vocabular8 to be focused on t3e lesson. 03e students mimic t3e dialo6ue and eventuall8 memorize it. ;fter t3e dialo6ue comes pattern drills" in 43ic3 t3e 6rammatical structure introduced in t3e dialo6ue is reinforced" 4it3 t3ese drills focusin6 on simple repetition" substitution" transformation and translation. 23ile t3e audio=lin6ual met3od provides opportunit8 for some ac@uisition to occur" it cannot measure up to ne4er met3ods 43ic3 provide muc3 more compre3ensible input in a lo4= filter environment. %6 !6&6 ,ognitivismB/entalism +@e structural situational approac@ 03e !3oms?8an revolution discredits t3e development of lin6uistic competence via t3e stimulus=response=reinforcement c8cle as creativit8 is part of t3is process: spea?ers are able to 6enerate an infinite number of novel sentences Bperformance" i.e. actual use of t3e lan6ua6eC startin6 from a finite number of rules t3at t3e8 3ave internalized B competence" i.e. ?no4led6e about t3e lan6ua6e s8stemC. >e advocates t3e e9istence of universal grammar" i.e. of mental blueprints or a mindset specific to 3uman bein6s Binnate competence as opposed to s?ill=based be3aviorismC. :an6ua6e competence is some3o4 idealized" bein6 lin?ed to nativeness and perfect ?no4led6e of t3e lan6ua6e. !3oms?8 presents t3e ideal speaker-hearer in a completel8 3omo6enous speec3 communit8" 43o ?no4s 3is lan6ua6e perfectl8 and is unaffected b8 suc3 6rammaticall8 irrelevant conditions as memor8 limitations" distractions" s3ifts of attention or interests" or errors Brandom or c3aracteristicC in appl8in6 3is ?no4led6e of t3e lan6ua6e in actual performance B!3oms?8" 1.,N: K*C. !3oms?87s ideal speaker-hearer is unaffected b8 limitations of memor8" distractions" s3ifts of attention" etc. !3oms?87s notion of competence refers to lan6ua6e as a merel8 abstract entit8. Ever8 spea?er is believed to be able to 6enerate lan6ua6e t3rou63 t3e absorption of e9amples B:an6ua6e 1-

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;c@uisition evice F :; C. 23at !3oms?8 does not put into t3is e@uation is t3e socializin6 function of lan6ua6e" i.e. t3ere is no reference to socio=cultural embeddedness. 03e &tructural=&ituational ;pproac3) &ituational :an6ua6e 0eac3in6 3as t3e follo4in6 features: i. Dt is a far=reac3in6 3=sta6e lesson template" labelled t3e P&P&P cycle" consistin6 of presentation" practice and production. ii. <rammar is central to lan6ua6e teac3in6 B6rammar=based met3odolo68C. iii. urin6 t3e presentation sta6e" t3e teac3er presents t3e ne4 6rammar items" based on conversation or a s3ort te9t. 03e identification of t3e 6rammar structures is follo4ed b8 t3e teac3er7s e9planation and c3ec?in6 of students7 compre3ension. iv. 03e practice sta6e involves t3e use of drills Bcontrolled or mechanical practiceC. v. 03ere is smoot3 pro6ress from semi=controlled)meanin6ful practice to free)communicative practice. 03e P-P-P cycle 4as seriousl8 criticized as Mfundamentall8 disablin6" not enablin6 B&crivener" 1..K: 1NC. Oo3nson B1.*1C 3ad alread8 su66ested t3e #eep&en# strategy as an alternative: students are pus3ed into immediate production Bt3e deep endC and t3e teac3er decides to return to presentation or practice accordin6 to t3e students7 performance. >armer B1--+: ,N ffC endorses t3e '"( se@uence: Engage Study Activate. urin6 t3e En6a6e sta6e" learners are en6a6ed emotionall8 in t3e process. 03e second sta6e corresponds to $resentation and $ractice" 43ile ;ctivation overlaps 4it3 $roduction. 03e model is fle9ible enou63 to allo4 for t3e re=orderin6 of sta6es: E ; & Ba Mboomeran6 procedureC" E ; & ; E & BMpatc34or? lessonC. 03e aut3or concludes t3at t3e approac3 is Me9tremel8 useful in focus=on=form lessons 4it3 be6inners" and Mirrelevant in a s?ills lesson. 1.2.4. The socio&cultural turn) the Communicati%e (pproach/ Communicati%e *anguage Teaching (C*T 1.2.4.1. 03e positivist vie4 in social sciences is replaced b8 an ethnographia mundi concern in t3e 1.,-s. 03ere is a s3ift of emp3asis from lan6ua6e per se to its instrumentalization Blan6ua6e as a means of communication in social conte9tsC and to a more naturalistic vie4. Jrom a lin6uistic perspective" !:0 dra4s on t3e &peec3 ;cts 03eor8 BO. &earle" 1.,.C" s3iftin6 attention to t3e relations3ip bet4een lan6ua6e and its users" from 3abit formation to t3e real intended meanin6. '. /itc3ell B1..K: 3*=3.C points out some of t3e best features of t3e !:0: i. !lassroom activities s3ould ma(imize opportunities for learners to use t@e target language for meaningful purposes" 4it3 t3eir attention on t3e messa6es t3e8 are creatin6 and t3e tas?s t3e8 are completin6" rat3er t3an on t3e correctness of lan6ua6e and lan6ua6e structure. ii. :earners tr8in6 t3eir best to use t3e tar6et lan6ua6e creativel8 and unpredictabl8 are bound to ma?e errorsH t3is is a normal part of lan6ua6e learnin6" and constant correction is unnecessarIH and even counterproductive. iii. :an6ua6e anal8sis and 6rammar e9planation ma8 3elp some learners" but e(tensive e(perience of target language use 3elps ever8one. iv. Effective lan6ua6e teac3in6 is responsive to t@e needs and interests of t@e individual learner. v. Effective lan6ua6e learnin6 is an active process" in 43ic3 t3e learner taKes increasing responsiLilitI for @is or @er progress. vi. 03e effective teac@er aims to facilitate" not control" t3e lan6ua6e learnin6 process. ;ccordin6 to <renfell and >arris B1...: 11C" t3e popularit8 of !ommunicative :an6ua6e 0eac3in6 B!:0C lies in: 11

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i. t@e status of t@e foreign language in t@e classroom " i.e. t3e e9tent to 43ic3 it is used in t3e instruction process. ii. attitude to error: 43at" 43en and 3o4 to correctR Dn t3e traditional model" error 4as seen as a 3eav8 impairment" bein6 sanctioned immediatel8 and error correction 4as t3e teac3er7s central pedagogic tool. Dn !:0" t3ere is tolerance to error" 43ic3 is understood as a natural sta6e in t3e learner7s lin6uistic development. iii. aut@enticitI of language: a 4ide ran6e of aut3entic or real life materials BrealiaC is used in t3e classroom. Gesides e9posin6 learners to real life situational lan6ua6e" t3ese materials also immerse t3em in t3e forei6n lan6ua6e culture and raise t3e learners7 motivation for learnin6 t3e lan6ua6e of t3e ot3er speec3 communit8. iv. spoKen and Dritten language are treated as separate entities" re@uirin6 different teac3in6 tec3ni@ues. v. practice vs6 real language: even if" to some e9tent" t3e learners still perceive t3e classroom environment as not 6enuine" t3ere is meanin6ful interaction in and t3rou63 t3e forei6n lan6ua6e" relating back to the intention to mean and legitimacy of tasks. +@e Post5,ommunicative +urn Oacobs and Jarrell B1--3C advocate a paradi6m s3ift" 43ic3 led to * major c3an6es in E:0: i. .earner autonomIA learners are 6iven a 3i63er de6ree of autonom8 4it3 respect to t3e learnin6 content and process. 03us" t3e8 are encoura6ed to develop self=assessment s?ills and t3e abilit8 to prioritize t3eir lan6ua6e learnin6. ii. +@e social nature of learningA t3ere is no value=free ?no4led6e" but onl8 ?no4led6e servin6 individual and collective needs or 6oals. iii. ,urricular integrationA En6lis3 is 6iven a place in a co3erent 43ole" bein6 connected to ot3er subjects in t3e curriculum. Jor instance" project 4or? in En6lis3 classes re@uires ?no4led6e ac@uisition from ot3er subjects or from t3e real 4orld Benc8clopedic ?no4led6eC. iv. Focus on meaning: meanin6ful content is of paramount importance" bein6 t3e drivin6 force of learnin6. v. DiversitI: t3e teac3ers s3ould be a4are of t3e learners7 profile Ba6e" personalit8" t8pe of motivation" learnin6 st8les" lin6uistic proficienc8" etc.C and tr8 to cater to t3is diversit8 of needs and interests. vi. +@inKing sKills: lan6ua6e learnin6 s3ould foster critical and creative t3in?in6 s?ills Bco6nitive developmentC. Jor e9ample" learners s3ould be able to select relevant information from a te9t. vii. 'lternative assessment: t3ere is need for complementin6 traditional forms of assessment B/)!" 'eadin6 compre3ension @uestions" Error correction e9ercises" etc.C b8 forms t3at assess 3i63er=order s?ills Be.6. portfolios" observation s3eets" intervie4s" etcC. viii. +eac@ers as co5learners: teac3ers accrue e9perience Blearnin6 b8 doin6C and capitalize e9pertise" 43ile also pursuin6 professional development. 1.2.4.2. !ommunicative lan6ua6e teac3in6 is an approac3 to t3e teac3in6 of second and forei6n lan6ua6es t3at emp3asizes interaction as bot3 t3e means and t3e ultimate 6oal of learnin6 a lan6ua6e. !ommunicative lan6ua6e teac3in6 be6an in Gritain in t3e 1.,-s as a replacement to t3e earlier structural met3odBsC. 03is 4as partl8 in response to !3oms?87s criticisms of structural t3eories of lan6ua6e and partl8 based on t3e t3eories of Gritis3 functional lin6uists" suc3 as O.'. Jirt3 and /.;.A. >allida8" as 4ell as ;merican sociolo6ists" suc3 as . >8mes" O. <umperz and 2. :abov" and t3e 4ritin6s of O. ;ustin and O. &earle on speec3 acts. &ome of t3e areas of linguistic researc@ in t3is vie4 of lan6ua6e are: functional 6rammar" sociolin6uistics" pra6matics" semantics. 11

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Functional grammar: describes an8 approac3 in 43ic3 t3e notion of 5function7 is central. Junctional 6rammar B/.;.A. >allida8" An !ntroduction to "unctional #rammar" 1..KC 4as devised as an alternative to t3e abstract vie4 of lan6ua6e presented b8 transformational 6rammar. Gased on t3e pra6matic vie4 of lan6ua6e as social interaction" it focuses on t3e rules 6overnin6 t3e lin6uistic e9pressions t3at are used as instruments of t3is activit8. Dn forei6n lan6ua6e teac3in6" a functional sIllaLus is one 43ere t3e s8llabus content is or6anized in terms of lan6ua6e functions" suc3 as re@uestin6" persuadin6" invitin6" etc. SociolinguisticsA is a branc3 of lin6uistics 43ic3 studies all aspects of t3e relations3ip bet4een lan6ua6e and societ8. &ociolin6uists stud8 suc3 matters as t3e lin6uistic identit8 of social 6roups" social attitudes to lan6ua6e" standard and non=standard forms of lan6ua6e" social varieties and levels of lan6ua6e" and so on. PragmaticsA t3is term is applied to t3e stud8 of lan6ua6e from t3e point of vie4 of t3e users" especiall8 t3e c3oices t3e8 ma?e" t3e constraints t3e8 encounter in usin6 lan6ua6e in social interaction" and t3e effects t3eir use of lan6ua6e 3as on ot3er participants in an act of communication. $ra6matics includes aspects of dei9is" speec3 acts and discourse structure. Speec@ act t3eor8 is associated 4it3 t4o lin6uistic p3ilosop3ers" O. :. ;ustin and O. '. &earle BO. :. ;ustin" $o% to do &hings %ith 'ords " 1.,NH O. '. &earle" E(pression and )eaning* Studies in the &heory of Speech Acts, +,-,.. 03e8 developed a functional vie4 of lan6ua6e based on t3e notion t3at t3e social use of lan6ua6e is primaril8 concerned 4it3 t3e performance of certain communicative acts. 03ere are a variet8 of reasons 43ic3 ma8 prompt t3e act of communication. 2e use lan6ua6e for re@uestin6" informin6" orderin6" promisin6" reprimandin6" to mention just a fe4. Dn all t3ese cases 4e could sa8 t3at lan6ua6e is bein6 used to perform certain speec@ acts. Semantics refers to t3e stud8 of meanin6 in lan6ua6e. &tructural semantics applies t3e principles of structural lin6uistics to t3e stud8 of meanin6 t3rou63 t3e notion of semantic relations Balso called sense relationsC" suc3 as s8non8m8 and anton8m8. 03e t3eor8 of semantic fields vie4s vocabular8 as or6anized into areas 4it3in 43ic3 4ords Ble9ical itemsC interrelate and define eac3 ot3er. 'pproac@A +@eorI of languageA 03e functional vie4 of lan6ua6e is t3e primar8 one be3ind t3e communicative met3od. 03e communicative or functional vie4 of lan6ua6e is t3e vie4 t3at lan6ua6e is a ve3icle for t3e e9pression of functional meanin6. 03e semantic and communicative dimensions of lan6ua6e are more emp3asized t3an t3e 6rammatical c3aracteristics" alt3ou63 t3ese are also included. +@eorI of learningA 03e learnin6 t3eories be3ind t3e communicative approac3es are based on some principles: = activities t3at involve real communication promote learnin6H 5 activities in 43ic3 lan6ua6e is used for carr8in6 out meanin6ful tas?s promote learnin6H = lan6ua6e t3at is meanin6ful to t3e learner promotes learnin6H +Ipes of learning tec@niFues and activitiesA !ommunicative lan6ua6e teac3in6 uses almost an8 activit8 t3at en6a6es learners in aut3entic communication. 2. :ittle4ood B1.*1C" 3o4ever" 3as distin6uis3ed t4o major activit8 t8pes: i. functional communication activities: t3ose aimed at developin6 certain lan6ua6e s?ills and functions" but 43ic3 involve communicationH ii. social interaction activities" suc3 as conversation and discussion sessions" dialo6ues and role pla8s ProcedureA it is difficult to summarize t3e procedure in communicative classes because of t3e 4ide variet8 of activities used. Ievert3eless" t3ere are some classroom activities fre@uentl8 used in !:0. !lassroom s3ould provide opportunities for re3earsal of real=life situations and provide 13

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opportunit8 for real communication. 03ere is emp3asis on creative role=pla8s" simulations" projects" intervie4s" 6ames" lan6ua6e e9c3an6e" surve8s" pair 4or?" pla8s" etc." = all produce spontaneit8 and improvisation" not just repetition and drills. 1.2.4.3. "ome +eatures o, the Communicati%e (pproach B/urar" 1-11C: 1oalsA = to become communicativel8 competent" = to use lan6ua6e appropriate for a 6iven social conte9tH t3e approac3 focuses on lan6ua6e as a medium of communication. 'eco6nizes t3at all communication 3as a social purpose: t3e learner 3as somet3in6 to sa8 or find outH = to mana6e t3e process of ne6otiatin6 meanin6 4it3 interlocutors. RolesA 03e teac3er facilitates students7 learnin6 b8 mana6in6 classroom activities" settin6 up communicative situations. &tudents are communicators" activel8 en6a6ed in ne6otiatin6 meanin6. +eac@ingB .earning ProcessA = ;ctivities are communicative F t3e8 represent an information 6ap t3at needs to be filledH spea?ers 3ave a c3oice of 43at to sa8 and 3o4 to sa8 itH t3e8 receive feedbac? from t3e listener t3at 4ill verif8 t3at a purpose 3as been ac3ieved. . !ommunication embraces a 43ole spectrum of functions Je.6. see?in6 information" apolo6izin6" e9pressin6 li?es and disli?es" etc.C and notionsH topics and situations Be.6. as?in6 one7s 4a8: 43ere t3e nearest post office isH s3oppin6" 3obbies" etc.C 03e teac3er s3ould ma?e use of topical items 4it3 43ic3 pupils are alread8 familiar in t3eir o4n lan6ua6e. 03is motivates pupils" arouses t3eir interest and leads to more active participation. = 'ut@entic materials are used: 03e communicative approac3 see?s to use aut3entic resources because t3e8 are more interestin6 and motivatin6. Dn forei6n lan6ua6e classroom aut3entic te9ts serve as partial substitute for communit8 of native spea?er. Ie4spaper and ma6azine articles" poems" recipes" videos" ne4s bulletins discussion pro6rammes" etc." all can be e9ploited in a variet8 of 4a8s. 03e teac3er s3ould avoid a6e=old te9ts: t3e materials must relate to pupils7 o4n lives" t3e8 must be fres3 and real. 03at is 438" c3an6in6 te9ts and materials re6ularl8 ?eeps t3e teac3er on toes and pupils interested. Dt is important not to be restricted to t3e te9tboo?. 03e teac3er s3ould never feel t3at t3e te9tboo? must be used from cover to cover" t3e te9tboo? bein6 onl8 a tool or a startin6 point. 2it3 a little inspiration and ima6ination" t3e te9tboo? can be manipulated and rendered more communicative. 03e teac3er must free 3imself from it" and rel8 more on 3is o4n command of lan6ua6e and 3is professional e9pertise as to 43at lin6uistic items" idioms" p3rases" 4ords need to be drilled" e9ploited or e9tended. = 1rammar can still be tau63t" but less s8stematicall8" in traditional 4a8s alon6side more innovative approac3es. !ommunication depends on 6rammar" and disre6ard of 6rammatical form 4ill virtuall8 6uarantee brea?do4n of communication. = 03e use of visual stimuli" suc3 as over3ead projectors B%>$C" flas3cards" etc." is important to provo?e practical communicative lan6ua6e" represented in 3 sta6es: presentation" assimilation and reproducin6 lan6ua6e in creative and spontaneous 4a8. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA 03e teac3er initiates interactions bet4een students and participates sometimes. &tudents interact a 6reat deal 4it3 eac3 ot3er in man8 confi6urations. &tudents usuall8 4or? in small groups. /ore emp3asis on active modes of learnin6" includin6 pair5DorK and group5DorKH are often not e9ploited enou63 b8 teac3ers fearful of nois8 class. 1K

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Dealing Dit@ Feelings: emp3asis is on developin6 motivation to learn t3rou63 establis3in6 meanin6ful" purposeful t3in6s to do 4it3 t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. Dndividualit8 is encoura6ed" as 4ell as cooperation 4it3 peers" 43ic3 bot3 contribute to a sense of emotional securit8 4it3 t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. 8ieD of .anguageH ,ultureA lan6ua6e is for communication. :in6uistic competence must be coupled 4it3 an abilit8 to conve8 intended meanin6 appropriatel8 in different social conte9ts. !ulture is t3e ever8da8 lifest8le of native spea?ers of t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. 'spects of .anguage t@e ,ommunicative 'pproac@ Emp@asizesA Junctions are emp3asized over forms" 4it3 simple forms learned for eac3 function at first" t3en more comple9 forms. &tudents 4or? at discourse level: t3e8 4or? on spea?in6" listenin6" readin6 and 4ritin6 from t3e be6innin6. 03e communicative approac3 is not just limited to oral sKills. 'eadin6 and 4ritin6 s?ills need to be developed to promote pupils7 confidence in all four s?ill areas. G8 usin6 elements encountered in a variet8 of 4a8s Breadin6" summarizin6" translatin6" discussion" debates" etcC" pupils7 manipulation of lan6ua6e becomes more fluent. Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA students7 native lan6ua6e usuall8 pla8s no role /eans for EvaluationA 5 informal evaluation ta?es place 43en teac3er advises or communicatesH = formal evaluation is b8 means of an inte6rative test 4it3 a real communicative function. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA errors of form are considered a natural part of learnin6 lan6ua6e: learners tr8in6 to use t3e lan6ua6e creativel8 and spontaneousl8 are bound to ma?e errors. !onstant correction is unnecessar8 and even counter=productive. !orrection s3ould be discreet" noted b8 t3e teac3er 43o s3ould let t3em tal? and e9press t3emselves. &tudents 4it3 incomplete ?no4led6e can still succeed as communicators. +@e Direct /et@od 03e irect /et3od allo4s students to perceive meanin6 directl8 t3rou63 t3e lan6ua6e because no translation is allo4ed. Lisual aids and pantomime are used to clarif8 t3e meanin6 of vocabular8 items and concepts. &tudents spea? a 6reat deal in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e and communicate as if in real situations. 'eadin6 and 4ritin6 are tau63t from t3e be6innin6" t3ou63 spea?in6 and listenin6 s?ills are emp3asized. <rammar is learned inductivel8. Features of t@e Direct /et@odA 1oals: to communicate in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e" to t3in? in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. RolesA 0eac3er directs class activities" but students and teac3er are partners in t3e teac3in6)learnin6 process. +eac@ingBlearning processA &tudents are tau63t to associate meanin6 and t3e tar6et lan6ua6e directl8. Ie4 tar6et lan6ua6e 4ords or p3rases are introduced t3rou63 t3e use of realia" pictures or pantomime" never t3e native lan6ua6e. &tudents spea? a 6reat deal in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e a 6reat deal and communicate as if in real situations. <rammar rules are learned inductivel8 F b8 6eneralizin6 from e9amples. &tudents practice ne4 vocabular8 usin6 4ords in sentences. InteractionA Student5+eac@er C Student5StudentA Got3 teac3er and students initiate interaction" t3ou63 student=initiated interaction 4it3 teac3er or amon6 eac3 ot3er" is usuall8 teac3er=directed. Dealing Dit@ Feelings: n)a Bnot available" not applicableC 8ieD of .anguageH ,ultureA :an6ua6e is primaril8 spo?en" not 4ritten. &tudents stud8 common" ever8da8 speec3 in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. ;spects of forei6n culture are studied suc3 as 3istor8" 6eo6rap38" dail8 life. 'spects of .anguage t@e 'pproac@ Emp@asizesA 1N

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Locabular8 emp3asized over 6rammarH oral communication considered basic" 4it3 readin6" 4ritin6 based on oral practiceH pronunciation emp3asized from outset. Role of StudentsE 0ative .anguageA &tudents7 native lan6ua6e is not used in t3e classroom. /eans for EvaluationA &tudents tested t3rou63 actual use" suc3 as oral intervie4s and assi6ned 4ritten para6rap3s. Response to StudentsE ErrorsA &elf=correction encoura6ed 43enever possible. ;ccordin6 to &t. Aras3en B1.*1C" usin6 t3e M irect /et3od" t3e teac3er uses e9amples of lan6ua6e in order to inductivel8 teac3 6rammarH &tudents are to tr8 to 6uess t3e rules of t3e lan6ua6e b8 t3e e9amples provided. 0eac3ers interact 4it3 t3e students a lot" as?in6 t3em @uestions about relevant topics and tr8in6 to use t3e 6rammatical structure of t3e da8 in t3e conversation. ;ccurac8 is sou63t and errors are corrected. 03is met3od provides more compre3ensible input t3an 6rammar=translation and audio=lin6ual met3od" but unli?e t3e communicative met3od" it still focuses too muc3 on 6rammar. +opics for discussion and e(ercisesA 1. iscuss t3e main c3aracteristics of t3e <rammar=0ranslation /et3od. 1. Enlar6e upon t3e advanta6es of t3e !ommunicative ;pproac3.

1,

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0I+ ! +E',3I01 ,O/PO0E0+S OF .'01 '1E 03is unit briefl8 describes t3e components of lan6ua6e and presents t3e main trends in t3ese areas t3at 3ave potential for lan6ua6e teac3in6. !6%6 +eac@ing pronunciation 23en 4e teac3 a forei6n lan6ua6e 4e 3ave to be sure t3at our students can be understood 43en t3e8 spea?" i.e. t3eir pronunciation s3ould be at least ade@uate for t3at purpose. 03us" 4e 4ill 3elp t3em to pronounce t3e sounds specific for En6lis3" to differentiate bet4een t3ese sounds" especiall8 43ere suc3 distinctions c3an6e meanin6" and 4e 4ill also 3elp t3em to understand and use certain sound rules= for e9ample t3e different pronunciations of t3e Fed past tense endin6s. &tudents 3ave to use r38t3m and stress correctl8 and to reco6nize intonation. %ne problem t3at confronts us in t3e teac3in6 of pronunciation is t3at of accent. Dn ot3er 4ords" 3o4 important is it for our students to sound li?e native spea?ersR &ome teac3ers t3in? t3at students s3ould aim for t3is ideal. Gut 4e must be a4are t3at some learners seem more inclined to native=spea?er=li?e pronunciation t3an ot3ers and t3at muc3 depends on t3eir contact 4it3 native spea?ers. /uc3 more important is t3e 6oal of intelli6ibilit8 and efficienc8. Dn ot3er 4ords t3e teac3er7s aim s3ould be to ma?e sure t3at students can al4a8s be understood to sa8 43at t3e8 4ant to sa8. 03e8 4ill need 6ood pronunciation for t3is" alt3ou63 t3e8 ma8 not need a perfect accent. 03e teac3in6 of pronunciation s3ould" t3erefore" aim to 6ive students communicative efficienc8 B>armer" 1..+: 11C. :earners need to 3ear t3e lan6ua6e used so t3at t3e8 can bot3 imitate t3e pronunciation and ac@uire t3e sounds and patterns. %ne source of lan6ua6e t3e8 can listen to is t3e teac3er" t3is 3avin6 a vital role" bein6 a model for t3e students. Gut it is also ver8 important for t3em to be e9posed to aut3entic native= spea?er speec3 t3rou63 tapes" videos" television" radio and" 43enever it is possible t3rou63 personal contact. !6!6 +eac@ing vocaLularI 2.2.1. -%er%iew >armer B1..+: 1N3C metap3oricall8 sa8s t3at if 6rammatical structures are t3e s?eleton of a lan6ua6e" t3en it is vocabular8 t3at provides t3e vital or6ans and fles3. Dn t3e traditional model" 3o4ever" vocabular8 4as seen as incidental to t3e main purpose of lan6ua6e teac3in6= namel8 t3e ac@uisition of 6rammar. 03us" vocabular8 4as not t3e main focus for learnin6 itself. 0eac3in6 vocabular8 used to be reduced to learners7 3avin6 to loo? 4ords up in t3e dictionar8" 4rite definitions" and use 4ords in more or less conventionalized sentences. 2ord lists" teac3er e9planation" discussion" memorization" vocabular8 boo?s" and @uizzes 4ere often used 4it3 a vie4 to facilitatin6 students to learn ne4 4ords. ;s a rule" t3e teac3in6 of vocabular8 above elementar8 levels 4as limited to presentin6 ne4 items encountered in readin6 or sometimes listenin6 te9ts. 03is indirect teac3in6 of vocabular8 4as premised b8 t3e idea t3at vocabular8 e9pansion 4ould 1+

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3appen t3rou63 t3e practice of ot3er lan6ua6e components" 43ic3 3as been proved not enou63 to ensure vocabular8 e9pansion. 'ecentl8" met3odolo6ists and lin6uists 3ave increasin6l8 been turnin6 t3eir attention to t3e vocabular8" emp3asizin6 t3e importance of le9is in lan6ua6e teac3in6 and reconsiderin6 some of t3e means in e3ic3 is tau63t and learnt. Dt is unanimousl8 accepted t3at t3e ac@uisition of vocabular8 is e@uall8 important as t3e a@uisition of 6rammar= t3ou6 t3e t4o are interdependent= and teac3ers s3ould 3ave t3e same ?ind of e9pertise in t3e teac3in6 of vocabular8 as t3e8 do in t3e teac3in6 of lan6ua6e structure Bidem :1NKC Dn t3e current E:0 met3odolo68" it is 4idel8 accepted t3at vocabular8 teac3in6 s3ould be part of t3e s8llabus and tau63t in a 4ell=planned and on a re6ular basis. Locabular8 is a principle contributor to compre3ension" fluenc8" and ac3ievement. Locabular8 development is bot3 an outcome of compre3ension and an input to it" 4it3 4ord meanin6s ma?in6 up as muc3 as +-F*-S of compre3ension. <rammar provides t3e overall patterns" 43ile vocabular8 provides t3e material to put in t3e patterns. 0o understand a sentence suc3 as M0om sat on t3e floor properl8 t3e listener needs to ?no4 not onl8 t3at Msat refers to a p38sical state" but also t3at it is usuall8 preceded b8 a 6rammatical subject t3at is animateH Msat is related to ot3er 4ords suc3 as Mlie and Mstand. ;ll of t3ese are part of t3e spea?er7s ?no4led6e of t3e En6lis3 vocabular8. (sin6 Msat properl8 means not just ?no4in6 3o4 it is defined in t3e dictionar8" but 3o4 it relates to all t3e ot3er 4ords in t3e lan6ua6e" and 3o4 and 43en it ma8 be used in sentences. ictionaries can 6ive a false idea t3at vocabular8 is a mere list of 4ords" eac3 4it3 one or more meanin6s attac3ed to t3em. Dnstead" 4ords are related to eac3 ot3er in man8 4a8s" and t3is is 3o4 t3e8 are remembered and stored B/urar" 1-11C. &ome students still learn vocabular8 lists in 43ic3 eac3 :1 4ord 3as a one=4ord :1 translationH En6lis3 book is 5carte7 in 'omanian and so on. &ome teac3ers tr8 to 6et t3e students to associate eac3 4ord 4it3 an ima6e or an objectH t3e8 3old up a picture of a boo? or even s3o4 one and sa8 M03is is a boo?. Got3 t3ese teac3in6 tec3ni@ues impl8 t3at learnin6 vocabular8 means learnin6 individual 4ords one at a time. Gut t3e relations3ips bet4een 4ords are as important as t3e meanin6 of t3e 4ord in isolation F 3o4 4ords contrast 4it3 ot3er 4ords is as important as t3e meanin6 of t3e 4ord itself. :earnin6 t3e vocabular8 of a second lan6ua6e is not just memorizin6 e@uivalent 4ords bet4een lan6ua6es BMred means MrouC" or learnin6 t3e definition of t3e 4ord BMred is Ma colour t8picall8 seen in bloodC or puttin6 it in conte9t BM'udolp3 t3e red=nosed reindeerC" but learnin6 t3e meanin6 relations3ips bet4een Mred and all t3e ot3er 4ords in En6lis3 4it3in t3e full conte9t of cultural life. Selecting vocaLularI %ne of t3e problems in teac3in6 vocabular8 consists in t3e fact t3at 43ile t3ere is a 6eneral a6reement on 43at 6rammatical structures s3ould be t3ou63t at 43at levels t3e same is 3ardl8 true of vocabular8. ; 6eneral principle in t3e past 4as to teac3 more concrete 4ords at t3e elementar8 level and 6raduall8 become more abstract. %t3er criteria are fre@uenc8 B4e s3ould first teac3 t3e 4ords 43ic3 are most commonl8 usedC and covera6eBa 4ord is more useful if it covers more t3in6s t3an if it onl8 3as a sin6le specific meanin6C. >armer B1..+: 1N,C considers t3at t3e decision about 43at vocabular8 to teac3 and learn 4ill be 3eavil8 influenced b8 information 4e can 6et about fre@uenc8 and use" but t3is information 4ill be assessed in t3e li63t of ot3er considerations suc3 as topic" function " structure" teac3abilit8" needs and 4ants. 1*

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23en 4e come across a 4ord and tr8 to decip3er its meanin6 4e still 3ave to understand t3e conte9t in 43ic3 is used. &tudents need to ac@uire 4ords in conte9t and t3e8 need to ?no4 sense relations Bopposition of meanin6" 38pon8m8" 3omon8m8" s8non8m8" etc. &tudents need to reco6nize metap3orical and idiomatic lan6ua6e and t3e8 need to ?no4 3o4 t3e 4ords collocate. 03e8 also need ?no4led6e about st8le and re6ister. :earners 3ave to understand problems concernin6 4ord formation Bderivation" compoundin6" conversion and ot3er means of 4ord formationC" since t3e8 can easil8 notice t3at t3ere is a certain connection bet4een 4ords li?e: 3app8" un3app8" 3appiness" un3appiness" 3appil8. &tudents 3ave to ?no4 t3e 6rammatical value of a 4ord and conse@uentl8 its 6rammatical be3aviour BAno4led6e concernin6 verb complementation" comple9 verbs" t3e position of adjectives and adverbs" etcC. 'ctive and passive vocaLularIA ; distinction is fre@uentl8 made bet4een 5active7 and 5passive7 vocabular8. 03e former refers to vocabular8 t3at students 3ave been tau63t or learnt F and 43ic3 t3e8 are e9pected to be able to use F 43ilst t3e latter refers to 4ords 43ic3 t3e students 4ill reco6nise 43en t3e8 meet t3em but 43ic3 t3e8 4ill probabl8 not be able to produce. 03is distinction becomes blurred" 3o4ever" 43en 4e consider 43at 5?no4in6 a 4ord7 means and 43en 4e consider t3e 4a8 students seem to ac@uire t3eir store of 4ords. Dt is true t3at students 5?no47 some 4ords better t3an ot3ers" but it 3as not been demonstrated t3at t3ese are necessaril8 t3e 4ords 43ic3 teac3ers 3ave tau63t t3em" especiall8 at 3i63er levels. 03e8 mi63t be 4ords t3at are often used in t3e classroom or 4ords t3at 3ave appeared in t3e readin6 te9ts 43ic3 students 3ave been e9posed to. ;ccordin6 to lan6ua6e ac@uisition t3eories" man8 4ords 43ic3 students ?no4 do come t3rou63 t3at route rat3er t3an t3rou63 learnin6. %t3er 4ords ma8 be t3ose t3at students 3ave loo?ed up because t3e8 4anted to use t3em. %r t3e8 ma8 be 4ords t3at students 3ave met and some3o4 5li?ed7. ;t be6inner and elementar8 levels teac3ers provide sets of vocabular8 43ic3 students can learn. /ost of t3ese earl8 4ords 4ill be constantl8 practised and so can" presumabl8" be considered as 5active7. Gut at intermediate levels t3e situation is rat3er more complicated. 2e can assume t3at students 3ave a store of 4ords but it 4ould be difficult to sa8 43ic3 are active and 43ic3 are passive. ; 4ord t3at 3as been 5active7 t3rou63 constant use ma8 slip bac? into t3e 5passive7 state if it is not used. ; 4ord t3at students 3ave in t3eir 5passive7 store ma8 suddenl8 become active if t3e situation or t3e conte9t provo?es its use. Dn ot3er 4ords" t3e status of a vocabular8 item does not seem to be a permanent state of affairs. 03e students 43o remembered t3e 4ord 5cuddle7 because t3e8 li?ed t3e e9perience of learnin6 it and because t3e8 li?ed t3e 4ord seem to provide anot3er e9ample of 3o4 students learn and retain 4ords Bt3e e9ample is offered b8 >armer" 1..+C. 2e could predict t3at 5cuddle7 is a 4ord t3e8 are 6oin6 to remember for a lon6 time = t3ou63 it ma8 eventuall8 fade t3rou63 lac? of use. 03is 4ord touc3ed t3em in some 4a8" it 4as a 4ord t3at 3ad personal meanin6 for t3em. Iot all vocabular8 items 3ave t3e 4armt3 of a 4ord li?e 5cuddle7" 3o4ever. Gut it 4ould be nice if 4e could provo?e some ?ind of relations3ip 4it3 t3e 4ords t3at 4e teac3 as t3ose students seemed to 3ave 3ad 4it3 t3eir 4ord. 2.2.2. Theories o, teaching %oca.ulary 2.2.2.1. Components o, meaning %ne 4a8 of anal8zin6 vocabular8 is to brea? up t3e meanin6 of a 4ord into smaller" separate components. 03us t3e meanin6 of M6irl is made up of Mfemale" M3uman" and Mnon= adult Bor M8oun6CH t3e 4ord Mbo8 3as components M3uman" Mmale and M8oun6H t3e meanin6 of Mapple is made up of Mfruit" Medible" Mround and so on. 1.

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; version of t3is component approac3 can be found in te9tboo?s suc3 as &he 'ords /ou 0eed BG. 'udz?a" O. !3annell" T. $utse8s and $. %st8n , 1.*1" :ondon: /acmillanC. &tudents loo? at a series of 52ord &tud87 c3arts displa8in6 t3e different components of meanin6 of 4ords. Jor e9ample a c3art 6ives 4ords t3at s3are t3e meanin6 5loo? at)over7 suc3 as Mc3ec?" Me9amine" Minspect" Mscan" and Mscrutinize. Dt s3o4s 43ic3 of t3em 3ave t3e component of meanin6 5detect errors7" 43ic3 5determine t3at rules are observed7" and so on. &tudents are encoura6ed to build up t3e idea of t3e vocabular8 as consistin6 of suc3 components 43ile readin6 te9ts. 2.2.2.2. The prototype theory o, %oca.ulary Dn t3e PrototIpe t@eorIH 4ords 3ave 43ole meanin6s divided into basic level BMtableC" superordinate BMfurnitureC and subordinate BMcoffee tableC. /an8 aspects of meanin6 cannot be split up into components but are appreciated as 43oles. ;n influential approac3 of t3is t8pe is Elinor 'osc37s 5protot8pe7 t3eor8 BE. 'osc3" $uman categori1ation" 1.++" :ondon: ;c.C. En6lis3 or a 'omanian person 43o is as?ed to 6ive an e9ample of a t8pical bird is more li?el8 to sa8 Msparro4 t3an Mpen6uin or Mostric3H sparro4s are closer to t3e protot8pe for Mbirds t3an pen6uins and ostric3es. 'osc37s t3eor8 su66ests t3at" rat3er t3an components of meanin6" t3ere is an ideal of meanin6 in our minds = Mbirdiness in t3is case F from 43ic3 ot3er t3in6s depart. &pea?ers 3ave a central form of a concept in t3eir minds and t3e t3in6s t3e8 see and tal? about correspond better or 4orse 4it3 t3is protot8pe. $rotot8pe t3eor8 also claims t3at c3ildren first learn 4ords t3at are 5basic7 because t3e8 reflect aspects of t3e 4orld" protot8pes t3at stand out automaticall8 from t3e rest of 43at t3e8 see. M&parro4 is a 5basic level7 term compared to a 5superordinate level7 term li?e Mbird" or a 5subordinate level7 term li?e M3ouse sparro4. 03e basic level of vocabular8 is easier to use and to learn. %n t3is foundation c3ildren build 3i63er and lo4er levels of vocabular8. &ome e9amples of t3e t3ree levels of vocabular8 in different areas are seen in t3e dia6ram at t3e end of t3is section. :1 c3ildren learn t3e basic level terms li?e Mdo6 before t3e8 learn t3e superordinate term Manimal" or t3e subordinate term Mlabrador. 03e8 start 4it3 t3e most basic level as it is easiest for t3e mind to perceive. %nl8 after t3is 3as been learnt do t3e8 6o on to 4ords t3at are more 6eneral or more specific. :1 learners first ac@uired basic terms suc3 as Mtable" second more 6eneral terms li?e Mfurniture" and finall8 more specific terms li?e Mcoffee table. 'osc37s levels are t3erefore important to :1 learnin6 as 4ell as to first lan6ua6e ac@uisition. 03is se@uence" 3o4ever" is different from t3e usual order of presentation in lan6ua6e teac3in6 in 43ic3 t3e teac3er or t3e te9tboo? introduces or practices a 43ole 6roup of 4ords simultaneousl8: MTou 3ave just moved 3ouse. ecide 43ic3 pieces of furniture are to 6o in 43ic3 room: armc3air" television" bedU >ere all t3ree levels of vocabular8 are bein6 tau63t at once = superordinate Mfurniture" basic Mbed" and subordinate Marmc3air. ;ccordin6 to protot8pe t3eor8" t3is met3od is mis6uided. 03e most important earl8 4ords are basic level terms. 03e 3uman mind automaticall8 starts from t3is concrete level rat3er t3an from a more abstract level or a more specific one. &tartin6 b8 teac3in6 vocabular8 items" t3at can be easil8 s3o4n in pictures" fits in 4it3 'osc37s t3eor8. ; dra4in6 can be readil8 reco6nized as a c3air but it is less eas8 to see as furniture. >ence protot8pe t3eor8 ties in 4it3 t3e audiovisual met3od of lan6ua6e teac3in6 t3at introduces ne4 vocabular8 4it3 a picture of 43at it represents" in an appropriate cultural settin6. 03is t3eor8 3as particular implications for teac3in6 vocabular8 at t3e be6innin6 sta6es. superordinate terms furniture bird fruit Lasic level terms table c3air sparro4 apple stra4berr8 suLordinate terms coffee table armc3air field <olden 4ild stra4berr8 sparro4 elicious 1-

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2.2.2.3. The le/ical approachA 03e :e9ical ;pproac3 puts vocabular8 ac@uisition in a central role in lan6ua6e ac@uisition. urin6 t3e 1..-s interest in vocabular8 teac3in6 and researc3 increased" 4it3 $aul Iation7s boo? &eaching and Learning 3ocabulary B1..-C as 4ell as O. &inclair7s boo? 4orpus, 4oncordance, 4ollocation B1..1C: t3ese t4o boo?s proved influential in t3eir revie4 of researc3 on vocabular8" providin6 at t3e same time peda6o6ical 6uidance t3rou63 interpretin6 t3e researc3 in terms of classroom applications. urin6 t3is same time" /ic3ael :e4is be6an describin6 an approac3 to lan6ua6e teac3in6" t3e :e9ical ;pproac3" 43ic3 moved vocabular8 to t3e forefront of lan6ua6e teac3in6 in 3is t4o boo?s" &he Le(ical Approach B1..3C and !mplementing the Le(ical Approach B>ove: :an6ua6e 0eac3in6 $ublications" 1..+C. 03e collection of articles compiled b8 /. :e4is BEd.C in t3e volume &eaching 4ollocation* "urther 5evelopments in the Le(ical Approach B1---C continues t3e development of t3is approac3 b8 focusin6 on a ?e8 element in t3e approac3" collocations. /urar B1-11C briefl8 discusses some t3eories of lan6ua6e 43ic3 form t3e foundation of t3e :e9ical ;pproac3 to teac3in6 En6lis3. i. 03e principle of <rammaticalised :e9is Dn recent 8ears it 3as been reco6nised t3at native spea?ers 3ave a vast stoc? of le9ical c3un?s 43ic3 are vital for fluent production. 03ere are t4o t8pes of le9ical c3un?s: = le9ical c3un?s t3at are not collocations: if ! %ere you, by the %ay, upside do%n, up to no%6 = le9ical c3un?s t3at are collocations: totally convinced, terrible accident, sense of humour6 Jluenc8 does not depend so muc3 on 3avin6 a set of 6enerative 6rammar rules and a separate stoc? of 4ords F t3e 5slot and filter7 or open c3oice principle F as on 3avin6 rapid access to a stoc? of c3un?s: MDt is our abilit8 to use le9ical p3rases t3at 3elp us to spea? 4it3 fluenc8. 03is prefabricated speec3 3as bot3 t3e advanta6es of more efficient retrieval and of permittin6 spea?ers Band learnersC to direct t3eir attention to t3e lar6er structure of t3e discourse" rat3er t3an ?eepin6 it narro4l8 focused on individual 4ords as t3e8 are produced BIattin6er and e!arrico" Le(ical Phrases and Language &eaching" %9ford: %($" 1..1C. ;ccordin6 to /. :e4is" t3e basic principle of t3e :e9ical ;pproac3 is M:an6ua6e is 6rammaticalised le9is" not le9icalised 6rammar B:e4is" 1..3C. Dn ot3er 4ords" le9is is central in creatin6 meanin6" 6rammar pla8s a subservient mana6erial role. Df one accepts t3is principle t3en t3e lo6ical implication is t3at 4e s3ould spend more time 3elpin6 learners develop t3eir stoc? of p3rases" and less time on 6rammatical structures. ii. !ollocation in action !ollocations mi63t be described as t3e 4ords t3at are placed or found to6et3er in a predictable pattern. E9amples of collocations ran6e from t4o 4ord combinations suc3 as problem child to e9tended combinations suc3 as $e7s recovering from a ma8or operation. /. :e4is7s volume &eaching 4ollocation* "urther 5evelopments in the Le(ical Approach B1---C" presents 4a8s of inte6ratin6 collocation into a readin6 and 4ritin6 course" and numerous classroom strate6ies" activities" and e9ercises. ;not3er important aspect of t3e :e9ical ;pproac3 is t3at le9is and 6rammar are closel8 related. !onsider t3e sentences belo4 43ere several 4ords can be completed: BaC 03e t3eor8 3as 3ad a stron6 ..U.on me. BbC 03e8UU.to tr8 out t3e t3eor8. Df 4e loo? at t3e e9amples above" 4e 4ill see in BaC t3at 3 semanticall8 related 4ords F impact, influence, effect F be3ave t3e same 4a8 6rammaticall8: have a9an impact, influence, effect on somebody9something. Dn BbC verbs connected 4it3 initiatin6 action F encourage, persuade, urge, advise, etc. all follo4 t3e pattern verb V object V infinitive. 11

