S3

Atoms, Elements and Compounds S3-CHEM-3.1

3.1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
A) Structure of an atom
1. The atoms of all elements are made up of three kinds of particles, hose properties are
tabulated belo!
Particle Char"e Mass
Proton Positi#e char"e $%1) 1
&eutron &one 1
Electron &e"ati#e char"e $-1) 1/1840
'. The particles are arran"ed li(e this!
the protons and neutrons cluster to"ether in the centre, formin" the nucleus
the electrons occup) ener") le#els outside the nucleus
*. Atomic number and mass number
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1. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons contained in one atom of
an element. Since the o#erall char"e of an atom is ala)s 0ero, the number of protons in
an) atom is the same as the number of electrons.
'. The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons contained in one atom of the element.
3. The atomic number and mass number of an element are usuall) indicated ith the
chemical s)mbol in the folloin" manner.
Mass number
S)mbol
Atomic number
C. 1sotopes
Each element has onl) one atomic number. Hoe#er, the atoms of an element are not
ala)s identical. 1sotopes are atoms of the same element ith the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons. 1n other ords, isotopes are forms of an element
ith different mass numbers.
Mass number = the number of protons % number of neutrons
S3 Atoms, Elements and Compounds 53-CHEM-3.2
D. Arrangement of electrons in shells
1. Electrons are arranged in energy leels around the nucleus of an atom. !he energy
leels are sometimes called shells. !he nearer the shell to the nucleus, the lo"er the
energy leel. !he first shell is the one nearest the nucleus.
2. Each energy leel can hold a certain num#er of electrons.
the first shell $lo"est energy leel% can hold up to 2 electrons
the second shell can hold up to & electrons
the third shell can hold up to & electrons
'e can "or( out ho" the electrons are arranged #y filling the lo"est energy shells first, i.e.
the first shell. 'hen the lo"est energy leel is full the ne)t electron goes into the second shell.
'hen the second shell is full "ith eight electrons then the electrons "ill fill the third shell. *or
e)ample, the atomic num#er of aluminium is 13. !he first shell is filled #y t"o electrons, the
second shell is filled #y eight electrons, and the remaining three electrons occupy the third
shell. !he atom is often "ritten as A+ $2,&,3%. !he $2,&,3% is the
electron arrangement or electronic configuration of aluminium.
E)ample, Arrangement of electrons in an aluminium atom
3. !he highest occupied energy leel is (no"n as the alence shell, and the
electrons in it are (no"n as alence electrons. *or e)ample, the fourth shell is the
alence shell of potassium, and each potassium atom has one alence electron.
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Atoms, Elements and Compounds S3-CHEM-3.2
The table below gives the electron configuration of the first 20 elements.
Atomic Electron
Element Symbol Electron shells
number configuration
st 2nd 3r! "th
shell
shell shell shell
Hy!rogen H
Helium He 2 2 2
#ithium #i 3 2 2$
%eryllium %e " 2 2 2$2
%oron % & 2 3 2$3
Carbon C ' 2 " 2$"
(itrogen ( ) 2 & 2$&
*+ygen 0 , 2 ' 2$'
-luorine - . 2 ) 2$)
(eon (e 0 2 , 2$,
So!ium (a 2 , 2$,$
Magnesium Mg 2 2 , 2 2$,$2
Aluminium A/ 3 2 , 3 2$,$3
Silicon Si " 2 , " 2$,$"
0hos1horus 0 & 2 , & 2$,$&
Sul1hur S ' 2 , ' 2$,$'
Chlorine C/ ) 2 , ) 2$,$)
Argon Ar , 2 , , 2$,$,
0otassium 2 . 2 , , 2$,$,$
Calcium Ca 20 2 , , 2 2$,$,$2
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53 Atoms, Elements and Compounds S3-CHEM-3.3
3.2 Ions
1. The arrangement of electrons in three nole gases are gi!en elo"#
Helium atom 2 full outer shell
o
$eon atom2,% full outer shell
Argon atom 2,%,% full outer shell
2. A full outer shell ma&es an atom stale. 'nl( the nole gas atoms ha!e full outer
shells. This e)plains "h( nole gases are chemicall( unreacti!e.
3. The atoms of all other elements ha!e incomplete outer shells. *( reacting "ith each
other, atoms of these elements can otain full outer shells and so ecome stale.
4. The atoms of some elements can otain full shells ( either losing or gaining
electrons.
(a) Metal atoms
losing one or
m. Eg:
can otain a full outer shell
more electrons to another
(
ato
Sodium atom +II p, II e, ------.Sodium ion +11 p, 1/ e,
loses 1 e
Sodium atom has one !alence electron. It can otain a full outer shell ( losing this electron to
another atom. The result is a sodium ion.
This is no" the outer shell of a sodium ion. It is full and thus the ion is stale.
The charge on a sodium ion#
the charge on 11 protons -011
the charge on 11 electrons- -1/
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Total charge =+1
The sodium ion has a charge of +1, so it is a positive ion. Its symbol is Na",
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53 Atoms, Elements and Compounds 53-CHEM-3.4
(b) Atoms of non-metals can obtain full shells by gaining one o moe electons fom
anothe atom. !his pocess is called Electron transfer. Eg"
= = = = = = = = >
electon gains one
A chloine atom has # $alence electons. %t can obtain a full shell by accepting & electon fom
anothe atom. !he esult is a chloride ion.
!his is no' the oute shell of a chloide ion. %t is full and thus the ion is stable.
!he chage on a chloide ion
the chage on &# potons = (&#
the chage on &) electons * -&)
!otal chage *-&
!he chloide ion has a chage of -&, so it is a negati$e ion. %ts symbol is c.
&. Any atom becomes an ion 'hen it gains o loses electons. An ion is a chaged paticle
because it contains an une+ual numbe of potons and electons. !he ions fomed by some
of the elements ae gi$en belo'.
,. -eneally, metals and hydogen fom positi$e ions 'hile non-metals fom negati$e
ions. .ome elements do not usually fom ions. !his is because thei atoms 'ould ha$e to
lose o gain se$eal electons, and this e+uies too much enegy.
3.3 %onic bonds
A. /omation of ionic bonds
%onic bonds ae fomed by the tansfe of electons bet'een metallic and non-metallic
elements. .
B. !he eaction bet'een sodium and chloine
&. 0hen a sodium atom and a chloine atom eact togethe, the sodium atom loses its
$alence electon to the chloine atom. %n the pocess, sodium and chloide ions ae fomed.
1oth the ions ae stable because they ha$e full oute shells.
2 Copyight Modula Education Cente if 3333&435 Atoms, Elements and Compounds (.3-CHEM-3.4)2 5g #
2. Once the ions are formed, they are held together by strong electrostatic attraction.
The electrostatic attraction between the ions is called an ionic bond, or sometimes an
electrovalent bond.
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53 Atoms, Elements and Compounds 53-CHEM-3.5
Example:The reaction between calcium and chlorine
A calcium atom has two outer electrons. It has to lose these to attain a stable, ull outer shell
o electrons. Chlorine !",#,$% needs to &ain an electron. 'ince the calcium atom needs to lose
two electrons and the chlorine atom needs to &ain onl( one electron, the calcium atom has to
combine with two chlorine atoms. The ormula o calcium chloride is thereore CaC)
"
* The
compound has no o+erall char&e.
,
-a ",#,) CI",#,$ C)- ",#,# -a. ",#
3./ Molecules and co+alent bonds
Another t(pe o chemical bond is the co+alent bond which is ormed between non-metallic
elements. 0hen two non-metal atoms react to&ether, both o them need to &ain electrons to
reach ull shells. The( can onl( achie+e a ull outer shell o electrons b( sharin& electrons.A
co+alent bond is ormed when two atoms share a pair o electrons.
Example: Chlorine !two chlorine atoms%
Each chlorine atom needs a share a chlorine molecule
1rom let to ri&ht: add in one more electron to obtain a ull shell
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53 Atoms, Elements and Compounds S3-CHEM-3.6
3.5 Ionic and covalent compounds
A. Ionic compounds
Ionic compounds are formed when a metallic element comines with a nonmetallic element.
Electron transfers etween the atoms of these elements lead to the formation of ions. !hus,
ionic solids are composed of ions with opposin" char"es held to"ether # stron" ionic
onds. A molecule is a small "roup of atoms which are held to"ether # covalent onds.
$acts
Ionic solids have hi"h meltin" and oilin" points. !he# are not volatile.!he# are usuall# solule
in water, ut are insolule in or"anic solvents %&e. solvents which have covalent onds'.
(hen solid, ionic solids do not conduct electricit#. !he# conduct electricit# when molten or in
solution.
!heor#
!he stron" force of attraction etween ions of opposite char"es ma)e it difficult to separate
the ions. A lot of ener"# must e asored to rin" aout a chan"e of state.
In the solid state, the ions cannot move. (hen the# are melted or dissolved, the ions are free
to move.
*. Covalent compounds
Atoms of non-metallic elements comine with each other # sharin" electrons. Man# covalent
compounds are composed of simple molecules+. !he onds which hold the atoms to"ether
in the molecule are stron", ut the attraction which e,ists etwen molecules are wea).
$acts
Molecular compounds are not ver# hard. !he# have low meltin" and oilin" points. Man# of
them are either "ases or volatile li-uids at room temperature. !he# are usuall# insolule in
water ut are solule in or"anic solvents.
!he# do not conduct electricit#
!heor#
!he molecules are held to"ether # onl# wea) forces, so not much ener"# is needed to
separate them.
!he molecules are unchar"ed.
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Atoms, Elements and Compounds 53-CHEM-3.6
Differences between ionic and covalent compounds
Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
Types of particle
Ions with opposing
Small molecules
present
charges
Strong ionic bonds
Strong covalent bonds hold atoms
Bonding together in themolecule; separate
between ions.
molecules are held by weak forces.
Properties:
Non volatile.
Volatile.
Volatility
Very high melting and
Low melting and boiling points.
boiling points.
Nonconductors when
Electrical
solid.
!ood conductors when
Nonconductors.
conductivity
molten or in solution.
Soluble in water but not
Soluble in organic solvents" but not in
Solubility
in
water.
organic solvents.
# Copyright $odular %ducation Centre '2&''&()'* +toms" %lements and Compounds ,S'C-%$'.&.# /g (0
53 The Periodic Table 53-CHEM-4.1
The most important classification system in Chemistry is that arrangement of elements that we
call the periodic table. It was first constrcted by !mitri Mendelee"# a $ssian chemist in the
late 1%&'s. Mendelee"(ll table# howe"er# had many gaps in it becase only &3 elements were
)nown at that time. He predicted that elements wold be disco"ered to fill the gaps and he
frther predicted many of their properties. *ater# when sch elements were fond# ha"ing
almost e+actly the properties predicted for them# the great "ale of the periodic table was
clearly demonstrated. The periodic table enables s to correlate the properties of the
elements and to remember and predict their chemistry. There is a basic generali,ation
that lies behind the periodic table and this is )nown as the periodic law-
The properties of the elements are periodic fnctions of their atomic nmbers..
The /oble 0ases
1ppro+imately a do,en elements are gases at room temperatre and si+ of these# helim#
neon# argon# )rypton# +enon and radon are remar)ably similar. This similarity is illstrated as
follows-
1 They are all colorless gases consisting of monatomic molecles.
2 There is a "ery narrow temperatre range o"er which anyone of them can e+ist as a
li3id.
3 Their ioni,ation energies are "ery high. This means that their electron configrations
are "ery stable.
4 They are particlarly distincti"e in their almost total lac) of chemical reacti"ity
The noble gases illstrate the periodic law so clearly that they are the )ey to organi,ing
elements into the periodic table.
4e shold also note that there is a small bt progressi"e trend in properties as we mo"e from
helim to radon. This is shown in the gradal rise of melting points and boiling points down the
grop.
He /e 1r 5r 6e $n
1tomic nmber 2 10 18 36 54 86
Melting point 758
1.1at
25 84 116 161 202
26 atm
9oiling point 758 4.2 27 87 120 165 211
Ioni,ation energy
2378 2087 1 526 1 357 1 176 1 044
7):;mole8
<ter shell electrons 2 8 8 8 8 8
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The Periodic Table 53-CHEM-4.2
The Alkali Metals
The six elements with atomic numbers one greater than the six noble gases are ver similar
an! also illustrate the "erio!ic law. These are the alkali metals - lithium# so!ium# "otassium#
rubi!ium# caesium an! $rancium. Their similarities are illustrate! below%
& The are all so$t metals which corro!e easil.
2 Their li'ui! states exist over a wi!e tem"erature range an! have high boiling "oints an!
low melting "oints.
3 Their ioni(ation energies are ver low. This in!icates that the are strongl electro"ositive.
4 The are characteri(e! b their great reactivit to $orm ver stable com"oun!s in which
the alkali metal atom loses one electron an!# $orms a ) & ion. This can be seen in the $ollowing
reactions%
*a+ Each alkali metal reacts vigorousl an! ra"i!l with water to $orm h!rogen gas an! an
a'ueous solution o$ the alkali metal h!roxi!e
*b+ The react rea!il with chlorine *see "age &4, $or so!ium+# e.g. 2-a*s+ ) C&
2
*g+ ../
2-aC0*s+
*c+ The burn brilliantl when heate! in air $orming the oxi!e M
2
1 *an! usuall the
"eroxi!e M
2
0
2
as well+ where M re"resents an alkali metal atom# e.g. 4-a*s+ ) 12*g+ ../
2-a
2
1*s+
*!+ The react ver vigorousl *almost ex"losivel+ with !ilute aci!s# e.g. 2-a*s+ )
2H)*a'+ ../ 2-a)*a'+ ) H
2
*g+
5 Their oxi!es an! h!roxi!es are basic an! !issolve in water to give alkaline solutions.
Thus the react with aci!s "ro!ucing salts "lus water onl.
2 Their chlori!es an! oxi!es are high melting "oint ionic soli!s.
0t shoul! be a""reciate! that the !ominant $eature o$ the chemistr o$ the alkali metals is their
marke! ten!enc to $orm the )& ion. 0n !oing so the achieve the stable noble gas electron
con$iguration. The alkali metals are ver reactive but com"oun!s containing the alkali
metal ions are com"arativel unreactive. 3ike the noble gases we notice that there is a
gra!ual small change in "ro"erties as we move $rom lithium to caesium. Thus the melting
"oints an! boiling "oints gra!uall !ecrease !own the grou".
Li -a 4 5b Cs
Atomic number 3 11 19 37 55
Melting "oint *4+ 453 371 336 312 302
6oiling "oint *4+ 1 599 1 162 1 030 952 963
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Ionization energy
526 502 425 409 382
(kJ/mole)
Outer shell electrons 1 1 1 1 1
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S3 The Periodic Table S3-CHEM-4.3
The Halogens
The elements with atomic numbers one less than the noble gases form another family which
illustrates the periodic law. These are known as the halogens - fluorine chlorine bromine and
iodine. Their similarities are illustrated below!
" They are non-metals and consist of diatomic molecules.
# They are all coloured fluorine - a pale yellow gas$ chlorine - a yellow-green gas$
bromine a brown-red li%uid$ iodine - a &iolet solid.
3 Their melting points and boiling points are low and their li%uids e'ist only o&er a
narrow temperature range.
4 Their ioni(ation energies are high$ in fact second only to those of the noble gases.
Hence they are strongly electronegati&e.
) They are &ery reacti&e. *n their reactions there is a marked tendency for the halogen
atom to gain one electron and form a stable -" halide ion. *n these reactions they act as
o'idi(ing agents of which fluorine is the strongest and iodine the weakest.
+a, They react &iolently with sodium e.g. #-a+s, . C*
#
+g, //0 #-aC*+s,
+b, 1ll of the halogens e'cept iodine will o'idi(e iron+l*, compounds to iron+l**,
compounds e.g. for chlorine! e.g. H
#
S2
4
+a%, . #3eS24+a%, . C"
#
+g, ///0
3e#+S24,3+a%, . #HC*+a%,
+c, They combine with hydrogen to form gaseous co&alent hydrides which
dissol&e in water to form halogen acids e.g. H#+g,.C* #+g,//0#HC*+g,.
+d, They react with most non-metals to form co&alent halidese.g.#4+s,.3C*
#
+g, //0
#4C"
3
( 1 )
+e, Chlorine and bromine o'idi(e sulphur dio'ide or sulphites to sulphates
(f) Displacement reactions The halogens displace each other from their salts
depending on their relati&e strengths as o'idi(ing agent
5 Halides ha&e distincti&e properties.
+a, Metal halides are ionic solids e.g. -aC*. -on-metal halides are co&alent
compounds e.g. 4C"
3
: Hydrogen halides are gaseous compounds that are &ery
soluble in water forming strongly acid solutions.
+b, 6hen sil&er nitrate solution is added to a%ueous solutions containing halide
ions the corresponding sil&er halides are precipitated +sil&er fluoride being
soluble is an e'ception, e.g. 1g.+a%, . Cl7+a%, //0 1gC*+s, or sil&er chloride
8 Copyright Modular Education Centre '25335"23) The 4eriodic Table +S3-CHEM-4.3,8 4g "5
The dominant feature of the chemistry of the halogens is that they are very reactive but
halides are comparatively unreactive and stable. There is a gradual trend in properties as
we move from fluorine to iodine, the oxidizing strength decreases and their melting points
and boiling points increase.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre W 6336103 The !eriodic Ta"le #$3%C&EM%'(3)? !g 1*
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The Periodic Table 53-CHEM-4.4
F Cl Br l
Atonic nunber 9 17 35 53
Melting point (K) 55 172 266 387
Boiling point (K) 85 239 332 457
lonization energy
1 687 1 257 1 148 1 015
(kJ/nole)
Outer shell electrons 7 7 7 7
The First Transition Series
1. The first transition series elenents are all netals. Thus they are good conductors of
heat and electricity. As expected for netals, their ionization energies are relatively low.
2. Their densities and nelting points are high. This is in contrast to the alkali netals
(group 1) which have relatively low densities and nelting points.
3. Many of their conpounds are coloured. By contrast, the conpounds of the alkali netals
are not coloured.e.g. Copper conpounds are generally blue or green. lron conpounds are
generally green, red or brown.
4. They forn ions or nolecules with different oxidation states. e.g. Copper forns copper
(l) and copper (ll) conpounds. lron forns iron (ll) and iron (lll) conpounds
5. They forn conplex ions. e.g. Cu(NH
3
)l+ tetranninecopper(ll) ion or Zn(OH)l-
zincate(ll) ion
6. The transition elenents and their conpounds are often used as catalysts. e.g. Finely
divided iron is used in the Haber process for the nanufacture of annonia. Nickel is used in
the hydrogenation of unsaturated fats.
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Relative Density 3.0 4.51 6.1 7.19 7.43 7.86 8.90 8.90 8.96 7.14
1st lonization
634 659 651 655 718 760 760 739 748 911
Energy KJ/nole
Melting Point. 1540
167
1900
187
1250 1540 1490 1450 1083 419
0 0
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53 The Periodic Table 53-CHEM-4.S
Hydrogen
Hydrogen forms a family all by itself.
In its physical properties it resembles the halogens. It is a non-metal and consists of
diatomic molecles. Its melting point and boiling point are !ery lo" and its li#id e$ists only
o!er a narro" temperatre range.
In its chemical properties it largely resembles the al%ali metals. Ths it reacts "ith the
halogens to form a stable &' ion.
eg H
2
(g) & C'
2
(g) - *HC' (g)
+hen hydrogen chloride dissol!es in "ater, the strongly acid soltion prodced indicates that
H& ions are present.
H
-tomic nmber '
Melting point (.) '4
/oiling point (.) 20
Ioni0ation energy (%12mole) ' 3'3
4ter shell electrons '
Constrction of the Periodic Table
' 5ertical colmns are called grops, indicated by roman nmerals.
a) The al%ali metals ma%e p grop I. They form a stable & ' ion by loss of ' electron.
b) The al%aline earths ma%e p grop II. They form a stable &* ion by loss of *
electrons.
c) The halogens ma%e p grop 5II. They form a stable -' ion by gain of ' electron.
d) The noble gases are sometimes called grop 4.
* There is a gradal change in properties as one mo!es do"n a grop, bt the
elements in any grop clearly belong to one family.Hori0ontal ro"s are called
periods. Mo!ement across a period from left to right also re!eals a trend of change in
properties bt this trend is mch more mar%ed than !ertical trends.
3 In its more complete form the table mst be di!ided bet"een grops II and III and
separated so that the transition metals can be placed in position in the centre.
4 Periodicity is also illstrated by the graph of ioni0ation energy against atomic nmber.
6 Copyright Modlar Edcation Centre. 7337'835 The Periodic Table (S3-CHEM-4.5)6 Pg '9
53
Chemical Bonding and Structure S3-CHEM-S.1
Formation of Ions
A group of elements called noble gases hae er! high first ioni"ation energies #hich
indicates that their electrons are er! tightl! bound. Accordingl! these elements are er!
stable and do not enter into chemical combination #ith other elements.
$able %.1 Ioni"ation Energies of &oble 'ases
&oble gas Electron configuration 1st ioni"ation energ!
Helium 2 ( 3)1 *+,mole
&eon 2,8 (-). *+,mole
Argon 2,8,8 1 %(/ *+,mole
0r!pton 2,8, 18,8 1 3%( *+,mole
1enon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 1 1.- *+,mole
2ther atoms or groups of atoms lose alence electrons to form positie ions3 or gain alence
electrons 4from other atoms5 to form negatie ions. In each case the ion obtains the electron
configuration of a noble gas atom and is therefore er! stable.
Example:
1 electron lost3 positie ion formed. sodium ion
( electrons gained3 negatie ion formed.o6ide ion
Ions are therefore atoms or groups of atoms #hich hae become electricall! charged through
the gain or loss of electrons. 7ositie ions are *no#n as cations and negatie ions as anions
4see page 199). Some common ions are gien belo#8
? Cop!right Modular Education Centre. 93391-3% Chemical Bonding and Structure 4S3-CHEM-%.1 5: 7g (-
S3 Chemical Bonding and Structure S3-CHEM-S.2
Table 5.2 Positive Ions and Negative Ions
+1 ion +2 ion +3 ion
H+
hydrogen
Mg 2+agnesi!
Ca 2+ "al"i!
NH#+aoni!
$a
t
+
bari!
%1
3
+al!ini!
Na+
sodi!
&n
2
+
Cr 3+"hroi!
'+ (otassi!
)in"
*III+
,e 2+
%g+
silver
iron*II+
,e 3+
iron*III+
C!+ "o((er*I+
C! 2+"o((ertll+ .
Pb2+
lead*II+
-1 ion -2 ion -3 ion
, -l!oride
C1-
"hloride
.
2
-
o/ide
$*
broide
S2-
s!l(hide
, iodide
S.32-
s!l(hite
0H-
hydro/ide
S01- s!l(hate
P.
#
3
-(hos(hate*2+
N.
3
-
nitrate
col- "arbonate
Mn.#-anganate*2II+
Cr20l- di"hroate*2I+
HC.3-hydrogen
Cr01- "hroate*2I+
"arbonate siol- sili"ate*I2+
Ioni" Co(o!nds and Covalent S!bstan"es
T3o a4or "lasses o- "hei"al s!bstan"es are ioni" "o(o!nds and "ovalent s!bstan"es. Ioni"
"o(o!nds are "o(osed o- ions5 not ole"!les. They o3e their e/isten"e to the tenden"y o-
"ertain atos to lose ele"trons and o- others to gain the. 0n the other hand "ovalent
s!bstan"es "onsist o- ole"!les ade o- atos5 %tos in these ole"!les are held together by
the sharing o- one or ore (airs o- ele"trons in the ole"!les.
Ioni" Co(o!nds
The "on"e(ts o- ions5 ioni" bonds and ioni" "o(o!nds "an be best !nderstood by
"onsidering6 the -oration o- a ty(i"al ioni" "o(o!nd - sodi! "hloride.
7hen sodi! and "hlorine rea"t5 one ele"tron is trans-erred -ro a sodi! ato to a "hlorine
ato. %n ioni" bond is -ored.
Notes: (a) The sodi! ato loses one ele"tron to be"oe a (ositive ion5 Na+ and
the "hlorine ato gains one ele"tron to be"oe a negative ion5 "r.
6 Co(yright Mod!lar Ed!"ation Centre. 83381.35 Chei"al $onding and Str!"t!re *S3-CHEM-5.2+6 Pg 21
S3 Chemical Bonding and Structure S3-CHEM-S.3
Molecular Substances (or Covalent Substances)
The simplest example to illustrate the concepts of the covalent bond and substances is the
hydroen molecule. ! hydroen molecule consists of t"o hydroen atoms in "hich the t"o
valence electrons are shared bet"een the t"o atoms# $iarammatically this may be
represented as e- follo"s#
%&.-
H atom H atom H 2 molecule
'i. (.) *epresentation of the Covalent +ond in the Hydroen Molecule
The shaded reion on each atom is ,no"n as an orbital. -t is the reion in "hich the electron
"ill be found. .hen the orbitals overlap/ the t"o electrons/ one from each atom/ are attracted
to the t"o nuclei at the same time thereby formin a sinle covalent bond.
(a) Electrons are not lost or ained by the atoms concerned.
(b) The chemical bond in the hydroen molecule forms because each of the t"o electrons
is attracted to t"o protons simultaneously. The bondin electrons are often said to be
shared by the t"o nuclei.
(c) Substances li,e hydroen/ in "hich the bondin bet"een the atoms in the molecules is
covalent/ are called molecular or covalent compounds or substances.
(d) +y sharin the t"o electrons the atoms in the hydroen molecule have achieved the
electronic confiurations of noble as atoms. (e) The covalent bond is electrostatic in nature.
Simpler "ays of representin the bondin in the hydroen molecule are#
H -H
The line represents a shared pair of electrons.
0alence electrons "hich are not involved in the covalent bond ma,e up pairs ,no"n as lone
pairs.
1 Copyriht Modular Education Centre 0 23323%3( Chemical +ondin and Structure (S3-CHEM-(.3)1 4 ))
53 Chenical Bonding and Structure 53-CHEM-S.4
Double and triple bonds
The atons in nany nolecules are linked by nore than one covalent bond. (Renenber that a
covalent bond involves the sharing of 2 electrons only.) Such nolecules nay contain double
bonds (2 covalent bonds) or triple bonds (3 covalent bonds).
(a) Covalent substances do not conduct electricity because there are no ions or free
electrons present.
(b) The boiling points and nelting points of covalent substances are nuch lower than
those of ionic solids. However we nust not conclude that covalent bonds are weak. n fact,
they are very strong. The low boiling points and nelting points result fron the weak
attractive forces between nolecules. These forces are easily overcone by a snall anount
of heat. Because nany covalent substances are liquids at roon tenperature nost solvents
in general use include water and covalent substances such as benzene, ethanol,
nethanol, nethylbenzene etc.
Other Covalent Substances
Sulphur and odine are both covalent substances
Table 5.3 Melting Points and Boiling Points of Sulphur and odine
Fornula
Melting Boiling
point Point
Sulphur S8 1151l 444.61l
odine
b
1141l 1831l
As expected for covalent substances, their nelting points and boiling points are conparatively low.
The nolecule 8
8
is present in both the rhonbic and nonoclinic crystalline forns of solid sulphur
(see page 171) and in the liquid when it is first nolten.
At roon tenperature iodine (b) is a lustrous blue-black crystalline solid. t sublines on heating
to forn a violet vapour.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre. 63361035 Chenical Bonding and Structure (S3-CHEM-5.4)? Pg 23
53 Chemical Bonding and Structure 53 ..CHEM-S.S
Table 5.4 Differences between Ionic and Covalent Substances
Ionic compounds Covalent Substances
enerall! cr!stalline solids "e.#. salts$ enerall! li%uids or #ases
Hi#& meltin# points and boilin# points 'ow meltin# points and boilin# points
l.e. l.e.
non-volatile volatile
Electrol!tes (on-electrol!tes
enerall! soluble in water but enerall! soluble in or#anic solvents
insoluble but
in or#anic solvents insoluble in water
)ondin# is &i#&l! directional. Hence
)ondin# is non-directional
molecules &ave #eometrical s&apes*
wit&
atoms fi+ed wit& respect to eac& ot&er.
T&eir reactions are fast T&eir reactions are often slow
Structures of Elements and Compounds
Elements and compounds can be divided into four structural classes.
"a$ Ionic compounds e.#. (aCI* M#,
"b$ Molecular substances e.#. Sa* H
2
, CH
4
"c$ Metals e.#. Cu* M#
"d$ iant molecular structures e.#. diamond* silica
Table 5.5 -rincipal .eatures of t&e .our Classes of Elements and Compounds
iant
Ionic Covalent
molecular Metals
compounds substances
structures
Covalent
wit&in
Covalent Metallic
)ond Ionic but not
between
t&rou#&out bondin#
molecules
Meltin#
points and
Hi#& 'ow Hi#& Hi#&
boilin#
points
/ Cop!ri#&t Modular Education Centre. 03301235 C&emical )ondin# and Structure "S3-CHEM-5.5$/ -# 34
Non-conductors
Conduct when
Conductivit molten or in Non-conductor
or
Conductor
semi-conductors
y aqueous s
(an exception is
s
solution
graphite)
Combination .
Position in
of
periodic
elements from
Right side Centre Left side
table
both sides
Ionic solids and coalent substances hae already been discussed in this chapter.
! Copyright "odular #ducation Centre $$ %&&%$'&( Chemical )onding and *tructure (*&-C+#"-(.()! ,g -(
53 Chemical formulae and equations S3-CHEM-6.1
The central activity of the chemist is to understand and control chemical changes or chemical
reactions.
Characteristics of a Chemical Change
1 ne! su"stance al!ays forms.
# $sually the change is difficult to reverse.
$sually much energy is associated !ith the change.
E%am&les'
(a) The rusting of iron.
(") The com"ustion of fuels to &roduce car"on dio%ide and !ater.
(c) The reaction of *inc metal !ith hydrochloric acid li"erating hydrogen gas.
E%am&les of changes !hich are not chemical changes'
(a) ny change of state+ e.g. the melting of ice.
(") ,inc o%ide turns from !hite to yello! on heating. (-t returns to its original colour on
cooling.)
Chemical .eactions
-t is normal to call a chemical change a chemical reaction. chemical reaction can "e
re&resented "y using a chemical equation (see &age 51).
E%am&le'
The neutrali*ation reaction "et!een &otassium hydrogen car"onate and dilute hydrochloric acid
can "e re&resented "y
-n a chemical reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed. This is /no!n as the la! of
conservation of mass. -n &ractical terms this means that atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
-n many chemical reactions heat energy is released. These reactions are said to "e
e%othermic. -n other chemical reactions heat energy is a"sor"ed. These reactions are
endothermic.
E%am&les'
Com"ustion of fuels is e%othermic.
0eutrali*ation of &otassium hydrogen car"onate !ith dilute hydrochloric acid is endothermic.
? Co&yright Modular Education Centre 1 63361235 Chemical formulae and equations (S3-CHEM-6.1 )3 4g #6
S3 Chemical formulae and equations 53-CHEM-6.2
Equations and Formulae
An equation is a way of representing a cemical reaction. !t gi"es te formulae of te starting
materials #called reactants$ and of te products and it correctly portrays te ratios of te
compounds concerned.
E%ample&
'is equation means&
2 molecules of ydrogen react wit one molecule of o%ygen to form 2 molecules of water. (g)
means gaseous* (s) means solid #e.g. precipitate$* !t+ q) means in aqueous solution* and (!)
means liquid.
An equation does not tell us&
, 'e conditions for te reaction.
2 'e speed #or rate$ of te reaction.
3 -eter te reaction is endotermic or e%otermic.
. 'e mecanism #detailed steps$ in"ol"ed in te reaction.
/etermination of Formulae
0efore we write an equation it is essential to write te formulae of compounds correctly.
Formulae of !onic Compounds
1ince an ionic compound is electrically neutral we can page 32 to determine formulae.
E%ample& , 1il"er pospate#3$
'e ions required are Ag4 and 56
4
-
3
For electrical neutrality we need 3Ag) and ,56
4
3
-
.) te formula is 3Ag4 ,56
4
3
- or Ag
3
56
4
.
) Copyrigt Modular Education Centre7 6336,635 Cemical formulae and equations #13-CHEM-6.2$) 5g 28
53 Chemical formulae and equations 53-CHEM-6.3
Formulae of Molecular Compounds
We may make use of the concept of valency to determine the formulae of molecular
compounds.
efinition! "he valency of an element #or radical$ is the num%er of hydro&en atoms that 'ill
com%ine 'ith or displace one atom of the element #or radical$.
(alency) in fact) can %e thou&ht of as the *com%inin& po'er+ of an element or radical. For
elements and radicals the valency has the same value as the ma&nitude of the char&e on the
ion #omittin& the si&n$.
E,ample!
-,y&en has valency of . #ion is /
.
-$ and hydro&en has a valency of 0 #ion is H1$.
2se of valencies to find formulae of molecular compounds
E,ample 0! Methane. "his contains car%on and hydro&en) so 'e 'rite CH. Car%on has a
valency of 3 and therefore it com%ines 'ith 3 hydro&en atoms. We 'rite CH
4
Hydro&en has a
valency of 0 so there is no further chan&e.
E,ample .! 4hosphorus#($ o,ide. 4hosphorus has a valency of 5) o,y&en .. "herefore the
formula is 4
2
/
5
.
E,ample 3! Car%on dio,ide. 5y a similar ar&ument) the formula is C
2
/
4
. We 'rite this in its
simplest ratio as C-
.
.
6ote! "he term valency is avoided %y many chemists today %ecause it has different meanin&s
to different people and may therefore %e confusin&. 7tudents are often advised to learn the
formulae of molecular compounds. Ho'ever valency) as defined a%ove) can %e helpful.
7tudents 'ho remem%er that car%on has a valency of 3 'ill find this a &reat aid in the study of
or&anic chemistry.
+ Copyri&ht Modular Education Centre 8 63360/35 Chemical formulae and equations #73-CHEM-6.3$+ 4& .9
53 Chemical formulae and equations 53-CHEM-6.4
Writing Chemical Equations
Steps in writing an equation:
1 Work out the reactants and products.
2 Write down the correct formulae of the reactants on the left side and the products on the
right side.
3 Balance the equation by selecting the correct coefficients. n a balanced equation atoms
must be conserved.
Note: Elements which do not exist as single atoms must be represented correctly. Thus O
2
, N
2
, H
2
,
C1
2
etc.
Example 1:
Write down the equation for the combustion of methane.
Step 1 We ascertain that the reactants are methane and oxygen and that the products are
water and carbon dioxide.
Step 2 Write CH
4
+ O
2
=> H
2
0 + CO
2
Step 3 Balance to conserve atoms: CH
4
(g) + 20
2
(g) => 2H
2
0(g) + CO
2
(g)
Example 2:
Write down the equation for the neutralization of sulphuric acid with potassium hydroxide.
Step 1 The reactants are given. The products are potassium sulphate and water.
Step 2 Write: H
2
S0
4
+ KOH => K
2
S0
4
+ H
2
0
Step 3 Balancing: H
2
S0
4
(aq) + 2KOH(aq) => K
2
S0
4
(aq) + 2H
2
0()
onic Equations
onic equations are to be preferred wherever they can be used because they are simple and they
indicate clearly which ions react together.
Example:
The species H
2
S0
4
, KOH and K
2
S0
4
all ionize in water. Only a small number of H20 molecules
form ions. Therefore we can write:
t can be seen that many of the ions appear on both sides of the equation. These ions do not
take place in the reaction and are known as spectator ions. They can be removed leaving
? Copyright Modular Education Centre. 63361035 Chemical formulae and equations (S3-CHEM-6.4)? Pg 29
In an ionic equation, both the atoms and the charge are conserved. In the ionic equation
above it can be seen that there is a net charge of zero on both sides .Therefore charge is
conserved.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre if 66!"# Chemical formulae and equations $%&C'EM&6.()? *g "
S3 Chemical Reactions S3-CHEM-7.1
Types of Chemical Reactions
Combination or Synthesis
Examples:
(a !"rnin# ma#nesi"m ribbon: $M#(s % &$(# ''( $M#)(s
(b *assin# chlorine o+er heate, iron -ire: $.e(s % 3C1
$
(#'( $.eC/3(s
0o"ble 0ecomposition or Metathesis
/n this type of reaction1 ions interchan#e or 2s-ap3 4ormally a precipitate is forme, or else a #as
is #i+en off.
Examples:
(a 4aC1(a5 % 6#4&
3
(a5 ''( 4a4&
3
(a5 % 6#C/(s
7ritten ionically: Cl2(a5 % 6#%(a5 8 ( 6#C/(s
(b CaC&
3
(s % $HC/(a5 '( CaCh(a5 % H
$
&(/ % C)
$
(#
lonically: C)l-(s % $H%(a5 '( H
$
C&
3
(a5 % H
$
&(/ % C)
$
(#
4e"trali9ation
4e"trali9ation is the name #i+en to a ,o"ble ,ecomposition reaction bet-een an aci, an, a
base.
Example:
lonlcally:
HC1(a5 % 4a)H(a5 ''( 4aC1(a5 % H
2
&(/
H%(a5% )H-(a5 ''( H
2
&(/
Replacement
(a Some metals replace hy,ro#en in aci,s to form salts.
Example:
(b Metals replace metals lo-er on the acti+ity series from sol"tions of their salts.
3 Copyri#ht Mo,"lar E,"cation Centre: ;33;1&3< Chemical Reactions (S3-CHEM-7.13 *# 31
53 Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-7.2
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions (til edox? for short)
Oxidation describes these reactions in hich ox!"en or the halo"ens are added to a
substance or h!dro"en is remo#ed from it.
Reduction describes those reactions in hich ox!"en or the halo"ens are remo#ed from
a substance or h!dro"en is added to it.
Oxidation and reduction ala!s occur to"ether.
Consider to exam$les%
&a) 2M"&s) ' (2&") ))* 2M"O&s) Ma"nesium burns in air.
Ma"nesium is oxidi+ed b! addition of ox!"en, and ox!"en is reduced. -e sa! that ox!"en is
the oxidi+in" a"ent and ma"nesium the reducin" a"ent.
&b) .n&s) ' 2HC/&a0) ))* .nC1
2
&a0) ' H
2
&") .inc dissol#es in dilute h!drochloric acid.
.inc is oxidi+ed b! addition of chlorine and h!dro"en is reduced. 2he chloride ions are neither
oxidi+ed nor reduced. .inc is the reducin" a"ent and h!dro"en ions the oxidi+in" a"ent.
3et us anal!+e these reactions further%
&a) 2he reaction beteen ma"nesium and ox!"en is made u$ of to half-reactions%
M" ))* M" 2'' 2e-
2he o#erall e0uation ma! be obtained b! addin" the second half-reaction to tice the first
half-reaction. 2he electrons ill then cancel out. /t is clear that electrons are transferred from
ma"nesium to Ox!"en in the reaction.
&b) 2he reaction beteen +inc and dilute h!drochloric acid is also made u$ of to half
reactions%
.n ))* .n
2
'' 2e-
2he o#erall e0uation ma! be obtained b! addin" the to half reactions to"ether. /t can be
seen that electrons are transferred from +inc to h!dro"en ions in the reaction.
Important: Oxidation-reduction reactions in#ol#e the transfer of electrons.
-e are no in a $osition to formulate su$erior definitions of oxidation and reduction in terms
of electron transfer%
Oxidation is a chemical chan"e in hich electrons are lost b! an atom or a "rou$ of
atoms.
? Co$!ri"ht Modular Education Centre 4 53351(35 Chemical Reactions &63-CHEM-7.2)? 7" 32
~uction is a chemical change in which electrons are gained by an atom or a group of
atoms.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre V 63361035 Chemical Reactions (S3C!EM"#$%? &g 33
Chemical Reactions S3..CHEM-7.2
Oxidation States or Oxidation Numbers
The concept of oxidation numbers is a device which enables us to keep track of electrons in
oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer: In assinin oxidation numbers!
"a# $%% free e%ements "e.. O
2
&H
2
# are i'en an oxidation number of (ero.
"b# $%% ions ha'e oxidation numbers e)ua% to their chares. e.
cr - oxidation number -*
+n
2
,- oxidation number ,2
"c# Except in peroxides& ox-en in compounds has an oxidation number of-2
"d# Except in h-drides& h-droen in compounds has an oxidation number of ,*.
.hen an e%ement is oxidi(ed its oxidation number increases. .hen an e%ement is
reduced its oxidation number decreases.
Examp%es!
.hen M atoms are chaned to M2,ions as in examp%e "a# abo'e then the- ha'e been
oxidi(ed "oxidation state increases from / to ,2#.
.hen 0e 2,ions are chaned to 0e 3,ions then the- ha'e been oxidi(ed "oxidation state
increases from 2 to 3#.
.hen cr ions are chaned to ch%orine as& then the ions ha'e been oxidi(ed "oxidation state
increases from -* to /#.
The oxidation state "or number# is often indicated b- a roman number in parentheses.
Examp%es!
Iron"%I# ch%oride. Iron has oxidation number ,2.
Iron(lI/) chloride. Iron has oxidation number ,3.
1 Cop-riht Modu%ar Education Centre ir 2332*/33 Chemica% 4eactions "S3-CHEM-7.2#1 5 36
53 Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-7.3
In radicals and complexes the oxidation number of the central atom is sometimes indicated at the
end, as follows:
Mananate!"II# ion. In this ion !Mn$
%
-# mananese has an oxidation number of &7.
'itric acid. In this compound !H'$
3
# which contains the nitrate ion, nitroen has an oxidation
number of 5. Hence the I.(.).*.C. name - 'itric!"# acid. +e do not use oxidation numbers in
relation to carbon.