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03is ?ind of 5pattern 6rammar7 is considered to be important in t3e :e9ical ;pproac3. Dndeed" an aspect of vocabular8 t3at 3as become @uite important in recent 8ears is t3e position of t3e 4ord in t3e structure of t3e sentence" puttin6 4ords in structures. Jor e9ample" t3e verb Mfaint can onl8 occur 4it3 a 6rammatical subject suc3 as M/ar8 in M/ar8 fainted" never 4it3 an object MW/ar8 fainted ;nn. 03e verb Mmeet on t3e ot3er 3and 3as to 3ave an object M>e met Oo3n" not MW>e met. &ome verbs are follo4ed b8 subordinate clauses F MD 3oped /ar8 4ould 6o rat3er t3an 6rammatical objects MWD 3oped /ar8. ; spea?er of En6lis3 ?no4s not just 43at a 4ord means and 3o4 it is pronounced but also 3o4 it fits into sentences. 2.2.3. Techni0ues use# in teaching %oca.ulary Dn t3is section 4e 4ill loo? at some of t3e tec3ni@ues used in teac3in6 vocabular8" namel8" $resentation tec3ni@ues" Dnteraction 4it3 4ords" iscover8 tec3ni@ues. 2.2.3.1. Presentation techni0ues Iot all vocabular8 can be learnt t3rou63 interaction and discover8 tec3ni@ues. 03ere are man8 occasions 43en some form of presentation and)or of e9planation is t3e best 4a8 to brin6 ne4 4ords into t3e classroom. 03ere are several t8pes of presentation tec3ni@ues: realiaH picturesH mime" action and 6estureH contrastH enumerationH e9planationH translation Realia is a term used to refer to certain real=life objects. %ne 4a8 of presentin6 4ords is to brin6 t3e t3in6s t3e8 represent into t3e classroom. 2ords li?e 5pen7" 5ruler7" 5postcard7" etc. can obviousl8 be presented in t3is 4a8. 03e teac3er 3olds up t3e object Bor points to itC" sa8s t3e 4ord and t3en 6ets students to repeat it. PicturesA Grin6in6 a pen into t3e classroom is not a problem. Grin6in6 in a car" 3o4ever" is. %ne solution is t3e use of pictures. $ictures can be board dra4in6s" 4all pictures and c3arts" flas3cards" ma6azine pictures and an8 ot3er non=tec3nical visual representation. &uc3 pictures can be used to e9plain t3e meanin6 of vocabular8 items" even of more abstract concepts suc3 as 5above7" 5opposite7" 5smiles7" 5fro4ns7" etc. /imeH action and gestureA it is sometimes impossible to e9plain t3e meanin6 of 4ords eit3er t3rou63 t3e use of realia or in pictures. ;ctions" in particular" are probabl8 better e9plained b8 mime. !oncepts li?e 5runnin67" 54al?in67 or 5smo?in67 are eas8 to present in t3is 4a8H so are prepositions B5to7" 5to4ards7" 5on7C. ,ontrast: 2ords e9ist because of t3eir sense relations and t3is can be used to teac3 meanin6. 2e can present t3e meanin6 of 5empt87 b8 contrastin6 it 4it3 5full7" or 5cold7 b8 contrastin6 it 4it3 53ot7" 5bi67 b8 contrastin6 it 4it3 5small7. 2e ma8 present t3ese concepts 4it3 pictures or mime" and b8 dra4in6 attention to t3e contrasts in meanin6 4e ensure our students7 understandin6 EnumerationA ;not3er important sense relation is represented b8 38pon8m8: 6roupin6 4ords into 6eneral and specific. 2e can 6ive a superordinate 4ord Bor 38pern8m F t3e 6eneral 4ordC suc3 as 5clot3es7 and e9plain t3is b8 enumeratin6 or listin6 various items B38pon8ms = specificC included in it. 03us" one can introduce t3e item 5appliances7 Bsuperordinate or 38pern8mC and t3en illustrate b8 enumeratin6 items suc3 as refri6erator" micro4ave oven" dis34as3er" and suc3. 03e same is true of ot3er 38pern8ms suc3 as 5ve6etable7 or 5furniture7. E(planationA one of t3e most common presentation tec3ni@ues is e9planation. E9plainin6 t3e meanin6 of vocabular8 items can be ver8 difficult" especiall8 at be6inner and elementar8 levels. Gut suc3 a tec3ni@ue can be used 4it3 more intermediate or advanced students" 43o are able to 6rasp t3e e9planation. 2e s3ould remember t3at 43en 4e e9plain t3e meanin6 of a 4ord 4e also 11

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3ave to e9plain aspects of use 43ic3 are relevant for t3at 4ord. 03us" if 4e are e9plainin6 t3e meanin6 of 5mate7 BP friendC 4e 3ave to point out t3at it is a collo@uial 4ord used in informal conte9ts and t3at it is more often used for males t3an for females. +ranslation: translation is a commonl8 used presentation tec3ni@ue. Dt is a @uic? and eas8 4a8 to present t3e meanin6 of 4ords but it is not 4it3out problems. Dn t3e first place" it is not al4a8s eas8 to translate 4ords Bculturall8 comple9 concepts are often difficult to accuratel8 translateC" and" in t3e second place" even 43ere translation is possible" it ma8 ma?e it a bit too eas8 for students b8 discoura6in6 t3em from interactin6 4it3 t3e 4ords. 23ere translation can @uic?l8 solve a presentation problem it ma8 be a 6ood idea" but 4e s3ould bear in mind t3at usin6 t3e mot3er ton6ue as little as possible is 3elpful for bot3 teac3er and students. PronunciationA ;ll of t3ese presentation tec3ni@ues" eit3er sin6l8 or in combination" are useful 4a8s of introducin6 ne4 4ords. 23at must be remembered 4it3 vocabular8 presentation" too" is t3at pronunciation is just as important 3ere as it is for structural material. 2e s3ould not introduce 4ords 4it3out ma?in6 sure t3at students ?no4 3o4 t3e8 are pronounced. Iot onl8 4ill t3is mean t3at t3e8 can use t3e 4ords in speec3" it 4ill also 3elp t3em to remember t3e 4ords. 03ere are a number of 4a8s of presentin6 t3e sounds of 4ords: i. 03rou63 modellin6: Oust as 4it3 structures" t3e teac3er can model t3e 4ord and t3en 6et bot3 c3oral and individual repetition. 23en t3e teac3er is modellin6 t3e 4ord s)3e can use 6esture" etc. to indicate t3e main stress in t3e 4ord. ii. 03rou63 visual representation: 23en teac3ers 4rite up ne4 4ords on t3e board t3e8 s3ould al4a8s indicate 43ere t3e stress in t3e 4ord is. 0eac3ers can do t3is in several 4a8s: = t3e8 can underline t3e stressed s8llable" e.6. photograph = t3e8 can use a stress mar? before t3e stressed s8llable" e.6. 5photograph, photo7graphic iii. 03rou63 p3onetic s8mbols: some teac3ers 6et t3eir students to learn t3e p3onetic s8mbols" at least for reco6nition purposes. e.6. photograph X5fYutY6ra:fZ" photographic XfYutY76r[fi?Z !ertainl8 for more advanced students a basic ?no4led6e of t3e s8mbols 4ill 3elp t3em to access pronunciation information from t3eir dictionaries. 03ere are several stages of presenting vocaLularI i. settin6 up a conte9t" 43ic3 is relevant to learners7 interest and a6e" builds on or incorporates learners7 e9perience. ii. elicitation of t3e tar6et vocabular8 item Bi.e. tr8in6 to 6et t3e tar6et item from t3e learners firstC in order to en3ance t3eir involvement as 4ell as to 3elp t3em fit t3e ne4 item in t3eir e9istin6 vocabular8 ?no4led6e. iii. c3oral and)or individual repetition Bt3is ma8 be optional at 3i63er levelsC in order to standardise pronunciation. iv. consolidation)concept c3ec? @uestions H 43ic3 are aimed to c3ec? 43et3er meanin6 3as been properl8 understood and to provide furt3er meanin6ful opportunities for learners to use t3e item in conte9t. v. board record for later reference 2.2.3.2. 1nteraction with wor#sA E9periments on vocabular8 seem to su66est t3at students remember best 43en t3e8 3ave interacted 4it3 t3e 4ords t3e8 are learnin6. 03ere is a definite advanta6e in 6ettin6 students to do more t3an just repeat t3em. 0as?s suc3 as c3an6in6 t3e 4ords to mean t3eir opposites" c3an6in6 a noun into an adjective" puttin6 4ords to6et3er" etc." 3elp to fi9 t3e 4ords in t3e learners7 minds. &ome3o4 or ot3er" t3en" it seems t3at 4e s3ould 6et students to interact 4it3 4ords. 2e s3ould 6et t3em to 5adopt7 4ords t3at t3e8 li?e and t3at t3e8 4ant to use" 13

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so t3at t3e8 ma8 become properl8 ac@uainted 4it3 t3em. Locabular8 learnin6 needs t3e 5deep e9perience7. .earning and rememLering vocaLularIA ;s 4e previousl8 mentioned" t3e problem lies not just in learnin6 :1 4ords" but also in rememberin6 t3em. >o4 4ell people remember somet3in6 depends on 3o4 deepl8 t3e8 process it. 'epeatin6 4ords as strin6s of sounds is lo4= level processin6 and badl8 rememberedH 4or?in6 out 3o4 4ords fit in t3e 6rammatical structure of t3e sentence is deeper and leads to better memor8H usin6 t3e meanin6s of 4ords to6et3er 4it3in t3e 43ole meanin6 of t3e sentence is t3e deepest level of processin6 and ensures t3e best memor8. 'esearc3 conducted b8 >arr8 Ga3ric? BSemantic memory content" 1.*KC su66ested t3at a 4ord is remembered best if it is practiced ever8 3- da8s rat3er t3an at more fre@uent intervals. 03is contradicts t3e belief common amon6 teac3ers t3at ever8 4ord s3ould be practiced as often as possible 4it3in a s3ort time span. Dt is @oD t3e 4ord is practiced t3at is important rat3er t3an 3o4 often. . 2.2.3.3. 2isco%ery techni0ues 6o be8ond simple modellin6" e9planation" mime and translation. Especiall8 at intermediate levels and above" as an appropriate alternative to standard presentation tec3ni@ues" discover8 tec3ni@ues Maim to 6ive students a c3ance to ta?e c3ar6e B>armer" 1..+: +1C and as? students to discover 3o4 lan6ua6e 4or?s" instead of simpl8 furnis3in6 meanin6. &tudents 4ill often be as?ed to 5discover for t3emselves7 43at a 4ord means and 3o4 and 438 it is bein6 used" t3e8 4ill 3ave to 4or? out rules and meanin6s for t3emselves rat3er t3an bein6 6iven ever8t3in6 b8 t3e teac3er. ;t intermediate levels 4e can assume t3at students alread8 3ave a considerable store of vocabular8. 'at3er t3an teac3 t3em ne4 4ords 4e can s3o4 t3em e9amples of 4ords in action Bin te9ts" etc.C and as? t3em to use t3eir previous ?no4led6e to 4or? out 43at 4ords can 6o 4it3 ot3ers" 43en t3e8 s3ould be used and 43at connotations t3e8 3ave. Even at be6inner levels" 3o4ever" 4e ma8 4ant to as? students to 4or? out 43at 4ords mean" rat3er t3an just 3andin6 t3em t3e meanin6s: 43en students 3ave 53ad a 6o7 4it3 t3e 4ords 4e can lead feedbac? sessions to see if t3e8 3ave understood t3e 4ords correctl8. iscover8 tec3ni@ues displa8 from simple matc3in6 tas?s to more comple9 understandin6s of connotation and conte9t. iscover8 tec3ni@ues used 4it3 vocabular8 materials allo4 students to activate t3eir previous ?no4led6e and to s3are 43at t3e8 ?no4 Bif t3e8 are 4or?in6 4it3 ot3ersC. 03e8 also provo?e t3e ?ind of interaction 4it3 4ords. iscover8 tec3ni@ues s3ift t3e emp3asis from t3e teac3er to students and invites t3em to use t3eir reasonin6 processes and problem solvin6 s?ills to learn t3e subtle nuances of t3e lan6ua6e and" 3ence" to mimic t3e ps8c3olin6uistic approac3 utilized b8 native lan6ua6e learners. 03e conclusions 4e can dra4 from t3is discussion are best summed up b8 a @uote from ;drian (nder3ill: Men6a6in6 t3e learner is essential to an8 activit8 t3at is to 3ave a 3i63 learnin6 8ield B(nder3ill" 1.*N: 1-+C 2.2.4. "tages in teaching %oca.ulary 1st step: Encounterin6 ne4 4ords: if learners are motivated to learn certain 4ords out of interest or need" t3e8 are li?el8 to be learnt more easil8. 03e 4a8 or conte9t in 43ic3 a 4ord is presented as 4ell as t3e number of times a 4ord is encountered 4ill affect 43et3er it is learnt or not. :earners seem to need various encounters 4it3 t3e same 4ord in multiple resources rat3er t3an in just one source. 1nd step: <ettin6 a clear ima6e of t3e form of t3e vocabular8 item: t3is ima6e ma8 be visual or auditor8 or bot3. Ler8 often learners tend to associate ne4 4ords 4it3 4ords t3at sound ) loo? similar in t3eir lan6ua6e. $roblems for learners arisin6 from 4ords similar in form 3ave been found 1K

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as a major problem for lan6ua6e learners" especiall8 in suc3 cases 43ere native lan6ua6e and t3e lan6ua6e t3e8 stud8 bot3 use t3e 'oman alp3abet and t3e t4o lan6ua6es are closel8 related 3istoricall8. 3rd step: <ettin6 t3e 4ord meanin6: 03e level of distinctions t3at must be made in 4ord definitions var8 across situations and learner levels. :o4 level learners ma8 be satisfied to 6rasp @uite 6eneral meanin6s 43ile advanced learners need more specific definitions in order to be able to see differences bet4een near s8non8ms. Kt3 step: !onsolidation of form and meanin6 in memor8: various memor8 strate6ies are available t3at 3elp consolidate t3e connection bet4een 4ord form and meanin6. Nt3 step: (sin6 t3e 4ords: t3is ensures t3at learners 6ain confidence as autonomous lan6ua6e users" but at t3e same time t3e8 can refine t3eir lan6ua6e ?no4led6e in 6eneral. 2.2.!. Practising %oca.ulary >avin6 used an8 of t3e vocabular8 presentation tec3ni@ues in class" 4e cannot reall8 sa8 t3at learners 3ave learnt t3e ne4 items. Encounterin6 a ne4 vocabular8 item once 4ill not 6uarantee t3at it 4ill be remembered. :earners need plent8 of opportunities in order to ac@uire a ne4 vocabular8 item. Dn a vocabular8 presentation lesson" t3e teac3er s3ould provide meanin6ful controlled practice for learners so t3at t3e8 could reco6nise" manipulate and use t3e ne4 vocabular8 items. Locabular8 practice s3ould be re6ular" carefull8 planned and s3ould not involve too man8 4ords at one time. /an8 simple vocabular8 practice activities are based around t3e follo4in6 ideas BO. &crivener" Learning &eaching" 1..K: *3C: = discussions" communicative activities and role=pla8 re@uirin6 use of t3e 4ords = ma?in6 use of t3e vocabular8 in 4ritten tas?s. /ore specific e9ercise t8pes: = matc3in6 pictures to 4ords = matc3in6 parts of 4ords to ot3er parts" e.6. be6innin6s and endin6s = matc3in6 4ords to ot3er 4ords" e.6. collocations" s8non8ms" opposites" sets of related 4ords" etc. = usin6 prefi9es and suffi9es to build ne4 4ords from 6iven 4ords = classif8in6 items into lists 5 usin6 6iven 4ords to complete a specific tas? = fillin6 in cross4ords" 6rids or dia6rams = fillin6 in 6aps in sentences = memor8 6ames 03e importance of rec8clin6 previousl8 presented vocabular8 is obvious. 'evision activities can easil8 be incorporated into t3e lesson b8 4a8 of five=minute activities or 4armers. 03ese activities can successfull8 aid students7 recall of t3e ne4 4ords and develop t3eir retrieval s8stems. Locabular8 revision activities: listin6 or cate6orisin6 items" vocabular8 @uizzes" crosses" brainstormin6 round an idea" 6uessin6 6ames" etc. ,ontrol factors in teac@ing vocaLularI /urar B 1-11C s8nt3etizes t3e follo4in6 control factors: i.. 'el8 on students7 prior ?no4led6e and related e9periences before teac3in6 ne4 4ords to introduce a t3ematic area. Jor e9ample" before readin6 a te9t on !ommunication !8berspace" teac3 t3e 4ord blog" define it Ban online journalC" specif8 t3at t3e 4ord is a blend B blog comes from %eb logC" and s3o4 a picture of someone seated at a computer composin6 an essa8 or report to post on t3eir personal 4ebsite. 03en" s3o4 students an actual blo6 . ii. &3o4 form and content as 4ell as aspects of t3e nature of meanin6 and vocabular8 net4or?in6) 4ord relations: 1N

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= pronunciation and spelling* abilit8 to reco6nise and reproduce items in t3e spo?en and 4ritten forms. \ denotation and connotation: e.6. rose F denotative meanin6: reference to t3e flo4erH connotative meanin6: passion Buniversal s8mbolC" t3e 'o8al >ouse Bas in 03e 2ars of t3e 'osesC. \ Polysemy* distin6uis3in6 bet4een t3e various meanin6 of a sin6le 4ord form 4it3 several but closel8 related meanin6s Bfoot: of a person" of a mountain" of a pa6eC. \ $omonymy* distin6uis3in6 bet4een t3e various meanin6 of a sin6le 4ord form 43ic3 3as several meanin6s 43ic3 are not closel8 related Be.6. file: used to put papers in or a toolC. \ $omophony* understandin6 4ords t3at 3ave t3e same pronunciation but different spellin6s and meanin6s Be.6. %ait-%eightC. \ Synonymy* distin6uis3in6 bet4een t3e different s3ades of meanin6 t3at s8non8mous 4ords 3ave Be.6. small-littleC. \ Style, register, dialect* Gein6 able to distin6uis3 bet4een different levels of formalit8" t3e effect of different conte9ts and topics" as 4ell as differences in 6eo6rap3ical variation. \ &ranslation* a4areness of differences Bespeciall8 at t3e connotational levelC and similarities bet4een t3e native and t3e forei6n lan6ua6e Be.6. false co6natesC. \ 4hunks of language* set p3rases Bred-handedC" collocations Bheadache, pain in the back, sore throatC" idioms Bto carry coal to 0e%castleC. \ #rammar of vocabulary* learnin6 t3e rules t3at enable students to build up different forms of t3e 4ord or even different 4ords from t3at 4ord Be.6. sleep, slept, slept6 able, unable6 disabilityC. iii. Drrespective of t3e learners7 level of proficienc8" discover8" 6uided discover8" conte9tual 6uess4or? Binferencin6 s?illsC and dictionar8=buildin6 s?ills s3ould be encoura6ed. iv. Locabular8 selection s3ould meet t3e follo4in6 criteria: = covera6e: information s3ould be provided about t3e various meanin6s and uses of a 4ord form Bmultiple meanin6 4ords prevail over monosemantic itemsCH = fre@uenc8: t3e more t3e number of t3e 4ord occurrences" t3e more li?el8 to be selected. Estimates 6o t3at t3e list includes 1"--- 4ords 4it3 semantic and fre@uenc8 information dra4n from a corpus of 1 to N million 4ords. Dt is claimed t3at ?no4in6 t3ese 4ords 6ives access to about *- per cent of t3e 4ords in an8 4ritten te9t and t3us stimulates motivation since t3e 4ords ac@uired can be seen b8 learners to 3ave a demonstrabl8 @uic? return. = universalit8: 4ords useful in all En6lis3=spea?in6 countriesH = utilit8: enablin6 discussion on as 4ide a subject ran6e as possible. ,onclusions !onsiderin6 t3e role of le9is in t3e clasroom " &crivener B1..K:11.C dra4s t3e follo4in6 conclusions: 1. :e9is is important and needs to be dealt 4it3 s8stematicall8 in its o4n ri63 H it is not simpl8 an add=on to 6rammar lessons. 1. %ur job consists in 3elpin6 students to practise" store"recall and use t3e items of t3e ne4 le9is. 3. 0rainin6 in t3e use of En6lis3=En6lis3 dictionaries provides students 4it3 a vital tool for self=stud8. 2it3out 4ords" it is possible to ?no4 ever8 t3in6 about t3e 6rammatical structure of a lan6ua6e" but"8et to be unable to ma?e a sin6le meanin6ful utterance. %ur role as teac3ers is to 3elp" to motivate and encoura6e Bappl8in6 different tec3ni@ues and media for presentin6 vocabular8" ma?in6 vocabular8 memorableC" and even to inspire b8 encoura6in6 in learners an appreciation of t3e ori6in" sound and beaut8 of 4ords BGo4en and /ar?s"1..K: 1-,C. 1,

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+opics for discussion and e(ercisesA ;ctivit8 1. B&ource: 03ornbur8" &. 1--1: ,+C ;ctivit8 t8pe: 0eac3in6 vocabular8 :evel of proficienc8: intermediate 0imin6: 1- minutes &tudents7 6roupin6: pair4or? Dnstructions: &tudents are as?ed to use a dictionar8 and loo? up t3e 4ords in t3e list belo4 and 6roup t3em into neutral items and 4ords 3avin6 ne6ative connotations: notorious vs. famous publicity vs. propaganda skinny vs. slim chat vs. gossip childish vs. childlike queer vs. gay officious vs. official collaborator vs. ally bachelor vs. spinster Jollo4=up: students are raised a4areness t3at connotation is rendered b8 bot3 6rammatical means Bsuffi9es suc3 as F like and = ishC and le9ical means Bdifferent le9ical itemsC and t3e8 are as?ed to t3in? of ot3er pairs of neutral vs. 4ords 43ic3 are ne6ativel8 or positivel8 connoted. ;ctivit8 1 B&ource: >armer" 1..+:1+1C: ;t t3e restaurant :evel: intermediate 2or?in6 4it3 8our partner" put t3e follo4in6 events into t3e correct order: :o? at t3e menu <ive t3e 4aiter a tip >ave dessert $a8 t3e bill Goo? a table ecide to 6o ot for a meal leave t3e restaurant >ave t3e starter <o to t3e restaurant >ave t3e main course &it do4n %rder t3e meal ;s? for t3e bill ;ctivit8 3: :evel:upper intermediate 23at vocabular8 features are e9emplified in t3e follo4in6 6roups of 4ordsR a. stride" 4al?" saunter" stroll" amble" sta66er" trud6eH car" vane" ambulance" bus" ta9i" ve3icle" jeep. b. ble4)blueHbare)bearHpeer)pierH plane)plain 1+

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c. difficult" 3ard" tou63" demandin6H cross" irritated" furious" an6r8" apoplecticH d. drun?)soberH 3ot)coldH alive)deadH bu8)sell e. sense" nonsense" senseless" sensible" sensitivit8" sensor f. boo?s3op" teapot" for6et=me=not 6. s3ip" anc3or" sailor" brid6e"navi6ate"dec?" car6o. K. 23at ?ind of vocabular8 teac3er 4ill 8ou beR >o4 4ill 8ou as future teac3ers 3elp 8our learners to learn and remember items of vocabular8R 23ere do 8ou fit into t3e vocabular8 Flearnin6 processR 0im Go4en and Oonat3an /ar?s B1..K: .1C tal?ed to a number of teac3ers about vocabular8 teac3in6 and t3ese are some of t3e comments t3e8 made. /a?e a note of t3ose 8ou identif8 4it3 and t3ose 8ou disa6ree 4it3: a. ! al%ays try to present ne% %ords in every lesson. ! think my learners e(pect it. b. ! give my students a translation of every ne% %ord. &hey need it for their notebooks. c. ! present vocabulary in conte(t %herever possible. d. ! often present %ords %ith their collocations. e. ! often sho% my learners the relationships bet%een particular items of vocabulary like opposites or synonyms. f. ! think te(ts are an e(cellent vehicle for introducing and recycling vocabulary. 6. ! try to encourage my students to become more independent by making them guess the meaning of unkno%n %ords. 3. ! encourage my learners to use dictionaries as much as possible. ! think it really helps in vocabulary development and it can also make them much more autonomous. i. ! give students advice on ho% they can %ork on e(panding their vocabulary in their o%n time. !6&6 +eac@ing grammar 2.3.1. Dn t3e traditional model of E:0" 6rammar pla8ed a central role to t3e detriment of t3e ot3er lan6ua6e components. 03e overridin6 importance attac3ed to 6rammar 4as based on t3e assumption t3at accurac8 B6rammatical correctnessC secured successful communication. 03e belief 4as c3allen6ed in t3e earl8 1.+-s 4it3 t3e realization t3at 6rammar ?no4led6e 4as onl8 one component of t3e communicative competence Balon6side discourse competence" sociolin6uistic competence and strate6ic competenceC. !onse@uentl8" 6rammar teac3in6 4as almost abandonedH it is onl8 recentl8 t3at 6rammar 3as re6ained its ri63tful place in an inte6rated approac3 to lan6ua6e teac3in6. <rammar is defined as t3e stud8 and practice of t3e rules b8 43ic3 4ords c3an6e t3eir forms and are combined into sentences. Food for t@oug@t B &ource:0. Go4en and O. /ar?s" !nside &eaching" 1..K: *1C: >o4 do 8ou see 6rammar" and its si6nificance to t3e lan6ua6e learnersR 23at do t3e metap3ors proposed 3ere su66est about t3e nature of 6rammarR <rammar is: an al6ebraic s8stemH a scaffoldin6H a s?eletonH 1*

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a blueprint. 03e @uestion is 2>;0 to teac3 B43at 6rammar itemsC and >%2 to teac3 6rammar in an effective and efficient 4a8. 03e ans4er to t3e first @uestion = 2>;0 to teac3 = Bselection of 6rammar structures to be tau63tC points out to compliance 4it3 t4o criteria: i6 ,ompre@ensiLilitI F teac3ers s3ould teac3 t3e functional load of 6rammar" i.e. structures 43ic3 enable meanin6 understandin6 in a communicative situation: basic verb formsH affirmative" interro6ative and ne6ative patterns" tenses and modals" etc. ii6 'cceptaLilitI $ it is e@uated to an ade@uate level of correctness and naturalness of t3e lin6uistic output. 2it3 reference to >%2 to teac3 6rammar" t3ere are t4o lines of approac3: i6 form5focused instruction B3i63l8 valued in t3e traditional modelC F learners7 needs are pre= defined in t3e 6rammatical s8llabus. ;dmittedl8" 6rammar teac3in6 reflects t3e t8pical classroom use of lan6ua6e" out of conte9t in a rat3er non=aut3entic 4a8H focuses on 4ell=formed sentences B43ic3 are not len6t38C" on lan6ua6e output as evidence of lan6ua6e learnin6H relies 3eavil8 on e9plicit ?no4led6e and on controlled practice. ii6 MfluencI5firstN pedagogIB meaning5focused interaction Bcontemporar8 approac3C F learners7 needs are assessed based on t3eir performance durin6 fluenc8 activities. Dt underlies t3e natural use of lan6ua6e in real=li?e communication settin6sH relies on implicit ?no4led6e and on automaticit8 Binternalization of rulesCH activates learners7 strate6ic competence Bsituation mana6ement b8 parap3rasin6" reor6anization" remedial 4or?C" etc. 2.3.2. The typology o, grammar acti%ities falls into t3ree broad t8pes B/urar" 1-11C: i. controlled)mec3anical practice Bfor e9ample" repetition and substitution drillsC. ii. semi=controlled)conte9tualized) meanin6ful practice: students are encoura6ed to relate form to meanin6 b8 s3o4in6 3o4 t3e 6rammar structures are used in real=life communication. Jor e9ample" in order to practice t3e use of prepositions to describe locations of places" students are 6iven a street map 4it3 various buildin6s identified in different locations. 03e8 are also 6iven a list of prepositions suc3 as across from, on the corner of, near, on, ne(t to. 03e8 t3en 3ave to ans4er @uestions suc3 as M23ere is t3e boo? s3opR 23ere is t3e cafQR" etc. 03e practice is no4 meanin6ful because t3e8 3ave to respond accordin6 to t3e location of places on t3e map. iii. free)communicative practice Blearners use t3e structures in aut3entic communication 43ile pa8in6 attention to t3is rule=6overned be3aviourC. Jor e9ample" students are as?ed to dra4 a map of t3eir nei63bor3ood and ans4er @uestions about t3e location of different places" suc3 as t3e nearest bus stop" t3e nearest cafQ" etc. <loball8" 6rammar activities displa8 t3e follo4in6 features: i. specific 6rammar structures are in focus and learners are provided 4it3 e9plicit information about t3e ruleH ii. learners are as?ed to use t3e structures in sentences of t3eir o4nH iii. learners 3ave t3e opportunit8 to use t3e structures repeatedl8 durin6 t3e En6lis3 classes Bt3ere is need for reinforcement and for buildin6 up on prior ?no4led6eCH iv. learners are e9pected to understand t3e rule Bvia consciousness=raisin6C use of t3e 6rammatical structures in a successful 4a8H v. t3ere is feedbac? on t3e learners7 performance Bt3e8 6et a sense of t3eir performanceC 2.3.3. Control ,actors in teaching grammar i6 constant e9posure to lan6ua6e at an appropriate level of difficult8 Brou63l8=tuned input F t3e input is sli63tl8 above t3e learners7 level of proficienc8C. ii6 buildin6 of meanin6=focused interaction. 1.

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iii6 opportunities for learners to identif8 and direct attention to 6rammar structure form" semantics or meanin6 and pra6matic conditions of t3eir use before and 43ile actuall8 usin6 t3e lan6ua6e. Jor e9ample" p3rasal verbs: aC form of p3rasal verbs: t3e8 are t4o=part verbs comprisin6 a verb and a particle Be.6. to look upC or a verb" a particle and a preposition Be.6. to keep up %ithC. $3rasal verbs are transitive or intransitive. ; distinctive feature of p3rasal verbs is t3at in man8 cases t3e particle can be separated from t3e verb b8 an object Be.6. >e loo?ed t3e 4ord up in t3e dictionar8CH bC meanin6 of p3rasal verbs: man8 of t3em are multiple meanin6 structures F e.6. to put up: literal meanin6 and fi6urative meanin6 F to stay at a hotel" etcH cC pra6matic use of p3rasal verbs: t3e8 mostl8 c3aracterize t3e informal st8le 0o sum up" communication cannot ta?e place in t3e absence of structure" or 6rammar" a set of s3ared assumptions about 3o4 lan6ua6e 4or?s" alon6 4it3 a 4illin6ness of participants to cooperate in t3e ne6otiation of meanin6. >ence" t3e 6oal of 6rammar teac3in6 is to enable learners to internalize rules so as to become efficient in communication. Jurt3ermore" communicative fluenc8 does not impl8 loss of 6rammatical accurac8" instead t3e8 are interrelated. 1.&6:6 .earning different tIpes of grammar :an6ua6e 3as patterns and re6ularities 43ic3 are used to conve8 meanin6" some of 43ic3 ma?e up its 6rammar. Ano4led6e of 6rammar is t3ou63t b8 man8 to be t3e central area of t3e lan6ua6e s8stem. Dn some 4a8s 6rammar is eas8 to stud8 in :1 learners" because it is 3i63l8 s8stematic. Jor t3ese reasons muc3 of :1 learnin6 researc3 of t3e 1.*-s concentrated on 6rammar. 03e term O6rammar7 refers to a s8stematic anal8sis of t3e structure of a lan6ua6e" a set of rules and e9amples dealin6 4it3 t3e s8nta9 and morp3olo68 of a standard lan6ua6e" usuall8 intended as an aid to t3e learnin6 and teac3in6 of t3at lan6ua6e. Prescriptive grammar attempts to establis3 rules for t3e correct use of lan6ua6e in societ8. ; prescriptive 6rammar is an account of a lan6ua6e t3at sets out rules B prescriptionsC for 3o4 it s3ould be used and for 43at s3ould not be used B proscriptionsC based on norms derived from a particular model of 6rammar. Jor En6lis3" suc3 a 6rammar ma8 prescribe ! as in !t is ! BD s3ould be used after t3e verb beC" and proscribe me as in !t7s me. Dt ma8 proscribe like used as a conjunction" as in $e behaved like he %as in charge" prescribin6 instead $e behaved as if he %ere in charge H or 5'hom s3ould be used as t3e relative pronoun in objective function7" e.6. &he man %hom ! sa%" and so on. $rescriptive 6rammars 3ave been criticized for not ta?in6 account of lan6ua6e c3an6e and st8listic variation" and for imposin6 t3e norms of some 6roups on all users of a lan6ua6e. Descriptive grammar provides a precise account of actual usa6e" a description of lin6uistic structures" usuall8 based on utterances elicited from native=spea?in6 informants. Dn a descriptive 6rammar t3e aut3or attempts to build a model of lan6ua6e 43ic3 represents 3is t3eor8 of lan6ua6e" i.e. 3e see?s to provide ot3er lin6uists 4it3 a specification of 3is insi63ts into t3e nature of lan6ua6e. &uc3 a model must satisf8" or at least attempt to satisf8" t3ree criteria of ade@uac8: observational" descriptive and e9planator8 Bas outlined b8 !3oms?8" ; spects of the &heory of Synta(" 1.,N: 1K=1+C. Dt must" in simple terms" aC provide an anal8sis 43ic3 is minimall8 consistent 4it3 observed primary dataH bC correspond in its anal8sis to t3e innate kno%ledge of t3e ideal spea?er=3earerH and cC provide a means of selectin6 bet4een rival models and t3eories so as to c3oose t3e one 43ic3 best e(plains t3e p3enomenon of 3uman lan6ua6e. +raditional grammar boo?s 3ave often" 3o4ever" combined description and prescription. ; traditional 6rammar concerns t3e parts of speec3" e.6. Ma noun is t3e name of a person" place or t3in6. ;nal8zin6 sentences means labelin6 t3e parts 4it3 t3eir names and 6ivin6 rules t3at e9plain verball8 3o4 t3e8 ma8 be combined. 23ile man8 6rammarians toda8 do not reject t3is t8pe of 6rammar outri63t" t3e8 a6ain feel it is unscientific. 23ile t3e concept of 5t3e parts of speec37 is 3-

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indeed part of 6rammar" t3ere are man8 ot3er po4erful concepts t3at also need to be ta?en into account. &ince t3e late 1.N-s" it 3as become common in lin6uistics to contrast descriptive 6rammars 4it3 generative grammars6 <enerative 6rammar" introduced b8 I. !3oms?8" concentrated on providin6 an e9plicit account of an ideal native spea?er7s ?no4led6e of lan6ua6e B competenceC rat3er t3an a description of samples BperformanceC. !3oms?8 ar6ued t3at 6enerative 6rammars are more valuable" since t3e8 capture t3e creative aspect of 3uman lin6uistic abilit8. /ost lin6uists 6enerall8 re6ard bot3 approac3es as complementar8. Structural grammarA :an6ua6e teac3in6 3as also made use of structural 6rammar based on t3e concept of p3rase structure" 43ic3 s3o4s 3o4 some 4ords 6o to6et3er into t3e sentence and some do not. Dn a sentence suc3 as M03e man fed t3e do6" t3e 4ord Mt3e 6oes 4it3 Mman: if 4e put Mt3e 4it3 Mman" 4e 6et one structure MBthe manC" if 4e put Mt3e 4it3 Mdo6" 4e 6et anot3er structure MBthe dogC. MJed belon6s 4it3 MBthe dogC to 6et a ne4 structure MB fed the dogC. Io4 t3e t4o structures MBthe manC and MBfed the dogC 6o to6et3er to assemble t3e 43ole sentence. ; t8pical 4a8 of representin6 t3is p3rase structure is t3rou63 tree dia6rams t3at s3o4 3o4 t3e 4ords build up into p3rases and t3e p3rases build up into t3e 43ole sentence" suc3 as:

t3e man fed t3e do6 0eac3ers 3ave been usin6 t3is directl8 in substitution tables: a t8pical e9ample can be seen in t3e course boo? English for the fifth class B1..-" IelsonC: 03e8 can dra4 a D Tou blac? 43ite red do6 cat rose

&tudents form sentences b8 c3oosin6 a 4ord from eac3 column: MD UcanU dra4U aU 43iteU rose. 03e8 are substitutin6 4ords 4it3in a constant 6rammatical structure. &uc3 e9ercises 3ave lon6 been a staple of lan6ua6e teac3in6 in one 6uise or anot3er. &tructure drills and pattern practice are based on t3e same idea. (nli?e a descriptive 6rammar" a pedagogical grammar, see?s to present an e9istin6 model in a form 43ic3 provides t3e teac3er or s8llabus desi6ner 4it3 access to t3e t3eoretical insi63ts of t3e descriptive 6rammar in order to form t3e basis of lan6ua6e teac3in6 s8llabuses and materials. 03e t3ree criteria for ade@uac8 43ic3 appl8 to t3e descriptive 6rammar are not i6nored b8 t3e 4riter of t3e peda6o6ical 6rammar F t3e8 are of interest to 3im as criteria for selectin6 43ic3 descriptive 6rammar 3e 4ill present F but are" so to spea?" subordinated to t3e need to e9press t3e findin6s of t3e lin6uistic t3eor8 in a practical 4a8. Dn addition" t3e descriptive 6rammar must be consistent in its c3oice of t3eor8 F one modelFone t3eor8 F but a peda6o6ical 6rammar can be eclectic and dra4 on more t3an one t3eor8. ; clear e9ample of a non=eclectic peda6o6ical 6rammar 4ould be %4en 03omas B&ransformational #rammar and the &eacher of English, 1.,NC 43ic3 is based e9clusivel8 on 0ransformational=<enerative <rammar" 43ile '. ]uir? and &. <reenbaum BA :niversity #rammar of English" 1.++C can be ta?en as representative of an eclectic model dra4in6 on bot3 s8stemic 6rammar and 0<. 1rammatical JlinguisticG competenceA 03ere is anot3er meanin6 of M6rammar" namel8 t3e ?no4led6e of lan6ua6e t3at t3e spea?er possesses in t3e mind" ?no4n as linguistic or 31

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grammatical competence6 ;ll spea?ers ?no4 t3e 6rammar of t3eir lan6ua6e in t3is sense 4it3out benefit of stud8. ; native spea?er ?no4s t3e s8stem of t3e lan6ua6e" even if s)3e ma8 not be able to verbalize t3is ?no4led6e clearl8: it is 5implicit7 ?no4led6e. Ievert3eless a sin6le sentence of En6lis3 could not be produced 4it3out ?no4in6 En6lis3 6rammar in t3is sense. ; man 43o spontaneousl8 sa8s M03e man fed t3e do6 s3o4s t3at 3e ?no4s t3e 4ord order t8pical of En6lis3" in 43ic3 t3e &ubject M03e man comes before t3e Lerb Mfed. >e ?no4s t3e 4a8s of ma?in6 irre6ular past tenses in En6lis3 = Mfed rat3er t3an t3e re6ular M=ed BMWfeededCH 3e ?no4s t3at Mdo6 re@uires an article Mt3e or MaH and 3e ?no4s t3at Mt3e is used to tal? about a do6 t3at t3e listener alread8 ?no4s about. 03is is a ver8 different t8pe of ?no4led6e from t3e abilit8 to describe t3e sentence 3e 3as produced in terms of 6rammar" somet3in6 onl8 people 43o 3ave been tau63t e9plicit 56rammar7 can do. ;s 4ell as 6rammatical competence" native spea?ers also possess ?no4led6e of 3o4 lan6ua6e is used. 03is is often called communicative competence Bi.e." t3e spea?er7s abilit8 to put lan6ua6e to communicative useCA it is not just ?no4led6e of t3e lan6ua6e t3at is important" it is 3o4 to use it appropriatel8 for t3e activities in 43ic3 spea?ers 4ant to ta?e part F complainin6" ar6uin6" persuadin6" and so on. >ence t3e more 6eneral term pragmatic competence reflects all t3e possible uses of lan6ua6e rat3er t3an restrictin6 t3em to communication. 03erefore" pra6matic competence refers to t3e spea?er7s abilit8 to use lan6ua6e for a ran6e of public and private functions" includin6 communication BI. !3oms?8" ;no%ledge of Language* !ts 0ature, <rigin and :se* 1.*,C. 2. 3.!. Grammatical morphemes :an6ua6e teac3in6 3as often distin6uis3ed 5content7 4ords from 5structure7 4ords. ,ontent 4ords Balternative terms 5le9ical7 or 5full7 4ordsC are 4ords 43ic3 3ave definable le9ical meanin6 Be.6. book, boy, red, runCH t3at is" t3e8 3ave t3e ?ind of meanin6 t3at can refer to definable t3in6s" concepts and can be loo?ed up in a dictionar8. !ontent 4ords represent an open classA t3e8 allo4 t3e unlimited addition of ne4 items. Structure 4ords consist of articles" pronouns" prepositions or conjunctions Be.6. 4ords li?e the, toC. 03e8 represent closed=s8stem or closed class items: t3eir members3ip is fi9ed or limited Bt3e8 are limited in numberC. ; computer pro6ramme for teac3in6 En6lis3 needs about 11structure 4ords. Dt is easier to loo? up structure 4ords in a 6rammar boo? t3an in a dictionar8. 03e meanin6 of structure 4ords suc3 as Mt3e or Mto depends on t3e 6rammatical rules of t3e lan6ua6e" not on dictionar8 definitions. Dt is virtuall8 impossible to invent a ne4 structure 4ord because it means c3an6in6 t3e rules of t3e lan6ua6e rat3er t3an addin6 an item to t3e stoc? of 4ords of t3e lan6ua6e. 03e smallest unit of 6rammar is t3e 5morp@eme7: t3e morp3eme consists eit3er of a 4ord BMbo8C or part of a 4ord BM7s in Mt3e bo87sC. /orp3emes are studied in a branc3 of 6rammar called 5morp3olo687. &ome 4ords consist of a sin6le morp3eme = Mto or Mboo? or M6reat. &ome can 3ave morp3emes added to s3o4 t3eir 6rammatical role in t3e sentence" sa8 Mtable s or Mbi66er. Dn t3e first lan6ua6e 8oun6 c3ildren use content 4ords more easil8 t3an 6rammatical morp3emes. !3ildren commonl8 produce sentences suc3 as M/umm8 6o s3op" meanin6 somet3in6 li?e M/umm8 is 6oin6 to t3e s3ops" 43ere t3e adult sentence includes t3e 5missin67 6rammatical morp3emes: Mis" M=in6" Mto" Mt3e" and M=s. Dt is as if t3e c3ildren ?no4 t3e structure for t3e sentence and t3e content 4ords" but eit3er do not ?no4 t3e 6rammatical morp3emes or are incapable of usin6 t3em. Dn t3e earl8 1.+-s it 4as discovered t3at En6lis3 c3ildren learn t3ese 6rammatical morp3emes in a definite seFuence of acFuisition B'. Gro4n" A "irst Language* &he Early Stages" 31