,xidi-in *ents and .educin *ents
,xidi-in aents, b/ their presence, cause other substances to be oxidi-ed0 reducin aents, b/
their presence, cause other substances to be reduced. 1ome common oxidi-in aents include:
!a# ,x/en
!b# Chlorine
!c# Concentrated sulphuric acid
!d# Concentrated nitric acid
!e# )otassium mananate!"II#
!f# )otassium dichromate!"I#
1ome common reducin aents include:
!a# H/droen
!b# Carbon
!c# Carbon monoxide
!d# Metals !especiall/ those that are most electropositi2e#
!e# 1ulphur dioxide
.e2ersible .eactions
* re2ersible reaction is one in which the reactants can bere-formed b/ reaction between the
products.
Example:
.ed-hot iron reduces steam: 33e!s# &%H
4
$!# 556 3e3$%!1#& %H
4
!#
*lso h/droen reduces heated iron !II# diiron !III# oxide: 3e3$%!1#& %H
4
!# 556 33e!s# &
%H
4
$!#
Hence this is a re2ersible reaction and we write: 33e!s# & %H
4
$!# 556 3e3$%!1#& %H
4
!#
,ther examples:
!a # '4!#& 3H
4
!# 556 4'H3!# Haber process
!b# Contact process
7 Cop/riht Modular Education Centre. 83389$35 Chemical .eactions !13-CHEM-7.3#7 ) 35
53 Chemical Reactions S3-CHEM-7.3
Ionic equation
An ionic equation is written to express the actual happening during a chemical reaction
lea!ing out the non-participating ions.
An ionic equation is a "alanced equation in terms o#
$I% &um"er o# atoms'ions o# each element
$II% (he charges on the ions
)riting Ionic Equation
)rite an ionic equation according to #ollowing steps*
+% )rite a "alanced equation #or the reaction and include all state s,m"ols
-% In aqueous state ionic compounds ioni.e to #orm #ree ions. Express the ionic compounds in
their ionic #orms
3% Identi#, / pectator ions0 and cross them out
1% Rewrite the a"o!e equation omitting all / pectator ions0 to #orm the ionic equation
2or example* )hen Magnesium reacts with h,drochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride
and h,drogen.
Step one* Mg$s% 3 -HCI$aq% / MgCI-$aq% 3 H
-
$g%
Step two* Mg$s% 3 -H3$aq% 3 -Cr$aq% / Mg
-
3$aq% 3 -Cr$aq% 3H-$g%
Step three* Mg$s% 3 -H3$aq% 3 -Cr$aq% / Mg-3$aq% 3 -Cr$aq% 3H-$g%
Step #our* Mg$ s% 3 -H3$aq% / Mg
-
3$aq% 3H-$g%
(he next example is the neutrali.ation process "etween sulphuric acid and sodium h,droxide
to produce water and sodium sulphate.
Step one* H
-
S4
1
$aq% 3 -&a5H$aq% / &a-S41$aq% 3 H
-
4$I%
Step two* -H3$aq% 3 SOl-(aq) 3 -&a3$aq% 3 -4H-$aq% / -&a3$aq% 3 SOl-(aq) 3H
-
4$I%
Step three* -H3$aq% 3 S5l-$aq% 3 -&a3$aq% 3 -4H-$aq% / -&a3$aq% 3 S5l-$aq% 3H
-
4$I%
Step #our* -4H-$aq% 3 -H3$aq% / -H
-
4$I% = > 5l3$aq% 3 H6$aq% / H
-
4$I%
0 Cop,right Modular Education Centre i# 7337+438 Chemical Reactions $S3-CHEM-7.3%0 9g 37
S3 Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-7.3
The last example is the reaction between nitric acid and calcium carbonate that results in the
production of calcium nirate, water and carbon dioxide.
Step one !H"#
3
$a%& ' CaC#
3
$a%& ( Ca$"#3&!$a%& ' H
!
#$)& ' C*
!
$+&
Step two !H'$a%& ' !"#
3
- ' CaC#
3
$a%& ( Ca
!
'$a%& ' !"#
3
-$a%& 'H
!
#$)& ' C*
!
$+&
Step three !H'$a%& ' !"#
3
-$a%& ' CaC#
3
$a%& ( Ca
!
'$a%& ' !"#
3
-$a%& 'H
!
#$)& ' C*
!
$+&
Step four !H'$a%& ' CaC#
3
$a%& ( Ca
!
'$a%& ' H
!
#$)& ' C*
!
$+&
Extra notes
,& Substances in the solid, li%uid and +aseous states do not ionise
!& The state of a compound can be determined b- considerin+ that
i& .cids react in the a%ueous state
ii& Solubilit- of salt. . soluble salt exists in an a%ueous state
A. .ll nitrates are soluble
/. Most chorides are soluble except those of lead and sil0er
C. Most sulphates are soluble except those of lead, barium and calcium $Sli+htl-
soluble&
1. Most carbonates are insoluble except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
3& The number of ions is determined b- the numerals in front and subscripts on the ri+ht.
!HC) ( !H' ' !Cr and
2 Cop-ri+ht Modular Education Centre ,, 3333,#35 Chemical 4eactions $S3-CHEM-7.3&2 5+ 37
S3 Mole concepts and calculations S3-CHEM-S.1
Relative Atomic and Molecular Mass
Relative Atomic Mass (Symbol Ar)
Te relative atomic mass o! an element is te "ei#ted avera#e o! te relative isotopic
masses o! te element on a scale on "ic te mass o! atoms o! te isotope carbon -1$ is
e%actly 1$.
Relative Molecular Mass (Symbol Mr)
Te relative molecular mass o! an element or compound is te sum o! te relative atomic
masses in one !ormula unit o! te element or compound&
'rom te de!inition it is clear tat te relative molecular mass can be obtained by addin#
to#eter te relative atomic masses in te !ormula unit. Tis can be seen in te e%amples
belo"&
'ind te percenta#e o! "ater in copper(l() sulpate crystals. Te !ormula is CuS)*+,H$)
5 x 18.0
Pe rcentage of water = x100 =36.1 -
249.6
Te Mole
.e!inition&Te mole is te amount o! a substance "ic contains as many particles as
tere are carbon atoms in ).)1$ /ilo#ram (i.e. 1$ #rams) o! carbon-1$. 0ote&
(a) Te number o! particles per mole is #iven by te Avo#adro constant 1 (2.)$3 % 1)
$3
mol3)4
(t is very important to remember tat 1 mole is connected "it 2.)$3 % 1)
$3
particles. Tus te
amount o! "ater tat contains 2.)$3 % 1)
$3
molecules is 1 mole and "e can even say tat
2.)$3 % 1)
$3
ants are 1 mole o! ants.
(b) Te particles must be speci!ied. Tey may be atoms4 molecules4 ions4 radicals4 electrons4
etc.
(c) Te mole (symbol mol) is te unit by "ic "e measure te 5uantity +amount o!
substance6 ((n a similar "ay te /ilo#ram is te unit by "ic "e measure te 5uantity
+mass6 )
Since te relative mass o! 1 carbon atom to 1 nitro#en atom is 1$& 1* (!rom teir relative
atomic masses) it !ollo"s tat te relative mass o! 2.)$3 7 1)
$3
carbon atoms to 2.)$3 % 1)
$3
nitro#en atom is also 1$&1*. And since (by de!inition) 1 mole o! carbon atoms as a mass o!
1$ #4 it is clear tat 1 mole o! nitro#en atoms as a mass o! 1* #. (n #eneral4
1 mole o! te atoms o! an element is #iven by te relative atomic mass o! te element in
#rams8.
6 Copyri#t Modular Education Centre 9 23321)3, Mole concepts and calculations (S3-CHEM-:.1)6 ;# 3:
By a similar argument it can be easily shown that 1 mole of water molecules (6.023 x 10
23
molecules) has a mass of 18 g (the relative molecular mass in grams) and in general
1 mole of the formula units of an element or com!ound is given by the relative
molecular mass in grams".
# $o!yright %odular &ducation $entre iff 6336103' %ole conce!ts and calculations ((3)$*&%)8.1)# +g 3,
53 Mole concepts and calculations S3-CHEM-S.2
Determination of Number of Moles
Since 1 mole of atoms is given by te relative atomic mass in grams and 1 mole of formula
units is given by te relative molecular mass in grams it follo!s tat"
Mass of elements
Number of moles of atoms = .. and
relative atomic mass
7\T b .1' le .1' fi la Mass of element or compounds in grams
Hum er oJ mo s oj ormu units = --~-------=----___;__--
Re lative molecular mass
#n cross-multiplying !e obtain te useful relationsips"
Mass of element in grams $ Number of moles % &elative atomic mass and
Mass of element or compound in grams = Number of moles % &elative molecular
mass
Examples:
1 ' marble !eigs 10 g. Ho! many moles of suc marbles !ould e(ual te entire mass of te
eart !ic is about 6 % 10
27
g) *'ssume 1 mole = 6 % 10
23
particles+
Answer: Mass of 1 mole of marbles = 10% 6 % 10
23
g
2 Ho! many moles of atoms are tere in
*a+ ,-- g aluminium. *b+ -/03 g iron)
A U
N b .r 1 Masso! elem ent in grams
nswer: smg urn era) mates =--___;;_------=----
Re lative atomic mass
Amountof Al = 9.0 = 033 moles *of atoms+
27
0.83 1
Amountof Fe = - = 0.015 mo es
55.8
3 Ho! many moles of o%ygen atoms are tere in one mole of *a+ nitric acid molecules. *b+
sulpuric acid molecules)
Answer:
*a+ 1 molecule of nitric acid *HN-
3
) contains 3 o%ygen atoms. 2 % 10
23
molecules of HN-
3
contains 3 % 2 % 10
23
o%ygen atoms. 1 mole of HN-
3
contains 3 moles of o%ygen atoms.
*b+ Similarly 1 mole of sulpuric acid *H
2
S-
4
) contains 3 moles of o%ygen atoms.
) Copyrigt Modular Education Centre it 23321-34 Mole concepts and calculations *S3-CHEM-0.2+) 5g 3-
53 Mole concepts and calculations 53-CHEM-S.3
Application - Finding the Formula of a Compound.
Examples:
1 In an experiment it as found that 1!"3 g of a copper oxide ere reduced to 1#$% g of copper
metal. &etermine the formula of the compound.
Anser' It is clear that the oxide contains 1#$% g copper and 1"( g ox)gen.
Amount of copper * 1#.% = 02 mole +of atoms,
635
Amount of ox)gen = 1.(= -.1 mole +of atoms,
16
Cu -
Moles of atoms' -"# -"1
Simplest mole ratio' # 1
Simplest ratio of atoms' # 1
.? the empirical formula is C.#-.
/he empirical formula represents the simplest ratio of the num0ers of atoms present in the
compound.
# A certain li1uid has the folloing approximate percentage composition 0) mass' car0on
1!"123 h)drogen #"3523 chlorine 43"52. Calculate its true formula if the relati5e molecular
mass is 45.
C H CI
1-- 6 of compound contain' 1!"1 6 #"35 6 43"5 6
141 = 1175
235 =235
835 =2352
Moles of each element in 1-- g'
12
1
355-
Simplest mole ratio' 1 # #
Simplest ratio of atoms' 1 # #
.? the empirical formula is CH
#
C1
#
.
Compound CH
#
C1
#
would have relative molecular mass of 45.
/he relati5e molecular mass gi5en is 45.
.? Molecular formula is CH
2
C/
2

7 Cop)right Modular Education Centre if (33(1-35 Mole concepts and calculations +S3-CHEM-4.3,7 8g !1
S3
? Copyright Modular Education Centre. 63361035 Mole concepts and calculations (S3-CHEM-B.3? !g "#
Mole concepts and calculations 53-CHEM-S.3
Gases and the Mole
AvogadrofD Law states that equal volumes of gases, measured at the same temperature
and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. This law, based on observation, was
proposed in 1811 by Amadeo Avogadro, an Italian scientist. Now 1mole of any gas contains
6023 x 10
23
molecules. It follows from AvogadrofD law that 1 mole of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure occupies the same volume.
Experiment shos that!
"ne mole o# an$ %as occupies 22-& drrr' at 0 1l and (60 mm o# mercur$ pressure )i.e* at
s.t.p+. ),t room temperature and pressure 1 mole o# %as occupies approximatel$ 2& drn-+
Eamples!
1 .hat is the /olume at s.t.p. o# 0-& mole o# ox$%en and o# 0-& mole o# chlorine0
Answer!
1 mole o# an$ %as at s.t.p. occupies 22.& drrr'*
1hus 0& mole o# ox$%en and chlorine occup$ the same /olume. 1his /olume is 0-& x 22.& drrr'
= 2.36 drrr'*
2 Ho man$ moles o# ar%on are there in 1 drrr'0 .hat mass does this ar%on ha/e0 )4elati/e
atomic mass = 333. ,ssume s.t.p. conditions.+
Answer!
5uantit$ o# ar%on = 616 70.0&&6
22.4
8sin%! Mass in %rams = 9um:er o# moles x 4elati/e molecular mass
Mass = 0.0&&6x 399 71.78 %
0 Cop$ri%ht Modular Education Centre- 63361035 Mole concepts and calculations )S3-CHEM-2.3+0 ;% &3
53
Mole concepts and calculations 53 ..CHEM-S.4
Determination of Number of Moles
Since 1 mole of atoms is given b t!e relative atomic mass in grams and 1 mole of formula
units is given b t!e relative molecular mass in grams it follo"s t!at#
Mass of elements
Number of moles of atoms $ .. and
relative atomic mass
7\.T b 1 - 1 ' le 1 - 1 ' fi la . Mass of element or compounds in gli.'ams
Hum er oj mo sOJ ormu units =- - ___;_- - - - - - - - =- - - - - - =- - -
Re lative molecular mass
%n cross-multipling "e obtain t!e useful relations!ips#
Mass of element in grams =Number of moles & 'elative atomic mass and
Mass of element or compound in grams =Number of moles & 'elative molecular
mass
Examples:
1 ( marble "eig!s 1 0 g. Ho" man moles of suc! marbles "ould e)ual t!e entire mass of t!e
eart! "!ic! is about * & 1 0
+,
g- .(ssurnet mole =* & 1 0
+3
particles/
Answer: Mass of 1 mole of marbles $1 0& 6 & 1 0
+3
g
+ Ho" man moles of atoms are t!ere in
.a/ 0-1 g aluminium2 .b/ 1343 g iron-
A 5
3 N b .I' 1 Masso! elementin grams
nswer: smg um er oj motes $---$---------$----
Re lative atomic mass
Amount of Al =9.0 =033 moles .of atoms/
27
0.83 I
AmountojFe=-=.!" moes
55.8
3 Ho" man moles of o&gen atoms are t!ere in one mole of .a/ nitric acid molecules2 .b/
sulp!uric acid molecules-
Answer:
.a/ 1 molecule of nitric acid .HN1
3
/ contains 3 o&gen atoms. * & 1 0
+3
molecules of HN1
3
contains 3 & * & 1 0
+3
o&gen atoms. 1 mole of HN1
3
contains 3 moles of o&gen atoms.
.b/ Similarl 1 mole of sulp!uric acid .H
2
S1
4
) contains 4 moles of o&gen atoms.
- Coprig!t Modular Education Centre if *33*1135 Mole concepts and calculations .S3-CHEM-6.4/- 7g 44
S3 Mole concepts and calculations S3-CHEM-8.S
Understanding Chemical Equations
Consider the equation: N
2
(g) 3H
2
(g) !!" 2NH3(g)
#rom this equation $e see that:
% molecule o& N2reacts $ith 3 molecules o& H2to 'ield 2 molecules o& NH
3
. (hus ) * %+
23
molecules o& N2react $ith 3 * ) * %+
23
molecules o& H2to 'ield 2 * ) * %+
23
molecules o& NH
3
.
(,ounding o&& the -.ogadro constant.)
% mole o& N2 reacts $ith 3 moles o& H2to 'ield 2 moles o& NH3
#urther more &rom the equation:
% molecule o& N2reacts $ith 3 molecules o& H2to 'ield 2 molecules o& NH
3
/ thus n molecules o&
N2 react $ith 3n molecules o& H2to 'ield 2n molecules o& NH3
% .olume o& N2 reacts $ith 3 .olumes o& H2to 'ield 2 .olumes o& NH
3
.
0t &ollo$s that $e can inter1ret an equation in three $a's.
% (he coe&&icients gi.e the num2er o& molecules reacting.
2 (he coe&&icients gi.e the num2er o& moles reacting.
3 #or3 reactions in.ol.ing gases/ the coe&&icients gi.e the num2er o& .olumes reacting.
4 Co1'right Modular Education Centre i& )33)%+35 Mole conce1ts and calculations (S3-CHEM-8.5)4 6g 75
S3 Mole concepts and calculations S3-CHEM-8.6
Stoichiometric Calculations General Approach
Suppose two substances, A and B, combine accordin to a !nown reaction. "e wish to !now
how much B will react with #or, be produced $rom% a measured &uantit' o$ A. (he solution
in)ol)es three steps*
Step + E,press the amount o$ A in moles.
Step - Con)ert the moles o$ A to moles o$ B usin the balanced e&uation.
Step 3 Con)ert the amount o$ B #in moles% into whate)er &uantit' is re&uired.
E,amples*
+ H'droen was passed o)er heated copper#l.% o,ide, and the o,ide con)erted to copper
metal. (he reaction can be represented b' the e&uation* Cu/ 0 H- 11112 C3 0 H
-
4
"hen 5.64 o$ the o,ide was completel' chaned, +.-6 o$ water were produced. 3se these
$iures to show that the relati)e atomic mass o$ copper is 66. #A,#H% +.4, A,#7% 1 +6%.
Answer:
Step + E,press the amount o$ water in moles. +.-6 H
-
0is moles H
-
0
. 126 U6
Step - 8rom the e&uation we see that - moles H
-
0result $rom -. - 9moleso$ Cu/.
18 18
Step 3 Con)ert the amount o$ Cu/ #moles% into mass #rams%.
:et relati)e atomic mass o$ Cu be ,.
;ow Mass in rams = ;umber o$ moles , <elati)e molecular mass
126
5.6 1-x(x 0 16)
18
Sol)in x1 66
<elati)e atomic mass o$ copper is 66.
-. =n 0 -HC. -2 =nCb 0 H-
(he e&uation represents the reaction between >inc and dilute h'drochloric acid. .$ +34 o$
>inc is dissol)ed in e,cess acid, calculate*
#i% the mass o$ h'droen produced,
#ii% the )olume o$ h'droen produced at s.t.p.,
#iii%the mass o$ >inc chloride produced.
?ou ma' assume A,#H% 1 +.44, A,#C.% 1 35.5, A,#=n% 1 65.4.
(he molar )olume o$ a as at s.t.p. is --.6 drrr@,
A Cop'riht Modular Education Centre i$ 6336+435 Mole concepts and calculations #S3-CHEM-8.6%A B 66
S3 Mole concepts and calculations 5l-CHEM-S.7
Answer:
Step 1 Express the amount of zinc in moles. 130 g Zn is 13
0
moles Zn ! moles Zn
"5
Step ! #rom the e$uation% ! moles of zinc pro&uce ! moles of H2 an& ! moles of ZnC1
2
.
Step 3
'i( Mass of h)&rogen *um+er of moles x ,elati-e molecular mass !x!g .g
'ii( *o/ 1 mole of h)&rogen occupies !!0. &m1% ! moles of h)&rogen occup) ..02 &rn1%
'iii( Mass of ZnC3
2
*um+er of moles x ,elati-e molecular mass ! x 13" g !7! g
Note: 4he /or&s5 Step 16 5Step !6 5Step 36 a+o-e are gi-en for gui&ance an& /oul& not
+e inclu&e& in an examination ans/er.
3 7otassium manganate'8339 &ecomposes /hen gentl) heate& accor&ing to the e$uation:
;hen 10"5 < of a certain sample of cr)stals of potassium manganate'8339 /ere heate& until no
more gas /as e-ol-e&% the -olume of ox)gen collecte& un&er s.t.p con&itions /as 11! ern1.
Calculate the percentage purit) of the cr)stals of potassium manganate'8339.
=%'H9 1.0, Ar(O) 1".0% Ar(K) 3<.0% A,(Mn) 55.0
Answer:
Step 1 11! ern1 >
2
is 11! mole >
2
0.005 mole >
2
!!.00
Step ! 00005 mole >
!
is pro&uce& +) ! x 00005 mole ?Mn0.% l.e% +) 0001 mole ?Mn0.
Step 3
9
Mass of ?Mn0. *um+er of moles x ,elati-e molecular mass 0.01 x 152 < 1.52
:. % purit) of sample is 152 x 100 <5.7"
1."5
6 Cop)right Mo&ular E&ucation Centre. "33"1035 Mole concepts an& calculations 'S3-CHEM-@.7(6 7g .7
53 Mole concepts and calculations 53-CHEM-S.S
Concentration of Solutions
The composition of a solution is specified by its concentration. Both the solute and the solvent
have concentration, but it is usual to consider only that of the solute.