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1.+3C. 04o researc3ers B>. ula8 and /. Gurt" Should %e teach children synta(, 1.+3C decided to see 43at t3is meant for :1 learnin6. 03e8 made &panis3=spea?in6 c3ildren learnin6 En6lis3 describe pictures and c3ec?ed 3o4 often t3e c3ildren supplied ei63t 6rammatical morp3emes in t3e appropriate places in t3e sentence. &uppose t3at at a rudimentar8 level :1 learners sa8 M<irl 6o. >o4 do t3e8 pro6ress from t3isR 03e order of difficult8 for t3e :1 learners is t3e follo4in6 se@uence from BiC to BviiiC: BiC plural M=s: t3e easiest morp3eme for t3e learners 4as t3e plural M=s" 6ettin6 M<irls 6o. BiiC pro6ressive M=in6: ne9t easiest for t3e learners 4as t3e 4ord endin6 M=in6 in present tense forms li?e M6oin6. BiiiC copula forms of Mbe: ne9t came t3e use of be as a copula" i.e. as a main verb in t3e sentence BMOo3n is 3app8C rat3er t3an as an au9iliar8 used 4it3 anot3er verb BMOo3n is 6oin6C. !3an6in6 t3e sentence sli63tl8 6ets M<irls are 3ere. BivC au9iliar8 form of Mbe: after t3is came t3e au9iliar8 form of Mbe 4it3 M=in6" 8ieldin6: M<irls are 6oin6. BvC definite and indefinite articles Mt3e and Ma: ne9t in difficult8 came t3e definite and indefinite articles Mt3e and Ma" enablin6 t3e learners to produce M&he 6irls 6o or MA 6irl 6o. BviC irre6ular past tense: NA t3e ne9t morp3emes 4ere t3e irre6ular En6lis3 past tenses" Bt3ose t3at do not 3ave a form of Md endin6 pronounced in t3e usual t3ree 4a8s )d)" )t)" or )id)C suc3 as Mcame and M4ent" as in M03e 6irls %ent. BviiC t3ird person M=s: t3e ne9t in order of difficult8 4as t3e t3ird person M=s used 4it3 verbs" as in: M03e 6irl 6oes. BviiiC possessive M=s: /ost difficult 4as t3e endin6 used 4it3 nouns to s3o4 possession" as in M &he 6irl7s boo?. :1 learners 3ave least difficult8 4it3 plural M=s" most difficult8 4it3 possessive M=s. Dt 4as not just &panis3=spea?in6 c3ildren 3ad a se@uence of difficult8 for t3e ei63t 6rammatical morp3emes. &imilar orders 3ave been found for Oapanese or Aorean c3ildrenH t3e first lan6ua6e does not seem to ma?e a crucial difference: all :1 learners 3ave muc3 t3e same order. Ior does it matter if t3e learners are c3ildren or adults: adults 3ave rou63l8 t3e same order as c3ildren. 2.3.3. *earning grammar an# *2 teaching 0eac3ers are often surprised b8 43at 6rammar means in :1 learnin6 researc3 and 3o4 muc3 importance is 6iven to it. ;bove all" 6rammar is competence in t3e mind rat3er t3an rules in a boo?H one crucial end= product of teac3in6 is t3at students s3ould be able to 5?no47 lan6ua6e in an unconscious sense" so t3at t3e8 can put it to 6ood use. 0eac3in6 3as to pa8 attention to t3e internal processes and ?no4led6e t3e students are buildin6 up in t3eir minds. <rammar is also relevant to t3e seFuence in 43ic3 elements of lan6ua6e are tau63t. %f necessit8 lan6ua6e teac3in6 3as to present t3e various aspects of lan6ua6e in order rat3er t3an introducin6 t3em all simultaneousl8. 03e conventional solution used to be a se@uence of increasin6 grammatical comple(itI" teac3in6 t3e present simple first" and t3e past perfect continuous last" because t3e former is muc3 5simpler7 t3an t3e latter. 23en language use became more important to teac3in6" t3e c3oice of a teac3in6 se@uence 4as no lon6er strai63tfor4ard since it 4as aspects of communication t3at no4 3ad to be se@uenced. Jor e9ample" t3e te9tboo? <pening Strategies B;bbs E Jreebairn" 1.*1C uses an order based on language functions: :esson 1 M;s? for and sa8 numbers" :esson 1 M;s? about people7s nationalit8" :esson K M&a8 43at 8ou 4ant" :esson 11 M<ive permission" and so on. ;n8 function=based order runs into problems in arrivin6 at a lo6ical se@uence: is 5re@uestin67 simpler or more comple9 t3an 5complainin67R >ence 6rammar be6an to creep bac? in to te9tboo?s because it 33

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4as easier to arran6e in order. <pening Strategies in addition to its functional order" 3as a 6rammatical order" startin6 4it3 t3e present simple tense of Mbe" 6oin6 on to t3e present tense of full verbs" t3en past simple of Mbe" follo4ed b8 present continuous" and so on. :1 learnin6 researc3 3as often claimed t3at t3ere are definite orders of difficult8 for learnin6 lan6ua6e" suc3 as t3e order for 6rammatical morp3emes. ;n application to teac3in6 is proposed b8 /. $ienemann and /. Oo3nston B"actors influencing the development of language proficiency" 1.*+C 43o su66est t3ere are t4o t8pes of ac@uisition se@uence: developmental and variational. JiG ' developmental seFuence is caused b8 t3e learner7s problems 4it3 processin6 lan6ua6e" particularl8 4it3 sortin6 out strin6s of 4ords into sentences. ;ccordin6 to $ienemann and Oo3nston" developmental se@uence is a consistent order in 43ic3 learners ac@uire t3e :1" based on difficult8 of lan6ua6e processin6. 03e earl8 se@uence for En6lis3 3as five sta6es: a. t3e learner produces sin6le 4ords or formulas: MD don7t ?no4 b. t3e learner t3en produces strin6s of elements" t3at is to sa8 5simple se@uences of 4ords7 c. t3e learner can identif8 different t8pes of element in t3e strin6" and produces @uestions in 43ic3 t3e verb is moved to t3e be6innin6 suc3 as M!an 8ou tell meR d. t3e learner can identif8 and move elements in t3e strin6" as in @uestions 4it3 %h=4ords: M23at are 8ou stud8in6R e. t3e learner ne9t ac@uires t3e abilit8 to brea? a strin6 into smaller strin6s and recombine t3em in different 4a8s" s3o4n b8 comple9 sentences suc3 as M>e as?ed me to 6o JiiG ' variational seFuence incorporates factors 43ic3 differ from one situation to anot3er. %ne e9ample is t3e omission of items from t3e sentence as in MD 6o station. 03e converse e9ample is t3e oversuppl8 of items suc3 as t3e fre@uent use of t3e present continuous MD am livin6 in :ondon 43en MD live in :ondon is intended. 03is separation bet4een t4o t8pes of se@uence is important for lan6ua6e teac3in6 as t3e implications of t3e t4o t8pes can be rat3er different: = 2it3 developmental se@uences t3e teac3er 3as to fall in 4it3 t3e se@uence in some 4a8H $ienemann BPsychological constraints on the teachability of language" 1.*,C puts t3is as t3e +eac@aLilitI 3Ipot@esis: 5t3e course of second lan6ua6e development cannot be altered b8 factors e9ternal to t3e learner7. 5 variational se@uences are muc3 more under t3e learner7s control and so can be c3an6ed b8 t3e teac3er. 03e application of se@uences to teac3in6 depends upon 43at ?ind of se@uence 4e are loo?in6 at" 43et3er t3e developmental and variational se@uences" orders of difficult8 or of ac@uisition" or ot3ers. Juller discussion of t3e implications of :1 order of learnin6 or difficult8 depends on t3e rest of teac3in6. Dt must balance 6rammar a6ainst lan6ua6e functions" vocabular8" classroom interaction" etc. 0eac3ers do not necessaril8 3ave to c3oose bet4een t3ese alternatives once and for all. ; different decision ma8 3ave to be made for eac3 area of 6rammar or lan6ua6e and eac3 sta6e of ac@uisition. 1.3.4. 5a6ing grammar conscious 03e @uestion of 43et3er 6rammar s3ould be e9plained to t3e students 3as been fre@uentl8 raised: t3e use of e9plicit e9planation implies t3at :1 learnin6 can be @uite different from :1 learnin6. 03e fact t3at c3ildren learn t3eir first lan6ua6e 4it3out resort to conscious understandin6 does not mean t3at adults cannot learn a second lan6ua6e in t3is 4a8. Oustif8in6 conscious understandin6 in :1 learnin6 involves separatin6 :1 learnin6 from :1 learnin6 4it3 respect to 43et3er t3e learners 6et e9planations. 03e belief t3at :1 learnin6 can potentiall8 ma?e use of 3K

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e9plicit e9planation underlies distinctions suc3 as t3ose made b8 &t. Aras3en B Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, 1.*1C bet4een 5ac@uisition7 and 5learnin67 Bt3e latter bein6 conscious and available onl8 to older learnersC. /ostl8 6rammatical e9planation 3as relied on t3e assumption t3at rules t3at are learnt consciousl8 can be converted into processes t3at are ?no4n unconsciousl8. 03us" accordin6 to Livian !oo? BSecond Language Learning and Language &eaching" 1..K: 1*C" t3e Jrenc3 subjunctive 4as e9plained to students at sc3ool not just to 6ive t3em academic ?no4led6e of t3e facts of Jrenc3" but to 3elp t3em to 4rite Jrenc3. ;fter a period of absorption" t3is conscious rule 4ould become part of t3eir unconscious abilit8 to use t3e lan6ua6e. 2illiam 'ut3erford BSecond Language #rammar* Learning and &eaching" 1.*+C and ot3ers 3ave been advocatin6 5consciousness raising7 in teac3in6 F t3e dra4in6 of t3e learner7s attention to features of t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. &tep3en Aras3en B1.*1C" 3o4ever" 3as persistentl8 denied t3at consciousl8 ac@uired rules c3an6e into normal speec3 processes in t3e same 4a8 as 6rammar ac@uired unconsciousl8. /ore indirect uses for 6rammar 3ave also been put for4ard in recent 8ears. %ne su66estion b8 Eric >a4?ins BA%areness of Language, 1.*KC is for language aDareness: t3e learners7 6eneral a4areness of lan6ua6e s3ould be raised as a preliminar8 to :1 teac3in6" partl8 t3rou63 6rammar. Df t3e students ?no4 t3e ?ind of t3in6 to e9pect" t3e8 are more receptive to it. >a4?ins su66ests 5an e9plorator8 approac37 43ere t3e pupils investi6ate 6rammar b8" for e9ample" decidin6 43ere to insert an adjective suc3 as Msee-through Bi.e. transparentC in t3e sentence MShe put on her cosy, old, blue, nylon blouse. $upils invent t3eir o4n labels for 6rammar" rat3er t3an bein6 tau63t a pre= establis3ed s8stem. ;s >a4?ins puts it" 56rammar approac3ed as a vo8a6e of discover8 into t3e patterns of t3e lan6ua6e rat3er t3an t3e learnin6 of prescriptive rules" is no lon6er a bo6e8 4ord7. Dt is not t3e teac3in6 of particular points of 6rammar t3at matters but t3e overall increase in t3e pupil7s lan6ua6e sensitivit8. 03e te9tboo? Learning to Learn English B'. Ellis E O. &inclair" 1.*.C provides some e9ercises to ma?e EJ: learners more conscious of t3eir o4n predilections" for instance su66estin6 4a8s for t3e students to discover 6rammatical rules t3emselves. ;not3er researc3er" $3ilip 'ile8 B5iscourse and Learning, 1.*NC 3as su66ested 5sensitization7 of t3e students b8 usin6 features of t3e :1 to 3elp t3em understand t3e :1. Dncreasin6 a4areness of lan6ua6e ma8 3ave man8 educational advanta6es and indeed 3elp :1 learnin6 in a broad sense. 2.3.7. Teaching techni0ues 2.3.7.1. General principlesA /et3odolo6ists emp3asize t3e fact t3at alt3ou63 it is important to develop t3e students7 understandin6 of t3e 6rammatical facts of t3e lan6ua6e 4e are teac3in6" it is not t3ese facts t3at 4e 4is3 our students to learn. 2e are not interested in fillin6 our students 4it3 6rammatical paradi6ms and s8ntactic rules. 23at 4e do 3ope to do is to cultivate linguistic performance in our students 43ic3 is consistent 4it3 t3e facts. Dn ot3er 4ords" 6rammar teac3in6 is not so muc3 ?no4led6e transmission as it is sKill development. G8 reco6nisin6 t3is" 4e can ta?e advanta6e of several insi63ts from second)forei6n lan6ua6e ac@uisition researc3 concernin6 3o4 students naturall8 develop t3eir abilit8 to interpret and produce 6rammatical utterances. &ome insi63ts are related to our topic B/urar" 1-11C: i6 :earners do not learn structures one at a time. Dt is not t3e case t3at a learner masters t3e definite article" and 43en t3at is mastered" moves on to t3e simple past. Jrom t3eir first encounter 4it3 t3e definite article" learners mi63t master one of its pra6matic functions F e.6. to si6nal t3e uni@ueness of t3e follo4in6 noun p3rase. Gut even if t3e8 are able to do t3is pra6maticall8 appropriatel8" it is not li?el8 t3at learners 4ill al4a8s produce t3e definite article 43en needed" because learners t8picall8 ta?e a lon6 time before t3e8 are able to do t3is consistentl8. 03us" 3N

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learnin6 is a gradual process involvin6 t3e mappin6 of form" meanin6" and pra6maticsH structures do not emer6e in learners7 interlan6ua6e full8 developed and error=free. 'ec8clin6 various aspects of structures over time seems a muc3 more reasonable alternative. ii6 Even 43en learners appear to 3ave mastered a particular structure" it is not uncommon to find bac?slidin6 occurrin6 4it3 t3e introduction of ne4 forms to t3e learners7 interlan6ua6e. Jor e9ample" t3e learner 43o 3as finall8 mastered t3e t3ird person sin6ular mar?er on present tense verbs is li?el8 to over6eneralise t3e rule and appl8 it to ne4l8 emer6in6 modal verbs. 03us" teac3ers s3ould not despair at similar re6ressive be3aviour on t3e part of t3eir students. 2ell formed structures are usuall8 restored once t3e ne4 additions 3ave been incorporated and t3e s8stem reanal8sed. 2.3.7.2. 1n#ucti%e %ersus #e#ucti%e presentation6 ;n additional c3oice teac3ers face is 43et3er to 4or? inductivel8 or deductivel8 durin6 t3e presentation p3ase. ;n inductive activit8 is one in 43ic3 t3e students infer t3e rule or 6eneralisation from a set of e9amples. Jor instance" students mi63t infer t3e sub8ect-au(iliary inversion rule in formin6 yesno @uestions" after 3avin6 been e9posed to a number of suc3 @uestions. Dn a deductive activit8" on t3e ot3er 3and" t3e students are 6iven t3e rule and t3e8 appl8 it to e9amples. Df one 3as c3osen an inductive approac3 in a 6iven lesson" a furt3er option e9ists F 43et3er or not to 3ave students e9plicitl8 state t3e rule. &ome specialists consider t3at t3e use of e9plicit rules is irrelevant" because" in t3eir opinion" one certainl8 can teac3 6rammar 4it3out statin6 an8 e9plicit rules. 03e8 furt3er ar6ue t3at 43at 4e are tr8in6 to brin6 about in t3e learner is lin6uistic be3aviour t3at conforms to t3e rules" not ?no4led6e of t3e rules t3emselves. %n t3e ot3er 3and" t3ere are ot3er specialists 43o consider t3at t3ere is no reason to avoid 6ivin6 e9plicit rules" e9cept per3aps if one is 4or?in6 4it3 8oun6 c3ildren. (suall8 students re@uest rules and report t3at t3e8 find t3e rules 3elpful. /oreover" statin6 a rule e9plicitl8 can often brin6 about lin6uistic insi63ts in a more efficacious manner" as lon6 as t3e rule is not oversimplified or so metalin6uisticall8 abstruse t3at students must stru66le 3arder to understand t3e rule t3an to appl8 it implicitl8. 'eturnin6 no4 to t3e inductive versus deductive @uestion" 4e find t3at t3e c3oice is not one resolvable 4it3 an eit3er)or approac3. 03ere are man8 times 43en an inductive approac3 in presentin6 a 6rammar point is desirable because b8 usin6 suc3 an approac3 one is nurturin6 4it3in t3e students a learnin6 process t3rou63 43ic3 t3e8 can arrive at t3eir o4n 6eneralisations. %t3er times" 43en one7s students 3ave a particular co6nitive st8le t3at is not 4ell suited for lan6ua6e anal8sis or 43en a particular lin6uistic rule is rat3er convoluted" it ma8 ma?e more sense to present a 6rammar structure deductivel8. Dndeed" one ta?es comfort from $. !order7s sensible observations: M23at little 4e ?no4 about t3e ps8c3olo6ical process of second lan6ua6e learnin6" eit3er from t3eor8 or from practical e9perience" su66ests t3at a combination of induction and deduction produces t3e best resultU :earnin6 is seen as fundamentall8 an inductive process but one 43ic3 can be controlled and facilitated b8 descriptions and e9planations 6iven at t3e appropriate moment and formulated in a 4a8 43ic3 is appropriate to t3e maturit8" ?no4led6e" and sop3istication of t3e learner. Dn a sense" teac3in6 is a matter of providin6 t3e learner 4it3 t3e ri63t data at t3e ri63t time and teac3in6 3im 3o4 to learn" t3at is" developin6 in 3im appropriate learnin6 strate6ies and means of testin6 3is 38pot3eses. 03e old controvers8 about 43et3er one s3ould provide t3e rule first and t3en t3e e9amples" or vice versa" is no4 seen to be merel8 a matter of tactics to 43ic3 no cate6orical ans4er can be 6iven. B!order" Error Analysis and !nterlanguage" 1.*1: 133C. 2.3.7.36 <rammar lessons are usuall8 composed of t3ree p3ases: presentation" practice and communication Balt3ou63 all t3ree ma8 not be conducted 4it3in one class periodC. 'at3er t3an 3,

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illustratin6 a sin6le lesson plan from start to finis3" it seemed more beneficial to concentrate on c3aracterisin6 and e9emplif8in6 activities t3at could be used durin6 t3e practice p3ase. Dt used to be t3at t3e practice p3ase of a lesson 4as devoted almost e9clusivel8 to 6rammar drills. Ever since t3e ineffectiveness of usin6 drills B43ic3 do not en6a6e students7 attentionC 4as ac?no4led6ed" t3ere 3as been little b8 4a8 of 6uidance offered on 43at to do durin6 t3e practice p3ase of a lesson. FormA %nce a particular 6rammar structure 3as been anal8sed" a c3allen6in6 teac3in6 point for t3e particular class of students s3ould be c3osen. 03e learnin6 process associated 4it3 t3e teac3in6 point s3ould also be identified. 03e nature of t3e learnin6 process and of t3e learnin6 c3allen6e 6ives important clues as to activit8 c3aracteristics. Jor e9ample" 43en dealin6 4it3 t3e formal dimension of 6rammar" it 4ould appear t3at t3e major learnin6 processes involved 4ould be stimulus=response learnin6 for p3onemic patterns and verbal c@aining or principle learning for morp3emes or s8ntactic patterns. &timulus=response learnin6 4ould be t3e t8pe of learnin6 re@uired for learnin6 to pronounce an unfamiliar 4ord. !3ainin6 and principle learnin6 seem t3e applicable learnin6 processes for morp3olo68 and s8nta9 since 43at 4e are attemptin6 to 3ave our students learn is to compre3end and produce eit3er verbal c3ains bet4een morp3emes)4ords or rule=pattern 6overned s8ntactic patterns. Ddentif8in6 t3e t8pe of learnin6 involved 3elps us to t3in? about t3e desirable c3aracteristics of an8 practice activit8. &tudents 4ould 3ave to be restricted to usin6 just t3e particular tar6et formH in ot3er 4ords" structural diversit8 4ould not be permitted. :et us ta?e an e9ample and see 3o4 t3ese c3aracteristics are applied. Df 4e 4ere to teac3 yes-no question formation" 4e mi63t determine t3e immediate c3allen6e to be lin6uistic form" based on our anal8sis of t3e t3ree dimensions. 03e first step in t3e lesson is t3e presentation of t3e lin6uistic rule. 2e 3ave several options re6ardin6 t3e presentation p3ase: t3e rule could be presented inductivel8 or deductivel8. ;lso" t3e rule could be made e9plicit or not. 2e ne9t 4ill need to select an activit8 t3at encoura6es meaningful repetition of t3e pattern" no verbatim repetition. 2e 4ant t3e students to concentrate on producin6 onl8 yes-no @uestions. ; 6ame li?e &%enty questions 4ould appear to meet t3e criteria: students 6et to as? 1yes-no @uestions about an object or person in an attempt to 6uess t3e identit8H 3ence" t3e8 receive abundant practice in formin6 @uestions" and t3e @uestions t3e8 produce are meanin6ful. 03e 6ame can be repeated as lon6 as t3e students remain interested. ]uestions can also be used to elicit ot3er structures. Jor e9ample" a variation on t3e same 6ame mi63t be to 3ave students 6uess M23ose^^^^^^^^^^^^^ is itR 03eir responses Be.6." !t7s )aria7s, !t7s 0ike7s, !t7s #race7sC 4ould provide an opportunit8 to practise t3e 3 allomorp3s of t3e possessive. 03en" too" t3e responses to t3e 6uesses 4ould offer a 6ood deal of practice 4it3 s3ort forms Be.6." 0o, it isn7t9/es, it isC. ;not3er e9ample of a 6ame 43ic3 appears to meet t3e above criteria is t3e &elephone game, 43ic3 can be used to practise t3e forms of reported speec3. %ne student 4ould 43isper somet3in6 to anot3er student Be.6. M!7m happy it7s "ridayC. 03e second student 4ould 43isper to a t3ird student 43at s)3e 3as 3eard from t3e first student B&om said that he %as happy it %as "ridayC. Dn sum" certain 6ames are 6ood devices for practisin6 6rammar points 43ere t3e identified c3allen6e resides in t3e formal dimension. /eaningA Df t3e teac3er 3as decided t3at t3e c3allen6e of a particular structure lies in t3e semantic dimension for t3e class" t3en a different sort of practice activit8 s3ould be needed. Dt 4ould seem t3at verLal association" multiple discrimination" and concept learning 4ould all come into pla8 43en 4or?in6 on t3e meanin6 of a particular 6rammar structure. 03e major 3+

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procedures 4ould be for t3e student to learn to bond t3e form to its meanin6 and also to distin6uis3 t3e meanin6 of one particular form from anot3er. &ometimes a sin6le pairin6 of form and meanin6 suffices for a student to ma?e t3e bond. ue to memor8 constraints" it seems prudent to restrict t3e number of ne4 items bein6 practiced at an8 one time to bet4een 1 and ,. SeFuencingA <rammar structures are not ac@uired one at a time t3rou63 a process of Ma66lutination B2. 'ut3erford" 1.*+C. 'at3er" different aspects of form" meanin6 and pra6matics of a 6iven structure ma8 be ac@uired at different sta6es of interlan6ua6e development. /an8 teac3ers 3ave little control over 43ere t3e8 start a 6rammar se@uence. 03e8 must ad3ere to a prescribed s8llabus or te9tboo?. Gut for t3ose 43o 3ave a c3oice" t3ere are a fe4 clear= cut ans4ers. 03e usual advice is to be6in 4it3 t3e simple structure and 4or? up to t3e more comple9. Presenting a structureA Io4 4e can briefl8 illustrate options for presentin6 a structure durin6 t3e initial p3ase of a lesson. ; necessar8 in6redient for t3is p3ase is 3avin6 some lan6ua6e sample)e9amples t3at illustrate t3e teac3in6 point. Dn t3e audiolin6ual met3od" 6rammar points are introduced via a dialogue 43ic3 students listen to" and subse@uentl8 memorize. 23ile dialo6ues are useful for introducin6 points of 6rammar" t3ere are a variet8 of ot3er formats t3at can be used: songs and poems6 authentic te(ts Be.6. ne4spaper articlesCH segments of taped radio)television broadcasts /oreover" t3e person 43o selects t3ese samples can be varied" too. Jor e9ample" if t3e 6rammar point 3as to do 4it3 t3e distinction bet4een mass and count nouns: = t3e teac3er could brin6 in an advertisin6 circular from a local supermar?et. %r = t3e students mi63t be invited to brin6 in t3eir favourite recipes. %r = t3e teac3er and students mi63t 6enerate a lan6ua6e sample to6et3er 43ic3 contained count and mass nouns Be.6. MD 4ent to t3e supermar?et 6ameC. 23en practisin6 an inductive approac3" students 4ould be presented 4it3 t3e lan6ua6e sample" let7s sa8 t3e advertisin6 circular. 03e8 t3en 4ould be encoura6ed to ma?e t3eir o4n observations about t3e form of mass and co Io4 4e can briefl8 illustrate options for presentin6 a structure durin6 t3e initial p3ase of a lesson. ; necessar8 in6redient for t3is p3ase is 3avin6 some lan6ua6e sample)e9amples t3at illustrate t3e teac3in6 point. Df practisin6 a deductive approac3" t3e teac3er 4ould present t3e 6eneralisation and t3en as? students to appl8 it to t3e lan6ua6e sample. 03is approac3 4ould be suitable for our e9ample of teac3er=students 6enerated lan6ua6e since students mi63t be aided in pla8in6 t3e 6ame b8 3avin6 ?no4led6e of t3e mass)count distinction. %ne advanta6e of usin6 an inductive approac3 durin6 t3e presentation p3ase is t3at it allo4s teac3ers to assess 43at t3e students alread8 ?no4 about a particular structure and to ma?e an8 necessar8 modifications in t3eir lesson plan. 2.3.7.4. Conte/t6 23at 4e are su66estin6 3ere is t3at students need to 6et an idea of 3o4 t3e ne4 lan6ua6e is used b8 native spea?ers and t3e best 4a8 of doin6 t3is is to present lan6ua6e in conte(t6 03e conte(t for introducin6 ne4 lan6ua6e s3ould 3ave a number of c3aracteristics B/urar" 1-11C: = Dt s3ould s3o4 D@at t3e ne4 lan6ua6e means and @oD it is used. 03at is 438 man8 useful conte9ts 3ave t3e ne4 lan6ua6e bein6 used in a 4ritten te9t or a dialo6ue. = a 6ood conte9t s3ould be interesting for t3e students. 03is doesn7t mean t3at all t3e subject matter 4e use for presentation s3ould be 4ildl8 funn8 or inventive all t3e time. Gut t3e students s3ould at least 4ant to see or 3ear t3e information 3*

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= a 6ood conte9t s3ould provide t3e bac?6round for a lot of lan6ua6e use so t3at students can use t3e information not onl8 for t3e repetition of model sentences but also for ma?in6 t3eir o4n sentences. %ften t3e te9tboo? 4ill 3ave all t3e c3aracteristics mentioned 3ere and t3e teac3er can confidentl8 rel8 on t3e material for t3e presentation. Gut t3e te9tboo? is not al4a8s so appropriate: for a number of reasons t3e information in t3e te9tboo? ma8 not be ri63t for our students. Dn suc3 cases 4e 4ill 4ant to create our o4n conte9ts for lan6ua6e use. !onte9t means t3e situation or bod8 of information t3at causes lan6ua6e to be used. 03ere are a number of different conte9t t8pes" but for our purposes 4e 4ill concentrate on t3ree: t3e students7 4orld" t3e outside 4orld and formulated information. +@e studentsE Dorld can be a major source of conte9ts for lan6ua6e presentation. 03ere are t4o ?inds of students7 4orld. !learl8 4e can use t3e p38sical surroundin6s t3at t3e students are in" t3e classroom" sc3ool or institution. Gut classrooms and t3eir p38sical properties Bdes?s" tables" blac?boards" c3airs" etc.C are limited. 03e students7 lives are not constrained in t3e same 4a8" 3o4ever" and 4e can use facts about t3em" t3eir families" friends and e9periences. +@e outside Dorld provides us 4it3 ric3 conte9ts for lan6ua6e presentation. Jor e9ample" t3ere is an almost infinite number of stories 4e can use to present different tenses. 2e can also create situations 43ere people spea? because t3e8 are in t3ose situations. 03is is especiall8 useful for t3e practice of functional lan6ua6e" for e9ample. 03ese cate6ories = stor8 or situation = can be simulated or real. /ost teac3ers are familiar 4it3 5made up7 stories t3at are often useful for class= 4or?. Formulated information refers to all t3at information 43ic3 is presented in t3e form of timetables" notes" c3arts" etc. 03e conte9t 4e c3oose 4ill depend on t3e t8pe of lan6ua6e bein6 introduced. %ne of t3e teac3er7s jobs is to s3o4 3o4 t3e ne4 lan6ua6e is formed F 3o4 t3e 6rammar 4or?s and 3o4 it is put to6et3er. %ne 4a8 of doin6 t3is is to e9plain t3e 6rammar in detail" usin6 6rammatical terminolo68 and 6ivin6 a mini=lecture on t3e subject. 03is seems problematic" t3ou63" because man8 students ma8 find 6rammatical concepts difficult. ; more effective 4a8 of presentin6 form is to let students see and)or 3ear t3e ne4 lan6ua6e" dra4in6 t3eir attention in a number of different 4a8s to t3e 6rammatical elements of 43ic3 it is made. Jor" 43ilst advanced students ma8 profit from 6rammatical e9planations to a certain e9tent" at lo4er levels 4e must usuall8 find simpler and more transparent 4a8s of 6ivin6 students 6rammatical information. Dt is undoubtedl8 important for t3e students to understand t3e meanin6 of t3e ne4 lan6ua6e t3e8 are learnin6. 03is is conve8ed durin6 t3e lead5in stage 43ere ?e8 concepts clearl8 demonstrate 43at is 6oin6 on. 2e also need to ?no4 43et3er t3e students 3ave understood t3e ne4 lan6ua6e so t3at 4e can or6anise our teac3in6 accordin6l8. Iot onl8 is t3e lead=in sta6e vital" but it 4ill also be necessar8 for t3e teac3er to c3ec? fre@uentl8 t3at t3e students 3ave understood. 2.3.7.!. Chec6ing meaning can be done in t3ree 4a8s: information checking, immediate creativity and translation. Information c@ecKing. 03e teac3er 4ill often need to find out if students 3ave understood t3e information in t3e lead=in" or 43et3er students understand 43at a model means. Immediate creativitI and different settings: 2e ma8 as? students to produce sentences of t3eir o4n in order to c3ec? t3at t3e8 3ave understood t3e ne4 lan6ua6e +ranslationA 03e main advanta6es of translation are t3at it is @uic? and efficient. 03ere is" 3o4ever" a disadvanta6e to t3e use of translation: it is not al4a8s possible to translate e9actl8. 2.3.7.3. 2isco%ery techni0ues) 3.

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Dn our model for introducin6 ne4 lan6ua6e" 4e sa4 3o4 t3e teac3er creates a conte9t Bor uses one from some materialsC and elicits lan6ua6e 43ic3 is t3en 6iven as models for t3e students to repeat. 03e 43ole procedure is basicall8 teac3er=led since it is t3e teac3er7s job to e9plain t3e lan6ua6e and conduct a cue=response drill before movin6 to immediate creativit8 and pair=4or? B43ere t3e students start to ta?e over control a bitC. iscover8 tec3ni@ues" on t3e ot3er 3and" aim to 6ive students a c3ance to ta?e c3ar6e earlier. 03e idea is simple: 6ive students a listenin6 or readin6 te9t F or some e9amples of En6lis3 sentences F and as? t3em to discover 3o4 t3e lan6ua6e 4or?s. 2e mi63t 6ive students a te9t 43ic3 is a stor8" for e9ample" and 4e could as? t3em to loo? at it a6ain to see 3o4 man8 4a8s t3e8 could find in it for referrin6 to t3e past tense. %r" t3e8 could listen to a tape and 4rite do4n an8 sentences 43ic3 3ad t3e conjunction 5if7 in t3em. 03en t3e8 could see if t3ere 4as an8 pattern to t3ose sentences. 23at is bein6 su66ested is t3at t3ere is a ran6e of tec3ni@ues 43ere t3e teac3er 6ets t3e students to do most of t3e 4or?. 03ere are 6ood peda6o6ical and met3odolo6ical reasons for t3is since t3e students 4ill be more involved and since t3is ?ind of activit8 invites t3em to use t3eir reasonin6 processes. %f course" discover8 tec3ni@ues are not suitable for all students on all occasions. Jre@uentl8" t3is problem=solvin6 approac3 ta?es more time t3an a more controlled presentation. Dt is also true t3at desi6nin6 material for discover8 activities F or findin6 a te9t t3at 4ill suit t3is approac3 F is far easier at intermediate and advanced levels t3an it is 43en teac3in6 be6inners. Dn t3is c3apter 4e 3ave been advocatin6 a primaril8 oral approac@ in 43ic3 t3e first t3in6 students do 4it3 t3e lan6ua6e is to sa8 it. ;t an8 sta6e" 3o4ever" t3e teac3er ma8 as? t3e students to Drite t3e ne4 lan6ua6e. %ften t3e teac3er 4ill use t3e 4ritin6 as reinforcement for an oral presentation suc3 as t3e t8pe 4e 3ave so far described. 03us eit3er immediatel8 before or after t3e immediate creativit8 sta6e t3e teac3er as?s students to 4rite sentences usin6 t3e ne4 lan6ua6e. 03e sentences ma8 be t3e ori6inal models t3e teac3er used durin6 t3e accurate reproduction sta6e" and t3e students mi63t be as?ed to cop8 t3ese sentences from t3e blac?board. 03e8 mi63t see t3e same sentences" but t3e teac3er mi63t leave out certain 4ords Bt3is is commonl8 called a fill-in e9erciseC. 03e students mi63t be s3o4n model sentences and t3en be as?ed to 4rite similar sentences of t3eir o4n. 03is is a 4ritten version of t3e immediate creativit8 sta6e. 03e students mi63t see a s3ort piece of connected 4ritin6 usin6 t3e ne4 lan6ua6e and t3en be as?ed to 4rite a similar piece. 03is is often called parallel %riting. ;ll of t3ese tec3ni@ues 3ave t3eir merits" alt3ou63 cop8in6 is often unc3allen6in6 and borin6. 03e main object" t3ou63" is to relate t3e spo?en and 4ritten forms of t3e ne4 lan6ua6e and to enable t3e students to 4rite t3e ne4 pattern as 4ell as sa8 it. Encoura6in6 students to discover 6rammar for t3emselves is one valuable 4a8 of 3elpin6 t3em to 6et to 6rips 4it3 t3e lan6ua6e. 03e use of discover8 tec3ni@ues can be 3i63l8 motivatin6 and e9tremel8 beneficial for t3e students" involvin6 t3em in a fairl8 anal8tical stud8 of lan6ua6e B>armer" 1..N: K1C. 2.3.7.4. Practice techni0ues >armer BidemC includes 3ere four different t8pes of oral practice: drills H interaction activitiesH involvin6 t3e personalit8H 6ames and 4ritten practice. &tudents need to practise t3e 6rammar a lot. rills are useful" but 4e must al4a8s remember t3at t3e8 are onl8 a means to an end. ;s soon as possible t3e8 s3ould be abandoned in favour of creative activities. 2.3.7.7. 'rror correction K-

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Dn 3is delineation of t3e function of a lan6ua6e teac3er" $. !order B1.*1: 13KC. 4rites" Mt3e function of t3e teac3er is to provide data and e9amples and 43ere necessar8" to offer e9planations and descriptions and" more important" verification of t3e learner7s 38pot3eses Bi.e. correctionsC. 03us" !order considers error correction a necessar8 element of peda6o6ical practice" and 4e 4ould certainl8 concur. 03ere are" 3o4ever" t3ose 43o 4ould proscribe it" believin6 t3at error correction 4ill in3ibit students from freel8 e9pressin6 t3emselves. 23ile t3ere are clearl8 times t3at error correction can be intrusive and t3erefore un4arranted Be.6. durin6 communicative p3ase activitiesC" at ot3er times focused error correction is 3i63l8 desirable. Dt provides t3e ne6ative evidence students often need to reject or modif8 t3eir 38pot3eses about 3o4 t3e tar6et lan6ua6e is formed or functions. &tudents understand t3is" 43ic3 e9plains 438 t3e8 often deliberatel8 see? error correction to assist t3em 4it3 t3eir lan6ua6e learnin6 tas?. !6:6 +eac@ing discourse 23at 4e sa8 depends on a number of factors suc3 as 43ere 4e are" 43at 4e 4ant to sa8 and 43o 4e are tal?in6 to. Dt also involves our abilit8 to structure discourse" to or6anize it into a co3erent 43ole. !learl8 students need to be a4are of t3e different 4a8 lan6ua6e is used in different situation. 03e8 need to ?no4 t3e difference bet4een formal and informal lan6ua6e use" t3e8 3ave to learn lan6ua6e functions. %ne of t3e variables 43ic3 6overns appropriar8 is purpose. $eople decide 43at t3e8 4ant to sa8 on t3e basis of 43at purpose t3e8 4is3 to ac3ieve. Dn decidin6 43at lan6ua6e to teac3 43en 4or?in6 4it3 functions 4e need to bear in mind t3e level of difficult8" t3e level of transparenc8 B if t3e meanin6 is clearC and t3e level of formalit8 B>armer" 1..+:1NC ;t t3e same time as students are stud8in6 6rammar" vocabular8 and lan6ua6e functions 4e can encoura6e t3em to 4or? on t3e 4a8 t3e8 structure t3eir discourse" i.e on t3e 4a8 t3e8 or6anize 43at t3e8 4ant to sa8 and 4rite. 2e s3ould brin6 t3em aut3entic materials so t3at t3e8 can see 3o4 ot3er spea?ers and 4riters structure t3eir discourse. Jor students or6anizin6 4ritten discourse is e9tremel8 important and a special forms s3ould be placed on co3esion. 2e 4ill deal 4it3 more aspects re6ardin6 discourse in t3e ne9t unit. +opics for discussion and e(ercises: %. <rammatical metalan6ua6e: i6 2rite a sentence t3at illustrates eac3 of t3e follo4in6 concepts: a. embeddin6H b. 6enreH c. re6isterH d. 6iven=ne4H ii6 Dllustrate t3e fact t3at a pra6matic function" suc3 as a re@uest" doesn_t al4a8s correspond to a particular sentence t8peH iii6 Dndicate 4a8s of ac3ievin6 co3esion in discourse. !6 >o4 4ould 8ou ans4er a student 43o as?s 8ou 43at t3e difference is: i6 amon6 t3e follo4in6 verbs: see, look, %atch, stare, peer, glanceR ii6 bet4een o%ing to and due toR K1

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&6 238 are t3e follo4in6 sentences un6rammaticalR Df 8our students ma?e t3ese errors 3o4 4ould 8ou ma?e t3em a4are of t3e errors" and 43at activities 4ould 8ou provide to 3elp students avoid t3ese errorsR i6 0om 3as bou63t it last &aturda8. ii6 D_m believin6 8ou. :6 &tudents 3ave made t3e follo4in6 errors. Dn eac3 case e9plain t3e nature of t3e error and state 43at activities 8ou 4ould provide to correct it: i6 W Tou 4ill can 6o t3ere. ii6W /a8 8ou cas3 t3is c3ec? Bc3e@ueC" pleaseR iii6W2u s3ould stud8 a lot for t3at class last term. iv6 RE9cuse me" /r. &mit3" 8ou 6otta 6ive us our 3ome4or? bac?. v6 2ould 8ou please close t3e 4indo4R W%f course D 4ould. <6 Df 8our students produce t3e follo4in6 sentences" 43at errors 3ave t3e8 madeR >o4 4ould 8ou ma?e t3em a4are of t3e errors and 43at e9ercises 4ill 8ou prepare to correct t3e errorsR i6W2e discussed about our plan. ii6WE9plain me t3at rule a6ain" please. iii6W03e ne4spapers in :os ;n6eles 3ave better international covera6e t3an in &an ie6o. iv6P23at 3appens if D pus3ed t3is buttonR v6 W%nl8 if 8ou 3elp me D 4ill stud8 for t3is @uiz. ;6 %ne E&: teac3er said 3e 3ad 3is students memorize t3e verbs t3at ta?e 6erund complements and told t3em to use infinitives ever843ere else. o 8ou t3in? t3at t3is is a 6ood teac3in6 strate68R 238 or 438 notR #6 Df 8our students produce sentences li?e t3is" 43at errorBsC 3ave t3e8 madeR >o4 4ill 8ou ma?e t3em a4are of t3e errors and 43at activities 4ill 8ou provide to correct t3ese errorsR i. W0om can pla8 sometimes 3andball after 4or?. ii6 W'arel8 4e can eat outside in t3e 6arden. iii6 WD spea? fluentl8 Jrenc3. =6 <rammaticalit8 of sentences: i. ; student tells 8ou t3at 3e 3as been told t3at any is al4a8s used in place of some in a ne6ative sentence" but t3at 3e 3eard anot3er teac3er sa8 t3e follo4in6: ! can=t recall some of their names. 03e student as? 8ou if t3is is 6rammatical. 23at 4ould 8ou sa8R ii6 %ne of 8our students as?s 8ou 438 a certain 6rammar te9t claims t3at En6lis3 3as no future tense. 03is student feels t3at En6lis3 3as a future tense. >o4 4ould 8ou ans4er t3is @uestionR >. esi6n a conte9t and presentation se@uence for introducin6 one of t3e uses of t3e $erfect 0ense &imple. $resent

%". esi6n a communicative activit8 for presentin6 t3e $resent $erfect 0ense &imple and t3e $ast 0ense &imple in contrast. %%. esi6n a conte9t for teac3in6 t3e de6rees of comparison. K1

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0I+ & +E',3I01 DE8E.OPI01 .'01 '1E S9I..S &6%6 +eac@ing listening 3.1.1. 'lements o, listening /ost introductions to t3e compre3ension of speec3 stress t3ree elements: BiC access to vocabular8" BiiC parsin6" and BiiiC memor8 processes. JiG 'ccess to vocaLularI B Dords ;t one level" in order to compre3end a sentence 8ou 3ave to 4or? out 43at t3e 4ords mean. 03e mind 3as to relate t3e 4ords t3at are 3eard to t3e information t3at is stored about t3em in t3e mind F t3eir meanin6s" etc. Jor e9ample" a native spea?er can ans4er t3e @uestion MDs t3e 4ord 5blis37 En6lis3R almost instantaneousl8" some3o4 4or?in6 t3rou63 man8 t3ousands of 4ords in a fe4 moments. &uc3 feats s3o4 t3e 3uman mind is e9traordinaril8 efficient at or6anizin6 t3e stora6e of 4ords and t3eir interconnections. 03e conte9t automaticall8 ma?es particular meanin6s of 4ords available to us. Jor e9ample" to a person readin6 a researc3 article" t3e 4ord Mtable means a la8out of fi6ures. 0o someone readin6 about anti@ues it means a piece of furniture. 0o someone readin6 a surve8or7s report on a 3ouse it means t3e dept3 at 43ic3 4ater appears in t3e 6round" and so on. &ome3o4 t3e conte9t limits t3e amount of mental space t3at 3as to be searc3ed to 6et t3e ri63t meanin6. JiiG Parsing Parsing refers to 3o4 t3e mind 4or?s out t3e 6rammatical structure and meanin6 of t3e sentences it 3ears. 0a?e a sentence suc3 as M03e man ate brea?fast. 0o understand t3e sentence full8 means bein6 able to tell 43o is carr8in6 out t3e action and 43at is affected b8 t3e action and also to realize t3at Mate brea?fast 6oes to6et3er as a p3rase 43ile Mman ate does not. Even if our minds are not consciousl8 a4are of t3e 6rammatical tec3nicalities" nevert3eless t3e8 are 4or?in6 out t3e structure of t3e sentence automaticall8. <rammar is not just in t3e bac? of or minds but is active 43ile 4e are listenin6. 03e process of parsin6 can be eit3er 5bottom=up7 or 5top=do4n7. 5-ottom5upE parsin6 means buildin6 t3e sentence up in our minds bit b8 bit" puttin6 t3e sounds into 4ords" t3e 4ords into p3rases" t3e p3rases into a 43ole sentence. &o Mt3e is put 4it3 Mman to 6et a noun p3rase Mt3e manH Mate 6oes 4it3 Mbrea?fast to 6et a verb p3rase MMate brea?fastH and t3e noun p3rase Mt3e man and t3e verb p3rase MMate brea?fast 6o to6et3er to 8ield t3e structure of t3e 43ole sentence. 5+op5doDnE parsin6 on t3e ot3er 3and means startin6 from t3e 43ole sentence and brea?in6 it do4n into smaller and smaller bits. <iven a sentence li?e M03e man ate brea?fast" t3e top=do4n process tries to find a noun p3rase" 43ic3 in turn means tr8in6 to find first an article Mt3e and t3en a noun Mman. Df it succeeds" it ne9t tries to find a verb p3rase" 43ic3 means tr8in6 to find a verb Mate and a noun p3rase Mbrea?fast. Df t3e @uest to find a noun p3rase and a verb p3rase succeeds" it 3as found a sentence" complete 4it3 its structure. Dn principle" t3e mind could parse t3e sentence in eit3er t3e bottom=up or t3e top=do4n direction. Dn practice listeners 6et t3e best of bot3 4orlds b8 usin6 bot3 t8pes of process. Jeatures suc3 as t3e intonation pattern allo4 t3em to fit 4ords and p3rases 4it3in an overall structure" a top= K3

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do4n process. $articular 4ords indicate t3e start of a p3rase and allo4 t3em to build it up 4ord b8 4ord" a bottom=up process. JiiiG /emorI processes 03e memor8 processes in listenin6 are closel8 connected to t3ose discussed earlier. ;ll compre3ension depends on t3e storin6 and processin6 of information b8 t3e minds. 3.1.2. (pproaches8 metho#s an# techni0ues o, teaching listening (recepti%e language s6ill i6 -e@aviorism $ 'udiolingualism :istenin6 is a Mta?en for 6ranted passive process" a mec3anical process based on t3e stimulus B3earin6 spo?en c3un?s of lan6ua6eC = response pattern Bidentification and or6anization of t3ese into sentences" i.e reco6nition and discrimination of sounds and 4ords" reco6nition of intonation patterns" r38t3m" rat3er t3an understandin6 of meanin6ful lan6ua6e stretc3esC. 03e tec3ni@ues used mainl8 consist in repeatin6" imitatin6 and memorizin6 of prefabricated lan6ua6e" 43ile totall8 disre6ardin6 co6nitive processes. ii. ,ognitivism F +otal P@Isical ResponseH +@e 0atural 'pproac@ :istenin6 is considered a more d8namical process of co6nitive nature. 03erefore t3e development of :istenin6 s?ills focus on compre3ension Bas a co6nitive processC premised b8 t3e idea t3at understandin6 lan6ua6e facilitates learnin6 Brat3er t3an ac@uisitionC. Dn point of tec3ni@ues" learners are e9posed to lar6e amounts of listenin6 material 43ile as?ed to decode meanin6 and perform simple selection tas?s B;udiolin6ualismCH listenin6 is immediatel8 follo4ed b8 production B03e Iatural ;pproac3G6 iii6 +@e Interactionist 'pproac@ J+@e Socio5,ultural +urnGA ,.+H +@e Post5 ,ommunicative +urn 03e interactive" social and conte9tualized perspective of lan6ua6e learnin6 focuses on connected speec3 BdiscourseC rat3er t3an on isolated pieces. 03ere is also a s3ift from centerin6 on formal aspects of lan6ua6e to content and meanin6" to communicative intent Bpurposeful listenin6C. Dnformation processin6 43ile listenin6 Bse@uential order of input" perception" reco6nition" and understandin6 sta6esC is coupled 4it3 a constructivist stance: listeners activel8 construct meanin6 accordin6 to t3eir o4n purposes for listenin6 as 4ell as t3eir o4n prior ?no4led6e and e9perience. $rior ?no4led6e is identified to schemata" furt3er subdivided into content schemata Btopic familiarit8" cultural ?no4led6e and previous e9perience 4it3 a particular fieldC and formal schemata B?no4led6e about te9t t8pes = st8listic conventions as 4ell as t3e structural or6anization)variet8 of formatsC. 03e socio=cultural conte9t 3as 6ained ever increased importance in lan6ua6e learnin6 as t3e process does not ta?e place in a social vacuum. ;dmittedl8" special attention is paid to t3e effects t3at status relations3ip bet4een participants 3ad on lan6ua6e be3aviour Blevel of formalit8C. Dn fact" it is pointed out t3at listeners en6a6ed in face=to= face interaction must pa8 attention to t3is variable in order to determine 43ic3 t8pe of verbal be3avior s3ould be appropriate 43en deliverin6 a response. Ion=verbal lan6ua6e is e@uall8 part of t3e social conte9t in 43ic3 listenin6 occurs: bod8 postures" bod8 movements" facial e9pressions" facial 6estures" e8e contact t3e use of space b8 t3e communicatorsC as 4ell as non=verbal paralin6uistic elements: tone" pitc3 of voice" etc. !onse@uentl8" an understandin6 of all t3ese aspects 4ould provide important clues for interpretin6 43at is bein6 listened to and" in turn" facilitate t3e 43ole process of listenin6 compre3ension. Gesides" t3ere is t3e @uestion of t3e cultural load Bintercultural pra6maticsC F different interpretation of non=verbal lan6ua6e" formulation of different speec3 acts and politeness issues" suc3 as t3e directness=indirectness continuum. KK

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0o sum up" listenin6 is considered as a primar8 ve3icle for lan6ua6e learnin6" ac3ievin6 a status of si6nificant and central importance in bot3 lan6ua6e learnin6 and lan6ua6e teac3in6 fields. 3.1.3. *istening s6ills an# intercultural communicati%e competence (so`=Ouan" /artanez=Jlor B4urrent &rends in the 5evelopment and &eaching of the "our Language Skills" 1--,: K1=K1C provides a sample of intercultural communicative activit8:

'ctivitI &elect a representative scene from a film" brou63t in b8 t3e learners" 43ic3 s3o4s a 6iven cultural topic. $repare a series of @uestions divided into t3ree p3ases Bi.e." pre=listenin6" 43ile= listenin6 and post=listenin6C 4it3 t3e aim of activatin6" developin6 and reflectin6 on t3eir cultural ?no4led6e of suc3 a topic 43ile practisin6 t3eir listenin6 s?ills. 8isual listening Pre5listening p@ase = o 8ou t3in? t3e topic of BUC is representative of t3e tar6et culture and of 8our o4n cultureR 238 or 438 notR = 23ic3 ideas come to 8our mind 43en t3in?in6 about suc3 a topicR Q@ile5listening p@ase = !an 8ou identif8 elements suc3 as pauses" c3an6es of intonation" tone of voice or periods of silence t3at involve cultural meanin6R = 23ic3 is t3e settin6 of t3e sceneR oes it involve particular implications for t3e development of t3e situationR = 23at is t3e participants7 relations3ip in terms of social status and po4erR oes suc3 a relations3ip affect t3eir communicative interactionR 2ould suc3 interaction be different in 8our o4n cultureR = 23ic3 non=verbal means of communication can be identified Bi.e." bod8 movement" facial e9pression" e8e contact" etc.CR ;re t3e8 different in 8our o4n cultureR Post5listening p@ase 'eflect on t3e scene 8ou 3ave just 4atc3ed and in small 6roups discuss t3e cultural differences t3at 4ould arise if t3e same situation 4ere to ta?e place in 8our o4n culture. 3.1.4. Control ,actors in teaching listening s6ills i6 'ccessiLilitI of input : listenin6 provides primar8 e9posure to :1" fosterin6 lan6ua6e ac@uisition)learnin6. 03e @ualit8 of t3e input is determined b8 relevance Bfitness of purposeC translated into sustainable effort to understand" rou63l8=tuned informational comple(itI Bmeasurable in point of len6t3" speed" familiarit8" information densit8" and te9t or6anizationCH aut@enticitI of listenin6 materials B/urar" 1-11C. ii6 Fostering top doDn processing Bdeductive reasonin6C: activatin6 bac?6round ?no4led6e and e9pectations Bsc3emataC in detectin6 t3e spea?ers7 intended meanin6. Iation and 2arin6 B1..+C claim t3at a reco6nition vocabular8 of 3--- 4ord families is necessar8 for compre3ension of ever8da8 conversations" if 4e assume t3at a listener needs to be familiar 4it3 F and able to reco6nize about .-S of content 4ords to understand a conversation satisfactoril8. iii6 Fostering Lottom up processing Binductive reasonin6C: p3onetic feature detection" metrical se6mentation of t3e : input into 4ords and 4ord reco6nition in meanin6 decodin6)construction. iv6 .istener status: listener7s active en6a6ement in t3e process en6enders successful development of t3e :istenin6 s?ills 43ile e9periencin6 lo4er uncertaint8 and an9iet8 and 3i63er self=confidence and tolerance of ambi6uit8. 3.1.!. "ome metho#s o, teaching listening KN

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/ar8 (nder4ood B&eaching Listening 1.*.C reco6nizes t3ree sta6es of teac3in6: pre5 listening 43ere t3e students activate t3eir vocabular8 and t3eir bac?6round ?no4led6eH D@ile5 listening 43ere t3e8 develop t3e s?ill of elicitin6 messa6esH and post5listening 43ic3 consists of e9tensions and developments of t3e listenin6 tas?. ; development in t3e last fe4 decades 3as been tasK5Lased teac3in6 of listenin6. 03e students carr8 out a tas? in 43ic3 t3e8 3ave to listen for information in a s3ort piece of discourse and t3en 3ave to fill in a dia6ram" c3ec? a route on a map or correct mista?es in a te9t. 03e 4<>:!L5 English 4ourse ! BO. 2illis E . 2illis" 1.*+C" for e9ample" as?s t3e students to listen to tapes of people spea?in6 spontaneousl8 and to 4or? out information from t3em. :esson . 3as a recordin6 of !3ris tellin6 $3ilip 3o4 to 6et to 3is 3ouse in Girmin63am. 03e students listen for factual information" suc3 as 43ic3 buses could be ta?enH t3e8 ma?e a rou63 map of t3e route" and t3e8 c3ec? its accurac8 a6ainst t3e ;=b map of Girmin63am. ; teac3in6 motivation for tas?=based listenin6 activities is t3at information is bein6 transferred for a communicative purpose. Dn t3e 4<>:!L5 e9ample t3e student is practicin6 somet3in6 t3at resembles real 4orld communication. ;s Livian !oo? points out B Second Language Learning and Language &eaching" 1..K: ,1C" it is sad" 3o4ever" t3at t3e information t3at is transferred in suc3 activities is usuall8 about trivial topics or irrelevant to t3e students7 lives. 03e factual information t3e students learn in t3e 4<>:!L5 e9ercise is 3o4 to 6et around in Girmin63am" some43ere onl8 a fe4 of t3em are ever li?el8 to 6o. %ften suc3 e9ercises deal 4it3 ima6inar8 to4ns" or even treasure islands. %n t3e one 3and" tas?=based e9ercises often ne6lect t3e educational value of t3e content t3at can be used in lan6ua6e teac3in6. %n t3e ot3er 3and" muc3 ps8c3olo6ical researc3 s3o4s t3at" t3e more important t3e information is to t3e listener" t3e more li?el8 it is to be retained. .istening5Lased met@ods of teac@ingA &o far listenin6 3as been ta?en as a process of decoding speec3 F 4or?in6 out t3e messa6e from t3e sentence 8ou 3ear. >o4ever t3e main focus in recent discussions of teac3in6 met3odolo68 3as been on listenin6 as a 4a8 of learnin6 lan6ua6e rat3er t3an as a 4a8 of processin6 lan6ua6e. 03is process is called codeLreaKing: listenin6 means 4or?in6 out t3e lan6ua6e code from t3e 5messa6e7. 03erefore a distinction is made bet4een BiC decoding speec@ and BiiC codeLreaKing speec@A JiG Decoding speec@ 3as t3e aim of discoverin6 t3e messa6e usin6 processes t3at are alread8 ?no4n Bi.e. processin6 lan6ua6e to 6et t3e 5messa6e7C. JiiG ,odeLreaKing speec@ 3as t3e aim of discoverin6 t3e processes t3emselves from a messa6e Bi.e. processin6 lan6ua6e to 6et t3e 5rules7C. %ne of t3e first to interpret listenin6 as codebrea?in6 4as Oames ;s3er7s +otal P@Isical Response /et@od B0$'C BLearning another Language through Actions" 1.*,C" 43ic3 claimed t3at listenin6 to commands and carr8in6 t3em out 4as an effective 4a8 of learnin6 a second lan6ua6e. ; specimen 0$' lesson reported b8 ;s3er consists of t3e teac3er 6ettin6 t3e students to respond to t3e commands: 'alk to the %indo%6 &ouch the %indo%6 'alk to the table. &ouch the table6 ?uan, stand up and %alk to the door. ?aime, %alk to the table and sit on the table. 03e students follo4 t3e directions t3e teac3er 6ives. 0$' came from ps8c3olo6ical t3eories of lan6ua6e learnin6" its uni@ue feature bein6 t3e emp3asis on learnin6 t3rou63 p38sical actions. %t3er listenin6=based met3ods 3ave also been successful. ;ccordin6 to O. <ar8 and I. <ar8 B4omprehension-based language instruction* practice" 1.*1C t3e benefits of concentratin6 on listenin6 are t3at students do not feel so embarrassed if t3e8 do not 3ave to spea?" t3e memor8 loss K,

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is less if t3e8 listen 4it3out spea?in6" classroom e@uipment suc3 as tape recorders can be used more effectivel8 for listenin6 t3an for spea?in6" and so on. %ne of t3e major sc3isms in contemporar8 teac3in6 met3odolo68 is bet4een t3ose 43o re@uire students to practice communication b8 bot3 listenin6 and spea?in6 and t3ose 43o prefer students to listen for information 4it3out spea?in6. &tep3en Aras3en B1.*1C brin6s t3ese listenin6=based met3ods to6et3er t3rou63 t3e notion of 5compre@ensiLle inputE. >e claims t3at ac@uisition can ta?e place onl8 43en people understand messa6es in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. :istenin6 is motivated b8 t3e need to 6et messa6es out of 43at is 3eard. :1 learners ac@uire a ne4 lan6ua6e b8 3earin6 it in conte9ts 43ere t3e meanin6 is made plain to t3em. Ddeall8 t3e speec3 t3e8 3ear 3as enou63 5old7 lan6ua6e t3at t3e student alread8 ?no4s and ma?es enou63 sense in t3e conte9t for t3e 5ne47 lan6ua6e to be understood and absorbed. Aras3en claims t3at all teac3in6 met3ods t3at 4or? utilize t3e same fundamental peda6o6ical principle of providin6 compre3ensible input: 5if 9 is s3o4n to be M6ood for ac@uirin6 a second lan6ua6e" 9 3elps to provide !D Xcompre3ensible inputZ" eit3er directl8 or indirectl8. Aras3en7s codebrea?in6 approac3 to listenin6 became a stron6 influence on lan6ua6e teac3ers in t3e 1.*-s. Dt is sa8in6 essentiall8 t3at :1 ac@uisition depends on listenin6 F decodin6 is codebrea?in6. 3.1.3. Principles ,or listening comprehension in the classroom 03e researc3 activities su66est a set of principles for conductin6 listenin6 activities in t3e second)forei6n lan6ua6e classroom B/urar" 1-11C i66 Dncrease t3e amount of listenin6 time in t3e second lan6ua6e class. /a?e listenin6 t3e primar8 c3annel for learnin6 ne4 material. Dnput must be interestin6" compre3ensible" supported b8 e9tralin6ustic materials" and ?e8ed to t3e lan6ua6e lesson. ii6 (se listenin6 before ot3er activities. >ave students listen to t3e material before t3e8 are re@uired to spea?" read" or 4rite about it. iii6 Dnclude bot3 6lobal and selective listenin6. 1loLal listenin6 encoura6es students to 6et t3e 6ist" t3e main idea" t3e topic" situation" or settin6. Selective listenin6 points student attention to details of form and encoura6es accurac8 in 6eneratin6 t3e lan6ua6e s8stem. iv6 ;ctivate top=level s?ills. <ive advance or6anizers or discussions 43ic3 call up students7 bac?6round ?no4led6e. o t3is before students listen. Encoura6e top=do4n processin6 at ever8 proficienc8 level. v6 2or? to4ards automaticit8 in processin6. Dnclude e9ercises 43ic3 build bot3 reco6nition and retention of t3e material. (se familiar material in recombinations. Encoura6e over learnin6 t3rou63 focus on selected formal features. $ractise bottom=up processin6 at ever8 proficienc8 level. vi6 evelop conscious listenin6 strate6ies. $ractise interactive listenin6" so t3at t3e8 can use t3eir bottom=up and top=do4n processes to c3ec? one a6ainst t3e ot3er. 3.1.4. "ome #imensions o, language an# the listening act 3.1.-.+. *istening 9 a #ynamic process8 not a passi%e one :istenin6 alon6 4it3 readin6 3as 3ad a traditional label of Mpassive s?ill. Iot3in6 could be furt3er from t3e trut3. ;. ;nderson and 0. :8nc3 BListening" 1.,*C reject a conceptualization of listenin6 as a Mpassive act. 03e8 ar6ue t3at suc3 a perspective on listenin6 fails to account for t3e interpretations listeners ma?e as t3e8 M3ear t3e spo?en te9t accordin6 to t3eir o4n purposes for listenin6" t3eir e9pectations and t3eir o4n store of bac?6round ?no4led6e. Implications for instruction: %ne of t3e obvious implications for instruction is to brin6 students to an understandin6 t3at listenin6 is not a passive s?ill" but one t3at not onl8 is active but ver8 demandin6. 03is can be done 6raduall8 as part of listenin6 activit8 4or?" especiall8 activities t3at are in t3e communicative modes. :earners can come to realize t3at just as it is M4or? to K+

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become better readers" 4riters" and spea?ers in a second lan6ua6e" listenin6 s?ill" too" doesn7t 3appen ma6icall8 or as an overni63t p3enomenon. 3.1.-.2. *istening in two acti%e communicati%e mo#es) i6 +Do5DaI communication: Ever8 da8 4e en6a6e in communicative listenin6 in one 4a8 or anot3er most of our 4a?in6 3ours. $robabl8 t3e first mode t3at comes to mind is listenin6 in t4o=4a8 communication" or Minteractive listenin6. >ere t3e reciprocal Mspeec3 c3ain of spea?er)listener is obvious to us. >ere t3ere are t4o Bor moreC active participants 43o ta?e turns in spea?er=role and listener=role as t3e face=to=face Bor telep3oneC interaction moves alon6. ii6 One5DaI communication: ; second mode is listenin6 in one=4a8 communication. ;uditor8 input seems to surround us as 4e move t3rou63 t3e da8. 03e input comes from a variet8 of sources: t3e media Be.6. radio" television" filmsCH instructional situations of all ?indsH public performances Be.6. lectures" reli6ious services" pla8sC Implications for instruction: &econd)forei6n lan6ua6e learners need to 3ave instructional opportunities in bot3 t4o=4a8 and one=4a8 communicative modes. 3.1.4.3. *istening an# language processing8 .ottom&up an# top&#own Dn accountin6 for t3e comple9 nature of processin6 spo?en lan6ua6e it 3as been 38pot3esized t3at Mbottom=up and Mtop=do4n modes 4or? to6et3er in a combined cooperative process. -ottom5up processingA Gottom=up compre3ension of speec3 refers to t3e part of t3e process in 43ic3 t3e Munderstandin6 of incomin6 lan6ua6e is 4or?ed out proceedin6 from sounds" into 4ords" into 6rammatical relations3ip and le9ical meanin6" and so on. +op5doDn processingA 3ere t3e processin6 of lan6ua6e comes from an internal source. :earners understand t3e incomin6 speec3 from t3e conte9t: t3e precedin6 lin6uistic conte9t" t3e situational conte9t. 3.1.7. ( #e%elopmental %iew o, listening s6ills 3.1.7.1 Profile of the .eginning&le%el student in listening 0rue be6inners in a second)forei6n lan6ua6e are lac?in6 in bottom=up processin6 s?ills because t3e8 3ave not 8et developed t3e co6nitive cate6ories a6ainst 43ic3 t3e lan6ua6e must be 3eard. 03e8 are not 8et able to se6ment t3e speec3 stream into 4ord units" to tell 43ere one 4ord be6ins and anot3er ends. 03e ne4 p3onemic s8stem is an unbro?en code: &ounds 43ic3 native spea?ers consider similar ma8 be perceived and classified as differentH sounds 43ic3 native spea?ers consider different ma8 be perceived and classified as t3e same. :earners 3ave no idea about p3onolo6ical rules 43ic3 c3an6e sounds in certain environments" or cause reductions of sound. 03e structural competence of be6inners also places limitations on t3eir bottom=up processin6 s?ills. 03e8 are not familiar 4it3 rules for 4ord formation" inflections" or 4ord=order rules. 03eir vocabular8 store is none9istent and t3ere is no area of 6rammatical understandin6 t3at t3e8 could use to unloc? t3e meanin6 of t3e 43ole. 03e true novice sta6e is of ver8 s3ort duration. ;fter a fe4 3ours of instruction" most learners can use t3eir understandin6 of lin6uistic cate6ories to decode ne4 utterances. espite its brevit8" t3e novice sta6e is important for t3e development of positive attitudes to4ards listenin6. :earners s3ould be encoura6ed to tolerate uncertaint8" to use t3eir real=4orld ?no4led6e and anal8tical s?ills" and to enjo8 t3eir success in compre3ension. i6 0ec3ni@ues for gloLal listeningA one important usa6e of 6lobal listenin6 is t3e presentation of ne4 material. (ntil t3e students are s?illed readers" it is best to present ne4 material aurall8. 0eac3ers ma8 select an8 part of t3e lesson for a 6lobal listenin6 e9perience" or ma8 4rite t3eir o4n s3ort te9t based on t3e lesson. K*

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0e9ts for 6lobal listenin6 s3ould be s3ort and preceded b8 a pre=listenin6 activit8. 23erever possible" t3e t3eme and situation of t3e stor8 s3ould be presented visuall8 b8 dra4in6 on t3e blac?board" over3ead projector" or a lar6e poster. Ie4 vocabular8 can be used in s3ort" illustrative sentences before learners 3ear it as part of t3e lesson. 03e pre=listenin6 sta6e s3ould develop learners7 curiosit8 about 3o4 all t3e p3rases and 4ords t3e8 3ave 3eard 4ill fit to6et3er in a conte9t. ii6 Selective listening tec3ni@ues: 03e teac3er can brin6 some patterns or structures into conscious a4areness t3rou63 selective listenin6 e9ercises. :istenin6 6oals for be6inners are listed belo4" 4it3 e9ercise t8pes to promote t3em. 03e classification of e9ercises as bottom=up or top= do4n does not indicate t3at onl8 one ?ind of co6nitive activit8 can occur durin6 eac3 e9ercise" but rat3er t3at some e9ercises promote predominantl8 bottom=up responses" and some e9ercises promote predominantl8 top=do4n activit8. = ;n e9ercise is classified as Lottom5up if focus is on t3e form and t3e e9ercise deals 4it3 one of t3e structural s8stems of En6lis3. = ;n e9ercise is classified as top5doDn if t3e focus is on meanin6 and t3e listener uses 6lobal listenin6 strate6ies. = ;n e9ercise is classified as interactive if t3e listeners must use information 6ained b8 processin6 at one level to c3ec? t3e accurac8 of t3eir processin6 on anot3er level. E9ercise t8pes for Leginning level listeners -ottom5up processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: iscriminatin6 bet4een intonation contours in sentences :isten to a se@uence of sentence patterns 4it3 eit3er risin6 or fallin6 intonation. $lace a c3ec? in column 1 Brisin6C or column 1 Bfallin6C" dependin6 on t3e pattern 8ou 3ear. <oal: iscriminatin6 bet4een p3onemes :isten to pairs of 4ords. &ome pairs differ in t3eir final consonant Bstay9steakC" and some pairs are t3e same Blaid9laidC. !ircle t3e 4ord Msame or Mdifferent dependin6 on 43at 8ou 3ear. <oal: &electin6 details from t3e te9t B4ord reco6nitionC /atc3 a 4ord t3at 8ou 3ear 4it3 its picture +op5doDn processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: iscriminatin6 bet4een emotional reactions :isten to a se@uence of utterances. $lace a c3ec? in t3e column 43ic3 describes t3e emotional reaction t3at 8ou 3ear: interested" 3app8" surprised" or un3app8 <oal: <ettin6 t3e 6ist of a sentence :isten to a sentence describin6 a picture and select t3e correct picture. <oal: 'eco6nize t3e topic :isten to a conversation and decide 43at t3e people are tal?in6 about. !3oose t3e picture t3at s3o4s t3e topic. Interactive processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: Guild a semantic net4or? of 4ord associations :isten to a 4ord and associate all t3e related 4ords t3at come to mind. <oal: Jollo4in6 directions :isten to a description of a route and trace it on t3e map 3.1.7.2. Profile of the interme#iate&le%el learner Dntermediate=level learners continue to use listenin6 as an important source of lan6ua6e input to increase t3eir vocabular8 and structural understandin6. ;lt3ou63 t3e8 ma8 3ave internalised t3e p3onemic s8stem of t3e lan6ua6e fairl8 4ell" t3e8 ma8 3ave little understandin6 of K.

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t3e comple9ities of p3onolo6ical rules 43ic3 6overn fast speec3: reductions" elisions" etc. 03e8 need practice in 4ord reco6nition and in discriminatin6 fine differences in 4ord order and 6rammatical form" re6isters of spea?in6" etc. Dntermediate=level learners 3ave moved be8ond t3e limits of 4ords and p3rases" t3eir memor8 can retain lon6er p3rases and sentences. 03e8 can listen to s3ort conversations or narratives t3at are one or t4o para6rap3s in len6t3. 03e8 are able to 6et t3e 6ist or to find t3e main idea. i6 0ec3ni@ues for gloLal listeningA ;t t3e intermediate level" it is no lon6er necessar8 to provide learners 4it3 simplified codes and modified speec3. Dndeed" intermediate=level learners need to 3ear aut3entic te9ts 4it3 reduced forms" fast speec3 features" 3esitations" some non=standard dialects" and a variet8 of different voices. 03ere are several definitions of aut3enticit8 in materials. . $orter and O. 'oberts BAuthentic Listening Activities" in EL& ?ournal, 1.*+" 3,:1" pp. 3+=K+C state t3at aut3entic te9ts are t3ose Minstances of spo?en lan6ua6e 43ic3 4ere not initiated for t3e purpose of teac3in6Unot intended for non=native learners. Dn contrast" teac3er=made te9ts are easil8 identified b8 limited vocabular8" complete sentences" repetition of tar6et structures" e9a66erated intonation" clear enunciation. 03e need to introduce aut3entic material into students7 listenin6 repertoire b8 t3e end of be6innin6 level is supported b8 t3e fact t3at most listenin6 in t3e 4orld outside t3e classroom does not conform to simplified codes. ii6 0ec3ni@ues for selective listeningA Dntermediate level students 43o 4ere trained 4it3 simplified codes and 4it3 clearl8 pronounced models ma8 not reco6nize t3e same 4ords and p3rases in normal fast speec3. ;t t3e intermediate level" accurac8 in discriminatin6 6rammatical features is ver8 important" e.6. certain unstressed endin6s" articles" inflections" function 4ords. E9ercise t8pes for intermediate level listeners -ottom5up processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: 'eco6nizin6 fast speec3 forms :isten to a series of sentences t3at contain unstressed function 4ords. !ircle 8our c3oice amon6 t3ree 4ords on t3e ans4er s3eet F for e9ample: Mup" Ma" Mof <oal: 'eco6nizin6 pertinent details in t3e speec3 stream :isten to a s3ort dialo6ue bet4een a boss and a secretar8 re6ardin6 c3an6es in t3e dail8 sc3edule. (se an appointment calendar. !ross out appointments t3at are bein6 c3an6ed and 4rite in ne4 ones. +op5doDn processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: :isten to identif8 t3e spea?er or t3e topic :isten to a series of radio commercials. %n 8our ans4er s3eet" c3oose amon6 K t8pes of products and identif8 t3e picture 43ic3 6oes 4it3 t3e commercial. <oal: iscriminatin6 bet4een re6isters of speec3 and tones of voice :isten to a series of sentences. %n 8our ans4er s3eet" mar? 43et3er t3e sentence is polite or impolite Interactive processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: 'eco6nize missin6 6rammar mar?ers in collo@uial speec3 :isten to a series of s3ort @uestions in 43ic3 t3e au9iliar8 verb and subject 3ave been deleted" e.6. #ot a matchR Bhave youUC <oal: use cultural bac?6round information to construct a more complete understandin6 of a te9t: :isten to one side of a telep3one conversation. ecide 43at t3e topic of t3e conversation mi63t be. 3.1.7.3. Pro,ile o, the a#%ance#&le%el learner ;dvanced students are no lon6er simpl8 learnin6 to listen" or listenin6 to learn t3e lan6ua6e. 03e8 are listenin6 in t3e lan6ua6e to learn about t3e content of ot3er areas. ;dvanced learners can N-

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listen to lon6er te9ts" suc3 as radio and television pro6rammes. 03eir vocabular8 includes topics in current events" 3istor8 and culture. >o4ever" t3eir understandin6 of t3e lan6ua6e remains on a fairl8 literal plane" so t3at t3e8 ma8 miss jo?es" slan6" and cultural references. E9ercise t8pes for advanced5level listeners -ottom5up processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: Gecome a4are of sentence level features in lecture te9t :isten to a se6ment of a lecture 43ile readin6 a transcript of t3e material. Iotice t3e incomplete sentences" pauses" and verbal fillers +op5doDn processin6 6oals and e9ercise t8pes <oal: (se t3e introduction to t3e lecture to predict its focus and direction :isten to t3e introductor8 section of a lecture. 03en rea a number of topics on 8our ans4er s3eet and c3oose t3e topic t3at best e9presses 43at t3e lecture 4ill discuss. &6!6 +eac@ing speaKing 3.2.1. (pproaches8 metho#s an# techni0ues o, teaching spea6ing s6ills (pro#ucti%e language s6ill i6 -e@aviorism 5 'udiolingualism 2it3in be3aviorism" lan6ua6e is mainl8 spo?en in nature. 03us" developin6 &pea?in6 s?ills is similar to an8 ot3er t8pe of learnin6" based on a stimulus=response=reinforcement pattern 43ic3 involves constant practice and t3e formation of 6ood 3abits. 03erefore" spea?ers are first e9posed to lin6uistic input as a t8pe of e9ternal stimulus and t3eir response consists of imitatin6 and repeatin6 suc3 input. Df t3is is performed correctl8" t3e8 received a positive reinforcement b8 ot3er lan6ua6e users 4it3in t3eir same environment. 03e tec3ni@ues used refer to learners7 carr8in6 out repetition and substitution drills" practisin6 6rammatical structures and patterns Bpronunciation in focusC t3rou63 intense aural=oral practice. ii. ,ognitivism Dn t3is t8pe of approac3" learners are provided 4it3 opportunities to use t3e lan6ua6e more creativel8 and innovativel8 after 3avin6 been tau63t t3e relevant 6rammatical rules. 03ere is reco6nition of t3e d8namic nature of learnin6: spea?ers mentall8 construct t3e lan6ua6e s8stem in order to use it" 8et spea?in6 still occurs in isolation" it is not part of a communicative event. iii6 +@e Interactionist 'pproac@ J+@e Socio5,ultural +urnGA ,.+H +@e Post5,ommunicative +urn &peec3 production is conte9t=embedded and presupposes interaction as 4ell as t3e capacit8 to inte6rate different interpersonal and ps8c3omotor aspects. :evelt B1.*.C endorses an automatic K= sta6e model of speec3 production: 1C conceptuali1ation" i.e. selection of t3e messa6e content on t3e basis of t3e situational conte9t and t3e particular purpose to be ac3ievedH 1C formulation" i.e. accessin6" se@uencin6 and c3oosin6 4ords and p3rases to e9press t3e intended messa6e appropriatel8H 3C articulation" 43ic3 concerns t3e motor control of t3e articulator8 or6ans to e9ecute t3e planned messa6eH and KC monitoring" 43ic3 allo4s spea?ers to activel8 identif8 and correct mista?es if necessar8. Dn t3e !:0" spea?in6 ran?s topmost and learners are trained so as to cope 4it3 real life situations. 03e8 are concerned 4it3 form" i.e. 3o4 to produce lin6uisticall8 acceptable utterances in point of pronunciation" 6rammar and vocabular8" and 4it3 accommodation ) appropriac8" i.e. selection of content and form 6iven particular socio=cultural settin6s and norms. ;dditionall8" t3e8 need to be strate6icall8 competent so t3at t3e8 can ma?e adjustments durin6 t3e on6oin6 process of spea?in6 Bsince in most cases t3ere is immediate feedbac?C and carr8 t3e messa6e across. N1

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03e interactive" social and conte9tualized perspective of lan6ua6e learnin6 focuses on connected speec3 BdiscourseC rat3er t3an on isolated pieces. 03ere is also a s3ift from centerin6 on formal aspects of lan6ua6e to content and meanin6" to communicative intent Bpurposeful spea?in6C. &pea?in6 development underpins constructivism: t3e8 activel8 use lan6ua6e accordin6 to t3eir o4n purposes for spea?in6 as 4ell as t3eir o4n prior ?no4led6e Blin6uistic ?no4led6e and e9tra= lin6uistic ) enc8clopaedic ?no4led6eC and protocol of e9perience. $rior ?no4led6e is identified to schemata" furt3er subdivided into content schemata Btopic familiarit8" cultural ?no4led6e and previous e9perience 4it3 a particular fieldC and formal schemata Bfeatures of t3e oral mode of communication: discourse" structures" and p3onolo6ical and prosodic s8stems of spea?in6C. 3.2.2. "pea6ing s6ills an# intercultural communicati%e competence (so`=Ouan" /artanez=Jlor B4urrent &rends in the 5evelopment and &eaching of the "our Language Skills" 1--,: 1N1=1N3C provides an e9ample of suc3 an activit8 'ctivitI !lassif8 all culture=related materials brou63t in b8 all learners Bi.e." 4ritten passa6es" audio e9tracts" video scenesC accordin6 to t3e particular cultural topic covered Be.6." famil8" la4 and order" po4er and politics" etc.C and use t3em as resources for furt3er prasticin6 t3e spea?in6 s?ill. ;rran6e learners in 6roups of t3ree or four members and as? t3em to select t3e materials t3at deal 4it3 a 6iven cultural topic t3e8 are interested in. ;fter readin6 or listenin6 to t3e material t3e8 3ave c3osen" t3e8 are as?ed to discuss t3e topic b8 6ivin6 t3eir o4n personal point of vie4 and to record t3eir discussion. 03e transcripts from t3ese oral discussions can t3en be used in t3e classroom as a startin6 point to deal 4it3 t3e cultural topic 4it3 t3e rest of t3e class" as 4ell as to anal8ze t3e oral features emplo8ed b8 eac3 particular 6roup of learners Bi.e." pauses" repetition" pronunciation" turn=ta?in6 mec3anisms" etc.C. 3.2.3. Control ,actors in teaching spea6ing s6ills 03e follo4in6 factors are involved B/urar"1-11C: i. Jeatures of oral discourse: t3e recurrence of speec3 events brin6s 4it3 it t3e repetition of 4ords and p3rases Bt3e feature is called regularityCH connections bet4een conte9t and utterance = for e9ample"
openin6 and closin6 utterances tend to be standardized Bt3e feature is ?no4n as patterningC.

ii. &ociolin6uistic dimensions of tal?: lin6uistic mar?ers of in=6roup members3ip" distance. iii. $s8c3olin6uistics of speec3 processin6 and lan6ua6e development: t3e triad conceptualization = formulation F output. SpoKen vs6 Qritten Discourse %ral production is c3aracterized b8 e9clamations Bgee1C" repetitions Band@andC" false starts Bhe7d@he cameC" fillers Bhmm, uh, yeahC" etc. 03e sentences in t3e 4ritten te9t are lon6er and more comple9 t3an in t3e spo?en te9t. 03e clauses ma?in6 up t3e sentences tend to be in an embedded BhypotacticC relations3ip Bcomple9 sentencesC" 43ereas in t3e spo?en te9t t3e spea?ers strin6 complete clauses to6et3er usin6 simple conjunctions suc3 as and and but Bparatactic relations3ipC Bcompound sentencesC. 03e contracted forms Byou7ve, he7d, didn7tC and elliptical forms Bif necessaryC are rare if ever in 4ritten te9ts" 43ere t3e8 are full8 spelled out. ;lso" t3e references to people and t3in6s in spo?en discourse rel8 on t3e immediate conte9t and are implied or assumed to be understood B %hat happened hereC. 03e8 are e9plicitl8 named as referents in t3e 4ritten te9t" 43ic3 must stand apart from t3e p38sical conte9t and be understood in conte9ts distant in time and place from t3e actual events. N1

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03e spo?en te9t is 3i63l8 interactive and t3us t3e participants ma?e personal references to eac3 ot3er B!, you, heC" features 43ic3 are less prominent in t3e 4ritten te9t. 03ere are also direct @uestions and responses" 43ic3 do not feature in t3e 4ritten te9t because of its 6eneral rat3er t3an specific purpose and audience. &imilarl8" t3e spo?en te9t is muc3 more interpersonall8 focused" 4it3 spea?ers ma?in6 direct references to t3eir t3ou63ts" emotions and jud6ments relatin6 to t3e events. 03e tone of t3e 4ritten te9t is impersonal and factual 4it3 no evaluations concernin6 t3e ri63ts or 4ron6s of t3e situation. <rammaticall8" t3is is displa8ed b8 t3e use of t3e ;ctive Loice in t3e spo?en production 43ereas t3e $assive Loice is preferred in 4ritten production. Jurt3ermore" t3e $resent $erfect 0ense is said to t8pif8 spo?en te9ts and t3e $resent &imple 0ense occurs fre@uentl8 in 4ritten te9ts. 03ere is 3eav8 use of modals and p3rasal verbs in speec3 43ile t3ese are less intensivel8 used in t3e 4ritten mode. 2it3 respect to le9ical c3oices" 4ords of ;n6lo=&a9on ori6in are encountered in spea?in6 muc3 more often t3an in 4ritin6" 43ere 4ords of :atin and Jrenc3 ori6in prevail F for e9ample" help vs. assistance" %ay vs. manner" together %ith vs. in con8unction %ith" etc. 3.2.4. 2it3in t3e communicative frame4or? of lan6ua6e teac3in6" t3e s?ill of spea?in6 enjo8s special status. Dt 3as become apparent in recent 8ears t3at t3ere 3ave been mar?ed c3an6es in t3e 6oals of lan6ua6e education pro6rammes. 0oda8" lan6ua6e students are considered successful if t3e8 can communicate effectivel8 in a second)forei6n lan6ua6e" 43ereas several decades a6o t3e accurac8 of t3e lan6ua6e produced 4as t3e major criterion of a student7s success or lac? of success. 03ese developments in lan6ua6e teac3in6 F called t3e 5 proficiencI movementE b8 some researc3ers and t3e promotion of 5functional7 or 5communicativeE aLilitI b8 ot3ers F 3ave moved us a4a8 from t3e 6oal of accurate form to4ards a focus on fluencI and communicative effectiveness B03. >i66s" &eaching for Proficiency" 1.*KC.03us" t3e teac3in6 of t3e spea?in6 s?ill 3as become increasin6l8 important. ;ccordin6l8" rat3er t3an implementin6 activities and e9ercises 43ic3 focus strictl8 on accurac8 Bsuc3 as t3ose usin6 memorization" repetition" and unconte9tualized drillsC man8 teac3ers 3ave concentrated on promotin6 communicative competence in lan6ua6e learners b8 usin6 Mcommunicative activities F t3ose 43ic3 rel8 more on t3e students7 abilit8 to understand and communicate real information. 03e aim of suc3 Mfluenc8 activities" as !. Grumfit B 4ommunicative )ethodology in Language &eaching, 1.*K: ,.C calls t3em" is Mto develop a pattern of lan6ua6e interaction 4it3 t3e classroom 43ic3 is as close as possible to t3at used b8 competent performers in normal life. Dnformal" unre3earsed use of lan6ua6e is encoura6ed" alon6 4it3 a rela9ed classroom environment. >o4ever" t3is does not mean t3at a focus on accurac8 3as no place in t3e communicative classroom. &ome researc3" for e9ample" t3at carried out b8 03. >i66s E '. !lifford" B 4urriculum, 4ompetence and the Second Language &eacher" 1.*1C su66ests t3at forcin6 communication too earl8 4it3out an8 re6ard for accurac8 can result in earl8 fossilisation. &ince a lin6uistic or 6rammatical base ma8 be necessar8 before fluenc8 can be attained" some researc3ers believe t3at 6rammar s3ould be e9plicitl8 tau63t and t3at t3is is possible t3rou63 communicative means. 3.2.!. "pea6ing acti%ities (acti%ities use# ,or promoting the s6ill o, spea6ing 03e 6oal of a spea?in6 component in a lan6ua6e class s3ould encoura6e t3e ac@uisition of communication s?ills 43ic3 can foster) promote real communication out of t3e classroom. Jor use in t3e E&:)EJ: classroom" t3ere are as man8 spea?in6 activities and materials available as t3ere are creative teac3ers. Jor t3e purpose of t3is discussion" 4e 3ave or6anised oral N3

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s?ill activities into four distinct t8pes: drills" or lin6uisticall8 structured activities" performance activities" participation activities" and observation activities. 3.2.!.1. 2rills (linguistically structure# acti%ities A &uc3 activities need not be void of meanin6" as 4ere some of t3e more classic manipulative tec3ni@ues associated 4it3 t3e audio= lin6ual approac3" 4it3 its repetition drills and pattern practices. 'at3er" it is possible to conte9tualise suc3 activities and t3us meet some of t3e re@uirements of a communicativel8 oriented desi6n. Dn controlled practice t3e teac3er can model t3e forms to be produced" providin6 lin6uisticall8 correct input. 03e students are t3en allo4ed to practice t3e material" and t3e teac3er follo4s up b8 reinforcin6 t3e forms practiced. 23at is important is t3at t3e students are allo4ed to spea? about 43at is true" real" and interestin6. 03e structured intervieD is an e9ample of t3is" 43ere students @uestion eac3 ot3er and ans4er factuall8" t3us e9c3an6in6 5real7 information" 43ile at t3e same time repeatin6 and reinforcin6 specific structures Be.6. yes-no, or %h= @uestionsC. &ome language games can also provide opportunities for controlled practice. ;6ain" it is important to model t3e structures for be6innin6 students" eit3er verball8 or b8 4ritin6 t3e forms on t3e blac?board. Picture games 43ic3 re@uire students to matc3 te9ts 4it3 pictures are ideal for be6innin6 students 43o need to practice manipulatin6 certain structures Be.6." t3e 4ord 5cup7 4it3 a picture of a cupH or" for more advanced students" a sentence 43ic3 describes one step in a process 4it3 its correspondin6 dia6ramC. 3.2.!.2. Per,ormance acti%ities: 5$erformance7 activities are t3ose in 43ic3 t3e student prepares before3and and delivers a messa6e to a 6roup. ; 6ood e9ample of suc3 an activit8 is t3e student speec@" 43ic3 could be made as specific in content as necessar8: a course in conversational or social En6lis3 mi63t assi6n students to simpl8 tell a stor8 from t3eir o4n e9perience" in a casual" social settin6. Peer evaluation can be a useful component of oral performance activities since: i. t3e Maudience becomes involved in suc3 a 4a8 t3at students" as members of t3e audience" become more t3an simpl8 passive listenersH ii. t3e evaluation process 3elps students to 6ain confidence in t3eir o4n abilit8 to evaluate lan6ua6eH iii. t3e evaluation activit8 itself becomes an opportunit8 for real" spontaneous interaction since t3e Mmessa6e Bt3e evaluationC is important to t3e student performer. 03e evaluation s@eet" dra4n up b8 t3e teac3er before3and" 3as t3e purpose to structure t3e evaluation so t3at it meets t3e 6oals of t3e activit8" 4it3 suc3 criteria as: = content: is it focusedR clearR ori6inalR 3as enou63 detail been providedR = or6anisation: is it lo6icalR are t3ere appropriate transitionsR = deliver8: is t3e volume ade@uateR are notes relied on too muc3R = ot3er comments could include specific points on 6rammar" vocabular8" pronunciation Self5evaluation* anot3er follo4=up activit8 involves audiotapin6 or videotapin6 students durin6 t3eir initial performances and allo4in6 t3em to evaluate t3emselves. 2it3 self= evaluation" students listen to or 4atc3 t3eir recorded speec3es and evaluate t3emselves accordin6 to t3e same criteria t3e teac3er uses. ; useful option for t3is follo4=up tas? 4ould be for students to loo? at t3eir transcription and re4rite it" correctin6 t3e 6rammar and vocabular8 errors. ; variation on t3e speec3 6iven b8 one person is assi6nin6 t4o or more people to deliver a tal?. 03is variation 3as certain advanta6es: Iot onl8 does t3is allo4 more content to be conve8ed" but also it 6ives students needed practice in ne6otiatin6 tas?s and s3arin6 information. ;n additional benefit is t3at students are less li?el8 to feel nervous or pressured 43en t3e responsibilit8 for 6ivin6 a 6ood speec3 is s3ared amon6 a 6roup. NK