Concentration is the amount of substance per unit volume. t is !enerally measured in"
either Moles per cubic decimetre #rnol$drrr%& or 'rams per cubic decimetre #!$dm3)
Note: Concentration is sometimes measured in moles per litre #mol$(& since ( litre ) ( drrr% ) (
*** ern+ and ( ml = ( ern+.
Examples:
f (mole of HC is dissolved in ( drn+ the concentration is ( mol$drn+ or 3,.5 !$dm
3
. f - moles
of .a/H are dissolved in *.5 dm
3
the concentration is 0 mol$drn+ or (,* !$dm
3
.
Problems:
( Calculate the concentration in !$dm3 and mol$drrr% in the follo1in!"
#a& , 2 of .aC dissolved in -** crrr% of solution.
#b& -0 2 3/H dissolved in 0 litres of solution.
4r#.a& = -3.*, 4r#C& = 35.5 A,(O) = (,.*, A,(H) = (.*, A,(K) ) 32.(
4ns1er"
#a& f , 2 .aC is dissolved in -** ern+, then , 5 5 2 .aC is dissolved in ( *** em+ #6e. ( drrr%&,
3* 2 .aC is 30 mole = *%5( mole
23 +355
the concentration is 3* !$dm3 or *%5( mol$drrr%
#b& f -0 2 3/H is dissolved in 0 litres, then 0 2 3/H is dissolved in ( litre.
3/H is , mole = *.(( mole
39.1+16+1
". the concentration is , !$dm
3
or *.(( mol$drn+.
7 Copyri!ht Modular Education Centre 8 ,33,(*35 Mole concepts and calculations #S3-CHEM-9.9&7 :! 09
53
Identification of Ions and Gases 53-CHEM-9.1
Table: Tests for Identifying Ions
Ion Tests
K+
Te fla!e test is s"fficient confir!ation at tis le#el
$a+ K+- transient #iolet% $a& - orange-yello'.
1 (la!e test - bric)-red
Ca *+
2 +it $H
3
,a-.% no /reci/itate for!s. +it $a0H,a-.% a 'ite /reci/itate for!s
'ic is insol"ble in e1cess.
C" *+
+it $H
3
,a-.%a ligt bl"e /reci/itate for!s. It dissol#es in e1cess to for! a dee/ bl"e
sol"tion.
(e *+
+it $H3,a-. or $a0H,a-. % a dirty green /reci/itate for!s.
(e 3+
1 +it $H3,a-. or $a0H,a-.% a reddis-bro'n /reci/itate for!s.
2 +it a!!oni"! tiocyanate sol"tion a dee/ red colo"ration is /rod"ced.
1 +it $H3,a-. or $a0H,a-.% a 'ite /reci/itate for!s2 te latter /reci/itate only
3b *+
dissol#es in e1cess.
2 +it dil"te HCI% a 'ite /reci/itate for!s 'ic is sol"ble in ot sol"tion.
4n
*
+
+it $H3,a-. or $a0H,a-.% a 'ite /reci/itate for!s% bot /reci/itates dissol#ing in
e1cess.
1 +it $a0H, a-.% a 'ite /reci/itate for!s 'ic is sol"ble in e1cess. +it
51
3
+
$H
3
,a-.% a 'ite gelatino"s /reci/itate for!s 'ic is sligtly sol"ble in e1cess.
2 +it dil"te HCI% no /reci/itate for!s. ,Tis distina"ises 51
3
+fro! 3b *+..
0n'ar!ing 'it $a0H,a-. a!!onia is gi#en off. ,$H3is detected by its caracteristic
$H
6
+
s!ell% by its t"rning red lit!"s /a/er bl"e and by te for!ation of dense 'ite f"!es 'it
ydrogen cloride..
col-
+it dil"te acids carbon dio1ide is gi#en off. ,C7
*
is detected by its t"rning li!e'ater
!il)y..
+it dil"te acids carbon dio1ide is gi#en off. HC7
3
is disting"ised fro! col- by reaction
HC7
3 'it Mg876 sol"tion. Hydrogencarbonates% gi#e no /reci/itate in te cold. 5 /reci/itate
for!s on boiling. Carbonates gi#e a /reci/itate in te cold.
sol- 9ields 87* 'it dil"te HCI acid ,87* t"rns /otassi"! dicro!ate,:I. /a/er green..
80;- +it <aCI
*
,a-. a 'ite solid for!s. Te solid is insol"ble in dil"te H$7
3
.
CI-
8ol"tion- gi#es 'ite /reci/itate 'it 5g$7
3
,a-.. 3reci/itate is insol"ble in H$7
3
% b"t
sol"ble in dil"te $H3,a-..
Br
+it clorine 'ater% bro!ine is /rod"ced. ,<r*for!s a red sol"tion if te !i1t"re is
sa)en 'it CC1
6
..
1-
+it clorine 'ater% iodine is /rod"ced ,b for!s a #iolet sol"tion if te !i1t"re is sa)en
'it CCI
6
..
= Co/yrigt Mod"lar Ed"cation Centre& >33>1735 Identificationof Ions and Gases ,83-CHEM-9.1.= 3g 69
1 The solid on heating produces 02(g) and often N0
2
(g) also. (0
2
ignites a glowing
splint; N0
2
is a reddish-brown acidic gas.)
2 The solid on warming with concentrated H
2
S0

!ields N0
2
and HN0
3
.
" Solutions gi#e the $brown ring% test. The solution is mi&ed with 'eS0(a() and
the test-tube held at )% *oncentrated H
2
S0

is slowl! and carefull! poured

down the inside. + brown rinc forms at the ,unction of the two li(uid la!ers.
? *op!right -odular .ducation *entre if /""/10") 0dentification of 0ons and 1ases (S"-*H.--2.1 )% 3g )0
Identification of Ions and Gases S3-CHEM-9.2
Tests for Oxidizing Agents in Solution
Oxidizing agents !ill li"erate iodine fro# solutions of $otassiu# iodide. T%e iodine turns
t%e solution "ro!n. On s%a&ing !it% CC
4
, t%e iodine for#s a 'iolet solution !%ic% settles
"elo! an a(ueous la)er. Iodine #a) also "e identified ") t%e "lue colour it for#s !it%
starc% solution.
2 Oxidizing agents !ill con'ert iron*II+ salts to iron*III+ salts. T%e solution containing a
sus$ected oxidizing agent s%ould "e added to a fres%l) $re$ared solution of ferrous sul$%ate
acidified !it% dilute sul$%uric acid. T%e $ale green colour ,e
2
- ions *a(+ !ill "e c%anged to t%e
)ello!is%-red or )ello!is%-"ro!n colour of ,e 3- ions in solution ") an oxidizing agent.
Tests for .educing Agents in Solution
.educing agents !ill decolourize acidified solutions of $otassiu# #anganate*/II+ and
t%e) !ill c%ange acidified solutions of $otassiu# dic%ro#ate*/I+ fro# orange to green.
2 .educing agents !ill decolourize a(ueous solutions of "ro#ine. In t%is case0 free "ro#ine
is reduced to "ro#ide ions *1r2+0
Ta"le Tests for identif)ing gases
Gas Colour and S#ell Test
3itrogen *3
2
+ Colourless4Odourless
3o si#$le test. 1urn Mg in it to for# Mg
3
3
2
. 5%en
!ater is added to Mg332a##onia is e'ol'ed.
Ox)gen *6
2
+ Colourless4Odourless Ignites a glo!ing s$lint
H)drogen *H2+ Colourless4Odourless Ignites !it% a s(uea&) $o$
Heliu# *He+ Colourless4Odourless 3on-reacti'e4 3o test
A##onia *3H3+
Colourless47ungent Turns #oist red lit#us $a$er "lue. 7roduces dense
s#ell !%ite clouds of 3H
8
C !it% %)drogen c%loride gas.
Car"on dioxide
Colourless4Odourless
Turns li#e!ater #il&). *Excess CO
2
clears t%e
*CO
2
+ #il&iness. +
H)drogen c%loride
Colourless47ungent
,u#es in #oist air0 t%e fu#es turn "luelit#us $a$er
*HC+
s#ell
red. 7roduces dense !%ite clouds of 3H
8
C !it%
a##onia.
Greenis%-)ello!47oisono
us
Turns #oist "lue lit#us $a$er red and t%en
C%lorine *C
2
+
47ungent s#ell "leac%es it
.edd is%-"ro!n47oisonou
3itrogen
s
dioxide*36
2
+ 47ungent s#ell
Turns #oist "lue lit#us $a$er red
Sul$%ur dioxide Colourless4 C%o&ing
Turns orange 92Cr26: $a$er green
*S62+ s#ell
; Co$)rig%t Modular Education Centre <33<63= Identification of Ions and Gases *S3-CHEM-9.2+; 7g =
Water vapour (H
2
0)
Colourless/Odourless
Condenses on a cold surface. Turns white
anhydrous CUS04 lue.
! Copyri"ht #odular $ducation Centre if %&&%'0&( )dentification of )ons and *ases (S&+CH$#+,.-)! ." (-
53 Atmosphere and Environment S3-CHEM-13.1
Oxygen
Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earthlll crust. It is found free in air (as diatomic
! molecules" and combined in #ater and oxides.
$hysical $ro%erties of Oxygen
It is a colourless and odourless gas& and is only slightly soluble in #ater. Oxygen is slightly
more dense than air. It su%%orts combustion and life and is %roduced in %hotosynthesis
Chemical $ro%erties of Oxygen
1 Most metals and non-metals burn in air or oxygen to form oxides. Substances that burn in
air burn more readily in oxygen.
(a" Metals form basic oxides& e.g. !Mg(s" ' !(g" -- !MgO(s "
!Ca(s" ' !(g" -( !CaO(s" bric)-red flame
brilliant #hite flame
(b" *on-metals form acidic oxides& e.g. S(s" ' !(g" ++, S!(g" large blue flame
C(s" ' !(g" - C!(g" glo#s red hot
! -uels such as hydrocarbons (e.g. methane" and alcohol (ethanol" burn to form #ater and
carbon dioxide. Incom%lete combustion yields carbon monoxide rather than carbon dioxide.
Methane .CH/(g" ' !!(g" -- C!(g" ' !H!(g"
Ethanol. . CH3CH!H(I" ' 3!(g" ++, !C!(g" ' 3H!(g"
3 0mmonia burns at a 1et in oxygen. /*H3(g" ' 3!(g" -, !*!(g" ' 2H!(g"
If a mixture of ammonia and oxygen is %assed o3er heated %latinum a different reaction
occurs.
/*H3(g" ' 4!(g" /*O(g" ' 2H!(g"
5his latter reaction is im%ortant in the %re%aration of nitric acid. 6oth reactions illustrate
ammonia acting as a reducing agent.
7ses of Oxygen
1 In steel ma)ing.
! In oxy-acetylene #elding and cutting.
3 0s a roc)et fuel.
/ 0s an aid to breathing for %atients #ith res%iratory difficulties.
4 In dee% sea di3ing.
2 -or the aeration of se#age in treatment %lant.
8 In %a%er %roduction& for the bleaching of %a%er %ul%.
9 Co%yright Modular Education Centre if 2332134 0tmos%here and En3ironment (S3-CHEM-13.1"9 $g 43
53 Speed of Chemical Reactions S3CHEM10.1
It is clear that chemical reactions proceed at very different speeds. The rustin of
iron! the e"plodin of a mi"ture of methane and o"yen! and the action of an acid on a metal
have reatly varyin reaction speeds.
#actors that affect the speed of reaction include$
1 The type of %ond involved.
& The concentration of the reactants.
3 The temperature of the reaction.
' The Surface area of the reactants.
( The presence of catalysts.
) The presence of liht
1 The Type of *ond Involved
Most reactions %et+een ions are very fast.
Example:
,recipitation reactions are fast! e..
Ca 2+( a-. / C o l - ( a-. 001 CaC0
3
2s.
*y contrast most reactions %et+een molecular compounds are slo+ due to the time ta3en in
%rea3in and ma3in covalent %onds.
Example:
Esterification reactions in +hich alcohols react +ith car%o"ylic acids to form esters are slo+
reactions$
C
2
H
5
0H / H44CCH
3
000001 C
2
H
5
000CH
3
/ H
2
0
Ethanol Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate
The a%ove reaction +hich re-uires the presence of sulphuric acid ta3es several hours +ith
heatin
5 Copyriht Modular Education Centre if )33)103( Speed of Chemical Reactions 2S36CHEM61 0.1.5 , ('
53 Speed of Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-10.1
2 The Concentration of the Reactants
The speed of a chemical reaction is usually increased y increasin! the concentrations of the
reactants. This e"plains #hy the !reatest speed is oser$ed as soon as the reactants are
mi"ed% i.e. #hen they are oth at their hi!hest concentrations. &s the reaction proceeds the
concentrations decrease and the speed of reaction also decreases.
E"planation'
Reaction can only ta(e place #hen molecules collide. )hen the concentration is increased
more collisions per unit time #ill ta(e place and #e predict an increased reaction speed.
Example 1:
The reaction et#een ma!nesium rion and e"cess dilute hydrochloric acid'
2HC1*a+, + M!*s, --. M!C12*a+, + H2*!,
/f the concentration of the acid is increased from 1 mol/dm to 2 mol/dm it is found that the
speed of reaction is increased four times. This can e determined y measurin! the rate of
e$olution of hydro!en !as. )hen the !raph of $olume of hydro!en !as produced is plotted
a!ainst time% the speed of reaction can e determined from the !radient.
3 Temperature of Reaction
The speed of a chemical reaction is increased y raisin! the temperature of the reaction.
E"planation'
/ncrease in temperature increases the (inetic ener!y of the reactin! particles. The rate
increases for t#o reasons' firstly there #ill e more collisions per second of the reactin!
particles0 secondly more ener!y is in$ol$ed in the collisions et#een particles and therefore a
!reater proportion of collisions #ill lead to reaction.1or most reactions an increase of 10 2
doules the reaction speed.
Example 1:
/n an ordinary saucepan food oiled in #ater cannot e coo(ed at temperatures hi!her than
the oilin! point of #ater. Ho#e$er in a pressure coo(er the pressure uild-up ele$ates the
oilin! point of #ater enalin! the food to e coo(ed at hi!her temperatures. This !reatly
speeds up coo(in!% thus sa$in! fuel and time.
3 Copyri!ht Modular Education Centre. 43341035 Speed of Chemical Reactions *S3-CHEM-1 0.1,3 5! 55
53 Speed of Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-10.2
4 Surface Area of Reaction
The speed of reaction invovin! a soid reactant is increased "# increasin! the surface area of
the soid. The surface area of a soid is increased "# "rea$in! it into s%aer pieces or "# usin!
it in po&der for%. 'nti%ate %i(in! of i)uids and !ases aso increases the speed of reaction.
E(panation*
Reaction ta$es pace &hen the surface of the soid reactant is hit "# %ovin! partices of the
other reactant. 'f the surface+is ar!er it &i "e hit "# %ore %ovin! reactant partices per unit
ti%e and the rate of reaction &i "e faster.
Example 1:
Reaction of %a!nesiu% ri""on &ith diute h#drochoric acid*
2HC',a)- . M!,s- //0 M!C12,a)- . H2,!-
'f a conditions are $ept constant incudin! the en!th of %a!nesiu% ri""on it is found that
reaction is so&er if the ri""on is cut into t&o and the pieces !ued face to face ,thus havin!
the surface area-.
Example 2:
Reaction of caciu% car"onate &ith diute h#drochoric acid*
CaC0
3
,s- . 2HC',a)- 1//0 CaC1
2
,a)- . C2
2
,!- . H
2
0,-
.'f ar!e %ar"e chips ,havin! a reative# s%a surface area- are used3 the reaction rate is
%uch so&er than &ith po&dered i%estone ,havin! a reative# ar!e surface area-.
'f suphuric acid is used instead of h#drochoric acid the reaction &i initia# "e rapid3 "ut &i
soon so& do&n as the %ar"e chips "eco%e coated &ith insou"e caciu% suphate thus
preventin! further reaction.
E(a%pe 3* E(posions
An e(posion is a che%ica reaction that ta$es pace at a ver# rapid rate producin! a ar!e
a%ount of ener!#. E(posions are i$e# to occur &hen reactants are inti%ate# %i(ed3 e.!.
,a- There is dan!er of e(posive co%"ustion in four %is &hen fine po&der is %i(ed &ith air.
,"- There is dan!er of e(posions in coa %ines &hen coa dust and %ethane %i( &ith air.
4hen %ethane ,or 1 M ire da%p5 is present to the e(tent of 5 percent in air3 the %i(ture is
e(posive.
5 Cop#ri!ht Moduar Education Centre i 63361035 Speed of Che%ica Reactions ,S3-CHEM-1 0.2-5 7! 56
53 Speed of Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-10.3
5 The Presence of Catalysts
Many reactions proceed quite slowly when the reactants are mied alone! "ut they can "e
made to ta#e place much more rapidly "y the presence of other su"stances! called catalysts.
$ catalyst is a su"stance which speeds up a chemical reaction without itself "ein% used up
and it remains chemically unchan%ed at the end of the reaction.
Eplanation&
$ catalyst pro'ides an alternati'e easier pathway for the reaction.
Example 1:
Hydro%en peroide decomposes 'ery slowly in aqueous solution&
The rate of reaction can "e determined "y measurin% the rate of e'olution of oy%en %as. The
dia%ram "elow illustrate the effect of addin% small samples (0.1 %) of a num"er of su"stances
to a quantity of hydro%en peroide. *t can "e seen that a num"er of su"stances catalyse the
reaction and that some are "etter than others. Man%anese (*+) oide is a particularly %ood
catalyst for the a"o'e reaction. ,hen it is added to hydro%en peroide! oy%en is produced
with 'i%orous effer'escence.
$ su"stance which slos down a chemical reaction is called a ne%ati'e catalyst or an
inhi"itor.
Example 2:
En-ymes are su"stances which catalyse chemical reactions in li'in% or%anisms. Each en-yme
is quite specific in its reaction! and wor#s "est at an optimum temperature. .ali'a contains the
en-yme amylase which is an effecti'e catalyst in the chan%e of starch to su%ar. This chan%e!
#nown as hydrolysis! can "e represented "y the equation&
(C
s
H
10
0
5
) n / nH
2
00 nC1H1201
starch %lucose
Note: Starch is a polymer of glucose
Examples of catalysts used in industry
1 Platinum aids the oidation of ammonia in the manufacture of nitric acid.
2 +anadium(+) oide is used in the 3contact0 process of manufacturin% sulphuric acid.
3 4inely di'ided iron (promoted with alumina and potassium oide) is used in the Ha"er
process for the manufacture of ammonia.
5 6ic#el is used in the hydro%enation of unsaturated fats (e.%. in ma#in% mar%arine).
0 Copyri%ht Modular Education Centre if 13311035 .peed of Chemical 7eactions (.3-CHEM-10.3)0 P% 58
5 Silica-aluminum or platinum catalysts are used in the' cracking? and reforming of crude
petroleum.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre if63361035 Speed of Chemical Reactions (S3-CEM-10!3"? #g 5$
S3 Speed of Chemical Reactions 53-CHEM-10.4
6 The Presence of i!ht
T"o e#amples "ill ma$e this clear%
E#ample 1%
&f a mi#t're of h(dro!en and chlorine is e#posed to )ri!ht s'nli!ht it e#plodes
H
*
+!, - C&*+!, .../ *HC1 +!,
0o reaction ta$es place in the dar$. &n diff'se li!ht the reaction proceeds slo"l(.
E#ample *%
The s')stit'tion reaction of methane "ith chlorine ta$es place smoothl( in diff'se li!ht and
e#plosi1el( in s'nli!ht. 0o reaction occ'rs in dar$ness. The first s')stit'tion step is%
CH
4
+!, - C1
2
+!,2 CH3C&+!, - HC1+!,
Re1ersi)le Reactions
&n this chapter "e ha1e not considered ho" catal(sts3 and chan!es in factors s'ch as
press're3 concentration and temperat're affect re1ersi)le reactions. This is an important topic
)'t )e(ond the scope of this )oo$. S'ffice it to sa( that the factors a)o1e infl'ence )oth the
position of e4'ili)ri'm and the speed at "hich e4'ili)ri'm is attained in s'ch reactions.
2 Cop(ri!ht Mod'lar Ed'cation Centre5 63361035 Speed of Chemical Reactions +S3-CHEM-10.4,2 P! 56
S3 Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.1
Acids
Most acids are produced when non-metallic oxides, such as, sulphur dioxide or sulphur!"#
oxide, dissol$e in water. Howe$er not all acids are solutions o% non-metallic oxides in water,
e.&. h'drochloric acid is made (' dissol$in& the &as h'dro&en chloride in water.
)eneral *roperties o% Acids
1 +he' are &enerall' colourless.
, +he' ha$e a sour taste.
3. +he' chan&e the colour o% indicators, e.&. acids turn litmus %rom (lue to red and
phenolphthalein %rom pin- to colourless.
. +heir a/ueous solutions conduct electricit', i.e. the' are electrol'tes.
5. +he' react with metals that are more electropositi$e than h'dro&en on the acti$it' series
to &i$e h'dro&en &as plus a salt, e.&. M&s# 0 H
2
S1
.
a/# 223 M&S1.a/# 0 H
2
&#
4 +he' react with car(onates and h'dro&en car(onates to 'ield a salt plus car(on dioxide,
e.&.