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Role5plaIs and dramas" if performed in front of t3e class" can also function as Mperformance activities. Dn some cases" students could 4rite t3e role=pla8s or dramas t3emselves: t3is 4ould be appropriate in a course t3at is or6anised around speec3 functions or conversational strate6ies B.6. complimentin6 or t3an?in6 be3aviour" 6reetin6s and closin6sC. Jinall8" deLates can serve as an opportunit8 for a classroom performance activit8 for intermediate and advanced learners. &tudents can select a topic" plan t3eir researc3 and information 6at3erin6 strate6ies" pool t3e results of t3is researc3" and plan t3eir presentations" ma?in6 sure to anticipate @uestions from t3e ot3er team. 3.2.!.3. Participation acti%ities) M$articipation activities can be some of t3e most diverse and interestin6 in t3e oral communication repertoire. 03ese are activities 43ere t3e student participates in some communicative activit8 in a natural Msettin6. +@e guided discussion: one of t3e most commonl8 used participation activities is t3e 6uided discussion" 43ere t3e instructor provides a brief orientation to some problem or controversial topic" usuall8 b8 means of a s3ort readin6. &tudents in small 6roups discuss t3e topic" su66estin6 possible solutions" or resolutions. Discussion5leading activitIA alternativel8" students t3emselves can be assi6ned t3e responsibilit8 of a discussion=leadin6 activit8 in more advanced classes. Dn t3is situation" t3e8: = select a topic = find a s3ort bac?6round article or 4rite a summar8 of t3e topic = dra4 up a list of @uestions for consideration b8 t3e rest of t3e class &ome of t3e same evaluation tec3ni@ues discussed above can be used for t3is activit8 Bpeer evaluation" audiotapin6 or videotapin6C Recording a conversationA ;not3er more innovative participation activit8 re@uires students to audiotape)record a spontaneous conversation t3at t3e8 3ave 4it3 a native spea?er of t3eir c3oice. Df t3is is difficult" students can converse 4it3 t3e most advanced lan6ua6e students. 03e 6oal of t3ese conversations is for t3e student to obtain 5data7 t3at are natural and spontaneous. ;fter t3e conversation is recorded" t3e students transcribe" on t3eir o4n" an e9cerpt of t3e conversation t3at t3e8 find interestin6. ;fter t3e initial conversation data are audiotaped" transcribed" and c3ec?ed b8 t3e teac3er for fait3fulness to t3e tape" t3ere are man8 options for activities based on t3em. %ne use of t3e material is for vocabular8=buildin6: t3e students note do4n unfamiliar 4ords or idioms in t3e native or fluent spea?er7s lan6ua6e. 03is procedure can be used as an e9ercise in discoverin6 re6ularities of conversation strate6ies B3o4 to disa6ree" 3o4 to re6ister surprise or s8mpat38C. +@e intervieD: ;not3er participation activit8 t3at elicits ent3usiastic student response is t3e intervie4. Dn it" t3e students intervie4 t3eir native spea?er ac@uaintances about some meanin6ful or memorable aspect of t3eir lives. ;not3er variation is to 3ave students intervie4 native spea?ers for t3eir opinions on a 6iven subject. ;fter t3e intervie4s 3ave ta?en place" t3e students or6anise t3eir information and present it to t3e rest of t3e class. 03is can be particularl8 interestin6 43en native spea?ers e9press conflictin6 vie4s 43en respondin6 to t3e topic. 3.2.!.4. -.ser%ation acti%ities. 03ese are activities in 43ic3 a student observes and)or records verbal interactions bet4een t4o or more native or fluent spea?ers of t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. 03is tec3ni@ue is useful for buildin6 student a4areness of lan6ua6e as it actuall8 used in t3e real 4orld" and since t3e student is ta?in6 t3e role of non=participant observer" s)3e is free to concentrate on t3e subject 4it3out fear of performance errors" a problem for be6inners" 43ose productive s?ills usuall8 la6 be3ind t3eir receptive capabilities. 03ere are man8 possibilities 43ic3 can serve as t3e focus for t3is assi6nment: 3o4 and 43en people 6reet eac3 ot3er" ma?e re@uests" t3an? eac3 ot3er" compliment one anot3er" disa6ree" etc. 3.2.3. (c0uisition o, con%ersational #iscourse NN

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3.2.3.1.. 1nteraction in #iscourse Iormall8 sentences are not said in isolation but spo?en in a particular situation. 03e8 do not mean muc3 4it3out ?no4in6 3o4 t3e successive sentences are lin?ed to6et3er" and 3o4 t3e8 relate to t3e situation. Dn one sense 5discourse7 concerns 3o4 t3e participants influence eac3 ot3er 43ile tal?in6. 03e8 interrupt" t3e8 as? for more informationH t3e8 adapt 43at t3e8 are sa8in6" etc. 03is is called Ointeractive discourseE as t3ere is a 6ive=and=ta?e bet4een t3e participants. >ence interactive discourse" 43ic3 is spontaneous lan6ua6e 4it3 6ive=and=ta?e" usuall8 occurs in speec3 rat3er t3an 4ritin6. Gut lan6ua6e can also consist of connected speec3 or 4ritin6 t3at 3as been prepared and 6one over: usuall8 t3is is 4ritten lan6ua6e" for instance a set of instructions on 3o4 to 4or? a video=recorder" but sometimes it ma8 be prepared speec3 suc3 as tal?s or lectures. 03is is Anon5interactive discourseE in t3at t3e reader or listener cannot affect 43at 3appens. ; related distinction made b8 <illian Gro4n and 3er collea6ues BGro4n" <." ;nderson" ;." &3illcoc?" '." and Tule" <." &eaching &alk* Strategies for Production and Assessment " 1.*KC is bet4een listener5related tal? and information5related tal?. .istener5related talK = 5c3at7 F forms t3e basis of social life. $eople tal? to eac3 ot3er to maintain social relations3ips. Information5related talK 3o4ever 3as t3e purpose of transferrin6 information from spea?er to listener. Dt mi63t be a doctor directin6 a nurse 3o4 to treat a patient" or a teac3er impartin6 information in a classroom. %nl8 information=related tal? can be non=interactive. B.2.3..2. 2iscourse mo%es in con%ersation Df t4o people are tal?in6" eac3 of t3em 3as a c3oice of 43at to sa8 and 3o4 to sa8 it. 03ere are certain openin6 moves for t3e conversation t3at can be c3osen" t3en a c3oice of follo4=up moves" a furt3er c3oice of conversational moves lin?ed to t3ese" and so on until t3e final e9c3an6e t3at ends t3e conversation. &o a conversation mi63t start 4it3 ritualistic 6reetin6s: $ello, ?ohn. $ello, )ary. 03en one spea?er broac3es a topic of conversation" 43ic3 continues for a 43ile: $ave you heard about >rianC 0o. 'hat7s happenedC <h he7s gone off to Australia. $o% ama1ingD 03e conversation continues till t3e spea?ers si6nal a close: 'ell !7d better be off no%. #oodbye. 4heerio. &ome of t3ese e9c3an6es are predictable: if one person sa8s a 6reetin6 F M$elloE F t3e ot3er 3as to sa8 a 6reetin6 in return F M $elloE. %t3er e9c3an6es come in Oad*acencI pairsE 4it3 strai63tfor4ard lin6uistic connections bet4een t3e moves XAd8acency pair: a pair of discourse moves t3at often 6o to6et3er" e.6. @uestion and ans4erZ. ; @uestion M'hat7s happenedR 3as to be follo4ed b8 an ans4er suc3 as F$e7s gone off to AustraliaE. %t3er connections are less obvious: a move t3at 6ives information F$e7s gone off to AustraliaE G calls for a polite reaction F$o% ama1ingDE /uc3 of conversation is made up of suc3 pairs of moves F 6reetin6 and repl8" @uestion and ans4er" statement and reaction. &ome ps8c3olo6ists suc3 as O. Gruner B4hild7s &alk" 1.*3C 3ave su66ested t3at a c3ild learns t3e first lan6ua6e t3rou63 suc3 routines. !onversational interaction is vital for c3ildren" not just for t3e moves t3emselves t3at t3e8 are learnin6" but for t3e 6rammatical rules and le9ical items t3e8 are usin6 in t3e moves. 03e components of lan6ua6e are learnt t3rou63 t3e moves of conversation. N,

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/uc3 of t3is ?no4led6e of interaction is transferred from t3e first lan6ua6e to t3e second: ?no4in6 3o4 to construct a conversation in one lan6ua6e means it can be done in anot3er" to some e9tent. :an6ua6es do not differ over t3e moves t3emselves so muc3 as over 43at ma?es up t3e moves. 2e all 6reet eac3 ot3erH 4e all as? @uestions and provide ans4ersH but 4e do so differentl8 in different lan6ua6es. Jor e9ample" t3e main difficult8 in 6oin6 from one lan6ua6e to anot3er is represented b8 conventions over politeness. Dn t3is respect" t3e <ermans prefer more direct 4a8s of ma?in6 a re@uest t3an suc3 indirect En6lis3 forms as M4ould you tell me the %ay to the station pleaseR %r" t3e Oapanese consider it polite not to disa6ree 4it3 t3e spea?er. 3.2.3.3. Teaching con%ersational #iscourse Evel8n >atc3 B5iscourse Analysis and Second Language Acquisition " 1.+*C 3as advocated an approac3 to :1 learnin6 based on conversation anal8sis F t3e anal8sis of conversations bet4een native and non=native spea?ers. Dn native to non=native conversations t3e native spea?er uses more topic clarification moves t3an usual because of t3e increased unintelli6ibilit8 of :1 speec3. 03e non=native needs particular moves for statin6 topics unambi6uousl8 and for ma?in6 certain t3e8 are continuin6 to be understood. 23ile all t3ese indeed occur from time to time in native=to=native speec3" t3e proportions of eac3 move inevitabl8 c3an6e in conversations involvin6 non=native spea?ers. Livian !oo? BLanguage functions, social factors and second language teaching, 1.*NC found for instance t3at non=native spea?ers are more formal and polite t3an native spea?ers 43en ma?in6 re@uests from stran6ers and 43en t3an?in6 t3em. 03e8 tend to sa8 M03an? 8ou ver8 muc3 rat3er t3an M03an?s for e9ample" re6ardless of 43o t3e8 are spea?in6 to. &imilarl8" anot3er researc3er" $. $orter B&alking to Learn* 4onversation in Second Language AcquisitionH 1.*,C compared natives and non=natives on t3e same discussion tal?s. 03e non=natives 3ad a smaller repertoire of 4a8s of e9pressin6 t3emselves" for e9ample" not usin6 t3e past tense for 6ivin6 t3eir opinions" and e9pressin6 disa6reement directl8 rat3er t3an t3rou63 face= savin6 53ed6es7. 03e fact t3at conversation consists of moves and t3e idea t3at learnin6 ta?es place t3rou63 conversational moves can come to6et3er in teac3in6. L. !oo?7s be6inners boo? B People and Places" 1.*-C uses a teac3in6 e9ercise called a 5conversational e9c3an6e7. 03e students" for e9ample" are s3o4n pictures of various clot3esH t3e8 3ear model conversations s3o4in6 t4o conversational moves" statin6 opinion and reactin6: Oenn8: ?oe7s suit is very nice. Edna: !s itC Oenn8: Peter7s 8eans are horrible. Edna: Are theyC 03en t3e8 3ave to suppl8 Edna7s side of t3e conversation for a fe4 e9c3an6es" 4or?in6 out t3e appropriate ans4er accordin6 to t3eir opinion of t3e clot3es. Jinall8 t3e students suppl8 bot3 sides of t3e conversation. 03e basic concept is indeed t3at learnin6 ta?es place t3rou63 interaction in limited e9c3an6es: conversation is tau63t as lin?ed conversational moves. ;s soon as possible in eac3 e9ercise" t3e students 3ave to c3oose 43ic3 e9pression to use and 3ave to fit it into t3e situation meanin6full8. !onversational ;nal8sis comes close to some communicative teac3in6 t3rou63 its belief t3at second lan6ua6es are learnt under t3e pressure of conversation. Dnteractin6 4it3 ot3er people t3rou63 a series of conversational moves is not just 43at t3e learners are aimin6 at: it is t3e actual means of learnin6. Gut t3e concept of a 5move7 outlined 3ere is not @uite t3e same as t3e idea of 5function7 in most communicative teac3in6" 43ic3 is usuall8 concerned 4it3 functions suc3 as N+

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5ar6uin67 or 5apolo6isin67 t3at mi63t occur in several different conversational moves. ; teac3er usin6 a communicative met3od s3ould remember t3at functions never occur b8 t3emselves but al4a8s in a se@uence of conversational moves. B.2.4. *anguage an# input in the *2 classroom 3.2.4.1. "econ# language learning insi#e the classroomA :et us start 4it3 t3e lan6ua6e interaction t3at occurs in all classrooms: most face=to=face conversation is interactive and listener5 related. &ome situations 6ive one participant a more directive role t3an t3e ot3ers: one person can be called t3e 5leader7 43o ta?es t3e initiative" t3e ot3ers are 5follo4ers7 43o respond to it. :et us ta?e a s3ort classroom e9c3an6e: 0eac3er: 4an you tell me %hy you eat all that foodC $upil: &o keep you strong. 0eac3er: &o keep you strong. /es. 'hy do you %ant to be strongC 03is e9c3an6e 3as t3ree main moves: i6 Initiation Bt3e openin6 move b8 t3e teac3erC: 03e teac3er ta?es t3e initiative b8 re@uirin6 somet3in6 of t3e student" sa8 t3rou63 a @uestion suc3 as M!an 8ou tell me 438 8ou eat all t3at foodR 03e move starts off t3e e9c3an6eH t3e teac3er acts as leader. ii6 Response Bt3e student7s response to t3e teac3er7s openin6 moveC: t3e student does 43atever is re@uired" 3ere ans4erin6 t3e @uestion b8 sa8in6 M0o ?eep 8ou stron6 iii6 FeedLacK Bteac3er evaluation of t3e student responseC: t3e teac3er evaluates t3e student7s response 03is t3ree=move structure of initiation" response and feedbac? is ver8 fre@uent in teac3in6. 3.2.4.2. *anguage in the language teaching classroom &everal teac3in6 met3ods 3ave tried to ma9imize t3e amount of spea?in6 b8 t3e student B /urar" 1-11C: = t@e audio5lingual met3od approved of t3e lan6ua6e laborator8 precisel8 because it increased eac3 student7s s3are of spea?in6 time. = communicative met3ods support pair=4or? and 6roup=4or? partl8 because t3e8 6ive eac3 student t3e c3ance to tal? as muc3 as possible %t3er met3ods do not s3are t3e opinion t3at teac3er tal? s3ould be minimized Hteacher-talkA t3e amount of speec3 supplied b8 t3e teac3er rat3er t3an t3e studentsC = conventional academic teac3in6 emp3asizes factual information comin6 from t3e teac3er. = listening5Lased teac3in6 sees most value in t3e students e9tractin6 information from 43at t3e8 3ear rat3er t3an in spea?in6 t3emselves. %ne ar6ument for less speec3 b8 t3e students is t3at at least t3e sentences t3at t3e students 3ear 4ill be correct e9amples of t3e tar6et lan6ua6e" not samples of t3e interlan6ua6es of t3eir fello4 students. 3.2.4.3. (uthentic an# non&authentic language ; furt3er distinction is bet4een aut3entic and non=aut3entic lan6ua6e. >ere is a t8pical te9tboo? dialo6ue ta?en from "lying 4olours ! B<arton=&pren6er E <reenall" 1..-C: Iicola* 5o you like this musicC 'o6er: 0ot very much. ! don7t like 8a11. Iicola: 'hat kind of music do you likeC 'o6er: ! like classical music. 03is is non5aut@entic lan6ua6e speciall8 constructed for its teac3in6 potential. $eople in real=life conversations do not ans4er @uestions so e9plicitl8" do not spea? in full 6rammatical sentences" and do not ?eep to a clear se@uence of turns. Dnstead t3e8 spea? li?e t3ese t4o people 43o 4ere recorded 43ile tal?in6 about 63osts for t3e course=boo? English &opics B!oo?" 1.+NC: N*

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/rs. Ga66: <h, ho% e(traordinary. Oenn8 re4: So@7cos quite a lot of things like that. /rs. Ga66: ! mean %ere they frightenedC 74os ! think if ! actually@ Oenn8 re4: 0o. /rs. Ga66: U sa% a ghost because ! don7t believe in them really, ! %ould be frightened, you kno%@ 03is is an e9ample of aut3entic lan6ua6e" defined b8 . :ittle et al. HAuthentic &e(ts in "oreign Language &eaching* &heory and Practice " 1.**C as Mcreated to fulfil some social purpose in t3e lan6ua6e communit8 in 43ic3 it 4as produced. (ntil recentl8" teac3in6 provided t3e students 4it3 speciall8 adapted lan6ua6e" not onl8 simplified in terms of s8nta9 and confined in vocabular8 but also tidied up in terms of discourse structure. 2it3 t3e advent of met3ods t3at loo?ed at t3e communicative situation t3e students 4ere 6oin6 to encounter" it be6an to seem t3at t3e students 4ere bein6 3andicapped b8 never 3earin6 aut3entic speec3 in all its ric3ness and diversit8. >ence courses 3ave proliferated t3at turn a4a8 from speciall8 constructed classroom lan6ua6e to an8 pieces of lan6ua6e t3at 3ave been reall8 used b8 native spea?ers" 43et3er tapes of conversations" advertisements from ma6azines" or a t3ousand and one ot3er sources. 04o justifications for t3e use of aut3entic te9t in communicative teac3in6 are put for4ard b8 . :ittle et al B1.**C: i. /otivation and interest: students 4ill be better motivated b8 te9ts t3at 3ave served a real communicative purposeH ii. Jillin6 in 6aps: desi6ners of course=boo?s ma8 miss some of t3e aspects of lan6ua6e used in real=life situations. &6& +eac@ing reading 3.3.1. (pproaches8 metho#s an# techni0ues o, teaching rea#ing s6ills (recepti%e language s6ill . $er3aps more t3an t3e ot3er lan6ua6e s?ills" readin6 is said to pave t3e 4a8 to independent learnin6. i6 -e@aviorism 'eadin6 is conceptualized as a passive process: 4ords actin6 as stimulus and tri66erin6 response as 4ord reco6nition" i.e. reco6nition and discrimination of letters B6rap3ic s8mbolsC and 4ords. Jre@uentl8" readin6 4as done b8 soundin6 out Breadin6 aloudC. &imilarl8 to teac3in6 :istenin6 s?ills" t3e tec3ni@ues used mainl8 consist in repeatin6" imitatin6 and memorizin6 of prefabricated lan6ua6e Bfor instance" 4ord listsC" 43ile totall8 disre6ardin6 co6nitive processes. ii6 ,ognitivism 'eaders become active a6ents rat3er t3an passive recipients" t3e8 6uess or predict t3e meanin6 on t3e basis of te9tual data)cues and activation mec3anisms of bac?6round ?no4led6e" t3en confirm or correct t3eir 6uesses" and t3ereb8 reconstruct t3e messa6e 4it3 respect to bot3 morp3o=s8ntactic and semantic levels. ' is considered a d8namical process of co6nitive nature. ;dmittedl8" compre3ension is of paramount importance based on t3e idea t3at understandin6 lan6ua6e facilitates learnin6 Brat3er t3an ac@uisitionC and t3at learners develop readin6 s?ills b8 readin6 intensivel8 and e9tensivel8 Bfree voluntar8 readin6C. iii6 +@e Interactionist 'pproac@ J+@e Socio5,ultural +urnGA ,.+H +@e Post5 ,ommunicative +urn 03e interactive" social and conte9tualized perspective of lan6ua6e learnin6 focuses on connected speec3 BdiscourseC rat3er t3an on isolated pieces. 03ere is also a s3ift from centerin6 on formal aspects of lan6ua6e to content and meanin6" to communicative intent Bpurposeful readin6C. Dnformation processin6 43ile listenin6 Bse@uential order of input" perception" reco6nition" and N.

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understandin6 sta6esC is coupled 4it3 a constructivist stance: readers activel8 construct meanin6 accordin6 to t3eir o4n purposes for readin6 as 4ell as t3eir o4n prior ?no4led6e Blin6uistic ?no4led6e and e9tra=lin6uistic ) enc8clopaedic ?no4led6eC and protocol of e9perience. $rior ?no4led6e is identified to schemata" furt3er subdivided into content schemata Btopic familiarit8" cultural ?no4led6e and previous e9perience 4it3 a particular fieldC and formal schemata B?no4led6e about te9t t8pes = st8listic conventions as 4ell as t3e structural or6anization)variet8 of formatsC. 03e socio=cultural conte9t 3as 6ained ever increased importance in lan6ua6e learnin6 as t3e process does not ta?e place in a social vacuum. ;dmittedl8" special attention is paid to t3e aut3or F reader relations3ip in meanin6 construction 43ile readers read in a d8namic 4a8 Bselectivel8C. 'eadin6 is also coupled 4it3 detectin6 and interpretin6 t3e cultural 0o put it in a nuts3ell" readin6" on a par 4it3 listenin6" provides t3e input for lan6ua6e learnin6" actin6 as reference frame4or? in lan6ua6e production B/urar" 1-11C. 3.3.2. Rea#ing s6ills an# intercultural communicati%e competence (so`=Ouan" /artanez=Jlor provides an illustration of readin6 activit8 B 4urrent &rends in the 5evelopment and &eaching of the "our Language Skills" 1--,: 1+1=1+3C: 'ctivitI &elect a representative passa6e on a particular cultural topic t3at 3as been brou63t in b8 t3e learners. !arr8 out critical readin6 4it3 8our learners b8 encoura6in6 t3em to ans4er t3e @uestions presented belo4" 43ic3 are 6rouped into t3e t3ree p3ases of pre=readin6" 43ile=readin6 and post= readin6. ,ritical reading Pre5reading Fuestions o 8ou t3in? t3e topic of BUC is representative of t3e tar6et culture and of 8our o4n cultureR 238 or 438 notR 23at content do 8ou t3in? t3e te9t entitled BUC is 6oin6 to coverR Q@ile5reading Fuestion >o4 is content presented to deal 4it3 t3at particular topicR Post5reading Fuestions 23at ot3er aspects s3ould be incorporated 4it3in t3e passa6e to deal 4it3 t3is topic in a more compre3ensive 4a8R >o4 could t3e content of t3e te9t var8 if it 4as 4ritten b8 anot3er 4riter or read b8 anot3er reader in a different conte9tR 3.3.3. Control ,actors in teaching rea#ing s6ills i6 Ensure 4ord reco6nition fluenc8 or automaticit8" particularl8 in t3e earl8 developmental sta6es of readin6 s?ills" via e9tendend e9posure to 3i63 fre@uenc8 BprintedC 4ords ii6 Emp3asize vocabular8 learnin6 and create a vocabular8=ric3 environment: readin6 compre3ension and vocabular8 ?no4led6e are ine9tricabl8 lin?ed. ;t t3is point" pre=teac3in6 ?e8 vocabular8 items proves to be crucial. iii6 ;ctivate bac?6round ?no4led6e in appropriate 4a8s Btop=do4n processin6C: familiarit8 4it3 topic enables inferencin6 s?ills and meanin6 disambi6uisation Bdetection of t3e intended conte9tual meanin6C. 0e9t previe4in6 secures t3e activation of specific ?no4led6e relevant to t3e readin6 of t3e te9t in @uestion instead of 6eneral bac?6round ?no4led6e. iv6 Ensure effective lan6ua6e ?no4led6e and 6eneral compre3ension s?ills: vocabular8 items" 6rammar items" 4ord inte6ration processes Bfrom 4ord units to t3e sentence level meanin6ful unitsC. ,-

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v6 0eac3 te9t structures and discourse or6anization: familiarit8 4it3 te9t t8pe" te9t la8out" co3erence and co3esive devices and ot3er te9tual parametres. vi6 $romote t3e strate6ic reader rat3er t3an teac3 individual strate6ies: coordinated use of multiple strate6ies 43ile students activel8 see? to compre3end te9ts" i.e. teac3er modellin6" teac3er scaffoldin6 and support" and 6radual independent use of strate6ies to increased te9t compre3ension. 03e ran6e of strate6ies includes summarizin6" clarif8in6" predictin6" ima6in6" formin6 @uestions" usin6 prior ?no4led6e" monitorin6" and evaluatin6. vii6 Guild readin6 fluenc8 and rate: it means efficienc8 in readin6 = trainin6 for a rapid speed of processin6 across e9tended te9t. viii6 $romote e9tensive readin6: t3ere is a stron6 relations3ip bet4een readin6 compre3ension abilities and e9tensive readin6 over a lon6 period of time. i(6 evelop intrinsic motivation for readin6: motivation and en6a6ement 4it3 readin6 4ere si6nificantl8 related to amount of readin6. 03e 6oal in learnin6 to read s3ould be meanin6. 23et3er t3e teac3er favours a sKills5 oriented approac@ B43ic3 advocates form over meanin6C or a communication approac@ B43ic3 stresses function over formC is a personal decision" since e9perts disa6ree on t3e merits of eac3. >o4ever" lan6ua6e teac3ers s3ould remember t3at t3e communication approac3 is of more recent t3eoretical formulation" and t3is 3olistic" top=do4n approac3 ma8 constitute t3e 4ave of t3e future. 3.3.4. 2e%eloping rea#ing s6ills Dn t3e past lan6ua6e teac3ers t8picall8 6ave students ver8 little assistance 4it3 readin6 ot3er t3an to teac3 t3em 6rammar and vocabular8. !onceivin6 of readin6 as an active mental process 6reatl8 e9pands t3e reader7s role since primar8 responsibilit8 for meanin6 s3ifts from t3e te9t itself to t3e reader. 03us" lan6ua6e teac3ers no4 3ave a muc3 6reater ran6e of possible procedures to follo4 prior to" durin6" and after t3e readin6 assi6nment to assist students to read more effectivel8. Lie4in6 readin6 as a communicative process rat3er t3an as a lan6ua6e learnin6 process leads to several important conclusions. &tudents do not need to ?no4 all t3e 4ords)vocabular8 and 6rammar to compre3end a major portion of t3e te9t and to recreate t3e aut3or7s meanin6. 03e8 can learn to read at a muc3 3i63er level of proficienc8 t3an in t3e past 43en t3e preoccupation 4it3 6rammar deprived t3em of t3e opportunit8 to read for meanin6. 03e8 can learn readin6 strate6ies t3at enable t3em to read at muc3 3i63er levels of proficienc8. ;lso" teac3ers can initiate activities t3at 3ei63ten students7 motivation and increase t3eir level of compre3ension. >. :oe4 B5eveloping Strategies Ieading Skills, 1.*KC offers practical advice for teac3in6 readin6 s?ills. 03us" t3e researc3er ur6es lan6ua6e teac3ers to encoura6e students to 6uess" to tolerate ambi6uit8" to lin? ideas" to parap3rase and to summarize" to stop 4orr8in6 43en t3en come across isolated" un?no4n 4ords" 43ic3 are sometimes not vital to compre3ension. 0eac3ers can also 3elp students b8 discussin6 t3e title" t3eme" and cultural bac?6round before readin6. $rior to t3e first readin6 assi6nment teac3ers s3ould teac3 students 3o4 to s?im" find t3e main idea" and modif8 t3eir 38pot3eses. 0eac3ers s3ould 6ive t3em practice usin6 t3e dictionar8" ta?in6 notes" underlinin6" s?immin6 and rereadin6. ;nd before ma?in6 an8 readin6 assi6nment" teac3ers s3ould be sure t3at t3e readin6 tas? is clear to t3e students. O.L. ;spatore BMGut D don7t Ano4 all t3e 2ords" in O. !. ;lderson and ;. >. (r6u3art Ieading in a "oreign Language" 1.*KC describes a met3od of teac3in6 readin6 s?ills in a second)forei6n lan6ua6e t3at focuses on: i. eliminatin6 t3e student7s fear of 6ivin6 a M4ron6 ans4er: an important problem t3at students 3ave 4it3 readin6 is t3at t3e8 are afraid. 03e8 are more concerned 4it3 6ettin6 t3e correct ans4er t3at t3an 4it3 t3e more important process of 3o4 to 6et t3e ans4er ,1

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ii. discoura6in6 overuse of a dictionar8: t3e8 depend too muc3 on t3e dictionar8" and 3ave problems ma?in6 t3e transition from s3ort readin6s to lo6 ones. iii. teac3in6 reco6nition of co6nates" roots and t3e use of certain prefi9es and suffi9es: to 3elp students overcome t3ese problems" s3e su66ests t3at teac3ers as? t3em to read and underline un?no4n 4ords 4it3out loo?in6 up t3e meanin6 in t3e dictionar8H to use conte9tual clues to 6uess t3e 6eneral meanin6H to s?ip un?no4n 4ords and to focus on co6nates" roots" prefi9es and suffi9es. iv. usin6 a variet8 of te9ts v. utilizin6 s?immin6" scannin6 and decodin6 processes J. <rellet B5eveloping Ieading Skills: A Practical #uide to Ieading 4omprehension E(ercises 1.*1C discuses useful readin6 practice tec3ni@ues: i. %ne tec3ni@ue is to 3ave students 4or? t3eir 4a8 t3rou63 compre3ension problems b8 inferrin6 t3e meanin6 t3rou63 4ord formation and conte9t. 03e8 s3ould also learn to pic? out t3e important 4ords t3at form t3e core of eac3 sentence" and t3e8 need to be a4are of t3e use of referent and connectin6 4ords to establis3 relations3ips in and amon6 sentences and para6rap3s. ii. ;not3er tec3ni@ue is to practise timed readin6s to improve readin6 speed. iii. ; t3ird tec3ni@ue is to learn to use scannin6 and s?immin6 tec3ni@ues to previe4 readin6 material" predict 43at t3e selection is about" and develop e9pectations about t3e content of t3e te9t. &t. Aras3en and 0. 0errell B&he 0atural Approach* Language Acquisition in the 4lassroom " 1.*3C outline t3e follo4in6 communicative readin6 strate6ies: i. read for meanin6 ii. don7t loo? up ever8 4ord iii. predict meanin6 iv. use conte9t 3.3.!. Rea#ing acti%ities 3.3.!.1. Pre&rea#ing) 03e purpose of pre=readin6 Bas 4it3 pre=listenin6C activities is to motivate t3e students to 4ant to read t3e assi6nment and to prepare t3em to be able to read it. $repared students can complete t3e assi6nment better 4it3 less effort" and t3e8 are able to participate more full8 and 4it3 6reater satisfaction. $repared students rapidl8 6ain confidence in t3eir abilit8 to learn a second lan6ua6e" and t3e8 tend to be more 3i63l8 motivated and more ent3usiastic t3an students 43o stru66le to complete t3eir 3ome4or? assi6nments. :. 'in6ler and !. 2eber BA Language-&hinking Approach to Ieading, 1.*K: +-C call pre= readin6 activities enaLling activities because Mt3e8 provide a reader 4it3 t3e necessar8 bac?6round to or6anize activit8 and to compre3end t3e materialU 03ese e9periences involve understandin6 t3e purposeBsC for readin6 and buildin6 a ?no4led6e base necessar8 for dealin6 4it3 t3e content and t3e structure of t3e material. 03e t4o aut3ors sa8 t3at pre=readin6 activities elicit prior ?no4led6e" build bac?6round" and focus attention. 3.3.!.2. Rea#ing the assignment6 &tudents ma8 read t3e assi6nment in or out of class. Dnitiall8" t3e teac3er ma8 3ave t3em read t3e assi6nment or at least be6in to read it in class so t3at s)3e can 3elp t3ose 43o need assistance to develop productive strate6ies for recreatin6 t3e aut3or7s meanin6. Iormall8" 3o4ever" students read assi6ned material as part of t3eir 3ome4or? because class time is more valuable for communication practice t3at students cannot 6et out of class. 23en students read out of class" t3e teac3er 3as no opportunit8 to provide immediate assistance. >o4ever" s)3e can 3elp students to read b8 6ivin6 t3em specific 6uidelines for 43at to do 43ile t3e8 are readin6. urin6 t3e previe4" t3e teac3er 3as introduced t3e students to t3e topic and t3e related vocabular8. 03e8 3ave made predictions about 43at mi63t 3appen" and t3e8 3ave created t3eir o4n e9pectations about 3o4 t3e readin6 ma8 develop. Gased on t3ese predictions and e9pectations" t3e8 proceed t3rou63 t3e readin6 eit3er confirmin6 or rejectin6 t3eir 38pot3eses. Dn ,1

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case of errors t3e8 ma?e ne4 predictions based on t3e ne4 ?no4led6e t3e8 3ave 6ained from t3e readin6. 03is process of 6uessin6" confirmin6 or rejectin6" reformulation and compre3ension continues until t3e8 6ain understandin6. 03e aut3ors recommend t3at t3e teac3er as? students to underline t@e main ideas and supportin6 facts. 03e8 su66est t3at t3e teac3er implement t3is idea b8 first 6ivin6 t3em a readin6 t3at 3as alread8 been underlined. 03e students read t3e underlined parts and predict t3e rest of t3e readin6 based on t3is s?eleton of information. Dn subse@uent readin6s t3e students t3emselves do t3e underlinin6. ;not3er practice is to teac3 students to ma?e a storI map as t3e8 read. Jollo4in6 t3is tec3ni@ue" t3e8 learn to s3o4 important relations3ips in t3e readin6 b8 puttin6 main ideas" events" and c3aracters in adjoinin6 circles. 03e map ma8 consist of main ideas and se@uential details" comparisons and contrasts" or causes and effects. 3.3.!.3. Post&rea#ing) 03e first step in post=readin6 activities is to clarif8 t3e meanin6 of an8 unclear passa6es and t3eir relations3ip to t3e aut3or7s overall messa6e. 03e teac3er s3ould encoura6e students to as? an8 @uestions t3at t3e8 ma8 3ave about t3e readin6 at t3is point in t3e class. 03e teac3er7s tas? is to clarif8 problem passa6es b8 focusin6 on meanin6 43enever possible 4it3out callin6 t3e students7 attention to 6rammar and vocabular8 e9cept as a last resort. 'ussell &tauffer B&he Language E(perience Approach to the &eaching of Ieading " 1.*-C advocates t3ree t8pes of teac3er7s @uestions: i. 23at do 8ou t3in?R Bto ma?e t3e students t3in?C ii. 238 do 8ou t3in? soR Bto cause t3em to t3in? about t3eir opinionsC iii. $rove itc Bto force t3em to present evidence for t3eir conclusionsC :. 'in6ler and !. 2eber BA Language-&hinking Approach to Ieading" 1.*KC divide post= readin6 activities into t4o basic cate6ories: i. t3ose in 43ic3 students recall information from or react to t3e te9tH ii. t3ose desi6ned to develop 6reater communicative fluenc8 in t3e four lan6ua6e s?ills. 03ese activities ma8 include dramatizations" role=pla8s" simulations" reports" and debates. 0eac3ers s3ould avoid fact @uestions t3at can be ans4ered directl8 from t3e te9t. Dt is preferable t3at students prepare a summar8 or parap3rase of t3e content because t3ese activities re@uire a 6lobal recall of relevant information. Jurt3er activities can focus on t3e students7 abilit8 to dra4 conclusions" or 6ive opinions. ;n effective post=readin6 activit8 re@uires students to reprocess t3e material from t3e readin6. 03e8 su66est identif8in6 ?e8 ideas" pointin6 out r3etorical devices describin6 t3e aut3or7s biases" comparin6 cultural differences" debatin6 bot3 sides of an issue presented in t3e readin6" and developin6 s?its or pla8s based on t3e readin6. urin6 post=readin6 activities students 3ave t3e c3ance to 3ave some fun participatin6 in communication activities 43ile increasin6 t3eir facilit8 to use t3e readin6 to communicate t3eir o4n t3ou63ts and feelin6s. 03e teac3er s3ould not move on to ot3er readin6s until t3e students 3ave 3ad sufficient time to e9plore t3e topic from several perspectives and to use t3e lan6ua6e and ideas in different communicative conte9ts. >e s3ould not permit students to leave a readin6 until t3e8 3ave e9pressed t3eir personal reaction to t3e content. >e s3ould not feel obli6ated to rus3 from one stor8 to anot3er in a prescribed period of time re6ardless of t3e students7 abilities and interests. 03e 6oal s3ould be to use lan6ua6e to e9press meanin6 in creative and stimulatin6 4a8s" not to cover a preselected @uantit8 of material B/urar" 1-11C. 3.3.3. 2iscourse) script an# schema theory 'eadin6 is a co6nitive process t3at is rat3er restricted in t3e :1. 'eadin6" li?e spea?in6" occurs in a conte(t rat3er t3an in isolation. 03e meanin6 of a te9t is not found just in t3e sentences ,3

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t3emselves" but is derived from t3e previous ?no4led6e stored in t3e reader7s mind and t3e processes t3rou63 43ic3 t3e reader tac?les it. 3.3.3.1. "chema theory Sc@ema Bpl. schemas or schemataC refers to t3e bac?6round ?no4led6e on 43ic3 t3e interpretation of a te9t depends. ; 4ell=?no4n e9periment carried out b8 O. Gransford and /. Oo3nson B4onte(tual prerequisites for understanding, 1.*1C as?ed people to read te9ts suc3 as t3e follo4in6: &he procedure is actually simple. "irst you arrange things into different groups depending on their makeup. <f course, one pile may be sufficient depending on ho% much there is to do. !f you have to go some%here else due to lack of facilities that is the ne(t step, other%ise you are pretty %ell set. !t is important not to overdo any particular endeavour. &hat is, it is better to do too fe% things at once than too many@ 0o ma?e sense of t3is te9t a particular piece of information is re@uired: t3e passa6e is about 4as3in6 clot3es. ; person 43o doesn7t 3ave t3is information does not 6et muc3 out of t3e te9t. Df t3e topic is ?no4n" t3e passa6e is strai63tfor4ard and t3e compre3ension level is muc3 3i63er. 03e sentences t3emselves do not c3an6e 43en 4e ?no4 t3e topic" but t3e interpretation t3e8 3ave in our minds does. 03e bac?6round ?no4led6e into 43ic3 a te9t fits" sometimes called t3e sc@ema" pla8s a lar6e role in 3o4 it is read. .acK of conte(t affected readers7 compre3ensionH also" t3e use of vague Dords B5t3in6s7 or 5facilities7 instead of 5clot3es7 or 54as3in6 mac3ine7C 4as a 3indrance. 3.3.3.2. "cripts an# #iscourse ; crucial element in t3e understandin6 of discourse 4as 6iven t3e name of 5script7 b8 '. &c3an? in t3e 1.+-s B'. &c3an? and '. ;belson" Scripts, Plans, #oals and :nderstanding, 1.++C. ; script is accordin6 to &c3an? and ;belson Ma predetermined stereot8ped se@uence of actions t3at defines a 4ell=?no4n situation. 23ile in recent 8ears &c3an? 3as developed 3is ideas be8ond t3is" nevert3eless t3e script 3as been a ver8 influential vie4 of 3o4 memor8 is or6anised. &ome scripts are virtuall8 t3e same for spea?ers of different lan6ua6esH ot3ers differ from one countr8 to anot3er. 03us" t3e script for eatin6=out ma8 re@uire all restaurants to 3ave 4aitress= service" or to be ta?ea4a8" or to 3ave cas3 des?s b8 t3e e9it or ot3er variations. /an8 of t3e stereot8ped problems of forei6n travel t3at people recount s3o4 conflicts bet4een scripts F eatin6 s3eep7s e8es" loos for mi9ed se9es" as?in6 if food tastes 6ood" all are absent from t3e scripts in particular cultures. %r indeed t3e script ma8 be totall8 absent: most people 3ave no script for a Jinnis3 sauna. 3.3.3.3. "cripts an# schema theory in teaching $atricia !arrell B&hree components of background kno%ledge in reading comprehension" 1.*3C 3as produced a set of recommendations for lan6ua6e teac3ers: in addition to vocabular8" !arrell sees teac3in6 as buildin6 up t3e learner7s LacKground KnoDledge. 03us s3e stresses pre= readin6 activities t3at build up bac?6round ?no4led6e" partl8 t3rou63 providin6 t3em 4it3 appropriate vocabular8 t3rou63 activities suc3 as 4ord association practice. 03e tec3ni@ues s3e su66ests develop processin6 strate6ies for t3e te9t suc3 as flo4=c3artin6 or dia6rammin6 activities. /aterials s3ould not onl8 be interestin6" but also be conceptuall8 completeH a lon6er passa6e or an in=dept3 set of passa6es on a sin6le topic is better t3an s3ort unconnected passa6es. $er3aps none of t3ese ideas 4ill be completel8 ne4 to t3e practicin6 teac3er. 'eadin6 materials 3ave after all been stressin6 content bac?6round for some time. $re=readin6 e9ercises are no4 standard. 03e benefit for t3e teac3er is an increased a4areness of t3e difficulties t3at :1 learners face 4it3 te9ts. 03ese are not just a product of t3e processin6 of t3e te9t itself but of t3e bac?6round ,K

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information t3at natives automaticall8 read into it. :1 learners 3ave 5co6nitive deficits7 4it3 readin6 t3at are not caused b8 lac? of lan6ua6e abilit8 but b8 difficulties 4it3 processin6 information in an :1. Even at advanced levels" :1 learners still cannot 6et as muc3 out of a te9t as in t3eir first lan6ua6e" even if on paper t3e8 ?no4 all t3e 6rammar and vocabular8. !ambrid6e universit8 students tested b8 O. :on6 and E. >ardin6=Esc3 B Summary and recall of te(t in first and second languages* some factors contributing to performance difficulties, 1.++C for e9ample remembered less information from political speec3es in Jrenc3 t3an in En6lis3. Jurt3ermore" advanced :1 learners still read t3eir second lan6ua6e muc3 more slo4l8 t3an t3e8 read t3eir first. 03e problem 4it3 readin6 is not just t3e lan6ua6e but t3e 43ole process of 6ettin6 meanin6 from te9ts. S,'00I01 R e(tracting specific information Ler8 often 4e read somet3in6 or listen to it because 4e 4ant to e9tract specific bits of information = to find out a fact or t4o. 2e ma8 @uic?l8 ?oo? t3rou63 a film revie4 just to find t3e name of t3e star. 2e ma8 listen to t3e ne4s bulletin" onl8 concentratin6 43en t3e particular item t3at interests us comes up. Dn bot3 cases 4e ma8 lar6el8 disre6ard t3e ot3er information in t3e revie4 or t3e ne4s bulletin. 2e 4ill be a4are of t3is information and ma8 even at some level ta?e it in" but 4e do so at speed as 4e focus in on t3e specific information 4e are searc3in6 for. 03is s?ill 43en applied to readin6 is often called scanning. BO. >armer, 1..+: 1*3C. S9I//I01 R getting t@e general picture 2e often read or listen to t3in6s because 4e 4ant to 56et t3e 6eneral picture7. 2e 4ant to 3ave an idea of t3e main points of t3e te9t F an overvie4 F 4it3out bein6 too concerned 4it3 t3e details. 23en applied to readin6 t3is s?ill is often called sKimming and entails t3e reader7s abilit8 to pic? out main points rapidl8" discardin6 43at is not essential or relevant to t3e 6eneral picture. :isteners often need t3e same s?ill too F listenin6 for t3e main messa6e and disre6ardin6 repetition" false starts and irrelevances t3at are often features of spo?en lan6ua6e. B>armer" 1..+: 1*3C. &.:6 +eac@ing Driting 3.4.1. (pproaches8 metho#s an# techni0ues o, teaching writing s6ills (pro#ucti%e language s6ills i6 -e@aviorism 2it3in t3is t3eor8 of lan6ua6e learnin6" 4ritin6 is considered of secondar8 importance" bein6 re6arded as just its ort3o6rap3ic representation. Dt is assumed t3at master8 of spo?en lan6ua6e and its ort3o6rap3ic conventions 3as to precede t3e learnin6 of 4ritten lan6ua6e because discrepanc8 bet4een speec3 sounds and ort3o6rap38 could cause interferences 4it3 t3e proper learnin6 of speec3. 03erefore" 4ritin6 becomes a lan6ua6e s?ill 43ic3 serves as reinforcement of learnin6 6rammatical and vocabular8 ?no4led6e" 43ic3 in turn is meant to ac3ieve overall oral correctness. Jurt3ermore" accurac8 is overemp3asized = 4ritin6 is ti63tl8 controlled to prevent errors caused b8 :1 interference. ii6 ,ognitivism Dt is assumed t3at t3e sta6es of 4ritin6 are not loc?step or se@uential but rat3er recursive and creative. &c3olars desi6n a 3=sta6e model of 4ritin6: 1. t3e planning stage, furt3er subdivided into smaller processes suc3 as 6eneratin6 ideas" or6anizin6 t3ese ideas and settin6 t3e 6oals for 4ritin6H 1. t3e translating stage, in 43ic3 learners articulate and 4rite do4n t3eir t3ou63ts 6enerated in t3e first sta6eH and 3. t3e revie%ing stage, in 43ic3 learners evaluate and revise)edit t3e te9t. ;dmittedl8" t3e focus is placed on 4ritin6 as a process B6rammatical accurac8 is no lon6er at t3e core and error correction is dela8ed until t3e final sta6e of t3e process of 4ritin6C rat3er t3an as a product" learners7 creativit8 bein6 encoura6ed. ,N

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iii6 +@e Interactionist 'pproac@ J+@e Socio5,ultural +urnGA ,.+H +@e Post5 ,ommunicative +urn &imilarl8 to t3e ot3er lan6ua6e s?ills" 4ritin6 does not occur in a vacuum" learners dra4 on t3eir conventionalized ?no4led6e of te9t patterns to infer t3e reco6nizable connectedness of te9t. 23at ma?es 4ritin6 co3erent is not in t3e te9t but in t3e readers7 prior ?no4led6e of t3e formal and lin6uistic structure of different t8pes of te9ts or formal schemata alon6side content schemata Bfamiliarit8 4it3 t3e topicC. 2ritten production is conte9t=embedded and presupposes interaction as 4ell as t3e capacit8 to inte6rate different interpersonal and ps8c3omotor aspects. Dt 3as been recommended t3at t3ree main p3ases s3ould be follo4ed in teac3in6 4ritin6 s?ills: 1C modeling" in 43ic3 t3e teac3ers provides an e9plicit e9planation of t3e 6enre to be dealt 4it3H 1C negotiating" in 43ic3 t3e teac3er 6uides t3e class composition b8 means of @uestionsH and 3C construction" in 43ic3 t3e students construct t3e 6enre b8 4or?in6 t3rou63 several drafts in consultation 4it3 t3e teac3er. 2it3in t3e !:0 frame4or?" 4ritin6 pla8s a crucial role in t3e development of communicative competence. !onse@uentl8" durin6 t3e process of producin6 a co3erent 4ritten te9t" learners are e9pected to be activel8 en6a6ed" selectin6 appropriate ?no4led6e of 3o4 to produce lin6uisticall8 and pra6maticall8 accurate sentences 6iven particular socio=cultural norms to6et3er 4it3 t3eir abilit8 to mars3al resources B6rammar competence" discourse competence" sociolin6uistic competenceC and use strate6ies to allo4 for effective communication" i.e. activation of strate6ic competence B/urar" 1-11C. 3.4.2. :riting s6ills an# intercultural communicati%e competence J(so`=Ouan" /artanez= Jlor" 4urrent &rends in the 5evelopment and &eaching of the "our Language Skills" 1--,: K11C 'ctivitI &elect representative passa6es 4it3 cultural incidents" t3at is" passa6es in 43ic3 someone from a particular culture feels odd in a situation interactin6 4it3 someone from a different culture or 4it3 intercultural misunderstandings, t3at is, passa6es t3at report an intercultural misunderstandin6 6iven t3e beliefs and attitudes in different cultures. Ddeall8" t3e8 s3ould be narrative te9ts 4it3 different para6rap3s eac3 leadin6 to4ard t3e cultural incident or intercultural misunderstandin6. !over all but t3e first introductor8 c3apter in 43ic3 t3e situation is presented and t3en as? learners to read t3is first para6rap3 and continue t3e stor8 in t3e 4a8 t3e8 t3in? is most li?el8" bearin6 in mind t3e particular cultural conte9t in 43ic3 t3e situation ta?es place. Encoura6e learners to plan" draft and revise t3eir versions in order to promote t3eir 4ritin6 proficienc8. 3.4.3. Control ,actors in teaching writing s6ills i6 0opic selection: 4ritin6 is not just an invitation to 4rite" topics s3ould be relevant to learners7 needs and interests no matter if teac3in6 is process=oriented Bfocus on t3e developmental sta6es of 4ritin6C or 6enre=oriented Bt3ere is t3e underl8in6 assumption t3at learnin6 to 4rite involves learnin6 t3e c3aracteristics of different t8pes of 4ritin6 43ic3 serve particular purposes in specific conte9tsC. ii6 !lose up on assi6nments: it seems reasonable to claim t3at t3ere are broad=based and 6eneric 6uidelines for approac3in6 t3e tas? of creatin6 an8 and all assi6nments. 0eac3ers s3ould pa8 attention to purpose" structure" audience" and sources of information 43en t3e8 desi6n 4ritin6 tas?s. iii. $atterns" models and 6enre approac3es: need to ensure t3at students become familiar 4it3 standard or6anizational patterns common to En6lis3 4ritin6 and t3e specific 6enres" and t3at 4ritin6 patterns are fle9ible allo4in6 for learners7 creativit8 incorporation.

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iv6 !ontent=focused readin6 to 4rite tas?s: t3e primar8 function of t3e source te9tBsC 3ere is not to serve as an e9ample of a particular t8pe of 4ritin6 Bas in iii.C but rat3er to 8ield ra4 material derived from t3e content of t3e readin6BsC. v6 M&tudent to 4orld tas?s: students 4ill learn best if t3e8 can en6a6e 4it3 t3e material in some 4a8 Bpersonall8C t3at allo4s t3em to develop a 3i63 level of investment in t3eir 4ritin6. vi6 ; natural Mlife c8cle: 4ritin6 occurs durin6 t3e lan6ua6e class in a life c8cle includin6 si9 steps: t3e teac3er7s settin6 of an assi6nment" students7 en6a6ement in t3e preparator8 4or?" students7 draftin6 t3e complete te9t" feedbac? provision" students7 revision of t3e te9t" students7 submission of t3e final version of t3e te9t. 3.4.4. 2it3in t3e communicative frame4or? of lan6ua6e teac3in6" t3e s?ill of 4ritin6 enjo8s special status: it is via 4ritin6 t3at a person can communicate a variet8 of messa6es to a close or distant" ?no4n or un?no4n reader. &uc3 communication is e9tremel8 important in t3e modern 4orld" 43et3er t3e interaction ta?es t3e form of traditional paper=and=pencil 4ritin6 or t3e most advanced electronic mail. 2ritin6 as a communicative activit8 needs to be encoura6ed and nurtured durin6 t3e lan6ua6e learner7s course of stud8. 03e vie4 of 4ritin6 as an act of communication su66ests an interactive process 43ic3 ta?es place bet4een t3e 4riter and t3e reader via t3e te9t. &uc3 an approac3 places value on t3e goal of 4ritin6 as 4ell as on t3e perceived reader audience. Even if 4e are concerned 4it3 4ritin6 at t3e be6innin6 level" t3ese t4o aspects of t3e act of 4ritin6 are of vital importance" in settin6 4ritin6 tas?s t3e teac3er s3ould encoura6e students to define" for t3emselves" t3e messa6e t3e8 4ant to send and t3e audience 43o 4ill receive it. 03e present sections focus on t3e 6radual development of t3e mec@anics of Driting" 43ic3 is a necessar8 instrumental s?ill 4it3out 43ic3 meanin6ful 4ritin6 cannot ta?e place" t3en move on to earl8 functional Driting" 43ic3 can be carried out 4it3 a limited level of proficienc8 in t3e tar6et lan6ua6e. Dt is important to remember t3at in t3e E&:)EJ: conte9t" 4ritin6" li?e t3e ot3er lan6ua6e s?ills" needs to be dealt 4it3 at t3e particular level of lin6uistic and discourse proficienc8 43ic3 t3e intended students 3ave reac3ed. 03e proposed se@uence of activities 4ill start 4it3 focus on t3e mec@anical aspects of 4ritin6" as t3e basic instrumental s?ill" and 6raduall8 move on to a combination of Mpurpose for 4ritin6 and lan6ua6e focus. 3.4.!. 'arly writing tas6s 3.4.!.1. :hat #o we teach; 03e first steps in teac3in6 readin6 and 4ritin6 s?ills in a second or forei6n lan6ua6e classroom centre around t3e mec3anics of t3ese t4o s?ills. G8 Mmec3anics 4e usuall8 refer to letter reco6nition" letter discrimination" 4ord reco6nition" basic rules of spellin6" punctuation" capitalisation" as 4ell as reco6nition of 43ole sentences. 03e interaction LetDeen reading and Driting 3as often been a focus in t3e met3odolo68 of lan6ua6e teac3in6" 8et it deserves even stron6er emp3asis at t3e earl8 sta6es in t3e ac@uisition of t3e various component mec3anics: in order to learn 3o4 to discriminate one letter from anot3er 43ile readin6" learners need to practice 4ritin6 t3ese lettersH in order to facilitate t3eir perception of 4ords and sentences durin6 t3e readin6 process" t3e8 mi63t need to practice 4ritin6 t3em first. Dt is t3erefore t3e case t3at 4ritin6 pla8s an important role in earl8 readin6" facilitatin6 t3e development of bot3 t3e readin6 and t3e 4ritin6 s?ills B/urar" 1-11C. &ound F spellin6 correspondences: En6lis3 presents t3e learner 4it3 a number of problems related to its ort3o6rap3ic rulesH it is important for learners of En6lis3 as a second or forei6n lan6ua6e to realise t3at En6lis3 ort3o6rap38 is b8 no means a one=to=one letter=sound correspondence s8stemH it 3as its o4n consistenc8 embedded in t3e combination of letters 4it3 t3eir immediate environments" resultin6 in 43at 4e tend to call sound F spellin6 correspondences. G8 ,+

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practisin6 t3e proper pronunciation of sounds in relation to 6iven spellin6 patterns" 4e can provide learners 4it3 a 6ood basis for pronunciation as 4ell as for t3e s?ills of readin6 and 4ritin6. 3.4.!.2. How #o we teach them; 03e sta6e devoted to t3e teac3in6 of t3e mec3anics of readin6 and 4ritin6 aims at t3ree different 6oals: i. to en3ance letter reco6nition ii. to practise sound F spellin6 correspondences via all four lan6ua6e s?ills iii. to 3elp t3e learner move from letters and 4ords to meanin6ful sentences and lar6er units of discourse. Recognition and Driting drills constitute t3e first steps in t3e development of effective readin6 and 4ritin6 3abits. >o4ever" in order to ac@uire active master8 of t3e sound F spellin6 correspondences" it is necessar8 for t3e learners to arrive at relevant 6eneralisations concernin6 t3ese correspondences. &uc3 6eneralisations 4ill lead to a better understandin6 of t3e s8stematic representation of sounds in En6lis3 ort3o6rap38. 03ree major t8pes of reco6nition tas?s are used at t3is earl8 sta6e of readin6 and 4ritin6" eac3 t8pe incorporatin6 a 6reat variet8 of drills: a. matc3in6 tas?s b. 4ritin6 tas?s c. meanin6ful sound F spellin6 correspondence practice 03ese tas?s enable t3e learners to develop effective reco6nition 3abits based on distinctive 6rap3ic features. /an8 of t3ese 3ave t3e form of 6ames" puzzles" and ot3er 5fun7 activities. 23ile practicin6 sound F spellin6 correspondences" students can be 4ritin6 meanin6ful sentences" suc3 as t3e follo4in6: &here is a cat on the mat and a cake on the plate. &he ball is near the tall boy ne(t to the %all. 03ese sentences contain 4ords 43ic3 e9emplif8 sound F spellin6 correspondences" and" at t3e same time" t3e8 are 4ords t3at students 3ave probabl8 learned. 3.4.3. 5ore a#%ance# writing tas6s 3.4.3.1. /ore advanced 4ritin6 activities 43ic3 start s3iftin6 t3eir 6oal from t3e focus on t3e mec3anics of 4ritin6 to basic process=oriented tas?s 4ill need to incorporate some lan6ua6e 4or? at t3e morp3olo6ical and discourse level. 03us" t3ese activities 4ill enable a combination of focus on accurac8 and content of t3e messa6e. Dn t3is section" since 4e are concerned 4it3 t3e be6innin6 level" 4e 4ill 4or? 4it3 cate6ories of practical 4ritin6 tas?s" emotive 4ritin6 tas?s" and sc3ool=oriented tas?s. Dn order to develop and use t3ese more demandin6 4ritin6 activities in t3e E&:)EJ: classroom" 4e need to develop a detailed set of specifications 43ic3 4ill enable bot3 teac3ers and students to cope successfull8 4it3 t3ese tas?s. &uc3 a set of specifications s3ould include t3e follo4in6: +asK description: to present students 4it3 t3e 6oal of t3e tas? and its importance ,ontent description: to present students 4it3 possible content areas t3at mi63t be relevant to t3e tas? 'udience description: to 6uide students in developin6 and understandin6 t3e intended audience" t3eir bac?6round" needs and e9pectations Format cues: to 3elp students in plannin6 t3e overall or6anisational structure of t3e 4ritten product .inguistic cues: to 3elp students ma?e use of certain 6rammatical structures and vocabular8 selections Spelling and Punctuation cues: to 3elp students focus t3eir attention on spellin6 rules 43ic3 t3e8 3ave learned. ,*

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3.4.3.2. Practical writing tas6s6 03ese are 4ritin6 tas?s 43ic3 are procedural in nature and t3erefore 3ave a predictable format. 03is ma?es t3em particularl8 suitable for 4ritin6 activities t3at focus primaril8 on spellin6 and morp3olo68. .ists of various t8pes" notesH s@ort messagesH simple instructions" and ot3er suc3 4ritin6 tas?s are particularl8 useful for reinforcin6 classroom 4or?. .ists can be of various t8pes: Mt3in6s to do lists" Mt3in6s completed lists" s3oppin6 lists. Eac3 of t3ese list t8pes provides us 4it3 an opportunit8 to combine spellin6 rules 4it3 morp3olo6ical rules and 4it3 t3e lo6ical creation of a meanin6ful messa6e. M03in6s to do lists are useful for practisin6 verb bases. 23en assi6nin6 suc3 an activit8" t3e teac3er 4ill 3ave to indicate 43et3er t3e list is personal or intended for a team. 03e content specification 4ill 3ave to indicate 43et3er t3is is a list of t3in6s to do in preparation for some event or more of a plan for someone7s dail8 routine. Jor e9ample" a list for a 6roup of students 43o are preparin6 a surprise birt3da8 part8 mi63t loo? li?e t3is: &hings to do 1. Gu8 a present for ;nn B&3aronC 1. !all ;nn7s friends B/ar8C 3. 2rite invitations B0omC etc. Jollo4in6 up t3is t8pe of list, 4e can easil8 move on to t3e Mt3in6s completed list" 43ic3 specifies t3e t3in6s t3at 3ave alread8 been ta?en care of and is t3erefore useful for practisin6 past forms of verbs. ;s part of t3is activit8 students 4ill need to revie4 t3e re6ular past formation of verbs 43ere Fed is added and its e9ceptions in spellin6 are tau63t" suc3 as deletion of a final e before addin6 Fed" as in livedH t3e doublin6 of t3e last consonant in monos8llabic bases of t3e form !L!" as in planned" and t3e same doublin6 rule 43en t3e final s8llable of a pol8s8llabic verb is stressed" suc3 as in occurred but not in openedH t3e replacement of y 4it3 i 43en t3e base ends in ! V 8" as in tried. &uc3 an activit8 also enables students to practise t3e spellin6 of irre6ular past=tense formations. Jor e9ample" t3e above list mi63t loo? li?e t3is 43en partiall8 completed: &hings completed 1. $lanned t3e 6ames for t3e part8 1. 2rote t3e invitations 3. Gou63t t3e present K. !alled t3e friends &3oppin6 lists provide us 4it3 a ver8 6ood opportunit8 to practise t3e spellin6 of t3e plural endin6 of countable nouns and t3e use of @uantifiers. 03e sound F spellin6 correspondences 3ere consist of t3e plural inflection 4it3 t4o of its t3ree p3onetic variants = )s)" )z) = 43ic3 can be combined 4it3 t3e spellin6 pattern s as in pens, pencils" 43ereas in 4ords li?e brushes or oranges t3e plural ta?es t3e p3onetic form )iz)" an additional s8llable" 4it3 suc3 4ords endin6 in t3e spellin6 pattern Ges. ;not3er t8pe of practical 4ritin6 tas? is notes and s@ort messages t3at are left for anot3er person. 03ese allo4 students to practise brief and simple sentences 4it3 a meanin6ful messa6e. 0o ma?e t3e activit8 more interestin6" students can desi6n t3eir o4n messa6e 3eadin6s and t3en fill t3em in. >ere is an e9ample: /essa6es for m8 little sister: 2as3 t3e dis3es in t3e sin? Jeed t3e do6 2atc3 8our favourite pro6ramme on 0L and 3ave a 6ood time %t3er t8pes of practical 4ritin6 activities mi63t include t3e filling5in of forms and t3e preparation of invitationsH M6reetin6s and Mt3an? 8ou notes" and ot3er suc3 4ritten communications. ,.

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3.4.3.3. 'moti%e writing tas6s. Emotive 4ritin6 tas?s are concerned 4it3 personal 4ritin6. &uc3 personal 4ritin6 includes primaril8 letters to friends and narratives describin6 personal e9periences" as 4ell as personal *ournals and diaries. 23en dealin6 4it3 letter 4ritin6" emp3asis can be placed on format" punctuation and spellin6 of appropriate p3rases and e9pressions. 23en 4ritin6 about personal e9periences F usuall8 done in a narrative format = spellin6 of past=tense forms can be revie4ed and practiced. Dt seems t3at emotive 4ritin6" in order to serve t3e personal needs of t3e learners" 3as to be @uite fluent. 03e @uestion is: >o4 can t3is be done in t3e earl8 sta6es of t3e E&:)EJ: course of stud8R 03e different emotive t8pes of 4ritin6 activities are" of course" suitable for t3e more advanced sta6es of t3e course" but t3e8 can be carried out" in a more limited manner" even at t3e initial sta6es. 03us" letters can be limited to t3e level of structural and vocabular8 ?no4led6e of t3e students at eac3 point in time. &imilarl8" journals" diaries and personal 4ritin6 activities can reflect t3e learners7 proficienc8 level. 3.4.3.4. "chool&oriente# tas6s. %ne of t3e most important functions of 4ritin6 in a student7s life is t3e function it pla8s in sc3ool. Dt is still t3e case t3at muc3 individual learnin6 6oes on 43ile students are 4ritin6 assi6nments" summaries" ans4ers to @uestions" or a variet8 of essa8= t8pe passa6es. Dn most cases" t3e audience for t3ese 4ritin6 tas?s is t3e teac3er" but 6raduall8 students must learn to 4rite to an un?no4n audience 43o needs to 6et t3e information bein6 imparted e9clusivel8 via 4ritin6. >ere a6ain" at t3e earl8 sta6es of E&:)EJ: learnin6" t3e assi6nments mi63t be s3ort and limited. ;ns4ers mi63t be sin6le p3rases or sentences" summaries mi63t be a listin6 of main ideas. >o4ever" all of t3ese 4ritin6 activities s3ould be 6iven attention bot3 at t3e lin6uistic=accurac8 level and at t3e messa6e=transmission level. Dt is t3e combination of content and or6anisation 4it3 accepted formal features t3at 4ill lead learners to better utilisation of t3e 4ritin6 s?ill in t3eir future use of En6lis3. 3.4.4. The pre&writing stage) Techni0ues ,or getting starte# 'e6ardless of t3e t8pe of 4ritin6 tas?s t3at a teac3er mi63t assi6n" a 6ood place to be6in class=4or? is to e9plore t3e pre4ritin6 sta6e. 03e 6oal of t3e teac3er s3ould be to e9pose students to a variet8 of strate6ies for 6ettin6 started 4it3 a 4ritin6 tas? and to encoura6e eac3 student to tr8 to discover 43ic3 strate6ies 4or? best for 3im or 3er. &everal 3euristic devices Bor invention strate6iesC 43ic3 can be e9plored in class for t3e purpose of providin6 students 4it3 a repertoire of tec3ni@ues for 6eneratin6 ideas are t3e follo4in6 B/urar" 1-11C: i6 -rainstorming XGrainstormin6 P a 4a8 of developin6 ne4 ideas" t3rou63 a discussion in 43ic3 several people ma?e lots of su66estionsZ 03is is often a 6roup e9ercise in 43ic3 all of t3e students in t3e class are encoura6ed to participate b8 s3arin6 t3eir collective ?no4led6e about a particular subject. %ne 4a8 to structure t3is is for t3e teac3er to su66est a broad topic" suc3 as reasons for c3oosin6 a particular career)job" and 3ave students call out as man8 associations as possible 43ic3 t3e teac3er can t3en 4rite on t3e board. 03e result 4ould be far more material 6enerated t3an an8 one student is li?el8 to t3in? of on 3is)3er o4n" and t3en all students can utilise an8 or all of t3e information 43en turnin6 to t3e preparation of t3eir first drafts. ii6 .isting: (nli?e brainstormin6" listin6 can be a @uiet and individual activit8. ;s a first step in findin6 an approac3 to a particular subject area Bsuc3 as 5t3e use and abuse of po4er7" to cite an e9ampleC" t3e students are encoura6ed to produce as len6t38 a list as possible of all t3e subcate6ories t3at come to mind as t3e8 t3in? about t3e topic at 3and. +-

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iii6 Free DritingA 03is tec3ni@ue 4as su66ested b8 $. Elbo4 B'riting %ithout &eachers" 1.+3C for 3elpin6 native spea?ers brea? t3rou63 t3e difficult8 of 6ettin6 started. 03e main idea of t3is tec3ni@ue is for students to 4rite for a specified period of time Busuall8 about N minutesC 4it3out ta?in6 t3eir pen from t3e pa6e. ;s Elbo4 puts it" M on7t stop for an8t3in6UIever stop to loo? bac?" to cross somet3in6 out" to 4onder 43at 4ord to useUDf 8ou 6et stuc? it7s fine to 4rite 5D can7t t3in? 43at to sa87 as man8 times as 8ou li?e B1.+3: 3C Jreed from t3e necessit8 of 4orr8in6 about 6rammar and format" students can often 6enerate a 6reat deal of prose 43ic3 provides useful ra4 material to use in addressin6 t3e 4ritin6 assi6nment at 3and. Jor E&:)EJ: students" t3is tec3ni@ue often 4or?s best if t3e teac3er provides an openin6 clause or sentence for t3e students to start 4it3. &o" for e9ample" if t3e ne9t assi6nment is to 4rite a paper about one7s personal philosophy of life" a s3ort free 4ritin6 session can be6in 4it3 t3e 4ords M:ife is difficult but it is also 4ort343ile. 03e free 4ritin6 6enerated after t3e students cop8 t3is sentence and continue to 4rite do4n 43atever comes into t3eir 3eads can be ?ept private or s3ared 4it3 ot3er students. iv6 ,lustering: ;not3er tec3ni@ue for 6ettin6 man8 ideas do4n @uic?l8" clusterin6 be6ins 4it3 a ?e8 4ord or central idea placed in t3e centre of a pa6e Bor on t3e blac?boardC around 43ic3 t3e student Bor teac3er usin6 student=6enerated su66estionsC jots do4n all of t3e free associations tri66ered b8 t3e subject matter F usin6 simple 4ords or s3ort p3rases. (nli?e listin6" t3e 4ords or p3rases 6enerated are put on t3e pa6e or blac?board in a pattern 43ic3 ta?es s3ape from t3e connections t3e 4riter sees as eac3 ne4 t3ou63t emer6es. !ompleted clusters can loo? li?e spo?es on a 43eel or an8 ot3er pattern of connected lines" dependin6 on 3o4 t3e individual associations are dra4n to relate to eac3 ot3er. G8 3avin6 students s3are t3eir cluster patterns 4it3 ot3er students in t3e class" teac3ers allo4 students to be e9posed to a 4ide variet8 of approac3es to t3e subject matter" 43ic3 mi63t furt3er 6enerate material for 4ritin6. Dt is ver8 important t3at students e9periment 4it3 eac3 of t3ese tec3ni@ues in order to see 3o4 eac3 one 4or?s to 3elp 6enerate te9t and s3ape a possible approac3 to a topic. 03e purpose" after all" of ac@uirin6 invention strate6ies is for students to feel t3at t3e8 3ave a variet8 of 4a8s to be6in an assi6ned 4ritin6 tas?. +opics for discussion and e(ercisesA %6 >ere are some e9amples of different t8pes of drills. /atc3 t3em 4it3 t3e names and e9planations 8ou t3in? describe t3em best. E9amples of drills: rill i. 0: D 4ent to t3e cinema. &!>%%: &: D 4ent to sc3ool. rill ii. 0: Tou 4ent to t3e cinema. ](E&0D%I &: id 8ou 6o to t3e cinemaR rill iii. 0: D 4ent to t3e seaside in m8 c3ild3ood. %J0EI &: D often 4ent to t3e seaside in m8 c3ild3ood. rill iv. 0: D 4ent to t3e mar?et 8esterda8. 0>E'E &: D 4ent t3ere 8esterda8. rill v. 0: D read a boo?. Dt 4as amusin6. &: D read an amusin6 boo?. rill vi. 0: >elen" as? 0om if 3e 3as a pen. &: o 8ou 3ave a penR 08pes of drills: +1

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aC &ubstitution: &tudents are encoura6ed to use anot3er 4ord of t3e same class in t3e place of a 4ord in t3e sentence Ba verb is replaced b8 a verb etc.C bC irected $ractice: ; student is directed to as? anot3er student a @uestionH cC 0ransformation: &tudents 3ave to c3an6e from affirmative to ne6ative or interro6ative" from present to pastH dC Dnte6ration: &tudents are as?ed to join t4o s3ort sentences to ma?e oneH eC 'eduction: &tudents 3ave to reduce t3e sentence b8 c3an6in6 a p3rase)part of a sentence to a 4ordH fC E9pansion: &tudents 3ave to add a 4ord)p3rase to t3e 6iven sentence. !6 23at are t3e advanta6es and disadvanta6es of usin6 drills to teac3 spea?in6R &6 23at situations 4ould 8ou set up for t3e should structure Bfunction: 6ivin6 adviceCR :6 2e 3ave to e9pose our students to lin6uistic material in se@uences so t3at t3e8 can lin? forms 4it3 functions and meanings. 23en 4e spea? 4e 3ave a purpose in mind: as? for advice" accept" refuse an invitation" etc. 2e call t3e purposes t3e functions of a lan6ua6e. /atc3 t3e lines of t3e follo4in6 dialo6ue 4it3 t3e function eac3 of t3em e9presses.

;: 238 don7t 4e 3ave a barbecue t3is &aturda8R G: 03an? 8ou" but D7m 4or?in6 on &aturda8 ;: :et7s 3ave it on &unda8. G: Tes" all ri63t.

'efusin6 V 6ivin6 a reason for 3is refusal ;cceptin6 /a?in6 a su66estion /a?in6 anot3er su66estion

<6 Df t3e pictures s3o4 a room" 43at 4ould be t3e sta6es of t3is activit8" t3e vocabular8 and structures 8our students need to be e@uipped 4it3R ;6 ;s forms of communicative interaction in t3e classroom" simulation and role-play activities 3ave increasin6l8 become t3e most fre@uentl8 used tec3ni@ues. 23at is t3e difference bet4een role-play and simulationR #6 $lace t3e follo4in6 activities on t3e continuum line in terms of teac3er control and learner creativit8: role=pla8in6" drills" 6uided dialo6ues" conte9tualized dialo6ues" memorized dialo6ues" information 6ap activities. =6 !onsider 43at 8ou mi63t do in order to cope 4it3 spea?in6 problems. >6 !onsiderin6 t3e script of t3e follo4in6 listenin6 material" 43at @uestion 4ould 8ou as? 8our students to ma?e t3em 3ave t3eir predictions about t3e te9tR 'eflect on its effect on t3e students: ?ournalists should act as the eyes and ears of the society. &hey should see and inform the people as accurately and impartially as possible, %ithout any political bias. !n an open society +1

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GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

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they also have to raise people7s a%areness about %hat is happening in order to satisfy people7s appetite for information. >asically, it is a 8ournalist7s duty to be alert and vigilant. $e needs curiosity and an inquiring mind. A 8ournalist is someone %ho acts quickly and is a good listener. %"6 'ead t3e follo4in6 te9t and 4rite do4n t3e speec3 p3enomena 8ou come across. ;: G8 t3e 4a8" 438 did 8ou ta?e up ?arateR G: 238 did D ta?e up ?arateR 2ell" t3at7s a difficult @uestion. Tou ?no4" a friend of mineU erm" invited me to 6o to 3is club. D 4atc3ed 3im and ?ind of li?ed 43at D sa4 and D as?ed 3im if D could come a6ain. %%6 'ead t3e follo4in6 te9t: M;: 23ere are 8ou 6oin6R G: D am 6oin6 to sc3ool. ;: ;re 8ou 6oin6 b8 carR G: Io" D am not 6oin6 b8 car. D am 4al?in6. ;: 23at animals do 8ou li?eR G: D li?e do6s. Io4 tic? t3e statements 43ic3 indicate t3at t3e te9t uses artificial lan6ua6e. i. Got3 spea?ers use full sentences all t3e time. ii. &pea?ers repeat certain structures. iii. &tudents do not ?no4 all t3e 4ords. iv. 03e lan6ua6e presents speec3 p3enomena Binterruption" 3esitation" rep3rasin6C v. &tudents c3an6e t3e topic in a sudden and artificial 4a8. %!6 !an 8ou t3in? of activities t3at lin? readin6 and spea?in6R <ive a fe4 e9amples. %&6 2ritten discourse 3as a variet8 of te9t t8pes. 03ese can be 6rouped into t3e follo4in6 cate6ories: i. :iterar8 te9tsH ii. &pecialised or tec3nical te9tsH iii. !orrespondenceH iv. Oournalistic literatureH v. Dnformational te9tsH v. /iscellaneous. 03ese are ?no4n as different genres. <roup t3e te9t t8pes listed belo4 accordin6 to t3e cate6ories 6iven above: accounts, advertisements, biographies, business letters, cartoons, catalogues, charts, comic strips, diagrams, diaries, dictionary entries, directions, editorials, essays, flo% charts, forms He.g. application forms., graffiti, guidebooks, instructions, legends Hof maps.,letters, maps, menus, notes, notices, novels, postcards, posters, prJcis, price lists, pu11les, recipes, reports, revie%s, rhymes, signs He.g. road signs.,statistics, stop press, summaries, tales, telegrammes, telephone directories, tickets, timetables, etc. %:623at is usuall8 meant b8 aut3entic te9tsR +3

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GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

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%<6 !ould 8ou identif8 some of t3e co3esion mar?ers in t3e follo4in6 e9tract from Gill Gr8son7s A 'alk in the 'oodsR 4onsider this* $alf of all the offices and malls standing in America today have been built since +,KL. $alf of them. Eighty percent of all the housing stock in the country dates from +,MN. <f all the motel rooms in America, 2BL,LLL have been built in the last fifteen years. ?ust up the road from #atlinburg is the to%n of Pigeon "orge, %hich t%enty years ago %as a sleepy hamlet G nay, %hich aspired to be a sleepy hamlet G famous only as the hometo%n of 5olly Parton. &hen the estimable )s. Parton built an amusement park called 5olly%ood. 0o% Pigeon "orge has 2LL outlet shops stretched along three miles of high%ay. !t is bigger and uglier than #atlinburg and has better parking, and so of course gets more visitors. %;6 >ere is a s3ort para6rap3 made up of seven 4ell=formed" temporall8 accurate and meanin6ful sentences: ! don7t kno% %hat to do for my holiday. !t %ill start at the beginning of <ctober. ! saved enough money for a really nice trip. Last year ! %ent to the >lack Sea coast. !t %ill be too late to go to the mountains. ! %orked hard all year. ! really need a break. i. !omment on its aut3enticit8" co3esion and co3erence. ii. 23at pointBsC do 8ou t3in? t3e teac3er 4ants to ma?e startin6 from itR %#6 Eac3 of t3e follo4in6 four descriptions refers to one ?ind of readin6 Bintensive" e9tensive" scannin6" s?immin6C. 2rite do4n t3e name of t3e ?ind of readin6 in t3e space provided: aC Tou read a poem t3at 8ou li?e and enjo8 pa8in6 close attention to t3e poet7s use of lan6ua6e. Tou doUU. readin6H bC Tou need biblio6rap38 for a researc3 assi6nment and 8ou loo? @uic?l8 t3rou63 t3e boo?s and articles t3at 8ou find in t3e librar8 to see 43et3er t3e8 contain information about 8our researc3 topic. Tou doUU. readin6H cC Tou are on 3olida8 and 8ou read an adventure stor8. 03ere is no pressure on 8ou to finis3 t3e boo? @uic?l8. Tou doUU. readin6H dC 23ile 4aitin6 for an appointment 4it3 8our dentist" 8ou pic? up a ma6azine and discover an article t3at interests 8ou. Tou ?no4 8ou do not 3ave enou63 time to read t3e article in detail but 8ou tr8 to e9tract as muc3 information from it as 8ou can in t3e time 8ou 3ave. Tou doUU. readin6. %=6 !an 8ou list t3e criteria 8ou mi63t emplo8 in eit3er selectin6 supplementar8 materials for developin6 and practisin6 readin6 s?ills or assessin6 t3e materials presented in t3e te9tboo?s in use. %>6 :et us loo? at t3is s3ort ne4spaper note from &he <bserver" 1N /arc3" 1--1. $lair re<ects 5ar.les plea &ony >lair yesterday re8ected long-standing demands by #reece for the return of the sculptures removed from the Parthenon2LL years ago. !n an intervie% %ith the Athens daily F&o 3imaE he said the Elgin )arbles Fbelong to the >ritish )useum@, %hich does not intend to return any part of the collection to its country of originE. #reece had hoped to have the pieces returned by 2LLM, %hen it %ill host the <lympics. 23at ?ind of ?no4led6e is necessar8 to understand t3isR +K

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!"6 !ould 8ou 4or? out t3e advanta6es of t3e top=do4n approac3 to readin6" 43ic3 starts from t3e 6lobal understandin6 of a te9tR !%6 Dn 43ic3 of t3e t3ree p3ases" pre=readin6" 43ile=readin6 or post=readin6" 4ould 8ou use t3e follo4in6 activities: i. 5o-it-yourself questions. 03e pupils compose and ans4er t3eir o4n @uestionsH ii. Iesponding. 03e te9t is a letter or a provocative articleH t3e pupils discuss 3o4 t3e8 4ould respond" or 4rite an ans4erH iii. Signpost questions. ; 6eneral @uestion is 6iven before readin6" as?in6 t3e pupils to find out information central to t3e understandin6 of t3e te9tH iv. 4ontinue. Df t3e te9t is a stor8" t3e pupils are as?ed to su66est 43at mi63t 3appen ne9tH v. Provide a title. 03e pupils su66est a title or an alternative titleH vi. Summarise. 03e pupils summarise t3e content in a sentence or t4oH vii. Preface. Df t3e te9t is a stor8" t3e pupils are as?ed to su66est 43at mi63t 3ave 3appened beforeH viii. 4omparison. 03ere are t4o te9ts on a similar topicH t3e pupils note points of similarit8 or difference of contentH i9. #apped te(t. 0o4ards t3e end of t3e te9t" K=N 6aps are left t3at can onl8 be filled in if t3e te9t 3as been understood. !!6 $oint out some of t3e reasons 438 8ou as? 8our pupils to 4rite in En6lis3. !&6 23at are" in 8our opinion" t3e disadvanta6es of dictationR !:6 Dn 4ritin6 En6lis3" 43ic3 appears to create more difficulties to pupils" co3esion or co3erenceR !<6 Gefore as?in6 8our pupils to 4rite an e9ample of a particular te9t t8pe" 8ou mi63t 4ant to 6o 4it3 t3em t3rou63 some sta6es. $ut t3e sta6es su66ested belo4 into an appropriate order and justif8 8our decision: aC practisin6 6uided 4ritin6 43ic3 follo4s prompts Be.6. pictures or sentences t3at summarise para6rap3sCH bC doin6 e9ercises t3at practice c3aracteristic features of te9t t8pe Be.6. passive voiceCH cC readin6 e9amples of te9t t8peH dC anal8zin6 a sample te9t to isolate t8pical features.

+N

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0I+ :6 ,.'SS /'0'1E/E0+ 03is c3apter is focused on various aspects of class mana6ement: student 6roupin6s" t3e roles of t3e teac3er and disruptive be3avior. G8 ,lass /anagement 4e mean a collection of tec3ni@ues and or6anizational practices t3at t3e teac3er can use to or6anize t3e classroom and t3e classroom activities to ma9imize t3e effectiveness of t3e teac3in6 process. Food for t@oug@t 23at elements besides t3e activities in t3e lesson are important for a successful class R :6%6 ,lassroom Organization ; s3elf or boo?case 4it3 En6lis3 boo?s" reference boo?s and dictionaries 4ould mean a 6reat advanta6e for students. Dn man8 classroom t3e student7s des?s are bolted to t3e floor and cannot be moved. Dn ot3ers t3is mobilit8 e9ists and it can be used to create different interactional activities and better stud8in6 conditions. Food for t@oug@t Dma6ine 8ou could move t3e des?s in 8our classroom. 23at sort of des? arran6ements 4ould 8ou use for t3e follo4in6 activities R = pair4or? = 6roup4or? = rolepla8 = individual 4ritin6 = a test 03en ima6ine t3at t3e des?s are fi9ed in 8our classroom. >o4 4ould 8ou or6anize 8our students for t3e above activities R B&ource: !iut" !." !n- service 5istance &raining 4ourse for &eachers of English, p.K,C :6!6 ,lassroom Interaction 23en 4e consider interaction in t3e classroom 4e 3ave to ta?e into account t4o basic t8pes of relations3ip: 0eac3er F &tudent and &tudent=&tudent . 03e variet8 of interaction in t3e lan6ua6e lesson is important. Dt ensures t3at students are involved activel8" it allo4s for different learnin6 st8les and it 3elps to ?eep student7s attention b8 var8in6 t3e pace of t3e lesson. 03e follo4in6 patterns of interaction are possible B!iuta" 1--3:K,=K+C: 0 43ole class 0 individual student Bin 43ole class activit8C 0 individual student Bpair or 6roup4or?C &tudent student Bopen pairsC &tudent student Bclosed pairsC +,

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&tudents 4or?in6 individuall8 &tudents 4or?in6 in 6roups &tudent 43ole class 4.2.1. *oc6step :oc?step is t3e class 6roupin6 43ere t3e 43ole class is 4or?in6 4it3 t3e teac3er. ;ll t3e students are Mloc?ed into t3e same r38t3m" pace" or t3e same activit8 B>armer" 1..+:1K3C. 03is means t3e traditional 4a8 of teac3in6" 43ere t3e teac3er is t3e controller. 03ese t8pes of activities present certain advanta6es: t3ere is less noise" t3e teac3er can usuall8 be sure t3at ever8one 3ears 43at 3e)s3e is sa8in6" t3e teac3er" usuall8 offers a 6ood lan6ua6e model to 3is)3er students. >o4ever" loc?step 3as some disadvanta6es: t3e students cannot practise muc3H t3e lesson 6oes at t3e 4ron6 speed for ever8one" as eit3er t3e teac3er is not fast enou63 for t3e 6ood students" or 3e)s3e is too speed8 for some students" in 43ic3 case t3e8 ma8 not learn 43at t3e8 are bein6 tau63t. 2e can conclude t3at loc?step involves too muc3 teac3in6 and too little learnin6 B!iuta" 1--3:K*C. 4.2.2. "tu#ent Groupings Dn &tudent F &tudent interaction" pair4or? and 6roup4or? are basic interaction patterns. 4.2.2.1. Pairwor6 Jor @uestion and ans4er practice" information 6ap e9ercises" simulations" students can be placed in pairs for a variet8 of 4or?" includin6 practisin6 4ritin6 and readin6 s?ills. !iuta B1--3:K.C presents t3e advanta6es and disadvanta6es of pair4or?: ;dvanta6es : = Dmmediate increasin6 of t3e amount of student practiceH = !ommunicative efficienc8 is encoura6edH = &tudent cooperation is encoura6ed t3is is important for : = t3e atmosp3ere of t3e classH = t3e motivation it 6ives to learnin6 4it3 ot3ersH = &tudents feel secure as t3e teac3er does not criticize t3em. isadvanta6es : = &tudent can ma?e mista?esH = 03e8 ma8 use t3eir native lan6ua6e durin6 t3e activit8H = 03ere can be a lot of noise" as ever8bod8 is tal?in6 at t3e same timeH possible lac? of discipline 4.2.2.2. Groupwor6 <roup4or? proves to be more d8namic t3an pair4or?H t3ere are more students involved and t3ere are more opportunities for discussion. 03is is a more rela9in6 activit8 as compared 4it3 t3e previous one. Jle9ible 6roups represent a 6reat possibilit8 for 6roup4or?. &tudents start in set 6roups and as activit8 6oes on" t3e 6roups split up and re=form. 4.2.3. 1n#i%i#ual wor6 %ur student must also be allo4ed to 4or? on t3eir o4n at t3eir o4n pace. Dndividual 4or? is a 6ood idea because students can 4or? in a rela9ed 4a8 and t3e8 can rel8 on t3emselves rat3er t3an t3e ot3ers. 'eadin6" 4ritin6 and spea?in6 activities can be t3e focus for individual 4or?. 4.2.4. Types o, 1nteraction 1n%ol%e# in 'rror Correction 03e follo4in6 sta6es s3ould be used 43en correctin6 mista?es: = t3e teac3er indicates t3e errorH ++

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= t3e student 3as t3e c3ance to self=correctH = if s3e)3e cannot do t3is" ot3er students tr8 to correctH = if necessar8" t3e teac3er corrects t3e errorH = t3e student repeat t3e corrected ans4er. 03ere are mainl8 t3ree t8pes of correction: self=correction" peer correction and teac3er= correction. :6&6 +eac@erEs Resources 0eac3ers use a variet8 of teac3in6 aid to e9plain lan6ua6e meanin6 and structures. 03ese resources are te9tboo?s" reference boo?s" as 4ell as audio and visual aids. $ictures can be: flas3cards" 4all pictures" cue cards" p3otos" projected slides etc. Dn t3e li63t of t3e ne4 curriculum" t3e teac3in6 of a te9tboo? is not necessaril8 ri6id. 03e s8llabus 3as to be tau63t b8 ever8bod8" but 4e can adapt" replace or even omit some units" in order to compl8 4it3 t3e re@uirements of t3e s8llabus accordin6 to t3e 6rade" t8pes of classes or number of lessons 4e teac3 a 4ee? and to our objectives. B!iuta" 1--3:N1C %t3er resources are: time" space and 3uman resources Bt3e influence of t3e communit8" t3e students and t3e teac3ersC. 4.3.1. Teacher=s Roles a The teacher as controller 0eac3ers as controllers are in complete c3ar6e of t3e class. !ertain sta6es of a lesson lend t3emselves to t3is role ver8 4ell. 03e introduction of ne4 lan6ua6e" 43ere it ma?es use of accurate reproduction and drillin6 tec3ni@ues" needs to be carefull8 or6anized. 03e instruct F cue = nominate c8cle in t3e perfect e9ample of t3e teac3er actin6 as controller B>armer" 1.++H 13,C. 23ere teac3ers are addicted to bein6 t3e center of attention t3e8 tend to find it difficult not to perform t3e controllin6 role and t3is 3as bot3 advanta6es and disadvanta6es" since t3e students are to be allo4ed a c3ance to learn rat3er t3an be tau63t. bC The teacher as assessor Dn t3e teac3in6 process" all control must 3ave finalit8" 43ic3 is usuall8 t3e assessment. 03ere are t4o t8pes of assessment: correction and or6anizin6 feedbac?. 03e teac3er 6ives feedbac? to let t3e students ?no4 3o4 4ell t3e8 3ave performed t3e activit8. ; distinction bet4een t4o different ?inds of feedbac? s3ould be made: content feedbac? and form feedbac?. 03e first one concerns an assessment of 3o4 4ell t3e students performed t3e activit8 as an activit8 rat3er t3an as a lan6ua6e e9ercise. Jorm feedbac? tells t3e students 3o4 4ell t3e8 3ave performed lin6uisticall8. 03e focus is on accurac8 B!iuta" 1--3: N3=NKC. c The teacher as organi>er. $er3aps t3e most important and difficult role t3e teac3er 3as to pla8 is t3at of or6anizer" as t3e success of man8 activities depends on 6ood or6anization. Dt is essential 8ou plan e9actl8 43at 8ou are 6oin6 to teac3" 43at information t3e students 4ill need" t3en 6ive t3e instruction clearl8. Dt is also e9tremel8 important for t3e teac3er to be 4ell or6anized in usin6 different teac3in6 aids. 03e blac?board is considered to be t3e most important" al4a8s available for several purposes. # The teacher as prompter ;s a prompter" t3e teac3er su66ests to t3e students 3o4 to continue t3eir activities. 03is role 3as to be performed 4it3 discretion" as t3e teac3er s3ould 3elp onl8 43en it is necessar8. e The teacher as participant +*

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0eac3er7s participation in t3e activit8 4ill probabl8 improve t3e atmosp3ere in t3e class and 4ill also 6ive t3e students a c3ance to practise En6lis3 4it3 someone 43o spea?s it better t3an t3e8 do. , The teacher as a resource 03e teac3er s3ould al4a8s be read8 to offer 3elp if it is needed. ;fter all" 4e 3ave t3e lan6ua6e t3at t3e students ma8 be missin6" so 438 not ma?e ourselves available so t3at t3e8 can consult us 43en t3e8 need us B>armer" 1..+:1K1CR g The teacher as tutor 03e students ma8 4ant to prepare a contest" a festival" edit an En6lis3 ma6azine or do same project 4or?. 03e8 as? t3e teac3er for advice. >e or s3e is t3eir tutor in t3e sense of someone actin6 as a coac3 and as a resource 43ere t3e students are involved in t3eir o4n 4or?. 03e tutorial role B@uite close to a counselin6 positionC is often appropriate at intermediate and advanced levels and it is a broader role t3an t3e ot3ers. h The teacher as in%estigator 03is role relates to t3e teac3er t3emselves and to teac3er development. Df t3e teac3ers do not investi6ate t3e efficienc8 of ne4 met3ods" if t3e8 do not see? continuall8 t3eir personal and professional development" t3eir job 4ill become borin6" monotonous. i The teacher as moti%ator 03ere are several 4a8s 4e can increase t3e students7 motivation in learnin6 a forei6n lan6ua6e B!iuta" 1--3:N*C: = bein6 motivated and interested 8ourselfH = involvin6 as man8 students as possible in classroom activitiesH = 6ivin6 students interestin6" relevant" necessar8 tas?sH = 6ivin6 prompt feedbac?H = positive attention to studentsH = maintain discipline and a reasonable 4or?in6 atmosp3ere. :6<6 Disruptive Le@aviour ;t some sta6e of t3eir lives all teac3ers encounter disruptive be3aviour" t3at is a student or students fre@uentl8 3ostile to eit3er t3e teac3er or to ot3er students. 03ese troubles can be difficult to deal 4it3. %ne ma8 of avoidin6 most disruptive be3aviour is b8 a6reein6 on a code of conduct" 43ic3 means establis3in6 some 6round rules t3at bot3 teac3ers and students must obe8. 2e do not accept B>armer" 1..+:1K.C: = arrivin6 lateH = interruptin6 ot3er people 43en t3e8 spea?H = brin6in6 drin? and food in t3e classroomH = usin6 cell p3onesH = for6ettin6 to do 3ome4or? on timeH = not pa8in6 attention. ,auses of discipline proLlems: ;ccordin6 to >armer Bidem: 1K.=1N1C" it seems t3at t3ere are t3ree factors involved in t3ese problems : aC 03e teac3er : o7s and don7ts: = on7t 6o to class unpreparedH = o plan a ran6e of activities suitable for ever8bod8H +.