,HC1a/# 0 CaC1
3
s# 223 CaC1
,
a/# 0 H
,
11# 0 C5
,
&#
6.+he' neutrali7e (ases to %orm a salt and water onl', e.&.
HC1a/# 0 8a5Ha/#9 8aC"a/# 0 H
,
1"#
Explanation %or the properties o% acids
All acids contain the element h'dro&en and their a/ueous solutions conduct electricit'.
+here%ore we deduce that all acids release h'dro&en ions in a/ueous solution and that this is
responsi(le %or their acidic properties.
:e%inition; An acid is a su(stance that releases h'dro&en ions in a/ueous solution.
Examples of the release of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution:
i# H'dro&en chloride; HC"a/# 2223 H<a/# 0 Cl<a/#
ll# 8itric acid; H81
3
a/# 223 H0a/# 0 81
3
-a/#
iii#Ethanoic acid; CH
3
C55Ha/# =2223 H<a/# 0 CH
3
C55-a/#
Note: H'dro&en Chloride
H'dro&en chloride is a co$alent compound. 8e$ertheless when dissol$ed in water it (rea-s up
into ions accordin& to the e/uation a(o$e. +his solution conducts electricit'. B' contrast when
&aseous h'dro&en chloride dissol$es in meth'l(en7ene the resultant solution does not
9 Cop'ri&ht Modular Education Centre. 43341135 Acids, Bases and Salts S3-CHEM-11.1#9 *& 41
conduct electricity. This indicates that hydrogen chloride does not break up into ions in
methylbenzene; rather it continues to exist as discrete molecules.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre V 63361035 Acids, Bases and Salts (S3C!EM11"1#? $g 61
S3 Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.2
Bases and Alkalis
The most common bases are metallic oxides. Most metallic oxides are not solble in !ater.
Bases !hich are solble are kno!n as alkalis. Belo! is a list o" common alkalis#
$a% &a'H# sodim h(droxide or castic soda
$b% )'H# *otassim h(droxide or castic *otash
$c% Ca$'H%2# calcim h(droxide or slaked lime
$d% &H3# ammonia
(e) &a2C+3# sodim carbonate or !ashin, soda
-eneral .ro*erties o" Alkalis
1 The( are ,enerall( colorless.
2 The( taste bitter.
3The( are sli**er( to toch.
4 The( chan,e the color o" indicators, e.,. alkalis trn litms "rom red to ble and
*henol*hthalein "rom colorless to *ink.
5. Their a/eos soltions condct electricit(, t.e, the( are electrol(tes.
0 The( netrali1e acids to "orm a salt *ls !ater onl(, e.,.
2&a'H$ a/% 2 H
2
S+
3
$a/% 445 &a2S+3$ a/% 2 2H
2
+$6%
This reaction is also tre "or insolble bases, e.,. C'$s% 2 H,S+3$a/% 445 CS+3$a/% 2
H
2
+$6%
Ex*lanation "or the *ro*erties o" alkalis
H(droxide ions $'H-% are "ond in alkaline soltions and ,i7e them their distincti7e *ro*erties.
Sodim h(droxide releases h(droxide ions in soltion as "ollo!s#
&a'H$s% 445 &a8$a/% 2 'l2$a/%
9e shold note that ammonia and sodim carbonate "orm h(droxide ions as belo!#
: Co*(ri,ht Modlar Edcation Centre ir 03301+35 Acids, Bases and Salts $S3-CHEM-11.2%: ., 02
Definition: A base is a substance which releases hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution
or a substance which reacts with an acid to form a salt plus water only. Many bases are
also insoluble in water.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre if63361035 Acids, ases and !alts "!3#C$EM#11.%&? 'g 63
S3
Acids, Bases and Salts S3CHEM11.3
The pH Scale
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of an aqeos soltion is !easred on a scale called the pH
scale.
The reference point on this scale is the pH of pre "ater "hich has the #ale of $. Sch a
soltion is said to %e netral. pH #ales lo"er than $ are acidic& the lo"er the pH the stronger
the acidity. pH #ales greater than $ are alkaline& the higher the pH, the stronger the alkalinity.
Measre!ent of 'H
(1)
13 1*
3 * 5 + 7 8 9 1( 11 1)
< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
= >
,ncreasing acidity
alkalinity
-etral ,ncreasing
The si!plest "ay to !easre pH is to !ake se of indicators. .ni#ersal ,ndicator "hich is a
!i/tre of se#eral indicators, is particlarly sefl since it changes color gradally fro! red
throgh orange and green to #iolet o#er a "ide pH range. 0or #ery accrate !easre!ent of
pH, pH !eters !ay %e sed.
Strong and 1eak Acids
A strong acid is one "hich ioni2es co!pletely in "ater.
E/a!ples& hydrochloric acid, nitric acid. A dilte soltion 31 M4 of hydrochloric acid has a
pH of O .
A "eak acid is one "hich only ioni2es to a slight e/tent in "ater.
E/a!ples& ethanoic acid, slphros acid. 5inegar 3dilte ethanoic acid4 has a pH of 3.
Strong and 1eak Alkalis
A strong alkali is one "hich ioni2es co!pletely in "ater.
E/a!ples& sodi! hydro/ide, potassi! hydro/ide.A dilte soltion of sodi! hydro/ide
has a pH of 1*.
A "eak alkali is one "hich only ioni2es to a slight e/tent in "ater.
E/a!ples& a!!onia soltion, calci! hydro/ide soltion. 6ilte a!!onia soltion has a
pH of 11.
7 Copyright Modlar Edcation Centre fir +33+1(38 Acids, Bases and Salts 3S39CHEM911.347 'g +*
Note: It is important not to confuse strong and weak with reactive and less reactive. The
strength of an acid depends only on the concentration of H+ ions in the solution.
Acidity in Soils
Most plants grow in soil that is neutral or slightly acidic. The pH of soil can be checked with a
soil testing kit. If it is too acidic, lime can be added to it.
!opyright Modular "ducation !entre #$% &''&%(') *cids, +ases and ,alts -,'.!H"M.%%.'/ 0g &)
53
Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.4
Salts
Definition: A salt is the substance poduced, to!ethe "ith "ate, "hen an acid and a
base eact to!ethe. Altenati#el$, a salt is the co%pound fo%ed "hen the h$do!en of
an acid is patl$ o "holl$ eplaced b$ a %etal.
&he popet$ that all salts ha#e in co%%on is that the$ conduct electicit$ in a'ueous solution.
&he$ ae theefoe electol$tes and "e conclude that the$ consist of ions in solution. Since
salts ae ionic co%pounds this is not supisin!.
Example: Sodium chloride breaks up in solution as follows: NaCI(s) (() Na+(aq) * CI(aq)
+eutali,ation
-hen an acid eacts "ith an al.alineutali,ation ta.es place. +eutali,ation eactions ae
e/othe%ic. 0n#esti!ation sho"s that the follo"in! eactions all poduce the sa%e a%ount of
heat pe %ole 152 .34%ole5:
HC01a'5 * +a6H1a'5 ((() +aC01a'5 * H,6105
H+7
3
1a'5 * +a6H1a'5 ((()+a+7
3
1a'5 * H,6105
HB1a'5 * 86H1a'5 ((() 8B1a'5 * H,6105
0f each eaction is "itten in ionic fo% and the spectato ions o%itted "e obtain in each case:
Cleal$ this is the essential eaction that occus "hene#e thee is neutali,ation. Ene!$
a%ountin! to 52 .34%ole is poduced "hen h$do!en ions and h$do/ide ions co%bine to fo%
non-ioni,ed "ate.
+a%in! of Salts
A salt %a$ be consideed to be dei#ed fo% an acid b$ eplace%ent of its h$do!en ions b$
%etallic ions, e.!. sodiu% chloide 1+aC05 is dei#ed fo% h$dochloic acid 1HC05 b$ eplacin! the
h$do!en ion b$ a sodiu% ion.
9uthe%oe,
1a5 Sulphates ae dei#ed fo% sulphuic acid, H
:
S7
4
.
1b5 Chloides ae dei#ed fo% h$dochloic acid, HC;.
1c5 +itates ae dei#ed fo% nitic acid, H+7
3
.
1d5 Sulphites ae dei#ed fo% sulphuous acid, H
:
7 * S7:.
1e5 Cabonates ae dei#ed fo% cabonic acid, H
<
C7
3
=
> Cop$i!ht Modula Education Cente if ?33?1735 Acids, Bases and Salts 1S3-CHEM-11.45> @! ??
S3Ne may even consider that hydroxides are derived from water, HOH.
? Copyright Modular ducation Centre. !33!"#3$ %cids, &ases and Salts 'S3(CHM("".)*? +g !,
Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.4
Acid Salts
When there is only partial replacement of the hydroen ions of an acid !y metallic ions, acid
salts form, e.. "or an acid li#e H
$
C%
3
car!onic acid
&artial replacement' acid salt (aHC%
3 sodi)m hydroen car!onate
")ll replacement' normal salt (a$C%3 sodi)m car!onate
Basicity of Acids
*he !asicity of an acid is the n)m!er of hydroen ions +hich one molec)le of an acid can
li!erate. Acids s)ch as s)lph)ric acid and car!onic acid are di!asic and can form t+o series of
salts - acid salts and normal salts. Hydrochloric acid is mono!asic and can only form normal
salts.
(otes on Sol)!ility of Salts
,a- All salts of the al#ali metals are sol)!le, .i/ of )0, (a1, 21, 3!1, Cs1, "r4,
,!- All ammoni)m salts are sol)!le.
,c- All nitrates are sol)!le.
,d- All ethanoates ,or acetates- are sol)!le.
,e- All chlorides, !romides and iodides are sol)!le e5cept those of A64, &!
$
1,H
$
$1and
c)0. *he species H
$
S%
3
has ne.er !een identified. *he so-called s)lph)ro)s acid is a
sol)tion of s)lph)r dio5ide in +ater. *his sol)tion ioni/es to a small e5tent. S%$,a6- 1 H
$
%,7-
889 H1,a6- 1 HS%
3
-,a6-
,f- All s)lphates are sol)!le e5cept those of A1, Ca
$
1,sr", :a
$
1and &!
$
1.
,- All hydro5ides are insol)!le e5cept those of the al#ali metals, (H41, Sr $1and :a
$
1
,h- All car!onates are insol)!le e5cept those of the al#ali metals and (H41
; Copyriht Mod)lar Ed)cation Centre if <33<1%35 Acids, Bases and Salts ,S3-CHEM-11.4-; & <:
53 Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.5
Oxides
1 A basic oxide is one which reacts with an acid to form a salt l!s water onl", e.#.
CaO$s% & 'HC($a)% **+ CaC1
'
$a)% & H
'
,$(% or C!O$s% & H
'
S,
-
$a)% **+ C!S,-$a)% &
H
'
,$l%
(f a basic oxide is sol!ble it forms a h"droxide with water e.#..a
'
,$s% & H
'
,$(% **+ '.aOH$a)%
CaO$s% & H
'
,$1% -- Ca$OH%'$s% sla/in# lime
0he oxides of most metals are basic oxides. e.#. .a',, 1
'
, - sol!ble2 3e',32 C!O - insol!ble
' An acidic oxide reacts with a base to form a salt l!s water onl", e.#.
CO
'
$#% & '.aOH$a)% **+ .a'C,3$a)% & H
'
,$1%
Sol!ble acidic oxides dissol4e in water to form acids, e.#. S,'$#% & H
'
,$(% **+ H5$a)% &
HS,
3
-$a)%
S,3$S% + H
'
,$1% **+ H
'
S,
-
$a)% **+ 'H&$a)% + SOl-(aq)
0he" are #enerall" oxides of non-metals, e.#. CO
'
,S,', S,3, 6',5- sol!ble, Si,
'
- insol!ble.
3 Amhoteric oxides ha4e roerties of both basic and acidic oxides, e.#. A1
'
,
3
and 7nO.
8eactions of 9inc oxide:
$a% As a basic oxide: 7nO$s% & 'HC($a)% **+ 7nC(
'
$a)% & H
'
,$1%
$b% As an acidic oxide. 0he reaction with sodi!m h"droxide sol!tion is as follows:
7nO$s% & ',H-$a)% + H
'
,$1% ***+ 7n$OH%l-$a)%
0he rod!ct, 9incate$l(% ion, is sol!ble.
- .e!tral oxides ha4e neither acidic nor basic roerties, e.#. H
'
,, .
'
, $dinitro#en oxide%, .O
$nitro#en oxide% and CO.
Sol!bilit" of metal oxides
0he oxides of the al/ali metals and of stronti!m and bari!m, are sol!ble and form h"droxides
when dissol4ed in water.
Ma#nesi!m oxide is racticall" insol!ble, b!t when moist it t!rns red litm!s aer bl!e owin#
to the formation of the h"droxide. Calci!m oxide $)!ic/lime% reacts 4i#oro!sl" with water
rod!cin# m!ch heat. 0he calci!m h"droxide rod!ced d!ced is a cr!mbl" white solid /nown
as sla/ed lime:
CaO$s% & H
'
,$1% **+ Ca$OH%'$s% sla/in# lime
0he oxides of other metals are insol!ble.
; Co"ri#ht Mod!lar Ed!cation Centre. <33<1,35 Acids, Bases and Salts $S3-CHEM-11.5%; 6# <=
53 Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.6
Hydroxides
Solubility of hydroxides
All hydroxides are considered to be insoluble except for those of the alkali metals, NH4+, S~+
and Ba
t
+.
Nevertheless magnesium hydroxide dissolves sufficiently to give an alkaline reaction to litmus
and calcium hydroxide forms a saturated alkaline solution of low concentration called lime
water (concentration is approximately 0.02 mol/drn").
Formation of Hydroxides
Sodium hydroxide, a soluble hydroxide, is formed by:
(a) Dissolving sodium in water.
(b) Boiling sodium carbonate solution with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide),
Na
2
C03(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) -> CaC03(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
(c) Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution - industrially
Insoluble hydroxides are formed by adding sodium hydroxide solution to a solution of a salt
of the appropriate metal, e.g.CuS04(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2S04(aq)
A1C13(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) ==> AI(OH)3(s) + 3NaC1(aq)
The hydroxides of Ca 2+,Mg
2
+,A1
3
+,Zn
2
+, Fe 2+,Fe 3+,Pb 2+and Cu
2
+can all be prepared in
this, way. It should be noted that the hydroxides of AI
3
+,Zn
2
+and Pb
2
+are soluble in excess
sodium hydroxide solution. If iron(II) hydroxide is required pure and white it should be
prepared in the absence of air. Otherwise it will appear as a dirty green precipitate.
Amphoteric Hydroxides
The hydroxides of A1
3
+, Zn
2
+and Pb 2+are amphoteric, i.e. they dissolve in both acids and
alkalis. (Note: the oxides of A1
3
+, Zn
2
+and Pb 2+are also amphoteric).
Examples:
AI(OH)3: With hydrochloric acid: AI(OH)3(s) + 3HC1(aq) ==> A1C1
3
(aq) + 3H
2
0(1)
With sodium hydroxide solution: AI(OH)3(s) + Ol+(aq) ==> AI(OHk(aq)
Zn(OH)z: With hydrochloric acid: Zn(OH)3(s) + 2HC1(aq) ==> ZnC1
2
(aq) + 2H
2
0(1)
With sodium hydroxide solution: Zn(OH)z(s) + 20H-(aq) ==> Zn(OH)l-(aq)
With hydrochloric acid: Pb(OH)3(s) + 2HC1(aq) ==> PbC1z(aq) + 2H
2
0(1)
With sodium hydroxide solution: Pb(OH)z(s) + 20H-(aq) ==> Pb(OHh-(aq)
? Copyright Modular Education Centre if 63361035 Acids, Bases and Salts (S3-CHEM-11.6)? Pg 70
53 Acids, Bases and Salts 53-CHEM-11.7
Carbonates
Carbonates are salts of the weak acid, carbonic acid. With the ece!tion of the carbonates of
"H
4
#, u'. "a#, $#, %b#, Cs#, and &r#, the' are all insol(ble. Man' occ(r in nat(re, e.). calci(*
carbonate occ(rs as chalk, li*estone or *arble.
%eactions of Carbonates
1 +he' e,ol,e carbon dioide with dil(te acids,
e.). "a-C.3/a01 # -HC2/a013 -"aC2/a01 # H
-
./21 # C.-/)1
- 4n heatin), *an' carbonates )i,e off carbon dioide. e.). 5nC.
3
/s1 667 5n4/s1 # C4
-
/)1
+he ease of this deco*!osition follows the acti,it' series8
"a Ca
2
M)
2
A2
2
5n
2
&e
2
9b
2
H
2
C(
:oes not 666666666666Carbonates deco*!ose with increasin)
deco*!ose ease666666666667
Carbonates of "a#, $#cannot be deco*!osed b' heatin).
Calci(* carbonate onl' deco*!oses abo,e 55. ; in a re,ersible reaction.
H'dro)en carbonates
+hese are acid salts of carbonic acid and contain the HC.
3
- ion. As acid salts are )enerall'
sol(ble in water it is not s(r!risin) to find that all h'dro)encarbonates are sol(ble. 4n heatin)
a h'dro0encarbobl ate, the nor*al carbonate to)ether with carbon dioide for*, e.).
Ca/HC.31-/a01 boil sol(tion CaC.3/s1 # H
-
./11 # C.-/)1
sol(ble insol(ble
-"aHC.3/s1 war* solid or "a
-
C.3/s1 # H-./)1 # C.-/)1 sol(tion
+he first of the abo,e reactions occ(rs when te*!orar' hard water is boiled. +he water
beco*es soft. +he second reaction *a' be (sed to !re!are carbon dioide /see (nder carbon
dioide1.
3 Co!'ri)ht Mod(lar Ed(cation Centre. <33<1.35 Acids, Bases and Salts /S3-CHEM-11.713 9) 71
53
Metals and the Activity Series 53-CHEM-12.1
General Characteristics
Although over 80 o! the earthlfl crust is "ade u# o! non-"etals$ "ost ele"ents are
"etals. %he general characteristics o! "etals and non-"etals are ta&ulated &elo'(
%a&le 23.1 General Characteristics o! Metals and )on-"etals
Metals )on-"etals
*ustrous +'hen #olished, )on-lustrous +e-ce#t iodine and gra#hite,
Good conductors o! heat and electricity .oor conductors +e-ce#t gra#hite,
Mallea&le +can &e &eaten into sheets, /rittle
0uctile +can &e dra'n into 'ire, )on-ductile
Sonorous +give a note 'hen struc1, )ot sonorous
High tensile strength *o' tensile strength
High "elting #oints +e-ce#t "ercury,
*o' "elting #oints +e-ce#t car&on and
silicon,
High densities +e-ce#t lithiu" and sodiu", *o' densities +e-ce#t iodine,
*ose electrons to !or" #ositive ions in Gain electrons to !or" negative ions in
solution solution
2-ides and hydro-ides are &asic 2-ides and hydro-ides are acidic
Chlorides are ionic Chlorides are covalent co"#ounds
Metal ato"s have lo' ioni3ation energies and there!ore lose electrons readily. A "etal is
#ictured as an array o! #ositive ions in a 4sea5 o! "o&ile electrons. 6or details o! "etallic
&onding and "etal structures see #age 77.
6la"e %est
A nu"&er o! "etal ions i"#art a colour to a hot !la"e 'hen they are eva#orated !ro" a
nichro"e 'ire. %his aids in identi!ying the ions. .
%a&le 23.2 Colour 8"#arted to a 6la"e &y Metal 8ons
Colour o! !la"e$ 8on #resent
Scarlet
u9
:ello' +8ntense,
)a9
;iolet
<9
/ric1 red
Ca
2
9
Green
/a
2
9
/lue green
Cu
2
9
5 Co#yright Modular Education Centre i! =33=1035 Metals and the Activity Series +S3-CHEM-12.1,5 .g >2
S3 Metals and the Activity Series S3-CHEM-12.2
The Activity Series (Electrochemical Series)
Some metals are much more reactive than others. A list of metals in order of their reactivity is
no!n as the activity series. The most reactive metals are at the to" of the series and the
least reactive at the #ottom.
Althou$h metals at the to" of the series are more reactive% their com"ounds are more sta#le.
Conversely althou$h metals at the #ottom of the series are less reactive% their com"ounds can
#e decom"osed more readily. &t can therefore #e seen that the "osition of a metal on the
activity series is a $uide to the reactivity of #oth the metal and its com"ounds.
The activity series is really a list of metals in the order of their readiness to lose electrons and
form "ositive ions. e.$ M''(M))e
&t should #e a""reciated that the activity series of metals is "art of a lar$er series% the
electrochemical series. The full electrochemical series includes non-metals as !ell as
metals.
*etailed +eactions of Metals
1 Corrosion
Metals hi$h in the series are more easily corroded than those lo!er do!n. ,otassium%
sodium and calcium tarnish ra"idly under$oin$ a series of chan$es-
.
2
H
2
/ C.
2
0a ''''(0a2/''''( 0a.H''''( 0a2C/3
.
2
H
2
/ C.
2
Ca ''''(Ca.''''( Ca(.H)2''''( CaC/
3
As a conse1uence% "otassium and sodium must #e stored under oil as a "rotection a$ainst the
atmos"here.
Ma$nesium in moist air #ecomes coated !ith a film of o2ide.
Aluminium dulls in air to form a "rotective coatin$ of o2ide !hich "revents further corrosion.
3inc is slo!ly attaced #y moist air !ith the formation of a "rotective layer of the #asic
car#onate.
&ron rusts slo!ly at ordinary tem"eratures. +ustin$ re1uires the "resence of #oth o2y$en and
!ater. 4or further details see "a$e 56.
7ead dulls in air as a "rotective coatin$ of the hydro2ide and car#onate form.
Co""er% althou$h it dulls in moist air% is very resistant to corrosion. .ver a very lon$ "eriod of
time it ac1uires a $reen coatin$ of #asic sul"hate or chloride.
8 Co"yri$ht Modular Education Centre 9 :33:1/3; Metals and the Activity Series (S3-CHEM-12.2)8 ,$ 63
? Copyright Modular Education Centre W 63361035 Metals and the Activity Series (S3-CEM-1!"!#? $g %&
Metals and the Activity Series 53-CHEM-12.2
2.Burning in air or oxygen
Potassiun, sodiun and calciun burn readily in air. The product in the case of potassiun is
unusual, the deep yellow oxide K02. Sodiun forns largely Na202 with sone of the nonoxide
Na20. Calciun produces CaO and a little calciun nitride Ca3N2.
On heating nagnesiun in air it burns with a brilliant white light forning nainly the oxide.
2Mg(s) + 02(g) ==> 2MgO(s)
Aluniniun burns in air at 800 1fi . If the netal is powdered and blown into a bunsen flane
the result is spectacular. The product is nainly the oxide.4A1(s) + 302(g) ==> 2AI203(s)
Zinc burns in air with a green flane when strongly heated to forn zinc oxide.
2Zn(s) + 02(g) -+ 2ZnO(s)
Iron in the forn of filings or wire, burns in oxygen to forn iron(lI) diiron(lIl) oxide.
3Fe(s) + 202(g) - Fe304(s)
When lead is strongly heated in air it is slowly oxidized to litharge, a yellow powder.
2Pb(s) + 02(g) - 2PbO(s) (litharge)
Copper is oxidized when heated in air or oxygen; a black coating of copper(lI) oxide (CuO)
forns over the top of a reddish coating of copper(l) oxide (Cu20).
3. Action with water
Potassiun and sodiun react vigorously with water. In each case the netal rushes about on
the surface as a nolten globule. In the case of potassiun the heat evolved is sufficient to
ignite the hydrogen produced. 2Na(s) + 2H
2
0(I)===> 2NaOH(aq) + H
2
(g) *The equation for
potassiun is sinilar*
Calciun sinks and reacts less violently. Ca(s) + 2H
2
0(1) ===> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H
2
(g)
Magnesiun deconposes boiling water or stean. Mg(s) + H20(1) ===> MgO(s) + H2(g)
Aluniniun does not nornally react with water because of its protective coating. If
analganated with nercury it reacts with cold water. Aluniniun powder will also deconpose
boiling water.
2AI(s) + 6H
2
0(I) ===> 2AI(OH)3(s) + 3H2(g)
Zinc and iron deconpose stean when heated.
Zn(s) + H
2
0(g) ===> ZnO(s) + H
2
(g)
3Fe(s) + 4H
2
0(g) ===> Fe304(S)+ 4H
2
(g)
Stean has practically no action on lead.
Copper being below hydrogen in the activity series will not replace it fron water.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre if 63361035 Metals and the Activity Series (S3-CHEM-12.2)? Pg 75
58 Metals and the Activity Series 58-CHEM-12.8
4. Action with dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid
Potassiun, sodiun and calciun react explosively and therefore they nust never be added
to the acids.
Zinc reacts to produce hydrogen readily. Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) ===> Zn2+(aq) + H
2
(g)
Magnesiun and iron react in the sane way.
Aluniniun reacts in a sinilar way with hydrochloric acid but dilute sulphuric acid has hardly
any effect on it.
Lead gives practically no reaction with the two acids as it is so close to hydrogen in the activity
series
Copper gives no reaction.
5 Reduction of the oxides
Oxides of netals low in the activity series can be reduced to the netals, but oxides at the top
of the series cannot. The oxides of iron, lead and copper can be reduced on heating with
carbon, carbon nonoxide or hydrogen using a bunsen burner.
Zinc oxide can be reduced by carbon or carbon nonoxide at tenperatures attainable in an
industrial furnace. f zinc netal is to be prepared by such reduction, air nust be excluded.
ZnO(s) + C(s) ==> Zn(s) + CO(g) ZnO(s) + CO(g) ==> Zn(s) + CO
2
(g)
Zinc oxide has the peculiar property of being white when cold and yellow when hot. This is
attributed to partial breakup of the lattice on heating. On cooling the original lattice reforns.
Since zinc oxide cannot be reduced by hydrogen, the equation for iron(ll) oxide is given:
Whether a netal can be obtained by reduction or not depends on the tenperature.
The nininun tenperatures required for reduction by carbon are given below. (Reduction by
hydrogen requires even higher tenperatures.)
Table: Mininun Tenperatures for Reduction by Carbon
Oxide CaO MgO A1
208 ZnO Fe208 PbO CuO
Mininun
2 100
1 600 ~
2 100
900~
700
400~ 100 ~
~ ~ ~
Tenperature for
reduction
? Copyright Modular EducationCentre. 68861085 Metals and the Activity Series (S8-CHEM-12.8)? Pg 76
? Copyright Modular Education Centre V 63361035 Metals and the Activity Series (S3-CEM-1!"3#? $g %%
S3 Metals and the Activity Series S3-CHEM-12.4
This is important in the industrial extraction o metals. !t is very expensive to "uild urnaces
#hich can #ithstand very hi$h temperatures and it is also expensive to operate them. !n
practice thereore metals a"ove %inc in the activity series are produced industrially "y
electrolysis& and not "y reduction o the oxide.
'. (eplacement reactions )*isplacement+
Elements hi$her in the activity series )most electropositive+ displace elements lo#er in the
series rom a,ueous solutions o their ions.
Examples:
)i+ Ma$nesium displaces hydro$en rom acidic solutions. M$)s+ + 2H-)a,+ .../ M$2-)a,+ +
H
2
)$+ .
)il+ !ron displaces copper rom solutions o copper)l!+ salts.0e)s+ - Cu
2
-)a,+ .../ 0e
2
-)a,+ -
Cu)s+
These reactions involve electron transer. !n the latter reaction& t#o electrons have "een
transerred rom the iron atom to the copper)ll+ ion.
1. Action o heat on hydroxides& nitrates and car"onates
)a+ Hydroxides decompose into the oxide and #ater& e.$. Ca)2H+2)s+ ../ Ca2)s+ - H
2
3)$+
Potassium and sodium hydroxide decompose at a hi$her temperature than is ordinarily
o"taina"le4 copper hydroxide at the lo#er end o the activity series decomposes at 133 5 .
)"+ 6itrates decompose into the oxide& nitro$en dioxide and oxy$en& e.$.
27")63
3
+2)s+ ../ 27"2)s+ - 463
2
)$+ - 32)$+
Potassium and sodium nitrate are more diicult to "rea8 up and orm only the nitrite )plus
oxy$en+.
26a63
3
)s+ ../ 26a63
2
)s+ - 32)$+
.)c+ Car"onates "rea8 up into the oxide and car"on dioxide& e.$.
CuC33)s+ -- Ca2)s+ - C32)$+
Calcium carbonate decomposes a"ove 993 5 in a reversi"le reaction:&
CaC33)s+ = Ca2)s+ - C32)$+
Potassium and sodium carbonate do not decompose ..
The Action o A,ueous Sodium Hydroxide and Ammonia on Solutions Containin$ the
Metal !ons Ca ;. A1
3
+, <n
2
+, 0e ;& 0e 3+, 7" 2+ and Cu
e
-.
!n every case& except the action o ammonia solution #ith Ca=Ta,+& the simple hydroxide is
precipitated "y a small amount o the al8ali.
#ith 6a2H: <n2-)a,+ - 23H-)a,+ .../ <n)2H+2)s+
#ith 6H3)a,+: <n2-)a,+ - 26H3)a,+ - 2H23)1+ .../ <n)2H+2)s+ - 26H
4
-)a,+
> Copyri$ht Modular Education Centre. '33'1339 Metals and the Activity Series )S3-CHEM-12.4+> 7$ 1?
Equations for the other metal ions are similar. In the case of Ca
2
+, no precipitate forms with
ammonia solution because of the relatively high solubility of calcium hydroxide with excess
NaOH and NH
3
aq!.
" Copyright #odular Education Centre til $%%$&'%( #etals and the )ctivity *eries *%+CHE#+&2.,!" -g ./
S3
Metals and the Activity Series S3-CHEM-12.S
In those cases where the precipitate dissolves in excess alkali, coplex ions are !ored. "he
naes o! these coplex ions are not iportant.
A1
3
#in excess $a%H& AI'%H(a's( # %H-'a)(***+AI'%H(,-'a)( colo-rless al-inate 'III( ion
.n
2
#in excess $a%H& .n'%H(2's( # 2/H-'a)( ****+ .n'%H(l-'a)( colo-rless 0incate'II( ion
12 21in excess $a%H& 12'%H(2's( # %l#'a)( ****+ 12'%H(a-'a)( colo-rless pl-2ate'II( ion
.n
2
#in excess $H3'a)(& .n2#'a)( # ,$H
3
'a)( ****+ .n'$H
3
(l#'a)( 2l-e tetraaine 0inc 'II(
ion
CU
2
+ in excess $H3'a)(& C-
2
#'a)( # ,$H3'a)( ****+ C-'$H
3
(,
2
#'a)( 2l-e tetraaine
copper'II( ion
"he ta2le 2elow s-ari0es the reactions !or .n
2
#, Cu
2
+, 12 2#,3e 2#,3e 3#A1
3
#and Ca 2#
ions.
"a2le 23.4 "he 5eaction o! A)-eo-s Sodi- Hydroxide and Aonia with Metal Ion
Sol-tions
Ion 5eaction with $a%H'a)( 5eaction with $H3'a)(
6hite 7elatino-s precipitate8
6hite precipitate .n'%H(2, sol-2le
.n
2
#
.n'%H(2, sol-2le in excess,
in excess, !orin7 .n'$H
3
(9# ions.
!orin7 .n'%H(9-.
:i7ht; 2l-e precipitate, C-'%H(2,
:i7ht 2l-e precipitate, C-'%H(2,
C-
2
#
sol-2le in excess, !orin7
insol-2le in excess.
C-'$H
3
(9# ions 'deep 2l-e(.
6hite precipitate, 12'%H(2,
6hite precipitate, 12'%H(2,
12 2#
sol-2le in excess, !orin7
12'%H(3- ions.
insol-2le in excess.
3e 2#
6ith 2oth rea7ents a white precipitate, 3e'%H(2, in the a2sence o! air. %xidi0ed
to reddish-2rown 3e'%H(3 in air. 1recipitate is dirty 7reen -nder ordinary conditions.
1recipitation o! 3e'%H(2 is not coplete in $H3'a)(.
3e 3#
5eddish-2rown precipitate 5eddish-2rown precipitate 3e'%H(3
3e'%Hh, insol-2le in excess. insol-2le in excess.
6hite precipitate, AI'%Hh,
6hite 7elatino-s precipitate,
A1
3
#
sol-2le in excess !orin7
AI'%Hh, sli7htly sol-2le in excess.
AI'%H(,- ions
Ca
2
#
6hite precipitate, Cci'%H(2,
$o precipitate
insol-2le in excess.
< Copyri7ht Mod-lar Ed-cation Centre i! =33=1/34 Metals and the Activity Series 'S3-CHEM-12.4(< 17 >/
53 Metals and the Activity Series 53-CHEM-12.6
Extraction of Metals fron Ores
The way in which a netal is extracted fron its, ore depends on its position in the Activity
series. The very reactive netals at the top of the series (the nost electropositive) have to be
produced by electrolysis. Less reactive netals like zinc and iron are extracted by chenical
reduction, usually of the oxide by carbon or carbon nonoxide. The least reactive netals near
the botton of the series can be extracted fron their ores by just roasting the are in air at a
high tenperature. A sunnary of the nethods of extraction is given below
Table: Extration of Metals
Metal Extracted fron Method of extraction
Potassiun Potassiun chloride Electrolysis of fused KC1
Sodiun Sodiun chloride
Electrolysis of fused NaC/CaC1
2
nixture
Calciun Calciun chloride Electrolysis of nolten CaC1
2
Mg
2
+ precipitated by alkali to
Magnesiun Sea-water
forn Mg(OHh. This is converted
to MgC1
2
. Molten MgC12 is then
electro lysed.
Aluniniun
Bauxite (A1
2
0
3
-xH
2
O)
Electrolysis of bauxite dissolved
in cryolite (Na3AF6).
ZnS is roasted to forn ZnO. This
Zinc Zinc blende (ZnS) is then reduced by coke in the
absence of air.
Haenatite is heated with linestone and
ron Haenatite (Fe203)
coke in the blast
furnace
PbS is roasted to forn PbO. This is
Lead Galena (PbS)
heated with linestone, coke and a little
scrap iron in a snall blast furnace:
PbO+C===>Pb+CO
The ore is roasted. The roasted
ore is then heated with linestone
Chalcopyrite
or silica in a reverberatory
Copper furnace. CU2Sforns on roasting.
(CuFeS2)
A blast of air through the furnace
converts this to CU20. Then
2CU20 + CU2S==> 6Cu + S02
? Copyright Modular Education Centre W 63361035 Metals and the Activity Series (S3-CHEM-12.6)? Pg 81
S3 Metals and the Activity Series S3-CHEM-12.7
Manufacture of Sodium
There are a number of technical difficulties in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride
relating to the high melting point of the salt !"! 1l #.So instead of pure sodium chloride$ a
mi%ture of sodium chloride and calcium chloride is used. This melts at &"" 1l .Sodium alone
is produced at the cathode because more electrical energy is re'uired to discharge calcium
ions than sodium ions.
(t is essential to )eep the sodium and chlorine produced at the cathode and anode
respecti*ely# separate to pre*ent them recombining. This is achie*ed by separating the
graphite anode and steel cathode by a cylinder of fine mesh steel gau+e. (ons can pass
through this gau+e but not the electrolysis products. Sodium metal melting point ,7 1l #rises
to the surface of the melt and is forced up a pipe into a reser*oir.
Sodium ions are discharged at the cathode
Chloride ions are discharged at the anode
-*erall 2.aC((# //0 2.al# 1 C1
2
g#
Chlorine
1
molten
.aC(2CaC(
2
---..jl-+-
mi%ture
3ine mesh steel gau+e
graphite
anode
1.
Steel cathode
surrounds anode#
Fig. Production of Sodium by Electrolysis of Molten NaCIICaC1
2
Mixture in a Downs
Cell
4 Copyright Modular Education Centre if &33&1"35 Metals and the 6cti*ity Series S3-CHEM-12.7#4 7g !2
S3 Metals and the Activity Series S3-CHEM-12.8
Manufacture of Aluniniun
Aluniniun is obtained by the electrolysis of aluniniun oxide (A
2
0
3
). Unfortunately the
tenperature of nolten aluniniun oxide is very high (over 2 000 ~ ) and the extraction of
aluniniun on a large scale only becane possible when it was discovered in 1886 that the
oxide could be obtained in a liquid forn at a far lower tenperature (1000 ~ ) by dissolving it
in nolten cryolite (Na3A1Fs).
The aluniniun ore bauxite (containing between 50% and 70% A1
2
0
3
) is treated to renove
inpurities. A current of about 100 000 anperes at 5 volts is then passed through an electrolyte
nade up of 5% aluniniun oxide in cryolite. The large current provides enough heat to nelt the
cryolite. The electrodes are nade of carbon. Aluniniun oxide forns A1
3
+and 0
2
- ions. The A"
ions are discharged at the cathode and nolten aluniniun sinks to the botton of the cell. t is
sucked out by a siphon.
A1
3
+(1)+ 3e- ==> A()
02- ions are discharged at the anode and sone of the oxygen produced reacts with the carbon
anode to forn carbon dioxide.
Extraction of Zinc
The nost inportant zinc ore is zinc blende (or sphalerite.) This ore is crushed, concentrated
by flotation and then roasted in air to forn the oxide: 2ZnS(s) + 30
2
(g) ==> 2ZnO(s) + 2S0
2
(g)
The oxide is then nixed with coke and heated in the absence of air. At a tenperature of 1200
~ - 1300 ~ reduction takes place and zinc is liberated as a vapour (B.P. 907 ~ ).
ZnO(s) + C(s)? > Zn(g) + CO(g)
The zinc liquid which is produced by condensing the vapour contains lead as an inpurity. Most
of the lead is renoved by distillation in the absence of air.
An alternative nethod involves dissolving the zinc oxide in dilute sulphuric acid:
Zinc dust is added to displace netals such as cadniun and silver, and the solution is
electrolysed. Oxygen is produced at the lead anode and zinc is deposited onto a zinc cathode.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre" 63361035 Metalsand the Activity Series (S3-CHEM-12.8)? Pg 83
53 Metals and the Activity Series 53-CHEM-12.9
Extraction of Iron
More iron is prodced than any other !etal. Most of it is converted to steel.
A !ixtre of iron ore "haernatlte# $e2%3&# li!estone and co'e is fed into the top of a (last
frnace "sally a(ot 5% !etres hi)h&.
*he (last frnace is operated continosly. *here is a te!peratre )radient do+n the frnace
+ith the hi)hest te!peratre "1,%% - & (ein) at the point +here the hot air (last fro! the
tyeres !eets the contents. At this point car(on" co'e& (rns.
More co'e edces the car(on dioxide to car(on !onoxide. C.
2
")& / C"s& 0001 2C.")&
endother!ic
steel, lined w ith fire
brick on inside
iron ore, coke and lim estone
$i)2 *he 3last
$rnace
!olten iron
*he car(on !onoxide then redces the iron"III& oxide to iron. *his is the (asic reaction in the
(last frnace.
$e2%3"S&/ 3C.")& 001 2$e"l& / 3C%
2
")& exother!ic
Molten iron eventally collects at the (otto! of the frnace. *he car(on dioxide is redced
frther (y co'e to prodce !ore car(on !onoxide. *he i!prity in the iron ore# silica# reacts
+ith calci! oxide +hich itself is prodced (y deco!position of the li!estone.
CaC%
3
"s& 0001 Ca."s& / C.
2
")& or Ca."s& / Si%
2
"S& 0001 CaSi%
3
"1&
4 Copyri)ht Modlar Edcation Centre if ,33,1%35 Metals and the Activity Series "S3-CHEM-12.9&4 5) 67
Wcalcium silicate (slag) forms a liquid layer which floats on the molten iron, and is removed
from time to time.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre. 63361035 Metals and the Activity Series (S3C!EM1".#$? %g &5
Metals and the Activity Series 53-CHEM-12.9
The molten iron produced rom the urnace is tapped and allo!ed to solidiy to cast iron or pi"
iron. This contains #$ car%on !hich ma&es it very %rittle and hard. Most cast iron is made into
steel. Steelma&in" essentially involves removin" impurities such as sulphur and phosphorus'
as !ell as most o the car%on' %y o(idation until only a small %ut e(act amount o car%on is let.
This is ollo!ed %y the addition o careully measured amounts o car%on and various metals to
produce steels or a variety o purposes.
Examples:
)a* Mild steel has a lo! car%on content )+.15$ - +.25$* and is very sot.
(b) Tool steel has a car%on content o +.,$ - 1.5$ !hich "ives it a hi"h tensile stren"th.
(c) Armour plated steel contains man"anese.
(d) Ball bearing steel contains chromium.
(e) Stainless steel contains chromium )1-$* and nic&el )-$*.
(f) Tungsten steel )or machine tools* contains 15$ tun"sten.
.mportant /ses o Some Metals
Aluminium
1. 0i"ht!ei"ht structural alloys )e.". ma"nalium and duralumin* used or aircrat and cars.
2. 1uildin" components such as !indo! and door rames.
3. 2ooin".
# Electrical ca%les.
5 Saucepans' ood and drin& cans' !rappin" oil etc.
3inc
1 4rotective coatin"s on other metals e.". "alvani5ed steel.
2 Cases o dry cell %atteries.
3 4rintin" plates.
# Alloys such as %rass.
.ron
As cast iron and steel' this is used in vast 6uantities as a structural material - e.". or %uildin"s'
ships' vehicles' tools' etc. .t is also used in many alloys - e.". stainless steel.
Copper
1 Electrical ca%les' !irin" and s!itches.
2 2ooin" material.
3 7ater pipes and %oilers.
# Alloys such as %rass and %ron5e.
5 Coina"e' especially alloyed !ith nic&el.
- .n compounds' it is used as an insecticide and un"icide' and as a trace element in some
ertili5ers.