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= on7t t3reatenH = on7t raise 8our voiceH = o ?eep an e8e on t3e timeH = on7t 6ive borin6 classesH = on7t be unfairH = on7t 3ave a ne6ative attitude to learnin6H = on7t brea? t3e codeH = on7t 6ive t3e 3ome4or? in t3e last fe4 seconds of t3e lessonH = o conclude t3e lessonH = o leave t3e classroom in 6ood orderH = o as? for 3elp 43en 8ou need toH = o evaluate 8our lessonsH bC 03e students: >armer also defines t3e reasons for students disruptive be3aviour : = 0ime of t3e da8 Bt3e students ma8 be tiredCH = 04o7s compan8. 0eac3er must separate t3e disruptive studentsH = 03e students7 opinion of t3e teac3er" t3e subjects bein6 studied and of t3e class = Dntimidatin6 attitudeH = &tudents pla8in6 truantH = 03e desire to be noticed. cC 03e sc3ool. ; lot depends on t3e attitude of t3e sc3ool to disruptive student be3aviour. Df t3ere is no reco6nized polic8 for dealin6 4it3 discipline problems" t3e teac3er s3ould insist on suc3 a s8stem" as in t3e end a student causin6 a severe problem 3as to be 3andled b8 t3e sc3ool aut3orit8 rat3er t3an b8 t3e teac3er.

+opics for discussion and e(ercisesA %6 %ne of t3e problems students mi63t cause 43ile 4or?in6 in pairs and 6roups is t3e possible use of 'omanian. 03is ma?es t3e communicative activit8 rat3er pointless. 23at can 8ou do in order to discoura6e t3isR !6 23at t8pes of interaction can t3ere be in a classR &6 23at are t3e basic uses of t3e blac?boardR :6 <ive su66estions for an encoura6in6 atmosp3ere in t3e class. <. esi6n a 6roup4or? activit8. ;. $resent t3e advanta6es and disadvanta6es of t3e teac3er as controller.

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0I+ < P.'00I01 Dn t3is c3apter 4e s3all consider some issues concernin6 lesson plannin6 and present t3e main principles 6overnin6 t3is activit8. Even t3e best tec3ni@ues and activities 4ill be pointless if t3e8 are not inte6rated into a pro6ram of studies and fe4 teac3ers 4ould ta?e an activit8 or piece of material into class 4it3out first 3avin6 a reason for doin6 so. 03e best teac3ers are t3ose 43o t3in? carefull8 about 43at t3e8 are 6oin6 to do in t3eir classes and 43o plan 3o4 t3e8 are 6oin6 to or6anize t3e teac3in6 and learnin6 B>armer" 1..+:1N,C. <6%6 +e(tLooKs and t@e sIllaLus /an8 institutions present t3e s8llabus in terms of t3e main te9tboo? to be used: b8 a certain date teac3ers are supposed to 3ave covered a certain number of units)lessons in t3e te9tboo?. ;t t3e same time teac3ers are often provided 4it3 a list of supplementar8 material and activities t3at are available. Df a te9tboo? is involved t3ere are obvious advanta6es for bot3 teac3ers and students. 'eliable te9tboo?s contain aut3entic and interestin6 materialH t3e8 present t3e lan6ua6e items in a lo6ical pro6ression" clearl8 s3o4in6 43at 3as to be learn and in some cases summarizin6 43at 3as been studied so t3at t3e students can revise t3e essential items. 0e9tboo?s can be s8stematic about t3e amount of vocabular8 presented to t3e students and allo4 students to stud8 of t3eir o4n. <ood te9tboo?s also relieve t3e teac3er from t3e pressure of 3eavin6 to t3in? of ori6inal materials for ever8 class. Io4ada8s t3ere is a 6reat variet8 of publis3ed material for teac3in6 and learnin6 En6lis3. Tet" te9tboo?s can also 3ave a ne6ative impact on teac3in6. 03e8 tend to concentrate on t3e introduction of ne4 lan6ua6e and controlled 4or?: a teac3er rel8in6 to 3eavil8 on t3e te9tboo? 4ill often not be encoura6ed to provide enou63 input or output practice. 03e similarit8 of t3eir format 6enerall8 involves a ri6id se@uence. /ost teac3ers are under considerable pressure bot3 because t3e8 are obli6ed to complete t3e s8llabus and because t3e8 teac3 a number of classes. 03e8 are also influenced b8 t3e attitude of t3e institution" t3eir collea6ues and t3e students 43o sometimes see t3e te9tboo? as a pro6ramme of stud8 and activities t3at 3as to be strictl8 follo4ed. 03ere are t4o major reasons 438 suc3 an attitude ma8 not be in t3e best interests of eit3er students or teac3ers. Dn t3e first place teac3ers 43o over=use a te9tboo? and strictl8 follo4 t3e se@uence in eac3 unit ma8 became borin6 since t3e8 teac3 t3e same t8pe of activities. 03us" t3e stud8 of En6lis3 is becomin6 routine and t3e students are becomin6 less and less motivated. 03e ot3er main reason for 4orr8in6 about te9tboo?s is t3at t3e8 are not 4ritten for 8our class. Eac3 class is different and most publis3ed te9tboo?s are 4ritten 4it3 a protot8pical student audience in mind. !onsiderin6 all t3ese" >armer BidemH 1N*C does not su66est t3e te9tboo?s are destructive since t3e better ones are 4ritten b8 teac3ers 4it3 considerable ?no4led6e and e9perience. Gut 3e *1

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emp3asizes t3at t3e te9tboo? is an aid Boften t3e most important one t3ere isC and not a sacred te9t. 0eac3ers 4ill 3ave to t3in? of t3e best 4a8s to use t3eir te9tboo?s and not to let t3e te9tboo? use t3em" or dictate all t3e decisions. I. <rant B1..*C s3o4s 3o4 teac3ers can adapt t3e te9tboo? material to t3e needs of t3eir students and &. uller B1.3-C 6ives a 6rap3ic e9ample of 3o4 sta6es of a unit in a te9tboo? can be adapted and added onto 4it3 e9tra and more student centered activities. <6!6 Q@I planningS :esson plannin6 is essential bot3 for t3e teac3er and for t3e students. Jor t3e teac3er plannin6 ensures efficient lan6ua6e teac3in6" 3elps t3e teac3er to avoid inade@uate" improvised activities and also 6ives a real picture of 3o4 muc3 t3e teac3er 3as done and 3o4 muc3 remains to be tau63t. :esson plannin6 tells t3e teac3er 43at c3an6es 3e)s3e s3ould ma?e 43en teac3in6 a6ain t3e lesson and enric3es t3e students to pro6ress 6raduall8" avoids boredom" lac? of interest and motivation. Dt also avoids 4astin6 time and effort" contributes si6nificantl8 to students7 s8stematic ?no4led6e and lin6uistic abilit8" ensurin6 ma9imum development in t3e time available. esi6nin6 t3e lesson and outlinin6 its plan means anticipator8 teac3in6 because t3e learnin6 situation is lived t3rou63 mentall8 in advance. Tou 4ill 3ave clear in mind 43at 8ou 4ill be doin6 ever8 minute in t3e class" 3o4 and 438" 43at 8ou 4ill as? 8our students to do" on 43at content" 4it3 43at sources" in 43at order and 4it3 43at purpose. Dn order to be able to desi6n a 6ood lesson plan" t3e teac3er needs to 3ave a 6ood command of met3odolo68 and content" to ?no4 t3e students ver8 4ell and to 3ave creative ima6inative B%laru" 1--3:*1C. Jirst 8ou 3ave to stud8 t3e material to be tau63t from scientific and met3odolo6ical points of vie4. 03en set up clear=cut objectives" 3avin6 in vie4 t3e ?no4led6e and s?ills essential for understandin6 t3e lesson. 03e follo4in6 step is to t3in? of t3e means 43ic3 4ill 3elp 8ou attain t3em: select ade@uate teac3in6 aidsH c3ose t3e lust suited procedures and tec3ni@ues of teac3in6H prepare ade@uate e9amplesH decide evaluation proceduresH assi6n t3e students 3ome4or?H last but not least" 4rite do4n all t3ese in a lesson plan. 03e in6redients of a 6ood lesson are: clear appropriate objectivesH a 4ide and ade@uate ran6e of activitiesH variet8 of paceH involvement of students in man8 student=centred activitiesH motivated students t3rou63 t3e sense of ac3ievement. 03e lesson plan s3ould 6ive a real picture of 43at teac3er intends to do in t3e lesson. 03e introductor8 pa6e s3ould contain: facts about t3e classH aims and objectivesH teac3in6 aidsH assumption about t3e studentsH anticipated problems. <6&6 /ain principles of lesson planning 03e main principles of lesson plannin6 are variet8 and fle9ibilit8 B>armer" 1..+:1N*C. Lariet8 means involvin6 t3e students in a number of different t8pes of activities and usin6 a 4ide selection of materials. 03us" learnin6 4ill become interestin6 and never monotonous" since t3e learnin6 e9perience s3ould be stimulatin6 and interestin6. *1

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Jle9ibilit8 is t3e c3aracteristic 4e s3ould e9pect from t3e 6enuinel8 adaptable teac3er. <ood teac3ers are focusin6 on t3e students and on 43at t3e8 need and t3us" t3e8 are able to react @uic?l8 to an unplanned event. ; fle9ible teac3er 4ill be able to adapt t3e plan. <6:6 'ims and oL*ectives 04o main @uestions are 6enerall8 as?ed at t3e be6rimin6 of t3e lesson plannin6: 1C 03e aims: M23at 4ill t3e students learn in t3e lessonR 23at topic" 6rammar" vocabular8" function" etcR 1C 03e objectives: M23at is it t3at m8 students 4ill ?no4 or be able to do at t3e end of t3e classR Dn order to 6et better results b8 means of clearl8 defined aims and objectives" 8ou s3ould tell t3e class or 4rite on board 43at t3ese are at t3e be6rimin6 of t3e lesson" 43at ?ind of activities t3e8 4ill be as?ed to perform and b8 43at means t3e8 and t3e teac3er 4ill ?no4 in t3e end 43et3er t3e 6oal 3as been attained. Dn conclusion" 4e 4a8 sa8 t3at t3e careful t3in?in6 out of detailed and 4ell=defined objectives is a fruitful aid to better teac3in6. Dt leads B%laru" 1--3H*,C : = for t3e students" to: = more concentrationH = better understandin6 and a4arenessH = a stron6er feelin6 of accomplis3mentH = success in learnin6H = increased motivationH = for t3e teac3er" to: = precision in plannin6H = 6ood or6anization of t3e activit8H = success in teac3in6. <6<6 Selecting activities Eac3 lesson consists of a series of activities t3at ma?e up t3e sta6es of a lesson. 03ese activities ma8 appear in t3e plan in anot3er order t3an t3at in 43ic3 t3e8 appear in t3e te9tboo?. Dt is teac3er_s tas? to decide t3e suitable order and 43ic3 activities to select. 03e teac3er 3as to ta?e into account : = 23at is t3e learnin6 value of eac3 activit8 R = 23at s?ills does it develop R = 23at sta6es of t3e lesson is it suitable for R = >o4 muc3 time is 4ort3 spendin6 on it R <6;6 SeFuencing t@e stages of a lesson ;ctivities are 6enerall8 or6anised into sta6es" accordin6 to 43at t3eir role is in t3e teac3in6 = learnin6 process B%laru" 1--3:*.=.-C : = $resentation of ne4 lan6ua6e Bfunctions" 6rammar" vocabular8" p3onolo68" discourse featuresCH = !ontrolled pre=communication practice=usuall8 focused on accurac8H = Jree practice B$roductionC = focused on fluenc8 and content of ideasH = !3ec?in6 and discussin6 outcomesBsC after doin6 a communicative tas?H = &8stematization)<lobalization of lin6uistic content or content of ideas. !.3.1. Teaching 5o#els *3

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!.3.1.1. Presentation8 Practice8 Pro#uction Dn $$$ se@uences t3e teac3er presents t3e conte9t and situation" e9plains and demonstrates t3e meanin6 and form of t3e ne4 lan6ua6e structure. 03e students practise ma?in6 sentences and t3en t3e production sta6e follo4s in 43ic3 t3e8 tal? more freel8 about t3emselves. 03e $$$ model is ver8 effective for elementar8 level and be6inners. !.3.1.2. Tas6 & .ase# learning (T$* Dn 0G: model t3e focus is on t3e tas? rat3er t3an on t3e lan6ua6e. Dt is tas?s t3at 6enerate t3e lan6ua6e" not vice=versa. 0G: s8llabus: or6anized on t3e basis of tas?s to be done. Gasic point of or6anization 0;&A" e.6. students 4ill tal? about t3eir last vocation. /ain lan6ua6e point necessar8 to do 0;&A: $ast 0ense &imple ;fter final tas?s 3ave been decided on" and objectives 3ave settled" t3e ne9t @uestion is :d23at do students need to learn)revise in order to carr8 out t3e final tas?s Rd !.3.1.3. 'ngage8 "tu#y8 (cti%ate ('"( E&; B>armer" 1..+C is a model based on surve8s 43ic3 3ave proved t3at t3e factors for a successful lan6ua6e learnin6 are: motivation" e9posure to lan6ua6e and c3ances to use it. Dn t3e Engage sta6e" t3e teac3er tries to arouse t3e students_ interest b8 involvin6 t3eir emotions. 03is can be done b8 usin6 6ames" music" discussions" pictures" jo?es" etc. StudI is t3e sta6e of a lesson in 43ic3 students are as?ed to focus on lan6ua6e structure. &uccessful lan6ua6e learnin6 in a classroom depends on a judicious blend of subconscious lan6ua6e ac@uisition Bt3rou63 listenin6 and readin6C and dstud8d activities or6anized b8 t3e teac3er. 'ctivate is t3e sta6e 43ere t3e students are led to use t3e lan6ua6e as freel8 and communicativel8 as t3e8 can. (r B1..,C offers some 6uidelines for se@uencin6 t3e components of a lesson : 1. $ut t3e 3arder tas?s earlier B43en t3e students are fres3er and ener6eticCH 1. >ave @uieter activities before livel8 ones Bit can be @uite difficult to calm do4n a class after a livel8" e9citin6 activit8CH 3. 03in? about transitions Bi.e. t3e lin? bet4een t4o activities or t4o sta6esCH K. $ull t3e class to6et3er at t3e be6innin6 and at t3e end Bt3is contributes to a sense of structureCH N. End on a positive tone Bsummar8 of 43at 8ou 3ave ac3ieved" a positive induction" a jo?eC.

<.#6 +ransitionB,ontinuitI 03e lesson s3ould be co3erent and s3ould 3ave a lo6ical pattern. 03e activities s3ould be lin?ed b8 transitions. 0ransition does not mean onl8 to si6nal t3e be6innin6 or t3e end of an activit8. Dt also means connectin6 t3e activities of a lesson in a 43ole 43ic3 s3ould be li?e t3e scenario of a film. Jor t3is" t3e teac3er s3ould prove 3is)3er master8 in smoot3l8 leadin6 t3e students into t3e e9citin6 4orld of t3e lesson B%laru" 1--3:.3C. <6=6 +eac@ing 'ids Lisual aids suc3 as objects BrealiaC" pictures" c3arts" 4ord c3arts" maps" boo?s" ma6azines etc" and audio aids" suc3 as a tape recorder can be used durin6 all t3e sta6es. 03e board is ma8be t3e most precious teac3in6 aid of all" as it is al4a8s available and it does not re@uire muc3 special preparation. *K

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03e teac3er is actuall8 t3e most important factor in ac3ievin6 effectiveness. <6>6 +iming 03in?in6 about 3o4 lon6 an activit8 4ill ta?e is essential for plannin6. urin6 t3e class t3e teac3er s3ould ?eep a 4atc3 or cloc? visible. (se 8our e9perience to plan better if 8our discover t3at t3e time allocated to an activit8 4as not realistic. <6%"6 Revision and recIcling 0eac3ers 3ave to include in t3eir lesson plan s3ort revision activities based on problems 43ic3 3ave been alread8 studied and 43ic3 are essential for students to understand t3e ne4 material. 'ec8cle 6rammatical structures and vocabular8 as muc3 as possible in different activities" usin6 different s?ills. 03us" 8our students 4ill be able to inte6rate ne4 ?no4led6e into t3eir alread8 e9istin6 ?no4led6e and t3e8 4ill reinforce t3eir s?ills t3rou63 practice. <6%%6 3omeDorK 03e main purpose of assi6nin6 3ome4or? is to 6ive t3e students additional practice in developin6 t3eir s?ills" t3eir lan6ua6e competence. 03at is 438" 3ome4or? 3as to be centred on t3e objectives of t3e lesson. ;s 3ome4or? s3ould be clearl8 e9plained" sometimes follo4ed b8 some e9amples do not leave t3e assi6nin6 of it to t3e last minutec ;t t3e end of t3e class students_ attention is at a lo4 level. <6%!6 Evaluation Evaluation as an information 6at3erin6 procedure 43ic3 offers feedbac? about a process" applies to plannin6 as 4ell. Df t3e teac3in6 process is a student = centred one" t3e teac3er 4ill 3ave muc3 more opportunit8 to monitor students7 4or?. Dn t3is 4a8 3e)s3e 4ill 3ave a clearer idea of 43at e9tent t3e objectives 3ave been attained. Jeedbac? on t3e effectiveness of 8our lesson can also be obtained b8 reflection. ;fter teac3in6 t3e lesson it is important t3at 8ou stop and t3in? 43et3er it 4as 6ood or not" and 438 " in order to learn from reflection" from e9perience and ma?e t3e necessar8 c3an6es. ,onclusions $lan 8our classes carefull8 and responsibl8 if 8ou 4ant to be successful as a teac3er and reflect on t3e follo4in6 @uestions before teac3in6 a lesson B%laru" 1--3:..C: = oes m8 lesson 3ave clear objectivesR !an t3e8 be attained R = ;re t3e met3ods and tec3ni@ues adapted to t3e objectives" to t3e students and to t3e t8pe of lesson R = >ave D c3osen appropriate teac3in6 aids R >o4 am D 6oin6 to ma?e t3e content interestin6" understood and practised b8 all t3e students in t3e class R = >ave D desi6ned activities 43ic3 4ill involve t3e students in different 4a8s R = >ave D included activities to evaluate t3e students_ performance R = o D ?no4 3o4 lon6" appro9imatel8" eac3 activit8 of t3e lesson 4ill ta?e R = >ave D planned evaluation activities t3at 4ill 3elp me to c3ec? 43et3er b8 t3e end of t3e lesson" t3e students 4ill be able to attain t3e objectives of t3e lesson R *N

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+opics for discussion and e(ercisesA %6 /a?e a list of reasons 438 it is advisable to do lesson plannin6 !6 2rite do4n a c3ec?list of @uestions 8ou 4ill as? 8ourself 43ile plannin6 a lesson. &6 >ave a loo? at t3e follo4in6 possible sta6es of a lesson. 0r8 to label t3em B$resentation" $ractice" $roductionC and put t3em in t3e order in 43ic3 8ou 4ould teac3 t3em. 2rite numbers s3o4in6 t3e order in t3e bo9es. aC UU. &tudents use lan6ua6e t3e8 3ave learnt to e9press t3emselves more freel8" e.6. tal? or 4rite about t3eir o4n lives and interests" e9press opinions" ima6ine t3emselves in different situation. bC UU. 0eac3er presents ne4 4ords or structures" 6ives e9amples" 4rites t3em on board" etc. cC UU. &tudents use 4ords and structures in a controlled 4a8" e.6. ma?in6 sentences from prompts" as?in6 and ans4erin6 @uestions" 6ivin6 sentences based on picture Boral or 4rittenC. :6 &uppose t3e t3eme of t3e lesson is M%ur 0o4n. 23at could t3e final tas? beR 23at sta6es 4ould 8ou plan for t3is lesson and in 43at orderR <6 238 do 4e use teac3in6 aids durin6 t3e lessonR ;6 2rite do4n some of t3e benefits of pair= and 6roup4or?. #6 03in? of and 4rite do4n 3o4 8ou are 6oin6 to prepare students to 4rite a composition as a 3ome4or? assi6nment.

*,

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0I+ ; E8'. '+IO0 ;6%6 +erminologI ascalu B1--3:11NC defines t3e t3ree concepts of evaluation" assessment and testin6 as t3e8 can cause some confusion in t3eir use. 0estin6 is 6enerall8 understood as 6ivin6 a test" 43ile t3e ot3er t4o are sometimes used interc3an6eabl8 . Evaluation e9presses a final jud6ment about a student_s level of performance 43ic3 3as been measured b8 usin6 different dtoolsd. Evaluation refers to t3e e9tent to 43ic3 t3e teac3in6) learnin6 objectives stated at t3e be6innin6 of a sc3ool 8ear" term or lesson 3ave been ac3ieved. 03is jud6ment is formall8 e9pressed in numbers or mar?s Bfrom 1 to 1-" in t3e 'omanian s8stemC" 6rades Be.6 de9cellentd" dver8 6oodd" dpoord" etc or letters suc3 as d;d"dGd" d!d etcC or" informall8 in scores or points" 43ic3 eventuall8 can be converted into mar?s. ;ssessment is referred to in terms of t3e process 43ic3 4ill eventuall8 lead to evaluation. 03is process of assessin6 students performance is done b8 usin6 a variet8 of tec3ni@ues" amon6 43ic3 testin6 is just one of t3em. ;6!6 Q@I and D@at do De evaluate S 03e main purpose of t3is activit8 is to 6at3er information about our students7 lan6ua6e s?ills. 03is s3ould be made in an appropriate" consistent and encoura6in6 to learnin6 manner. ;fter assessin6" 4e 4ill ?no4 if 4e 3ave been successful as teac3ers and 43at remedial measures s3ould be ta?en" and our students 4ill find out if t3e8 are pro6ressin6" and 43at areas of lan6ua6e t3e8 need to focus t3eir attention on. Dt is necessar8 for us to evaluate eac3 lan6ua6e component and s?ill. ;6&6 3oD do De evaluate S 03ere are various tec3ni@ues of assessin6 students lan6ua6e and abilities" t3eir performance. Io matter 43at tec3ni@ue 4e use" t3e main principle 43ic3 must 6overn our c3oice" is to assess our students7 ?no4led6e in suc3 a 4a8 t3at it en3ances furt3er learnin6 and motivation" or" briefl8" t3is assessment must 3ave a positive 4as3for4ard effect Bidem" 11*C. 3.3.1. Testing ; test is a sample of be3avior. Dn order to ma?e inferences about students7 competence" t4o important assumptions must first be made re6ardin6 t3e test itself B&avi6non" 1.*3H 131C 1. 03e test score is an accurate and stable measure of individual performance. 03e same test 6iven to t3e same person on anot3er da8" in anot3er sittin6" or scored b8 different rater is li?el8 to 8ield t3e same similar results. Dn ot3er 4ords" t3e test is reliable. 1. 03e test is a real reflection of t3e underl8in6 competence t3e test is desi6ned to evaluate. Jor e9ample" performance on a readin6 test re@uires readin6 abilit8. 03is refers to t3e validit8 of t3e test. 'eliabilit8 can be defined in terms of accurac8" stabilit8 and error of measurement. 03e validit8 of a test is t3e e9tent to 43ic3 a test measures 43at it is supposed to measure and not3in6 else. 0o be valid" a test must first be reliable. >o4ever" a reliable test is not *+

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necessaril8 a valid one for a 6iven purpose. &avi6non B1.*3:13,C @uotes aviesB1.,*C" !ronbac3B1.+1C" $almer and <root B1.*1C describin6 five different ?inds of validit8 : Face validitI. 03e test loo?s as t3ou63 it measures 43at it is supposed to measure. Dt is perceived as a reasonable" fair" or appropriate test b8 t3ose 43o ta?e it" as 4ell as" b8 t3ose 43o interpret t3e results. ,ontent validitI. 03e tas?s included are representative of t3e lar6er set of tas?s of 43ic3 t3e test is supposed to be a sample. Jor e9ample" t3e test fait3full8 reflects t3e s8llabus or instructional pro6ramme on 43ic3 it is based. Predictive validitI. 03e test predicts performance in some subse@uent situation" suc3 as job success" performance on anot3er test" or 6rade in a course. ,oncurrent validitI6 03e test 6ives results similar to t3ose obtained from anot3er measure ta?en concurrentl8 F for e9ample" job success" performance on anot3er test" 6rade in a course. ,onstruct validitI. 03e test in an accurate reflection of an underl8in6 t3eor8 of 43at it is supposed to measure. 03e @uestion in t3is case is M23at do scores on t3is test meanR. Gell B1.*1:1--C adds anot3er @ualit8 of a 6ood test: practicalitI6 23en 4e 4rite a test 4e 3ave to be realistic. 23at aids do 4e needR ;re t3e8 availableR o 4e need a special arran6ement in t3e classroomR >o4 lon6 4ill it ta?e to mar? t3e testR >o4 lon6 4ill it ta?e t3e students to complete itR >o4 muc3 4ill it costR 03ese are onl8 same of t3e @uestions 4e s3all 3ave to as? ourselves if 4e 4ant to prepare useful and appropriate tests. 0a?in6 into account t3at t3ere are four reasons for 3avin6 a test: to indicate future abilit8" to discover 43at is alread8 ?no4n" to discover 43at 3as been learned and to discover 43at is still to be learned" Gell considers t3at t3ere are four test t8pes 43ic3 see? to ans4er t3ese @uestions B1.*1:1.1=1.3C: aG Prognostic Jor aptitudeG tests: t3ese attempt to discover an individual7s potential for ac@uirin6 a particular s?illH LG ProficiencI testsA t3ese attempt to discover 43at t3e testee alread8 ?no4s. :an6ua6e tests of t3is t8pe are not based on t3e content of an8 particular course or s?ill" but aim to assess 6lobal activit8. 08picall8" proficienc8 tests are muc3 used in t3e placin6 of individuals in learnin6 6roups appropriate to t3eir level of ?no4led6e: be6inner" intermediate" advanced" etc. cG 'ttainment Jor ac@ievementG tests: t3ese" in contrast 4it3 t3e aptitude and proficienc8 tests" see? to determine t3e e9tent to 43ic3 a learner 3as mastered t3e contents of a particular course. /an8 te9tboo?s contain tests of t3is ?ind. dG Diagnostic tests: t3ese ma8 be t3ou63t of as t3e converse of t3e proficienc8 test since t3eir aim is to discover not 43at is ?no4n b8 t3e testee" but 43at 3e does not ?no4. Dndeed" a proficienc8 test mi63t be used as a dia6nostic test if t3e intention of t3e tester 4as to discover 43at needed to be learned and s3ould t3erefore be included in future teac3in6. 3.3.1.1. Tra#itional %s Communicati%e Testing 0estin6 is t3e most 4idel8 spread tec3ni@ue used for assessin6 students in t3e classroom. /an8 teac3ers use tests just to mar? t3eir students. 03ese tests usuall8 ta?e t3e s3ape of isolated" conte9t=free 6apped sentences 43ic3 students 3ave to complete 4it3 t3e ri63t verb form" or some sentences to translate from 'omanian into En6lis3" or c3an6e a te9t from irect &peec3 into Dndirect &peec3" etc. >o4 man8 of t3ese test items s3o4 us t3at our students can reall8 use En6lis3 in real 4orldR 03e evolution of lan6ua6e testin6 is inevitabl8 lin?ed 4it3 t3e evolution of lan6ua6e teac3in6. ;s 4e 3ave alread8 mentioned in a previous c3apter" t3ere 3ave been t3ree main sta6es in t3e teac3in6 of forei6n lan6ua6es: &ta6e 1 BtraditionalC F <rammar F translation approac3H &ta6e 1 BmodernC F ;udio F structural approac3H **

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&ta6e 3 Bpost=modernC F !ommunicative approac3. 0ests of 6rammar" vocabular8" listenin6 and readin6 are objective in t3eir scorin6" 43ile tests of spea?in6 and 4ritin6 are scored more subjectivel8. 0ests associated 4it3 translation tend to be subjective in t3eir scorin6. 0ranslation is an inte6rative t8pe of test" 43ere ?no4led6e of t3e lan6ua6e as a 43ole is bein6 tested B?no4led6e of 6rammar" vocabular8" readin6" s?ills" 4ritin6 s?ills and ?no4led6e of cultureC. ;udio lin6ual era is associated 4it3 discrete point tests. 03is t8pe of test consists in a lar6e number of separate disconnected items" eac3 testin6 a different aspect of lan6ua6e Be.6 : batte8 testsC. 03ese tests lan6ua6e are scored objectivel8. !ommunicative lan6ua6e tests combine t3e t4o tec3ni@ues in t3e follo4in6 4a8 B ascalu" 1--3:11-C: aC inte6rative V objective Be.6. dictation" cloze" etcC bC inte6rative Vimproved subjective Be.6. role pla8" letter 4ritin6" follo4in6 instructions" problem= solvin6" oral intervie4C. Df 4e teac3 communicativel8" 4e s3ould test communicativel8. ; communicative test is a test 43ic3 appro9imates to real lan6ua6e use in a real situation" in t3e real 4orld. 03us" dictation and cloze tests are considered non=communicative t8pes of tests" 43ile role=pla8" letter 4ritin6" follo4in6 instructions" problem=solvin6" oral intervie4 are communicative tests. Aeit3 /orro4 B@uoted b8 'ic3ard 2est" 1..3C lists seven features of communicative tests 43ic3 follo4 communicative teac3in6: 1. interaction F basedH 1. unpredictabilit8H 3. contentH K. purposeH N. performanceH ,. aut3enticit8H +. be3avior F based . 3.3.1.2.. Testing *anguage an# "6ills (. Testing Grammar an# ?oca.ulary a Testing Grammar 03e separate testin6 of 6rammar 3as been a controversial problem since it ma8 seem t3at testin6 t3e students7 master8 of 6rammatical elements contradicts t3e main principles of communicative testin6. &till" t3ere are reasons 438 a 6rammatical component s3ould be ?ept in an8 proficienc8 tests. <rammar tests 3ave t3e advanta6e of practicalit8 and t3e issue of content validit8 is as important in t3at if 4e test t3e 4ritin6 abilit8 directl8" 4e are limited b8 t3e topic" st8le and format 43ic3 cannot include all possible 6rammatical elements 43ic3 4e 3ave tau63t. . Testing %oca.ulary 03ere are t4o main 4a8s of testin6 vocabular8: reco6nition and production $. Testing s6ills 0raditionall8" lan6ua6e s?ills 3ave been t3ou63t of" tau63t and conse@uentl8" tested as fourfold: aC $roductive s?ills: spea?in6 and 4ritin6 bC 'eceptive s?ills: listenin6 and readin6 03e four=4a8 division 3as been reco6nized as a convenient fiction not onl8 because actual lan6ua6e use necessaril8 involves t3e abilit8 to inte6rate several s?ills at once" but also *.

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because 4it3in eac3 6ross s?ill t3ere are several subs?ills 43ic3 are called upon simultaneousl8 BGell" 1.*1:1.KC. 3.3.2 (lternati%e 5eans o, '%aluation aG +@e portfolio is a s8stematic collection of t3e students7 4or? and ot3er information about t3e students in order to determine 43et3er t3e8 3ave maintained pro6ress. LG Pro*ects" eit3er individual or 6roup ones" 3elp brid6e t3e 6ap bet4een lan6ua6e stud8 and lan6ua6e use at all levels of student lan6ua6e proficienc8. 03e teac3er 4or?s 4it3 t3e students durin6 eac3 sta6e" actin6 as a counsellor and consultant" not as a provider of in formation or controller B ascalu" 1--3:1K*C cG Self $ evaluation is a comple9 mental process useful in an8 learnin6 event. &tudents 43o perform self F evaluation understand t3eir 6oals" monitor t3eir success in ac3ievin6 t3ese 6oals. !onse@uentl8" self F evaluation leads students to anal8ze t3eir pro6ress and plan t3e improvement of t3eir performance. +opics for discussion and e(ercisesA %. Enlar6e upon: M;ssessment is an inte6ral part of teac3in6 and learnin6" but it s3ould be subordinated to bot3 BA. Gaile8" 1..*C !6 03ere are seven features of communicative tests 43ic3 follo4 communicative teac3in6: i. interaction=basedH ii. unpredictabilit8H iii. contentH iv. purposeH v. performanceH vi. aut3enticit8H vii. be3aviour=based. >ere are t3e above seven features defined. 2rite t3e number of t3e feature correspondin6 to t3e definition in t3e spaces provided: aC t3e lan6ua6e used in t3e test s3ould replicate t3e lan6ua6e used in real 4orld because 43at 4e need to measure is our students7 abilit8 to perform in realistic lan6ua6e situationsH bC t3e success or failure in a communicative test s3ould be jud6ed on t3e basis of outcomes" i.e. students s3ould 6enuinel8 produce lan6ua6e or Bp38sicall8C react to itUU.H cC students7 performance s3ould also be measured in terms of appropriateness to t3e topic" re6ister and t3e roles t3e8 assume durin6 interaction 43ic3 simulates real situations.UH dC a test item" especiall8 of spea?in6 or 4ritin6" s3ould 3ave in vie4 t3e e9pectations of a ?no4n)un?no4n addresseeUUUH eC t3e test s3ould measure t3e students7 abilit8 to use bot3 t3eir ?no4led6e of lan6ua6e and strate6ies for dealin6 4it3 real life conditions suc3 as lapses" misunderstandin6s caused b8 distractions" s3ift of attention)interest and errorsUUH fC an8 communicative situation as a test item 3as to 3ave a reason and t3e students s3ould demonstrate t3eir abilit8 to reco6nize and use itUU.H 6C t3e test items s3ould be desi6ned in suc3 a 4a8 as to offer students t3e opportunit8 to 6ive appropriate responses to une9pected input under time pressureU..H

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&6 >ere are some tec3ni@ues for testin6 structures 43ic3 are most 4idel8=used b8 teac3ers and testers: i. multiple=c3oiceH ii. modified=clozeH iii. test completionH iv. parap3rase. /atc3 eac3 tec3ni@ue 4it3 t3e follo4in6 test samples: '6 777776 !omplete t3e follo4in6 stor8 4it3 DasH DereH DasnEt or DerenEt: $e H+.@..at the Science )useum and H2. @.late for dinner again. $o%ard and Sally HB.@.happy. Peter HM. @sure he HN. @.in a crash etc. -6 777777 !3oose one 4ord t3at correctl8 completes t3e follo4in6 te9t: &he modern <lympic #ames H+..@.nearly +LL years old. &he first modern <lympic #ames H2.@@in +K,O in Athens. &here HB. @.any pri1e-money and there HM. @any %omen competitors etc. B1C ; are G 4ere ! 4as aren7t B1C ; 4as G 4ere ! are 4eren7t B3C ; 4as G 4asn7t ! 4ere 4eren7t BKC ; 4as G 4asn7t ! 4ere 4eren7t ,6 77777 !omplete eac3 sentence so t3at it means t3e same as t3e precedin6 one: i. $is sound system isn7t as good as mine. )y@@@@@@ ii. $aven7t you got any larger s%eatersC !s this@@@@@ iii. ?ill plays the piano better than Simon. Simon is not@@@.. D6 !omplete t3e follo4in6 intervie4 4it3 t3e missin6 @uestions: /an: BiC UUUUUUU..R Oan: Oan. /an: BiiC UUUUUUU..R Oan: D7m seventeen 8ears old. /an: BiiiC UUUUUUU..R Oan: D7m from Tor?. :6 03ere are t4o main 4a8s of testin6 vocabular8H reco6nition and production. >ere are five e9amples of test items. <roup t3em under: recognition test items production test items '6 SInonIms !3oose t3e alternative ;" G" !" or " 43ic3 is closest in meanin6 to t3e 4ord on t3e left: gleam ;. 6at3er G. s3ine !. 4elcome . clean -6 Definitions Jmultiple c@oiceC !3oose t3e ri63t definition ;" G" !" or for t3e 4ords on t3e left: loathe means ;. become seriousl8 ill G. searc3 carefull8 !. disli?e intensel8 . loo? ver8 an6r8 ,6 Definitions .1

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;UUU.is a person 43o flies a plane. UUU.is frozen 4ater. D6 1ap5filling Jill in t3e 6aps 4it3 one 4ord: Gecause of t3e rain 4e 3ad to U.U.t3e picnic. E6 1ap5filling Jmultiple c@oiceC >e UU.a matc3 to see in t3e dar?. ;. lit G. stro?e !. burnt . 3it <6 23ic3 of t3e follo4in6 tec3ni@ues can 8ou use to test t3e students7 listenin6 compre3ension s?illsR aC summarizin6 information bC fillin6 in a 6rid cC information transfer dC 0rue)Jalse)I/ Bnot mentionedC eC multiple c3oice fC matc3in6 Bspea?ers and topicC 6C fill=in 6aps in t3e te9t 3C ans4erin6 specific @uestions BI%0 open=ended @uestionsC iC reco6nizin6 )orderin6 pictures jC focused dictation ?C structured note=ta?in6 Bone" t4o or t3ree 4ords to be used or numbersC ;6 0estin6 readin6 compre3ension implies testin6 macro s?ills and micro s?ills. /acro s?ills: = s?immin6 to obtain t3e 6eneral idea B6istC of a te9tH = scannin6 to locate specific information in a te9tH = identif8in6 t3e sta6es of an ar6umentH = identif8in6 e9amples in support of t3e ar6ument in t3e topic sentence. /icro s?ills: = identif8in6 referents of pronounsH = infer t3e meanin6 of 4ords usin6 t3e te9t as conte9tH = understandin6 te9t structure. >ere are some test items described. 2rite t3e macro s?ill or micro s?ill eac3 item tests in t3e space provided. aG /ultiple5c@oice Ba complete te9t follo4ed b8 a series of , to 1- @uestions eac3 4it3 K different ans4ers from 43ic3 onl8 one is correct" and t3e ot3er 3 are distractorsC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. LG ,loze or modified5cloze B s3ort te9t 4it3 1or 1 para6rap3s 43ic3 contain 6aps t3at students are re@uested to fill in 4it3 one 4ord t3at 6rammaticall8 or)and lo6icall8 completes itH 6enerall8 t3e missin6 4ords are pronouns" prepositions" conjunctions" rarel8 verbs" nouns or adjectivesC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. cG SummarI cloze Bt3e students are 6iven a full te9t and a summar8 of t3at te9t 43ic3 contains 6apsH students are as?ed to fill in t3e 6aps of t3e summar8 4it3 a 4ord or a s3ort p3rase from t3e ori6inal te9tH t3e 4ords c3osen to complete t3e 6aps refer to t3e relevant information in t3e te9tC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. .1

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dG Information transfer Bt3is is one test item t3at minimizes t3e students7 4ritin6 in a readin6 te9tH t3e te9t to be used for suc3 a test item 3as to be descriptive of a person" place" process" route" picture" statistics" etc.H students are re@uired to label a dra4in6) picture)map)6rap3 etc. or fill in a 6ridC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. eG IdentifIing order of eventsBtopicsBarguments Bt3e te9t for t3is item s3ould contain a lar6er number of para6rap3s 43ic3 are numberedH t3e te9t is follo4ed b8 a number of main ideas) ar6uments in random order" labelled aC" bC" etc. 43ic3 are to be found in eac3 para6rap3 plus an e9tra oneH students are re@uired to matc3 t3e number of t3e para6rap3 4it3 t3e main idea aC" bC" etc. and 4rite I); for t3e e9tra oneC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. fG /atc@ing titles Dit@ paragrap@s or s@ort te(ts Bt3is test item consists of a number of N or , s3ort te9ts labelled ;" G" etc. follo4ed b8 a number of titles" usuall8 outnumberin6 t3e te9ts b8 one labelled 1" 1" etc.H students s3ould matc3 t3e para6rap3s 4it3 t3e titlesC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. gG IdentifIing referents Jt3e 6iven te9t is follo4ed b8 a series of @uestions suc3 as : M23at does t3e 4ord Mit F line 11 F refer toRC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. @G 1uessing meaning of unfamiliar Dords from t@e conte(t Bt3is is a variant of t3e previous test item" but t3is time t3e @uestions 4ill be M23at 4ord in t3e para6rap3 3 means 5la48er7RC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. iG 1apped te(t Jt3e te9t 6iven contains 6aps numbered 1" 1" etc. to be filled in 4it3 43ole sentencesH t3e missin6 sentences and an e9tra one are 6iven in a jumbled order after t3e te9t and are labelled ;" G" etc.H students are re@uired to matc3 t3e number of t3e 6aps 4it3 t3e letters correspondin6 to t3e sentencesH t3ere 4ill be a letter 43ic3 4ill not be usedC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. *G Find information Bt3is test item contains a number of ver8 s3ort te9ts labelled ;" G" etc." 6enerall8 6rouped around a main topic" e.6. 3olida8 places" and a number of @uestions suc3 as M23ic3 te9t refers to 4inter sportsRH students must ans4er t3e @uestions b8 4ritin6 t3e letter correspondin6 to t3e te9t in t3e spaces providedC. UUUUUUUUUUUUU. #6 ictation is a test of inte6rative lan6ua6e s?ills. 23at elements of lan6ua6e competence Bs?ills and subs?illsC does it involveR