8 Copyri"ht Modular Education Centre i -33-1+35 Metals and the Activity Series )S3-CHEM-12.9*8 4" 9-
S3 Metals and the Activity Series S3-CHEM-12.10
Alloys
Metals are often found to have properties which are undesirable or inadeuate for practical
purposes. Such properties can be altered by alloyin!" i.e. by #i$in! in other #etals thus
achievin! #ore desirable properties.
%hus" iron when alloyed with chro#iu# for#s stainless steel which does not corrode li&e pure
iron' alu#iniu# when alloyed with #a!nesiu# for#s #a!naliu# which is #uch stron!er than
the pure alu#iniu#" and brass has twice the tensile stren!th of copper and four ti#es that of
(inc.
Alloys usually are less ductile and #alleable than pure #etals. %hey also have lower #eltin!
points and electrical conductivities. E$a#ples of alloys are !iven below)
Table Composition of Alloys
Alloy Appro$i#ate co#position
Solder *0+ - ,0+ -b" .0+ - 30+ Sn
-ewter /0+ Sn" ,+ Sb" 2+ -b" 2+ Cu
1rass *2+ - ,0+ Cu" 32+ - 30+ 3n
1ron(e /0+ Cu" 20+ Sn
Steel 4e plus up to 1.2+ C
Stainless steel ,/+ 4e" 1*+ Cr" 5i *+
Ma!naliu# 02+ A6" 2+ M!
7uralu#in 02+ A6" .+ Cu" 0.2+ Mn" 082+ M!
5ichro#e *0+ 5i" 2*+ 4e" 1.+ Cr
9hite #etal //+ -b" 12+ Sb
:$y!en and the Activity Series
Metals can be placed in an order of activity by considerin! their reaction with air or o$y!en.
E$a#ples)
;a< Sodiu# tarnishes rapidly in air" and burns readily if heated in air or o$y!en.
;b< 6ron rusts slowly. 6t will only burn if finely divided. %hus iron filin!s spar&le if sprin&led onto
a bunsen fla#e.
;c< Copper tarnishes very slowly" over #any years. 6t does not burn" but a blac& coatin! of
copper;66< o$ide for#s on the heated #etal. %he activity series for so#e #etals is shown
below'
5a Ca M! A6 3n 4e Pb H Cu
< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
= Copyri!ht Modular Education Centre 821 *33*1032 Metals and the Activity Series ;S3-CHEM-12.10<= -! /,
React with oxygen with increasing ease
? Copyright Modular Education Centre. 63361035 Metals and the Activity Series (S3-CEM-1!.10"? #g $$
53 Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.1
Oxygen
Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earthjll crust. It is found free in air (as diatomic
! molecules" and combined in #ater and oxides.
$hysical $ro%erties of Oxygen
It is a colourless and odourless gas& and is only slightly soluble in #ater. Oxygen is slightly
more dense than air. It su%%orts combustion and life and is %roduced in %hotosynthesis
Chemical $ro%erties of Oxygen
1 Most metals and non-metals burn in air or oxygen to form oxides. 'ubstances that burn in
air burn more readily in oxygen.
(a" Metals form basic oxides& e.g. !Mg(s" ( !(g" ))* !MgO(s" or !Ca(s" ( !(g" ))*
!CaO(s"
(b" +on-metals form acidic oxides& e.g. '(s" ( !(g" ))* '!(g" or C(s" ( !(g" ))*C!(g"
! ,uels such as hydrocarbons (e.g. methane" and alcohol (ethanol" burn to form #ater and
carbon dioxide. Incom%lete combustion yields carbon monoxide rather than carbon dioxide.
Methane -CH.(g" ( !!(g" ))*C!(g" ( !H!(g"
Ethanol. - CH3CH!H(I" + 3!(g" ))* !C!(g" + 3H!(g"
3 /mmonia burns at a 0et in oxygen. .+H3(g" ( 3!(g" ))* !+!(g" ( 1H!(g"
If a mixture of ammonia and oxygen is %assed o2er heated %latinum a different reaction
occurs-
.+H3(g" ( 5!(g")))* .+O(g" ( 1H!(g"
3his latter reaction is im%ortant in the %re%aration of nitric acid. 4oth reactions illustrate
ammonia acting as a reducing agent.
5ses of Oxygen
1 In steel ma6ing.
! In oxy-acetylene #elding and cutting.
3 /s a roc6et fuel.
. /s an aid to breathing for %atients #ith res%iratory difficulties.
5 In dee% sea di2ing.
1 ,or the aeration of se#age in treatment %lant.
7 In %a%er %roduction& for the bleaching of %a%er %ul%.
8 Co%yright Modular Education Centre if 1331135 /tmos%here and En2ironment ('3-CHEM-13.1"8 $g 9:
53 Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.2
Air
Composition of Dry Air
Air is a mixture of several different gases. ts approximate !omposition "y volume is as
follo#s$
%as &er!entage "y 'olume in dry air
(itrogen )*.1
+xygan 21.,
Argon ,.-3
Car"on dioxide ,.,3
.ra!es of other no"le gases ,.,,2/
0.he per!entage figures a"ove do not add up to 1,,1 "e!ause of rounding off.0
0Air al#ays !ontains #ater vapour2 the moisture !ontent varying !onsidera"ly from a"out ,.11
in desert regions to /1 in the tropi!s.0
Air is a mixture and not a !ompound "e!ause$
1 ts !omposition varies slightly2 e.g. air at a height of 2, 3m !ontains *,1 nitrogen and 1-1
oxygen.
2 t !an "e separated into its !onstituents "y purely physi!al means2 e.g. "y fra!tional
distillation of li4uid air.
3 t has the properties of its !onstituents2 e.g. li3e oxygen it supports !om"ustion.
/ 5hen the !orre!t proportions of nitrogen2 oxygen2 !ar"on dioxide and #ater vapour are
mixed together no !hemi!al rea!tion !an "e o"served and the mixture sho#s all the properties
of ordinary air.
&ro!esses nvolving %ases in the Air
Com"ustion2 respiration2 photosynthesis and rusting are some of the most important
pro!esses #hi!h involve air.
.he role of air in supporting !om"ustion
Com"ustion or "urning is the !om"ination of a su"stan!e #ith oxygen. Air supports
!om"ustion "e!ause it !ontains oxygen. Example$
.he !om"ustion of methane$ CH
4
6g7 8 2,
2
6g799: C+
2
6g7 8 2H
2
,6g7
methane oxygen !ar"ondioxide #atervapour
; CopyrightModularEdu!ationCentre. <33<1,35 AtmosphereandEnvironment6=3-CHEM-13.27; &g-,
Oxygen is always used up in combustion, and when common fuels (e.g. wood, coal, petroleum
products) burn, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre if 66!"# $tmosphere and En%ironment (&'C(EM'!.))? *g +!
S3 Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.3
Table: Processes Involving the Gases in Air
Gas Combustion Respiration Photosynthesis Rusting
Nitrogen Not involved Not involved Not involved Not involved
Oxygen Essential Essential Produced Essential
Produced when
Carbon
Produced Essential
Accelerates rusting
dioxide
carbon
but not essential
compounds burn
Noble gases Not involved Not involved Not involved Not involved
Produced when
Water vapour
hydrogen
Produced Essential Essential
compounds burn
3.The role of air in supporting life
Air supports life because:
(a) Plants require carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
(b) Plants and animals require oxygen for respiration.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce carbohydrates. In the presence of
sunlight and the catalyst carbon dioxide combines with water in , chlorophyll, to form
carbohydrates and oxygen:
6C0
2
+ 6H
2
0 + energy (sunlight) ====> C
6
H
12
0
6
+ 60
2
glucose
Chlorophyll
Respiration is the process by which living organisms use oxygen .to produce energy. Carbon
dioxide is formed. Respiration is, in fact, the reverse of photosynthesis: glucose + oxygen==>
carbon dioxide + water + energy
Photosynthesis and respiration together help to keep the percentage of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the air in balance.
4 The Rusting of Iron
Iron rusts slowly at ordinary temperatures. Rusting is a complex process, and rust itself is not
one simple substance; however we can assume it to be approximately 2Fe2033H20.
The following should be noted about rusting:
(a) Very pure iron does not rust
(b) Oxygen and water must be present.
(c) Carbon dioxide accelerates rusting
(d) Alkalis slow down rusting
(e) Rusting can be prevented by painting, galvanizing, tin plating, alloying and use of oil and
grease
? Copyright Modular Education Centre. 63361035 Atmosphere and Environment (S3-CHEM-13.3)? Pg 92
S3 _Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.4
Carbon
Carbon compounds playa dominant role in the chemistry of plants and animals. Many carbon
compounds are of great use to man - dyes, drugs, plastics, fibres, fabrics, fuels, etc.
Elemental carbon occurs in three distinct forms called allotropes
1 Diamond
his is the hardest substance !no"n and therefore, apart from its use in #e"ellery, it is
important in cutting instruments, e.g. glass-cutters, drill tips.
$.%raphite
his is soft and greasy "ith a metallic lustre, and hence is used as a dry lubricant. &s it is an
e'cellent electrical conductor it is used in ma!ing electrodes, and (brushes) for electric
motors.
3 *&morphous) carbon
+ood charcoal, animal charcoal, lampblac! and co!e are all forms of carbon of ,arying
degrees of purity and "ith no apparent crystalline form.
-roperties of Carbon
1 Carbon is insoluble in all !no"n sol,ents.
$ .t burns "hen heated to form carbon dio'ide. .f there is a limited supply of air, carbon
mono'ide results.
$C/s0 1 2$/g0 334 $C5/g0limited air supply
C/s0 1 2$/g0 334 C5
$
/g0plentiful air supply
3.+hen heated "ith many metal o'ides it reduces them to the metal.
e.g -b5/s0 1 C/s0 334 -b/s0 1 C5/g0
6trongly electropositi,e metals cannot be prepared in this "ay.
) Copyright Modular Education Centre + 73371235 &tmosphere and En,ironment /63-CHEM-13.40) -g 83
53 Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.S
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and poisonous gas hich is almost insoluble in
ater. !t is a constituent o" man# gaseous "uels $e.g. coal gas% and it is produced hen "uels
burn in a restricted suppl# o" air.
!ts poisonous nature is due to its combination ith haemoglobin in blood to "orm a bright red
substance &non as carbox#haemoglobin. 'his reaction is irreversible and it e""ectivel#
depletes the blood o" haemoglobin. As a result the blood loses much o" its abilit# to carr#
ox#gen and the victim dies o" lac& o" ox#gen. (ecause carbon monoxide is colourless and
odourless the danger is all the greater. !t should onl# be produced in small )uantities in the
laborator#, and onl# hen there is good ventilation. Carbon monoxide is a toxic atmospheric
pollutant "ound in the exhaust gases o" vehicles. !t is also released into the atmosphere "rom
blast "urnaces and the chimne# stac&s o" man# "actories.
*ormation o" Carbon Monoxide
1. (# passing carbon dioxide through a tube containing heated carbon $charcoal%. 'he
temperature should be high - about 1 +++ 1l i" possible. ,nder these conditions the carbon
dioxide is reduced b# the carbon. 'his reaction also ta&es place in the blast "urnace. e.g.
C-
.
$g% / C$s% 0001 .C-$g%
An# carbon dioxide remaining can be removed b# bubbling the resulting gas mixture through
sodium h#droxide solution.
. Carbon monoxide is "ormed together ith h#drogen hen steam is passed over hite hot
co&e.
1200~
H
2
+$g% / C$s% 00001 H
2
$g% / C-$g%
'he resulting mixture is &non as ater gas.
3. !t is "ormed hen "uels burn in a restricted suppl# o" air. ,nder these circumstances
combustion is incomplete.
Collect2 -ver ater.
'est2 (urns ith a blue "lame. 3esulting gas ill turn limeater mil&#.
Chemical 4roperties o" Carbon Monoxide
1 !t burns ith a blue "lame "orming carbon dioxide2 .C-$g% / +.$g% 001 .C+
.
$g%
. !t is an important reducing agent, reducing the oxides o" the less electropositive metals to
their respective metals, e.g.
5 Cop#right Modular Education Centre i" 63361+35 Atmosphere and Environment $S3-CHEM-13.5%5 4g 78
5 ( 3 3 2 0 3 + 3CD ===>2Fe + 3CD
2
(in the blast furnace)
iron(lll) oxide iron
? Copyright Modular Education Centre V !!"#!$ %t&osphere and En'iron&ent ((!)C*EM)"!+$)? ,g -$
S3 Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.S
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a colourles gas moderatel! soluble in "ater to #orm the "ea$ acid carbonic
acid. %hus it is an acidic oxide.
&t neither burns nor supports combustion. &n nature it is important as the product o# respiration
and the ra" material o# photos!nthesis 'together "ith "ater in each case(. &t is heavier than air
and is #airl! easil! li)ue#ied b! pressure. Solid carbon dioxide $no"n as *dr! ice+ is used as a
re#rigerant especiall! in the transport o# re#rigerated #oods.
,aborator! -reparation o# Carbon Dioxide
1 &t is produced "hen carbon or carbon-containing #uels burn in a plenti#ul suppl! o# air.
. %he normal method o# preparation is b! the action o# dilute acids on carbonates
e.g.CaC/
3
's( 0 .HC1'a)( 112 CaC1
.
'a)( 0 H
.
/'1( 0 C3
.
'g(
3 %he action o# heat on sodium h!drogencarbonate !ields carbon dioxide. Either the solid or
the a)ueous solution can be heated4
Carbon dioxide is also produced "hen carbonates are heated 'see heat on carbonates page
115(. %hus "hen calcium carbonate is heated above 55/46l .
CaC/3's( 1112 Ca3's( 0 C/.'g(
limestone )uic$lime
,ime is produced in lime$ilns b! the above reaction.
Dr! 4 7se concentrated H
.
S/
8
9
Collect4 7p"ard displacement o# air 'i# re)uired dr!( other"ise over hot "ater.
%est4 %urns lime"ater mil$!.
+ Cop!right Modular Education Centre : 53351/35 Atmosphere and Environment 'S3-CHEM-13.5(+ -g ;5
Atmosphere and Environment 53-CHEM-13.S
Reactions of Carbon Dioxide
1 If carbon dioxide reacts with an excess of an alkali a carbonate is prodced! howe"er if the
carbon dioxide is in excess a h#dro$encarbonate %acid salt& for's.
%a& (ith li'ewater %calci' h#droxide soltion&
(hen carbon dioxide is first bbbled thro$h li'ewater the soltion trns 'ilk#. )t this sta$e
the* alkali is in excess+
C,-%$& . Ca%/H&-%a0& - CaC,3%s& . H-,%1&
'ilk# sspension of calci' carbonate %insolble&
(hen 'ore carbon dioxide is bbbled thro$h the soltion it e"entall# $oes clear. )t this
sta$e the carbon dioxide is in excess+ CaC,
3
%s& . C/
-
%$& . H
-
,%1& 112 Ca%HC,
3
&-%a0&
calci' h#dro$encarbonate %solble&
/"erall+ Ca%/H&-%a0& . -C,-%$& 112 Ca%HC,3&-%a0&
%b& (ith sodi' h#droxide soltion
%i& (ith excess alkali+ -3a/H%a0& . C,-%$& 112 3a-C,3%a0& . H
-
,%1&
nor'al salt %solble&
%ii& (ith excess carbon dioxide+ 3a/H%a0& . C/
-
%$& 112 3aHC,
3
%a0&
acid salt %solble&
Correspondin$ reactions occr for other alkalis.
- Carbon dioxide is 0ite stable. Howe"er it can be deco'posed b# heated sodi'* potassi'
or 'a$nesi'. Hence brnin$ 'a$nesi' contines to brn in it.
-M$%s& . C/
-
%$& 112 -M$/%s& . C%s&
4 Cop#ri$ht Modlar Edcation Centre if 53351,35 )t'osphere and En"iron'ent %S3-CHEM-13.5&4 6$ 78
S3 Atmosphere and Environment S3-CHEM-13.6
Carbon-containing Fuels
Combustion of Fuels
Complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels ields carbon dio!ide" incomplete combustion
ields carbon mono!ide and sometimes even carbon. For methane #in natural gas$%
CH
4
#g$ & '(
2
#g$ )))* C+
2
#g$ & 'H
2
(#g$
complete combustion
'CH
4
#g$ & 3(
2
#g$ )))* 'C+#g$ & ,H
2
(#g$
incomplete combustion
Among the fuels of greatest importance to man are the follo-ing%
Table 15.1Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Fuels
Solid fuels .i/uid fuels 0aseous fuels
1ood 2etroleum products3 4atural gas
Charcoal e.g. petrol Coal gas
Coal 5erosene 2roducer gas
Co5e
diesel fuel heav fuel
1ater gas
oil
Coal3 petroleum and natural gas are the three principal sources of energ used b the
industriali6ed nations toda.
Solid Fuels
#a$ 1ood and charcoal
Charcoal is produced b heating -ood to about 37(18l in the absence of air.
1ood 350> Charcoal & 1ood tar & 2roligneous acid
Charcoal is essentiall carbon that contains the mineral substances present in -ood.
2roligneous acid contains several important chemicals3 notabl methanol3 propanone and
ethanoic acid.
#b$ Coal and co5e
Co5e is produced b heating coal to a high temperature in the absence of air. .i5e charcoal it
is essentiall carbon and contains minerals present in coal.
Coal ))* Coal gas & Co5e & Coal tar & Ammoniacal li/uor
9 Copright Modular Education Centre:; 63361(37 Atmosphere and Environment #S3-CHEM-13.6$9 2g <=
8j3lf the products of the decomposition of coal are of very great importance. Coal tar alone
contains over 200 different carbon compounds including benzene, methylbenzene,
naphthalene and phenol.
? Copyright Modular Education Centre If 66!0" #tmosphere and Environment $%&C'EM&!.6(? )g **
Atmosphere and Environment S3-CHEM-13.6
Gaseous Fuels
(a) Natural gas
This is found underground usually in assoiation !ith "etroleu#. $t onsists #ostly of
#ethane% &ut u" to '() #ay &e other al*anes (ethane% "ro"ane and &utane). +sually there
are s#all ,uantities of other onstituents suh as hydrogen% heliu#% nitrogen% ar&on
#ono-ide% ar&on dio-ide and hydrogen sul"hide. Natural gas is used in large ,uantities as a
gaseous fuel and as a soure of useful gaseous al*anes.
(&) Coal gas
. ty"ial sa#"le of oal gas% o&tained &y heating oal in the a&sene of air !ould ha/e the
follo!ing a""ro-i#ate o#"osition.
() 0ater gas and "roduer gas
1roduer gas for#s !hen air is "assed o/er o*e at a&out 1 2223 4
tl he reation is e-other#i and the o*e heats u". 0hen its te#"erature is a&out 1'(( 3
the air flo! is sto""ed and stea# is &lo!n o/er the o*e4
This reation is endother#i and the o*e ools. 0ater gas and "roduer gas are thus #ade
alternately.
5i,uid Fuels
1etroleu#
Crude oil% or "etroleu#% usually ours in "orous ro*s suh as sandstone &eneath the ground
and natural gas is nor#ally found a&o/e it. $t is a &la* /isous li,uid !hih is a o#"le-
#i-ture of hydroar&ons% saturated and unsaturated% yli and ali"hati. The o#"osition
/aries fro# soure to soure% &ut generally al*anes "redo#inate.
Crude oil is su&6eted to a "roess alled refining in !hih it is se"arated into frations &y
frational distillation. The rude oil is heated to a&out 37( 3 and the /a"ours "ass u" a
to!er a&out 6( #etres high. Condensed frations ollet in trays. Eah "ri#ary fration an &e
distilled again to o&tain further "rodut refine#ent.
8 Co"yright Modular Eduation Centre 0 63361(37 .t#os"here and En/iron#ent (S3-CHEM-13.6)8 1g 1((
53 Atmosphere and Environment S3CHEM13.7
Table 15.2 Details of the rimar! "ra#tions of Cr$de %il
"ra#tion
Approximate boiling point and
Remarks and uses
carbon atoms/molecule
Further distilled and treated chemically to
produce
Below 40 ~
(1 gaseous heating !uel"
#as !raction
$
1
- $
7
(% unsaturated hydrocarbons !or plastic
manu!acture"
(& sol'ents (e(g( petroleum ether(
40 )*l + 1,0
0
$
#asoline
-reated to a process o! re!orming( Additi'es
$
5
- $
10
added( .sed as petrol !or cars(
1,0
0
$ + %40
0
$
-reated to remo'e unsaturated compounds(
/erosene (or
para!!in
$g + $
16
.sed as 0et !uel) in heating and lighting( 1ome
is cracked to !orm petrol(
#as oil
%%0 ~ + %,0 )*l
(diesel
C15- C25
.sed as diesel !uel or" cracked to !orm petrol(
0 0
.sed directly as !uel !or !urnaces and ships(
%,0 $ + &,0 $
2istilled under a 'acuum to produce
3ea'y oil
$
20
- $
70
(1 lubricating oils"
(% waxes" creases" etc(
Residues Abo'e &,0)ll 4 $
70 .sed to make bitumen" pitch and waxes(
5 $opyright 6odular 7ducation $entre B 8&&810&, Atmosphere and 7n'ironment (1&+$376+1&(95 :g 101
Atmosphere and Environment 53CHEM13.7
Atmospheric Pollution
Millions of tonnes of pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere each year by human activities.
ast !uantities of "ater and carbon dio#ide are produced by the burnin$ of fossil fuels. %t has
been estimated that "ater is enterin$ the stratosphere &the re$ion of the earthlil atmosphere
bet"een 1' and 5' (ilometres hi$h) at the rate of 7''' (ilo$rammes per second. *he effect of
this is nott yet (no"n. Carbon dio#ide is the
lar$est pollutant by mass and its increase is accelerated by the "idespread destruction of
tropical forests in the "orld. +et"een 1,5, and 1,7-. the amount of carbon dio#ide in the air
increased by /0 &from 31/ parts per million to 335 parts per million). %t seems li(ely that. in
the lon$ term. the increase in carbon dio#ide "ill alter the earth1.1. climate by allo"in$
"orld2"ide temperatures to increase throu$h the 3 reenhouse4 effect5 althou$h e#pert
opinions vary.