.3

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REFERE0,ES ;lderson" O.!. and ;. >. (r6u3art Beds.C 1.*K. Ieading in a "oreign Language. Ie4 Tor?: :on6man ;nderson" ;. and :8nc3" 0. 1.**. Listening. %($ ;s3er" O. 1.*,. Learning another Language through Actions* &he 4omplete &eacher7s #uidebook. :os <atos. Galan"'. et al. 1--3. !n-service 5istance &raining 4ourse for &eachers of English. Dasi: $olirom. Gaile8" A./.1.**. Learning about Language Assessment. >einle E>einle $ublis3ers. Gell" 'o6er" 0. 1.*1. An !ntroduction to Applied Linguistics: Approaches and )ethods in Language &eaching. :ondon: Gatsford ;cademic and Educational :td. Go4en" 0im and O. /ar?s. 1--3. !nside &eaching. <ptions for English Language &eachers . %9ford: /acmillan >einemann Gial8sto?" E. 1..-. 4ommunication Strategies. %9ford: Glac?4ell. Gro4n" '. 1.+3. A "irst Language* &he Early Stages. !ambrid6e: >arvard $ress. Gro4n" >. . 1--+ BNt3 edC. Principles of Language learning and &eaching. Ie4 Tor?: $earson Education Gro4n" <." ;nderson" ;." &3illcoc?" '." and Tule" <. 1.*K. &eaching &alk* Strategies for Production and Assessment. !ambrid6e: !($ Grumfit" !. 1.*K. 4ommunicative )ethodology in Language &eaching. !ambrid6e: !.(.$. Gruner" O. 1.*3. 4hild7s &alk. %9ford: %9ford (niversit8 $ress. !ampbell" !." Ar8sze4s?a" >. 1..N. &o%ards &eaching" %9ford: >einemann !arter" ' and /. /c!art38. 1..+. Beds.C 3ocabulary and Language &eaching. :ondon: :on6man. !elce=/urcia" /. Bed.C. 1..1. &eaching English as a Second or "oreign Language" Ie4 Tor?: Ie4bur8 >ouse !3astain" A. 1.**. 5eveloping Second Language Skills. &heory and Practice" %rlando" Jlorida: >arcourt Grace Oovanovic3" Dnc. !3audron" !. 1.**. Second Language 4lassrooms* Iesearch on &eaching and Learning, !($. !3oms?8" I. 1.*,. ;no%ledge of Language* !ts 0ature, <rigin and :se. Ie4 Tor?: $rae6er !oo?" <u8. 1--3. Applied Linguistics. %9ford: %9ford (niversit8 $ress. !oo?" Livian. 1..1. Second Language Learning and Language &eaching. :ondon: E. ;rnold. !order" &. $it. 1.*1. Error Analysis and !nterlanguage. %($ !order" &. $it. 1..3. !ntroducing Applied Linguistics. :ondon: $en6uin. !urran" !. ;. 1.+,. 4ounselling-Learning in Second Languages. ;pple 'iver. avies" ;lan. 1..1. Principles of Language &esting. %9ford: %9ford (niversit8 $ress. avies" ;lan. 1--+. An !ntroduction to Applied Linguistics. "rom Practice to &heory. Edinbur63 eller" &. 1..-. Lessons from the Learner. :ondon: :on6man. uff" 0. Bed.C 1.*.. E(plorations in &eacher &raining. :ondon: :on6man. Ed6e" O. 1.*.. )istakes and 4orrection. :ondon: :on6man. Edinbur63. avies" ;lan E Elder" !at3erine Beds.C 1--K. $andbook of Applied Linguistics. /alden" Glac?4ell. Elbo4" $. 1.+3. 'riting %ithout &eachers. Ie4 Tor?: %($. Ellis" '. 1.*N. :nderstanding Second Language Acquisition. %($. .K

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Ellis" '. 1..-. !nstructed Second Language Acquisition. %9ford: Glac?4ell. Ellis" '. 1..+. Second Language Acquisition. %9ford: %9ford (niversit8 $ress. Jreeman" ." !orn4ell" &. BedsCB1..3C. 0e% 'ays in &eacher Education" 0E&%:" Dnc. <airns" '." and 'edman" &. 1.*,. 'orking %ith 'ords* A #uide to &eaching and Learning 3ocabulary. !($. <atte6no" !. 1.,3. &eaching "oreign Languages in Schools: the Silent 'ay. Ie4 Tor?: Educational &olutions. <rabe" 2. E Aaplan" '. 1..1. !ntroduction to Applied Linguistics. ;ddison=2esle8 $.!. <rant" I. 1.*+. )aking the )ost of /our &e(tbook" :ondon: :on6man <reenber6" O. 1.N+. Essays in Linguistics. !3ica6o: (niversit8 of !3ica6o $ress. <rellet" J. 1.*1. 5eveloping Ieading Skills* A Practical #uide to Ieading 4omprehension E(ercises. !ambrid6e: !($. <renfell" /. E >arris" L. 1.... )odern Languages and Learning Strategies. :ondon: 'outled6e. >armer" O. 1.*+. &eaching and Learning #rammar. :ondon: :on6man. >armer" O. 1--1. &he Practice of English Language &eaching. :ondon: :on6man. >atc3" E. 1.+*. 5iscourse Analysis and Second Language Acquisition. Ie4bur8 >ouse. >a4?ins" Eric. 1.*K. A%areness of Language. An !ntroduction. !ambrid6e: !($. >i66s" 03. Bed.C 1.*K. &eaching for Proficiency. :on6man. >i66s" 03. and '. !lifford. 1.*1. 4urriculum, 4ompetence and the Second Language &eacher. :incoln4ood. Oacobs" <./. and Jarrell" 0.&. 1--3. (nderstandin6 and Dmplementin6 t3e !:0 paradi6m. IEL4 ?ournal 3K:1. N=3-. Aaplan" 'G. Bed.C 1--1. $andbook of Applied Linguistics. Ie4 Tor?: %($ Aras3en" &t. 1.*1. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, $er6amon. Aras3en" &t. 1.*1. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. $er6amon. Aras3en" &t and 0. 0errell. 1.*3. &he 0atural Approach* Language Acquisition in the 4lassroom. $er6amon. :ado" '. 1.,K. Language &eaching* A Scientific Approach. /c<ra4=>ill. :ittle" ." evitt" &." and &in6leton" . 1.**. Authentic &e(ts in "oreign Language &eaching* &heory and Practice. ublin: ;ut3enti?. :ittle4ood" 2. 1.*1. 4ommunicative language teaching, !ambrid6e" /;: !($ :ittle4ood" 2. 1.*K. "oreign and Second Language Learning. !($. :oe4" >. 1.*K. 5eveloping Strategies Ieading Skills. %9ford. /ac?a8" '." Gar?man" G. and Oordan" '. BedsC 1.+.. Ieading in a Second Language G $ypotheses, <rganisation and Practice. Ie4bur8 >ouse. /c!art38" /. 1..-. 3ocabulary. %9ford. /alama3=03omas" ;nn. 1.*+. 4lassroom !nteraction. :ondon: %($. /arton" 2. 1.**. )ethods in English Language &eaching. >empstead" $rentice >all. /c;rt3ur" 0om. 1..1. &he <(ford 4ompanion to the English Language. %9ford: %($. /c!art38" /ic3ael. 1..*. Spoken Language and Applied Linguistics. !ambrid6e: !.(.$. /c!art38" /ic3ael. 1--1. !ssues in Applied Linguistics. !ambrid6e: !.(.$. /c:au63in" G. 1.*+. &heories of Second Language Learning. :ondon: E. ;rnold. /itc3ell" '. 1..K. &he 4ommunicative Approach to Language &eaching. An !ntroduction. :ondon: 'outled6e. /or6an" !. and Ieil" $. 1--1. &eaching )odern "oreign Languages: A $andbook for &eachers. :ondon: Ao6an $a6e. .N

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/urar" D. 1-11. ;n !ntroduction to Applied Linguistics. 4ourse of Lectures. !raiova. Bunpublis3ed courseC Iation" $aul. 1..-. &eaching and Learning 3ocabulary" 'o4le8" /;: Ie4bur8 >ouse. Iunan" . 1.*.. 5esigning &asks for the 4ommunicative 4lassroom. !ambrid6e: !($ Iuttall" !. 1..K. &eaching Ieading Skills in a "oreign Language. >einemann. %7/alle8" O./." and !3amot" ;.(. 1..-. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. !($. %ma66io >adle8" ;. 1..3. &eaching Language in 4onte(t" Goston" /assac3usetts: >einle E >einle $ublis3ers $ienemann" /. and /. Oo3nston.1.*+. "actors influencing the development of language proficiency. 'ic3ards" O. Bed.C 1.+K. Error Analysis* Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. :ondon: :on6man. 'ic3ards" O. and 'od6ers" 0.&. 1.*,. Approaches and )ethods in Language &eaching. !($. 'ic3ards" O. and 'enand8a" 2. 1--1. Beds.C )ethodology in Language &eaching. An Anthology of 4urrent Practice. !($. 'in6ler" :. and !. 2eber. 1.*K. A Language-&hinking Approach to Ieading. &an ie6o. 'oberts" O. 1..*. Language &eacher Education. :ondon: ;rnold. 'ut3erford" 2. 1.*+. Second Language #rammar* Learning and &eaching. :on6man. &c3an?" '. and '. ;belson. 1.++. Scripts, Plans, #oals and :nderstanding. Ie4 Oerse8. &c3mitt" Iorbert. 1--1. An !ntroduction to Applied Linguistics. :ondon: ;rnold. &crivener" O. 1..K. Learning &eaching. %9ford: /acmillan. &eidl3ofer" Garbara. 1--3. 4ontroversies in Applied Linguistics. %9ford: %.(.$. &inclair" O. 1..1. 4orpus, 4oncordance, 4ollocation. %9ford: %($. &mit3" J. 1.+*. Ieading. :ondon: !($. &tauffer" '. 1.*-. &he Language E(perience Approach to the &eaching of Ieading. Ie4 Tor?: >arperE 'o4. &tern" >.>. 1.*3. "undamental Principles of Language &eaching. %9ford: %($. &tevic?" E. 1.+,. )emory, )eaning and )ethod. Ie4bur8 >ouse. &trevens" $. 1..1. Applied Linguistics* An <vervie%. %9ford. 03ornbur8" &. 1--1. $o% to &each 3ocabulary. Edinbur63: $earson Education :td. 0rud6ill" $. 1---. Sociolinguistics. An introduction to language and society. :ondon: $en6uin (nder4ood" /ar8. 1.*+. &eaching Listening. :ondon: :on6man. (r" $enn8. 1.*K. &eaching Listening 4omprehension. !ambrid6e: !.(.$. (r" $. 1..1. A course in language teaching* practice and theory. !ambrid6e: !($ (so=Ouan" /artinez=Jlor" 1--,. 4urrent &rends in the 5evelopment and &eaching of the "our Language Skills. !ambrid6e: !($ 2est" '.E and t3e (niversit8 of /anc3ester.1.*.)1..3. Assessment in Language Learning. !entre for En6lis3 :an6ua6e &tudies in Education. /anc3eter (niversit8. 23ite" : 1.*.. :niversal #rammar and Second Language Acquisition. Oo3n Genjamins. 2iddo4son" >.<. 1.+*. &eaching Language as 4ommunication. %9ford: %(.$. 2iddo4son" >.<. 1.*K E(plorations in Applied Linguistics. %9ford: %.(.$. 2iddo4son" >.<. 1..-. Aspects of Language &eaching. %9ford: %(.$. 2illiams" E. 1.*K. Ieading in the Language 4lassroom. %9ford: /acmillan. 2illis" O. 1..3. 0eac3in6 En6lis3 t3rou63 En6lis3" :ondon: :on6man 2ode" >ennin6. 1.*1. Learning a Second Language. 0ebin6en: Iarr. 2ri63t" 0. 1.*+. Ioles of teachers and learners" %9ford: %($ .,

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.ESSO0 P.'0

ate: t3e Nt3 of ecember 1-11 0eac3er : !lass: t3e , Jorm ; &c3ool: 0ime: N- minutes 0e9t Goo?: EI<:D&> J;!0JD:E: 0itle: Dt_s made ofUU 08pe of lesson: <rammar ;ims: G8 t3e end of t3e lesson" t3e students 4ill 3ave: = practiced" t3e s?ills of listenin6" readin6" spea?in6" and 4ritin6H = presented" practiced and produced some forms of $resent &imple $assive and $ast &imple $assive = c3ec?ed certain vocabular8 itemsH = created interest in t3e topic. &?ills covered: :." &." '." 2. ;ids: bb. 0e9t boo?" p3otocopied 4or?s3eets p3otos" objects" dra4in6s" coloured c3al?. /et3ods: !onversations" %bservation" iscover8 ;ssumptions: 03e &s are familiar to t3e vocabular8 related to music " films ;nticipated problems: &ome &s ma8 3ave difficulties in understandin6 t3e e9planations or in doin6 t3e e9ercises ) t3e activities. !lassroom mana6ement: 03ere 4ill be posters" maps" pictures on t3e 4alls and on t3e blac?board. 03ere 4ill be slips of paper" p3otocopied 4it3 parts of different activities for eac3 student or pair of students. 03e des? 4ill be removed in order to from 6roups or pairs. -I-.IO1R'P34A >armer" Oerem8" 03e $ractice of En6lis3 :an6ua6e 0eac3in6" :on6man" 1-- Lizental" ;driana: /etodica predarii limbii en6leze = &trate6ies of 0eac3in6 and 0estin6 En6lis3 as a Jorei6n :an6ua6e = $olirom" Dasi" 1--+

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',+I8I+4 %A Q'R/5 P 'I/SA to 6et &s involved into t3e topic to use properl8 t3e vocabular8 related to materials to present and practice t3e past simple $'%!E ('E + asKs Ss several Fuestions aLout Deat@er and t@eir mood6 !3attin6 in En6lis3 at t3e be6innin6 of t3e lesson" 0 creates an _En6lis3 lan6ua6e_ atmosp3ere" establis3in6 contact bet4een 3er and &&" and 3elps && to feel rela9. ,@ecK up: && read t3eir 3ome4or?. 0 as? &s to ta?e a loo? at a series of objects on t3e des?. 03e 0 4rite on t3e blac?board a series of 4ords representin6 different items. &3e as? t3e &s to pa8 attention as t3e8 are 6oin6 to participate to a 6ame named d23at is it made of Rd Ba pen" a boo?" a 6lass" etcC 03e8 are as?ed 43at t3e8 are made ofR 23at t3e8 are used forR &s tr8 to ans4er 43at t3e8 t3in? t3at t3e objects are used for. 03e8 6ive ot3er e9amples. 03e teac3er 6ives t3e &s 3andouts containin6 a c3art. 03ere are four 6roups of materials. aC plastic bC metal cC 6lass dC paper)cotton 0 c3ec?s compre3ension b8 as?in6 some @uestions: 23at is t3e pencil made ofR 23o discovered ;mericaR 23ere 4as !oca !ola first producedR 23en 4as t3e Eiffel 0o4er builtR" etc. DI0E';!0D%I 0D/DI<

0=&s &s=&s Jrontal &pea?in6 'eadin6 Dndividual

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',+I8I+4 !A PRESE0+'+IO0 'I/SA to e9press t3eir o4n opinions to practice t3e present simple passive to practice t3e listenin6 and spea?in6 s?ills $'%!E ('E 0 invites &s to discuss about t3is topic startin6 from t3eir o4n opinions. 0 reads a couple of sentences containin6 t3e $resent $assive forms and t3en s3e as?s t3e & to 4rite t3e rule: dGE V $ast participled =0 ma?es appreciations and c3ec?s &s_ pronunciation =0 supervises ) supplies error correction 0 and &s debate t3e topic" involvin6 t3e 43ole class" some3o4. 03e teac3er 6ives eac3 pair of &s an envelope 4it3 several unjumbled 4ord. Gananas) are) 6ro4n ) in ) tropical areas. coffee)6ro4n)Grazil 6lasses)ma?e)plastic letters)deliver)postman mil?)6ive)co4s = 0 as?s t3e &s to reorder t3e 4ords to form correct sentences. DI0E';!0D%I 0=&s &s=&s :istenin6 'eadin6 Jrontal <roup 4or? 0D/DI<

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1--

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GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

',+I8I+4 &A PR',+I,E 'I/SA to practice t3e past simple passive to find t3e main ideas from t3e debate to identif8 t3e differences bet4een $resent and $ast &imple $assive to e9press t3eir opinions $'%!E ('E 0 as?s &s to complete t3e c3art on t3eir noteboo?s. &s find ot3er e9amples of t3e past simple passive. DI0E';!0D%I 0=&s Dndividual &pea?in6 2ritin6 &s=&s 0D/DI< 1N min

0 6ives & anot3er 4or?s3eet 4it3 some activities related to t3e topic: 2rite sentences usin6 t3e prompts. /atc3 t3e !olumn ; to t3e !olumn G and t3en 4rite sentences =0 ma?es appreciations and c3ec?s &s_ pronunciation. =0 supervises ) supplies error correction &s debate t3e topic" read t3rou63 t3e passa6e and t3en 4rite it in t3eir note boo?s usin6 t3e correct form involvin6 t3e 43ole class" some3o4.

1-1

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

',+I8I+4 :A FEED5-',9 'I/SA to read a description of a stor8 told in pictures 03e 0D0;ID! &tor8 to practice t3e present and t3e past simple passive to ans4er @uestions usin6 t3e past simple passive and b8 a6ent

$'%!E ('E 0 as?s &s to read t3e passa6es and 4rite t3e correct form of t3e verbs. 0 6ives &s a s3ort time and c3ec?s orall8 t3eir ans4ers. 3O/EQOR9A &s are as?ed to find a report in t3eir local paper of a football matc3 ) film. 03e8 4rite a s3ort description of it in En6lis3 usin6 t3e past simple passive. 0 e9plains t3e topic of t3e 3ome4or? and 6ives e9amples.B1 minC: 03e matc3 4as pla8edU.<oals 4ere scoredUetc. 0 ma?es remar?s about t3e &s_ activit8 and mar?s pupils 4it3 6rades. <reetin6s

DI0E';!0D%I 0=&s Dndividual &pea?in6 2ritin6

0D/DI< 1- min

1-1

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

.ESSO0 P.'0
+E',3ERA S,3OO. 1R'DE: *t3 0O6 OF 3O RS PER QEE9A 1 0O6 OF S+ DE0+SA 1K +E?+-OO9A &I;$&>%0 = intermediate D'+EA /a8" 1-t3 1-13 .ESSO0A MI donEt Lelieve itN BK 3ours = 1st 3ourC +4PE OF .ESSO0A a@uisition of ne4 ?no4led6e +OPI,A Lerbs BmodalsC for dra4in6 conclusions F Mmust)mi63t)can7t V perfect infinitive 8O,'- .'R4A Lerbs of spea?in6 S+R ,+ RESA Mmust)mi63t)can7t V perfect infinitive ho% much9many Ione and an8 specificall8 F 0,+IO0SB,O// 0I,'+IO0A &peculatin6 about past ;6reein6 and disa6reein6 4it3 speculations <ivin6 reasons and e9pressin6 opinion S9I..SA inte6rated 'I/SA students read t3e te9t and 6ist it for specific informationH students listen to t3e tape and ans4er @uestions about t3e listened te9tH students practice t3e ne4 lan6ua6e structuresH students 4rite t3e ne4 6rammar structure in t3eir noteboo?sH students learn 3o4 to a6ree and disa6ree 4it3 speculations O-TE,+I8ES !%<ID0DLE: b8 t3e end of t3e lesson students 4ill be able to understand and react ade@uatel8 to comple9 @uestions and statementsH e9press information e9plicitl8H introduce a point of vie4H become a4are and s3o4 understandin6 of t3e formsH understand" produce and use t3e stated informationH s?im to obtain a 6eneral impression of t3e te9tH scan to locate specificall8 re@uired informationH respond in different situations Ba6ree and disa6reeCH e9press t3emselves in free 4ritin6 and spea?in6. ;JJE!0DLE: 1-3

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

ma?in6 students confident in t3eir abilit8 to use t3e lan6ua6eH creatin6 interest in t3e topic of t3e lessonH creatin6 a rela9ed atmosp3ere" proper for stud8in6H foster learner independence and cooperative learnin6H stimulatin6 students7 ima6ination and creativit8H 3avin6 fun. +E',3I01 'IDSA &G)0G):an6ua6e boosters 2or?s3eets" prompts !lass ! s ! pla8er Glac?board +E',3I01 /E+3ODS '0D +E,30IU ESA !ommunicative approac3 E9erciseH @uestions and ans4ersH 6ap=fillin6 e9erciseH drillin6H sentence 4ritin6H conversationH dialo6uesH dramatized situations and role=pla8 OR1'0I2'+IO0 '0D +I/EA 23ole class Dndividual 4or? $air 4or? N-7 'SS /P+IO0SA D assume t3at most of t3e vocabular8 to be tau63t is alread8 ?no4n to m8 students. '0+I,IP'+ED PRO-.E/SA &tudents mi63t not be ver8 ea6er to participate as t3e8 3ave been mainl8 preoccupied b8 t3eir 4ritten tests latel8. S+'1ES OF +3E .ESSO0 'ctivitI %A Qarmer 'imsA to revie4 t3e previousl8 learnt material to motivate and involve students b8 means of personalisation Procedure 0 6reets &s and as?s about t3eir state of mind and 3o4 t3e8 feel. 0 c3ec?s attendance. &s ans4er. 0 as?s &s to c3ec? t3eir 3ome4or? &s read t3eir 3ome4or?. Interaction 0=&s 0=&s 0=&s 0=&s +iming &E

1-K

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'ctivitI !A .ead5in 'imA to prepare t3e conte9t of t3e lesson b8 means of picture e9ploitation Procedure 0 as?s &s to ma?e 6uesses about t3e pictures in t3e te9tboo?. Be9.1)pa6e 1-KC. &s ma?e assumptions about t3e pictures. = 23ere is /iss !arrR = 23o is s3e tal?in6 toR = 23at is s3e 6ivin6 to DanR = 23at do 8ou t3in? s3e is tal?in6 aboutR 0 reads t3e title of t3e te9t and ma?es a brief surve8 4it3 t3e class about 43at t3e8 t3in? it 3appened. 0 elicits ideas from t3e 43ole class and &s advance ideas. 'ctivitI &A .istening for specific information 'imA to listen and 6rasp relevant information from t3e te9t Procedure 0 pla8s t3e tape Be9. 1)pa6e 1-KC. &s listen and read t3e te9t in t3e &G. 0 as?s &s @uestions about t3e read te9t and &s ans4er 6ivin6 t3eir %pinion. = 23at do 8ou t3in? it 3appened to /att" Aell8 and bofR = 23ere do 8ou t3in? t3e8 are no4R = o 8ou t3in? t3e87ll be in time for t3e re3earsalR Interaction 00 +iming &E Interaction 0=&s 0=&s 0=&s &s=0 00 0=&s +iming :E

0=&s

1-N

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'ctivitI :: Reading compre@ension 'im : to c3ec? understandin6 of t3e te9t Procedure 0 as?s &s to read t3e te9t a6ain if necessar8 and ans4er t3e @uestions in e9.1)pa6e 1-N. 0 c3ec?s t3e ans4ers 4it3 t3e 43ole class. 0 4rites some prompts on t3e blac?board for t3e useful p3rases &s read in t3e te9t and as?s &s to fill in t3e 6aps. 0 pla8s t3e tape a6ain after &s fill in t3e 6aps. &s fill in t3e 6aps and c3ec? t3eir ans4ers 4it3 t3e tape and t3en t3e8 practice t3e mini dialo6ue across t3e class in open pairs. Interaction 0=&s 0=&s 0=&s D2 &s=0 0=&s &s=&s +iming =E

'ctivitI <A PresentationH isolation and e(emplification 'im: to introduce t3e ne4 lan6ua6e structures Procedure 0 as?s &s to loo? at t3e e9amples in t3e boo? B<rammar flas3C and c3ec?s understandin6 b8 as?in6 @uestions. 0 encoura6es &s to 6ive reasons for t3eir ans4ers. 0 4rites e9amples on t3e blac?board and &s cop8 t3em in t3eir Ioteboo?s. 'ctivitI ;A Practicing structures $ semi controlled practice 'imA to provide opportunit8 to use recentl8 learnt material to produce and use e9plicitl8 t3e recentl8 learnt material Procedure 0 as?s &s to solve e9.K" pa6e 1-N after s3e first reads t3e e9ample. &s complete t3e sentences individuall8. 0 6oes t3rou63 t3e ans4ers 4it3 t3e 43ole class. Interaction 0=&s 0=&s 0=&s &s=0 +iming =E 0=&s Interaction 00 0=&s 0=&s +iming %!E

1-,

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'ctivitI #A Practicing structures 'imA to produce and use e9plicitl8 t3e recentl8 learnt material to s3o4 understandin6 of t3e ne4 forms Procedure 0 as?s &s to listen and read silentl8 t3e structures used to a6ree and disa6ree 4it3 speculations. ;cross t3e class" in open pairs" &s practice t3e ne4 structures. (sin6 t3e clues 6iven in t3e boo? &s ma?e s3ort conversations in 6roups of t3ree and one 6roup acts out t3eir conversation for t3e 43ole class. 'ctivitI =A 'ssigning @omeDorK Procedure 0 e9plains 3ome4or?. &s 4rite t3e assi6nment in t3eir noteboo?s. BE9ercise 1" pa6e +, in :GC. 0 praise &s for t3eir 4or? and 6ives 6rades. Interaction 0=&s &s=&s +iming %"E

Interaction 0=&s

+iming !E

'PPE0DI? -- map %G 8erLs MmustBmig@tBcanEtN folloDed LI Perfect Infinitive to draD conclusions aLout past /ustBmig@tBcanEt V @ave V verL&rd = dra4 conclusions about t3e past 03e8 must 3ave for6otten about t3e re3earsal. /ustBmig@tBcanEt V verL JLe or anot@er main verL in t@e Lase formG = dra4 conclusions about present &3e must be Aate 2inslet. 1-+

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

seful e(pressions and structures to speculate aLout t@e pastH to agree and disagree Dit@ speculations Speculating aLout past = /ustBmig@tBcanWt V perfect infinitive = Per@apsB/aILeBProLaLlI 'greeing Dit@ speculations = /aILe IouEre rig@t6 = 4ou could Le rig@t6 = I suppose so6 = I t@inK IouEre rig@t6 = SuL*ect V must @ave6 Disagreeing Dit@ speculations = +@at canEt Le t@e reason6 = SurelI not! = I donEt Lelieve it6 = SuL*ect V canEt @ave6

!G

1-*

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

.ESSO0 P.'0

+E',3ER: S,3OO.: D'+EA 1Kt3 of /a8 1-13 ,.'SS: 3rd 0O6OF SsA 11 .E8E.A be6inners B1st 8ear of stud8C +E?+-OO9A 'ay Ahead, )acmillan 0I+ %=A S@e can run +4PE OF .ESSO0A revision F 0,+IO0SA 0o e9press abilit8 0o identif8 and to locate 0o describe t3in6s and places 0o identif8 movements

'I/S OF .ESSO0A LI t@e end of t@e lesson students Dill Le aLleA 0o tal? about 43at animals can)can7t do 0o identif8 animals 0o locate animals 0o describe animals and parts of t3e bod8 0o describe locations and places 0o identif8 activities

S9I..SA Dnte6rated s?ills 1R'//'R: modal verb Mcan 1-.

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

personal pronouns 3ave)3as t3ere is t3ere are verbs of movement

8O,'- .'R4A animals colors parts of t3e bod8

O-TE,+I8ESA '6 ,ognitive oL*ectivesA to c3ec? and improve vocabular8H to encoura6e students to tal? freel8H to 3elp students tal? about abilitiesH to 6ive students more practice on pronunciation" vocabular8 and t3e structures previousl8 tau63t. -6 'ffective oL*ectivesA ma?in6 students confident in t3eir abilit8 to use t3e lan6ua6eH creatin6 interest in t3e topic of t3e lessonH creatin6 a rela9ed atmosp3ere" proper for stud8in6H foster learner independence and cooperative learnin6H stimulatin6 students7 ima6ination and creativit8H 3avin6 fun.

DID',+I, S+R'+E1IESA methods and procedures* e9planation" dialo6ues" conversation" pair 4or?" independent 4or?" elicitation" 6ame" brainstormin6H materials and equipment* pictures" flas3cards" 4or?s3eets" te9tboo?" 4or?boo?s" posters" flipc3art" a dice organi1ation* loc?step" individual 4or?" pair 4or? 11-

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

.O,'+IO0A t3e classroom +I/I01: N- min 'SS /P+IO0SA D assume t3at most of t3e vocabular8 and structures to be revised are alread8 ?no4n to m8 students. '0+I,IP'+ED PRO-.E/SA &ome students mi63t need furt3er 3elp and e9tra indications in solvin6 t3e tas?s and t3e8 ma8 also need some of t3ese indications to be 6iven in 'omanian.

PRO,ED RE ',+I8I+4 %A Q'R/5 P 'I/SA to focus t3e &s7 attention to 6et &s involved into t3e topic

$'%!E ('E = Dntroductor8 conversation = <ame: &s t3ro4 a dice 43ic3 3as , animals dra4n on it" t3e8 3ave to name t3e animal and sa8 43at it can do. =&s 4rite t3e sentences on t3e Gb $arrots can fl8. >ippos can s4im. /on?e8s can jump. 'abbits can 3op. :ions can run. S9I..SA spea?in6" 4ritin6 +E',3I01 +E,30IU ESA e9planation" instructions" 6ame 'IDSA pictures" a dice ',+I8I+4 !A 1ame = <uess t3e animal 'I/SA to revise parts of t3e bod8 to revise animals and colors 111

DI0E';!0D%I %'<;IDb;0D%I 0=&s &s= 0 loc?step

0D/DI< N min

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

to use t3e verbs of movement DI0E';!0D%I 0D/DI<

$'%!E ('E = 0 as?s one student to come at 3er des? and to c3oose one picture from t3ere. 03e student describes 43at s3e)3e sees usin6 colors and parts of t3e bod8 and 43at t3e8 can)can7t do = &s 6uess t3e animals S9I..SA spea?in6 +E',3I01 +E,30IU ESA conversation" 6ame 'IDSA pictures ',+I8I+4 &A 1ame $ 'nimal *igsaDs Bmatc3in6C 'I/SA to revise parts of t3e bod8 to revise animals and colors to use t3e verbs of movement

%'<;IDb;0D%I 0=&s N min &s=&s loc?step

$'%!E ('E = 0 6ives students s3eets of paper and some ji6sa4ed pictures of animals and as?s pupils to stic? t3em to6et3er on t3e s3eets to discover 43at animal it is = &s stic? t3e parts on t3e s3eet of paper and discover t3e animal t3en t3e8 ma?e statements about it usin6 t3e model on t3e previous activit8 = 0 as?s one of t3e pupil to 4rite t3e description of 3is)3er animal on t3e blac?board S9I..SA listenin6" spea?in6 +E',3I01 +E,30IU ESA e9planation" conversation" 6ame 'IDSA 4or?s3eets" pictures ',+I8I+4 :A Revising verLs of movement 5 Riddles 111

DI0E';!0D%I

0D/DI<

%'<;IDb;0D%I 0=&s 1- min &s=0 23ole class

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'I/SA to e9press abilit8" usin6 can9can7t to revise personal pronouns

$'%!E ('E = 0eac3er stic?s t3ree 4ritten riddles on t3e flipc3art and as?s &s to read t3e riddles and to 6uess t3e animal = &s ans4er and stic? on t3e poster t3e picture of t3e 6uessed animal = 0 6ive students a 4or?s3eet as?in6 t3em to ans4er t3e @uestions usin6 t3e 6iven cues = &s ans4er t3e @uestions and t3en read t3eir ans4ers S9I..SA readin6" spea?in6" 4ritin6 +E',3I01 +E,30IU ESA e9planation" conversation 'IDSA pictures" poster" flipc3art" 4or?s3eets ',+I8I+4 <A Production 5 listenin6" readin6" 4ritin6 'I/SA to tal? about t3in6s usin6 t3e learnt structures to differentiate bet4een persons to ma?e ne6ative statements

DI0E';!0D%I %'<;IDb;0D%I 0=& &s=&s D2

0D/DI< 1- min

$'%!E ('E = 0 6ives students a 4or?s3eet 4it3 some pictures and reads t3em 43at ;nd8 can see = &s listen and tic? t3eir ans4ers on t3e 4or?s3eet = 0 as?s &s to sa8 43at ;nd8 cannot see 113

DI0E';!0D%I %'<;IDb;0D%I 0=& D2 &s=&s

0D/DI< 1- min

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

= &s solve t3e tas? and 4rites t3e sentences on t3e Gb and ion t3eir 4or?s3eets S9II.SA listenin6" 4ritin6 +E',3I01 +E,30IU ESA e9ercise" conversation" @uestions and ans4ers 'IDSA 4or?s3eets

',+I8I+4 ;A FEED5-',9 $ spea?in6" 4ritin6 'I/SA to as? about 43at t3eir classmates can do to tal? about 43at t3eir classmates can)cannot do

$'%!E ('E = 0 6ives t3e &s 4or?s3eets 4it3 &ell me %hat you can do and e9plains t3at t3e8 3ave to as? t3eir des?mate if t3e8 can do one or more of t3e t3in6s on t3e 4or?s3eet and 4rite t3e ans4er ne9t to t3e action =23en t3e8 finis3 &s report to t3e class 43at t3e8 3ave found S9I..SA 4ritin6" spea?in6

DI0E';!0D%I %'<;IDb;0D%I 0=& &s=&s $2

0D/DI< 1- min

+E',3I01 +E,30IU ESA e9planation" conversation" e9ercise" @uestions and ans4ers 'IDSA 4or?s3eets 'SSI10I01 3O/EQOR9: to provide consolidation of lan6ua6e and 6rammar so far 2rite N t3in6s t3at 8ou can do and N t3in6s t3at 8ou cannot do. 0. assi6ns t3e 3ome4or? b8 6ivin6 clear instructions. 'SSESS/E0+A 0. praises all t3e &s for t3eir participation durin6 t3e entire lesson. 0 6ives a Mplus to t3e most active &s.

11K

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

.ESSO0 P.'0 +E',3ERA 1R'DE: *t3 0O6 OF 3O RS PER QEE9A 1 0O6 OF S+ DE0+SA 1K +E?+-OO9A &I;$&>%0 = intermediate D'+EA /a8" 1Kt3 +4PE OF .ESSO0A revision +OPI,A /odal verbs e9pressin6 probabilit8 and possibilit8 8O,'- .'R4A Iatural environment vocabular8 4ords 3avin6 to do 4it3 possibilit8" and certaint8 S+R ,+ RESA /odal verbs e9pressin6 possibilit8 and probabilit8 F 0,+IO0SB,O// 0I,'+IO0A E9pressin6 possibilit8 and probabilit8 S9I..SA inte6rated 'I/SA students practice t3e recentl8 studied lan6ua6e structuresH &tudents become more familiar 4it3 t3ese modal verbs t3at e9press var8in6 de6rees of certaint8 O-TE,+I8ES !%<ID0DLE: b8 t3e end of t3e lesson students 4ill be able to : to 6enerate t3eir o4n sentences Bat least t4oC usin6 one or t4o modal verbs understand and react ade@uatel8 to comple9 @uestions and statementsH e9press information e9plicitl8H become a4are and s3o4 understandin6 of t3e formsH understand" produce and use t3e stated informationH &tudents 4ill 6ain 6reater understandin6 of t3e follo4in6 vocabular8 4ords 3avin6 to do 4it3 possibilit8" and certaint8 su66estion" certaint8" conclusion" probabilit8" capabilit8" possibilit8" c3ance 11N

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

e9press t3emselves in free 4ritin6 and spea?in6. ;JJE!0DLE: ma?in6 students confident in t3eir abilit8 to use t3e lan6ua6eH creatin6 interest in t3e topic of t3e lessonH creatin6 a rela9ed atmosp3ere" proper for stud8in6H foster learner independence and cooperative learnin6H stimulatin6 students7 ima6ination and creativit8H 3avin6 fun. +E',3I01 'IDSA 2or?s3eets Glac?board +E',3I01 /E+3ODS '0D +E,30IU ESA !ommunicative approac3 E9erciseH @uestions and ans4ersH 6ap=fillin6 e9erciseH drillin6H sentence 4ritin6H conversationH dialo6uesH OR1'0I2'+IO0 '0D +I/EA 23ole class Dndividual 4or? $air 4or? N-7 'SS /P+IO0SA D assume t3at most of t3e vocabular8 to be tau63t is alread8 ?no4n to m8 students. '0+I,IP'+ED PRO-.E/SA /odals and modalit8 entail a 6ood deal of comple9it8. 03erefore" modals are usuall8 tau63t in 6roups of t4o or t3ree in order to control comple9it8 and not over43elm t3e learner 4it3 4it3 subtle s3ades" or tones" of meanin6. Gut t3is lesson presents broader ran6e of modals to consider S+'1ES OF +3E .ESSO0 'ctivitI %A Qarmer 'imsA to revie4 t3e previousl8 learnt material to motivate and involve students b8 means of personalisation

Procedure 0 6reets &s and as?s about t3eir state of mind and 3o4 t3e8 feel. 0 c3ec?s attendance. &s ans4er. 0 as?s &s to c3ec? t3eir 3ome4or? &s read t3eir 3ome4or?.

Interaction 0=&s 0=&s 0=&s

+iming N7

11,

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'ctivitI !A .ead5in 'imA to prepare t3e conte9t of t3e lesson to activate a4areness of modal conte9t: de6rees of possibilit8 and certaint8 Procedure Interaction &tart out 4it3 Fuestion and ansDer discussion about 0=&s 0=&s follo4in6 38pot3etical situation: 0: M o 4e all ?no4 43at plutonium isR &s: gvarious ans4ersh 0=&s 0: MDs it dan6erousR o 8ou t3in? it could cause cancer if 8ou came into contact 4it3 itR >o4 certain are 8ou t3at if a person eats plutonium" t3e8 4ill 6et cancerR 23at about if t3e8 just touc3 itR 23at about 4or?in6 in a nuclear po4er plantR 2rite various student remar?s about t3e possibilit8 of plutonium causin6 cancer. Ellicit an opinion from individual &s. M&i" 43at do 8ou t3in?R Ds it possible for plutonium to cause cancer if 8ou 3andled itR 'ctivitI &A Guided Practice 'imA 0o evaluate modal meanin6s Procedure Interaction $ass out ne4 cards to students Bplutonium sentencesC and as? t3em to sort 0= t3em in &s=&s order of increasin6 or decreasin6 certaint8 4it3 t3e sentence 3avin6 t3e 6reatest 0BfacilitatesC de6ree of certaint8 at t3e top and t3e least amount of certaint8 at t3e bottom. +@e cards J#GA \ $lutonium 4ill cause cancer Bif it is in6estedC. \ $lutonium must cause cancer. \ $lutonium s3ould cause cancer Bif it is in6estedC. \ $lutonium can cause cancer. \ $lutonium ma8 cause cancer. \ $lutonium could cause cancer. \ $lutonium mi63t cause cancer. 2rite t3e vocabular8 list on t3e board to one side: 11+

+iming %"E

+iming %"E

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

certainty conclusion probability capability possibility chance ;s? t3ree volunteers to 4rite t3eir lists on t3e board. iscuss eac3 list as a class. Iotice 43ere t3e order differs bet4een lists. iscuss to invo?e discover8" a4areness" and consensus of de6ree. !ompare an8 differences. 03e important point is to as? about 43at eac3 modal verb means in terms of possibilit8 and certaint8R 'ctivitI :A ,ontrolled Practice 'im: to produce and use e9plicitl8 t3e recentl8 learnt material Procedure Interaction 0 istribute 4or?s3eet and 3ave students fill in t3e blan?s" c3oosin6 an appropriate &s modal verb for eac3 sentence. <o over ans4ers 4it3 43ole class. +iming 1-7

11*

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'ctivitI <A Practicing structures $ semi controlled practice 'imA to provide opportunit8 to use recentl8 learnt material Procedure Step %6 Independent practiceA Drite one sentence using one c@osen modal verL6 :a8 out 1K inde9 cards on t3e front tableit4o for eac3 modal verb under discussion: 4ill" must" s3ould" can" ma8" could" mi63t ;s? students to come up and pic? a card" t3en 4rite a sentence usin6 t3e modal verb t3at t3e8 selected. Dnstruct &s t3at t3e sentence s3ould indicate some de6ree of possibilit8 and certaint8 about doin6 somet3in6 in of t3e follo4in6 topics B4rite t3ese on t3e boardC: science" en6ineerin6" t3e environment" transportation" 3ealt3 and medicine Step 2. ;s? &s to 4rite t3eir sentences on t3e board. Jor eac3 sentence" as? class if t3e8 a6ree. iscuss an8 variation or disa6reement. >o4 muc3 obli6ation is impliedR >o4 muc3 c3oiceR 23at does t3e modal verb mean in eac3 sentenceR 23at ot3er 4a8s are t3ere to sa8 itR Interaction 0=&s &s 0=&s 0 BfacilitatesC +iming 1N7

11.

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

.ESSO0 P.'0 +E',3ER: S,3OO.: D'+EA *t3 of /a8 1-11 ,.'SS: + 0O6OF SsA 1. +E?+-OO9A En6lis3 &crapboo? .ESSO0A E0!#)AS S+R ,+ RES) should havePpast participle Shouldn7t havePpast participle O-TE,+I8ES G8 t3e end of t3e lesson" m8 students 4ill be able to: 0al? about past events E9press criticism and re6ret about past situations

+E',3I01 'IDSA te9tboo? Glac?board 2or?s3eets !d=pla8er 11-

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'SS /P+IO0SA D assume t3at students 3ave alread8 4atc3ed t3e film M0itanic. '0+I,IP'+ED PRO-.E/SA &tudents mi63t 3ave some difficulties in understandin6 t3e listenin6 part of t3e lesson. Time) !@= 'ctivitI %A Qarmer 'imsA o to create a pleasant atmosp3ere for learnin6 o to involve sudents b8 means of personalisation Procedure 0 6reets &s 0 as?s @uestions: 'ho is absent todayC $o% are you todayC Are you ready for the lessonC 'hat is your lesson for todayC &s ans4er. 0=&s Interaction 0=&s +iming !E E

'ctivitI !: ,@ecKing @omeDorK 'im: o to c3ec? understandin6 of previous lesson Procedure Interaction 0 as?s ss to read t3eir 3ome4or? and after t3at 0=&s t3e8 4ill discuss about it. &s=0 +iming %"E

111

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

'ctivitI &: Reading 'im: o to tal? about past events o to discuss about 0itanic and its stor8.

Procedure Interaction 0 announces t3e students t3at t3e8 4ill read a te9t 0=&s about 0itanic. 03e8 are as?ed to translate t3e te9t and after t3at t3e8 4ill tal? about it" as?in6 and ans4erin6 @uestions. &Fs

+iming %<E

'ctivitI :: Qriting 'im: o to 4rite do4n re6rets usin6 should have9shouldn7t have Procedure 03e teac3er as?s t3e students to put t3emselves into t3e situation. 0=&s E(* ! should have taken as many lifeboats as needed. 03e students 4rite on t3e blac?board t3eir sentences 'ctivitI <A .istening and speaKing 'im: o to discuss and 6ive reasons about t3e situation Procedure Interaction +iming Interaction Dndividual 1-7 +iming

t3e 0itanic7s captain s3oes and 4rite 3is re6rets about 4or?

111

UNIUNEA EUROPEAN

GUVERNUL ROMNIEI MINISTERUL MUNCII, FAMILIEI, PROTECIEI SOCIALE I PERSOANELOR VRSTNICE AMPOSDRU

Fondul Social Euro !an POS "RU #$$%&#$'(

In)*ru+!n*! S*ruc*ural! #$$% & #$'(

OIPOS"RU

03e teac3er as?s t3e students to listen to a tape about t3e premonitions before t3e ;ccident and to solve e9 N)+N.

0=&s

<E

<E ;fter t3at t3e students are 6iven some 4or?s3eets and are as?ed to complete t3e te9t of t3e son6 M/8 3eart 4ill 6o on 43ile t3e8 listen to it. 'ctivitI ;A 'ssigning @omeDorK Procedure 03e teac3er as?s t3e students to solve e9 ,)+N. Interaction 0=&s +iming !E

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