6ar$e !uantities of the o#ides of nitro$en and sulphur are released into the air. chiefly from
electric po"er plants .*hese o#ides are eventually converted into nitric and sulphuric acids and fall
to the $round as acid rain and sno". 7ain in parts of the "orld &especially over Europe and the
8.9.A.) "hich "ould have been almost neutral years a$o. is no" a dilute solution of nitric and
sulphuric acids. *he harmful effects of this on the environment are still bein$ studied. but the (illin$
of ve$etation. severe reductions in fish populations &especially in :or"e$ian la(es) and the
acceleration of corrosion to buildin$s have already been observed. %n recent years. tall stac(s
&some over 3'' metres hi$h) have been built to dischar$e po"er plant "aste $ases hi$h into the
air. but these only serve to turn a local problem into an international problem. *oday scrubbers
are installed in most ne" po"er plants bein$ built and these remove most of the sulphur o#ides.
Hydrocarbons. carbon mono#ide and o#ides of nitro$en are released into the air from
automobile e#hausts. ;ortunately stron$ emission controls for cars are no" in effect in many
countries. <ther vehicle pollutants are lead &from the combustion of leaded petrol) and o=one
&produced by the action of sunli$ht on car e#haust $ases). 7adioactive substances are also
released into the air. e.$. the reprocessin$ of nuclear fuel elements from po"er stations
releases (rypton2-5. a radioactive $as "ith a half2life of ten years. <ther atmospheric
pollutants include fine solid particles from incinerators and chlorofluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons. used in refri$eration and as the propellants in many aerosol spray cans.
rise into the upper atmosphere "here they dama$e the protectant o=one layer.
Many of the pollutants mentioned above are released into the air by natural process &e.$.
volcanic eruptions release lar$e !uantities of carbon dio#ide. sulphur dio#ide and particulate
matter). :evertheless it has been estimated that man is responsible for ,'0 of air pollution
today. *he matter of air pollution should concern us $reatly. Apart from dama$e to the
environment. pollutants are a ma>or ha=ard to health. <#ides of nitro$en and sulphur act as
respiratory irritants and can be lethal to people "ith breathin$ difficulties. 6ead compounds
and carbon mono#ide are poisonous. 9ome pollutants are thou$ht to be carcino$enic i.e.
cancer causin$. Effective pollution control is vital. even thou$h it "ill be costly and re!uire
ma>or chan$es to our accepted lifestyles.
4 Copyri$ht Modular Education Centre /33/1'35 Atmosphere and Environment &932CHEM213.7)4 P$ 1'?
S3 Organic Chemistry 53-CHEM-16.1
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. Severa miion organic compounds
are !no"n compared to no more than 1## ### compounds that contain no carbon. $here is%
ho"ever% a sma number of carbon compounds &e.g. CO% CO
'
% carbonates( that are not
cassified as organic. $he vast number of organic compounds refects the e)ceptiona abiity of
carbon to form covaent bonds "ith other carbon atoms to form chains% branched chains and
rings. Straight chain compounds are caed aiphatic compounds and ring compounds are
caed cycic compounds.
*n organic compounds carbon a"ays has a vaency of four. +part from carbon% a sma
number of other eements are "idey found in organic compounds. $hese are hydrogen%
o)ygen% nitrogen% suphur and the haogens.
,ormuae
$he empirica formua gives the simpest "hoe number ratio of atoms present. $he
moecuar formua gives the tota number of atoms in one moecue.
$he structura formua sho"s ho" the atoms are in!ed together in a moecue. Ho"ever "e
must not concude that the structura formua gives the moecuar shape.
Homoogous Series
he study of organic chemistry is greaty simpified by its natura division into famiies of cosey
reated compounds% each famiy being !no"n as a homoogouseries. *n genera a the
compounds in a homoogous series-
&a( Can be prepared by simiar methods.
&b( Have simiar chemica properties.
&c( E)hibit a gradua change in physica properties.
&d( Can be represented by a genera formua.
&e( Have reguary increasing reative moecuar masses.
$he si) o"est members of the simpest homoogous series% the a!anes% are given beo" "ith their
meting points and boiing points. $he chemica properties of the compounds beo" are practicay
identica.
$abe- ,irst Members of Some Homoogous Series
Homoogous
Compound "ith 1 carbon atom
Compound "ith ' carbon
series atoms
+!anes Methane CH
4 Ethane C2HS
+!enes - Ethene C
2
H
4
+cohos Methano CH
3
#H Ethano C
2
H
5
OH
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Acids (alkanoic) Methanoic acid HCOOH Ethanoic acid
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53 Orqanic Chemistry S3-CHEM-16.2
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen ony. !hey occur
abundanty in coa" petroeum and natura gas.
Saturated hydrocarbons are those in which the combining capacity o# the carbon atoms is as
#uy used as possibe in bonding with hydrogen atoms" e.g. the a$anes.
%nsaturated hydrocarbons are those in which the combining capacity o# the carbon atoms is
not #uy used. %nsaturated hydrocarbons are characteri&ed by doube or tripe bonds between
carbon atoms 'see page (2)" e.g. the a$enes.
*$anes em 2n+2
!he a$anes #orm the simpest homoogous series. !hey are #ound in arge quantities in
petroeum and natura gas. !he #irst #our members are coouress and odouress gases at
room temperature. !he #i#th member is a coouress ,oatie iquid. !hey are amost insoube in
water.
!abe o# !he #irst #i,e *$anes C
n
H
2n
+
2
-eati,e Meting .oiing
/ame 0ormua
point 'C) point 'C) moecuar mass
Methane CH
(
16 -113 -162
Ethane C
2H6
32 -113 -13
4ropane C
3H1
(( -111 -(2
.utane C
(H12
51 -135 -2.5
4entane C
5H12
32 -132 36
He6ane C
6H1(
16 -75 67
8aboratory 4reparation o# *$anes
*$anes are prepared by heating the sodium sat o# an a$anoic acid with soda ime.
CH3COO/a's) + /aOH's) ? CH
4
'g) + /a2C23'S)
.ecause a$anes are #ound abundanty in natura gas and petroeum" they are not made
industriay 'e6cept as by-products). On the contrary" they themse,es are the important
starting materias in many manu#acturing processes.
4roperties o# *$anes
*$anes are characteri&ed by their ac$ o# reacti,ity. !his is typica o# saturated hydrocarbons.
!hey do not react with most acids" a$ais" o6idi&ing agents or reducing agents. !hey do
howe,er9
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? Copyright Modular Education Centre V 63361035 Organic Chemistry (S3-CEM-16!"#? $g 106
Organic Chemistry 53-CHEM-16.2
1) Burn readily
CH
4
(g) + 20
2
(g)? CO
2
(g) + 2H
2
0(g)
Hence tey are u!ed in "ery large #uantitie! a! $uel!. Mi%ture! &$ al'ane! (it air &r &%ygen
are generally e%)l&!i"e.
2 *eact (it cl&rine &r +r&,ine +y !u+!tituti&n
-e ydr&gen at&,! are re)laced !ucce!!i"ely. e.g. cl&rine (it ,etane
C12 C12 C12 C12
-e reacti&n ta'e! )lace !,&&tly i$ te ,i%ture i! e%)&!ed t& di$$u!e ligt. /&0 reacti&n &ccur!
in dar'ne!!1 in !unligt te reacti&n i! e%)l&!i"e. 2t eac !te) ydr&gen cl&ride i! )r&duced.
e.g.
/a,e! &$ te !u+!tituti&n )r&duct! are3
(4) CH
3
C4 ,&n&cl&r&,etane
(ii) CH
2
C4
2
dicl&r&,etane
(iii)CHC43 tricl&r&,etane
(i") CC4
4
tetracl&r&,etane
-e reacti&n &$ etane (it cl&rine yield! !i% !u+!tituti&n )r&duct!.
4!&,eri!, in te 2l'ane!
4!&,er! are di$$erent c&,)&und! a"ing te !a,e ,&lecular $&r,ula +ut di$$erent !tructural
$&r,ulae. C&n!ider te ,&lecular $&r,ula C
4
H
10
. -i! re)re!ent! t(& i!&,er!3
-e )y!ical )r&)ertie! &$ !uc i!&,er! di$$er. +ut teir ce,ical "ery !i,ilar.
4t can +e !&(n tat tere are 5 i!&,er! &$ C
S
H
14
.
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S3 Organic Chemistry S3-CHEM-16.3
These form a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Each member has one double bond between carbon atoms. The four simlest members are
ethene! roene! butene and entene
Table of Alkenes C
n
H
2
,
"elati#e molecular Melting oint $oiling oint
mass C C ) CC)
C 2 H 4 Ethene %& -16' -1(%
C3H 6 )roene 4 2 -1&* -+&
C
4
H
8 $utene *6 -1&* -6
C
5
H
10 )entene 70 -16* 3(
,aboratory )rearation of -l.enes
-l.enes are reared by the dehydration of alcohols. Thus ethene is roduced when ethanol
is heated with e/cess concentrated sulhuric acid at 10( 1 . This reaction ta.es lace in two
stes2 these stes are illustrated below without using balanced e3uations.
e/cess cone H
%
S(
+
0( 1 decomoses
CH3CH%(H456 7777777777777777778 CH3CH%HS(+4167777777777777778 C%H+4g6
warm with dilute acid with fuming H
2
S(
4
The oily li3uid! ethyl hydrogen sulhate is an ester. 5t decomoses in the resence of hot
concentrated sulhuric acid to form ethene.
he reaction can be readily re#ersed by reacting ethene with fuming sulhuric acid. Ethyl
hydrogen sulhate is roduced and on warming with dilute acid it is con#erted into ethanol.
)roerties of -l.enes
The first three members of the series are colourless gases. Higher members are li3uids. They
are ractically insoluble in water. Ethene has a characteristic sweet smell.
1 They burn readily in air or o/ygen
Mi/tures of air and al.enes are e/losi#e in certain roortions.
% They react readily with #arious reagents
5n contrast to the al.anes! the al.enes react readily with a wide #ariety of reagents and these
reactions are addition reactions.
9 Coyright Modular Education Centre 11 63361(3* Organic Chemistry 4S3-CHEM-16.369 )g 1(&
53 Organic Chemistry 53-CHEM-16.3
Examples:
(a) With hydrogen - when a mixtre o! hydrogen and ethene is passed o"er a #atalyst o! !inely$
di"ided ni#%el at 1&' 1ft ethane !orms. (his is an example o! #atalyti# hydrogenation.
()) With halogens - #hlorine or )romine "apor rea#t readily with ethene. *odine has little
tenden#y to add to the do)le )ond. (he prod#t with )romine is 1+,-di)romoethane.
(#) With steam - al%enes do not rea#t with water nder normal la)oratory #onditions. Howe"er
ethanol
may )e prepared )y the #atalysed rea#tion )etween ethene and steam. (his is #alled
hydration.
CH
,
-CH,(g) . H
,
'(g)/ CH
3
CH
,
'H(g)
(he #atalyst is )asi#ally phosphori#(0) a#id on a sili#eos spport. Ethanol is more sally
prepared !rom ethene )y rea#ting the al%ene with !ming slphri# a#id and then warming the
prod#t (ethyl hydrogen slphate) with dilte a#id
(d) (he halogen a#ids HC*+ H1r and H* also rea#t with al%enes to !orm addition prod#ts.
Hydrogen iodide rea#ts most readily and hydrogen #hloride least readily.
2olymerisation
When heated at "ery high pressres (a)ot 1''' atmospheres) ethene polymerises to !orm
polyethene. n is 3ite large$ p to a)ot 1 ,''.
(est !or nsatration
4nsatrated #omponds s#h as the al%enes (and al#ohols) de#olori5e )romine water. (hey
also trn prple al%aline potassim manganate(0**) soltion !irstly green (manganate(0*) ion)
and then de#olori5e it with the !ormation o! a )rown pre#ipitate o! manganese(*0) oxide.
*somerism in the 6l%enes
(here are no isomers o! C
2
H
&
or C
3
H
6
. Howe"er+ when we #onsider di!!erent positions !or the
do)le )ond and the possi)ility o! )ran#hing+ 3 di!!erent str#tres #an )e dis#erned !or the
!ormla C&Haand 5 !or the !ormla C
S
H
10
.
(e) (he isomers a)o"e all ha"e the typi#al #hemi#al properties o! al%enes.
()) (he names o! the str#tres a)o"e are o! se#ondary importan#e at this le"el.
(#) 7eometri#al isomers (#is-trans) are also !ond !or )t-,-ene and pent-,-ene+ )t these
ha"e not )een dis#ssed )e#ase they are )eyond the s#ope o! this )oo%.
6l%enes in *ndstry
6lmost all o! the al%enes re3ired !or indstrial se are made dring the #atalyti# 8 ra#%ing/
o! al%anes in natral gas or in high )oiling !ra#tions o! #rde oil (Cra#%ing is the pro#ess in
whi#h large mole#les are )ro%en p into smaller ones). 6l%enes+ espe#ially ethene+ are "ery
/ Copyright Modlar Ed#ation Centre tr 63361'35 9rgani# Chemistry (:3-CHEM-16.3)/ 2g 1';
important in the manufacture of many industrial chemicals, and in the production of solvents
and plastics (e.g. polyethene).
? Copyright Modular Education Centre '26336103 !rganic Chemistry ("3#C$EM#16.3)? %g 110
53
Organic Chemistry 53-CHEM-16.4
Alcohols can be regarded as hydroxyl derivatives o al!anes "ith orm#la $-OH. %e shall
consider &rimary alcohols only '&rimary alcohols contain the gro#&ing -CH
(
)H*.
Table of Alcohols C
n
H
2n
-
1
0H
+ame ,orm#la
Melting &oint -oiling &oint
( C) (C)
Methanol CH
3
)H -./ 65
Ethanol CH
3
CH
(
OH -110 0/
1ro&anol CH
3
CH
(
CH
(
OH -1(0 .0
-#tanol CH
3
CH
(
CH
(
CH
(
OH -.) 110
1entanol CH3CH(CH(CH(CH()H -0. 13/
2he ive alcohols above are all colo#rless li3#ids. 2he irst three are miscible "ith "ater in all
&ro&ortions.
Ethanol is.the ordinary alcohol o#nd in s&irits. 4t is &rod#ced by the ermentation o s#gar by
yeast. 5arge 3#antities are man#act#red ind#strially by ermentation o molasses 'rom s#gar
cane* or o starch 'rom &otatoes*.
Methanol is one o the &rod#cts o the destr#ctive distillation o "ood. Methylated s&irits is a
mixt#re made #& o abo#t .)6 ra" s&irit 'mostly ethanol* and 1)6 methanol.
5aboratory 1re&aration o Alcohols
Alcohols may be &re&ared by hydrolysis o esters or by the reaction o ethenes "ith #ming
s#l&h#ric acid. 4n the latter reaction the &rod#ct7 an al!yl hydrogen s#l&hate7 is converted into
an alcohol by "arming "ith a dil#te acid
$eactions o Alcohols
12hey b#rn readily in air. Mixt#res o air and alcohol va&o#r may be ex&losive. Hence #sed
as a #el 'es&ecially in roc!ets*. CH
3
CH
(
)H'4* 8 3)
(
'g* 9999: (C)
(
'g* 8 3H
(
)'g*
( 2hey react "ith sodi#m liberating hydrogen and orming an al!oxide.2he &rod#ct "ith
ethanol is sodi#m ethoxide.(CH
3
)H'4* 8 (+a's* 999: H
2
'g* 8 (CH
3
)+a 'sodi#m methoxide*
3 2hey are dehydrated by excess concentrated s#l&h#ric acid at 170. to &rod#ce
al!enes. C
(
H
s
OH'4* 999: C
(
H
4
'g* 8 H
(
)'4*
4 2hey can be readily oxidi;ed to &rod#ce al!anoic acids. A n#mber o oxidi;ing agents
may be #sed. A very common method is to heat the alcohol "ith a mixt#re o &otassi#m
dichromate'<4* and dil#te s#l&h#ric acid. 4t is im&ortant to have an excess o the oxidi;ing
agent or else an aldehyde is &rod#ced= e.g. CH
3
CH
(
)H 'ethanol* 999: CH
3
COOH 'ethanoic
acid*
> Co&yright Mod#lar Ed#cation Centre ?i 63361)35 Organic Chemistry '@3-CHEM-16.4*> 1g 111
5.They react with carboxylic acids to form esters
? Copyright Modular Education Centre V 63361035 Organic Chemistry (S3-CEM-16!"#? $g 11%
S3 Organic Chemistry S3-CHEM-16.S
Alkanoic Acids C
n
H
2n
+
1
COOH
Each member o this homologo!s series has one carbo"yl gro!#. Alkanoic acids are thereore
ali#hatic monocarbo"ylic acids ..
Conse$!ently %e can re#resent the series %ith the orm!la &COOH. 'he hydrogen atom in
the carbo"yl gro!# can orm a hydrogen ion in a$!eo!s sol!tion. Hence members o the series
are monobasic acids. 'he i(e sim#lest members are gi(en in the table belo%.
'able o Alkanoic Acids C
n
H
2n
+
1
COOH
)ame *orm!la Melting #oint + C, -oiling #oint +C,
Methanoic acid HCOOH 8 . 3 1 0 1
Ethanoic acid CH
3
COOH 1 7 1 1 8
.ro#anoic acid CH
3
CH
2
COOH - 2 1 1 4 0
-!tanoic acid CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COOH - 6 1 6 4
.entanoic acid CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
COOH - 3 4 1 8 6
/o%er members o the series are colo!rless li$!ids %hich are miscible %ith %ater in all
#ro#ortions. Higher members are s#aringly sol!ble oily li$!ids0 and still higher ones are
insol!ble %a"y solids. 'hey ha(e indi(id!al characteristic #!ngent smells.
Methanoic acid has a corrosi(e action on the skin. 1t occ!rs in the stings o ants0 bees and
stinging nettles. Ethanoic acid is ormed by bacterial o"idation o ethanol. 2inegar0 %hich is
#rod!ced in this %ay0 is a 6-134 a$!eo!s sol!tion o ethanoic acid. -!tanoic acid is largely
res#onsible or the smell o rancid b!tter.
/aboratory .re#aration o Alkanoic Acids
Alkanoic acids are #re#ared by the o"idation o #rimary alcohols %ith e"cess o"idi5ing agents
&eactions o Alkanoic Acids
1 'hey are %eak monobasic acids Hence they t!rn litm!s red0 liberate hydrogen rom metals
abo(e hydrogen on the acti(ity series and they react %ith bases +o"ides and hydro"ides, and
carbonates. Methanoic acid is the strongest acid in the homologo!s series.
'y#ical e$!ations or ethanoic acid are62CH
3
COOH+a$, + Mg+s, 778 +CH3C33,2Mg+a$, +
H
2
+g,
'he salts #rod!ced rom ethanoic acid are called ethanoates and those rom methanoic acid
are kno%n as methanoates.
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Organic Chemistry 53-CHEM-16.S
2 They react with alcohols to form esters and water.
The reactions are reversible and a ood yield of ester is only !ossible if a catalyst "s#ch as
concentrated s#l!h#ric acid$ is !resent. %ormally we #se a lare e&cess of alcohol' e..
(dd H
2
S)
4
CH
3
C**H + C
2
H
5
)H,,,,,,,,,,,- CH
3
C**C
2
H
5
+ H
2
)
ethanoic acid ethanol heat ethyl ethanoate "an ester$
Esters are sweet-smellin li.#ids or solids. They are #sed to ma/e !erf#mes or artificial
flavo#rins.
0noranic acids also form esters. Th#s reaction of ethanol with e&cess concentrated s#l!h#ric
acid !rod#ces ethyl hydroen s#l!hate
Esters are not very reactive. The most im!ortant reaction of an ester is its conversion bac/ to
the acid and alcohol from which it is derived. this is /nown as hydrolysis. 0t is !erformed by
boilin with a mineral acid or better with an alcoholic al/aline sol#tion.
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