Marine Structures 15 (2002) 193209

Collapse behaviour of a push-barge

A. Meinken, H.-J. Schluter* .
Gerhard Mercator University, Duisburg, Institute of Ship Technology, 69 Bismarckstr., 47048 Duisburg, Germany Received 20 August 1999; received in revised form 1 March 2001; accepted 28 July 2001

Abstract Modern inland vessels are open-top, double-hull ships with unusually large length-to-beam and length-to-height ratios, shallow draught and an extremely long cargo hold. Therefore, they have low bending and torsional rigidity. Moreover, the state of the ship structure changes appreciably in course of service due to minor collisions, groundings in shallow water, corrosion and fatigue. Such imperfections reduce the stability and strength of the structure. The safety against collapse decreases. This paper shows the results of a systematic investigation of a typical push-barge structure using the nite-element-method. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Collapse behaviour; Inland vessel; Push-barge; Finite element method (FEM); Structural imperfections; Structural stability

1. Introduction Popular media as well as the technical press have reported an increase in accidents and damages involving ships. Not every time human failure or bad weather was the cause. Quite often these damages go back to a global structural failure of the ship. A spectacular example was the fracture of the Carabella in May 1996 on the river Rhine near Wesel. Typically, such damages occur on inland vessels after 1520 years of service. Basically, the structures are not too weak but they deteriorate in course of time as indicated by the frequent need of repairs. The failure of a complex structure like a ship hull normally does not result from one single cause. For example, unfavourable cargo distribution, reduction of plate thickness due to wear and tear or corrosion, and lasting structural deformation in service may combine to bring about a collapse.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-203-379-2538; fax: +49-203-379-2779. E-mail address: isd@nav.uni-duisburg.de (H.-J. Schluter). . 0951-8339/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 5 1 - 8 3 3 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 2 3 - 5

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The following investigations were done within the framework of a research project The collapse behaviour of modern inland vessels with due regard to structural imperfections sponsored by the German Research Association (DFG). The rst part of this paper outlines a concept for calculating the structural stability and strength of a complete inland vessel. On account of the factors mentioned above (imperfections, load distributions, etc.) the traditional calculation methods do not suce. Using a non-linear nite-element-method (FEM) a new calculation concept is introduced to perform the needed elaborate analysis. The application of FEM to oating structures requires a special consideration of the boundary conditions. Furthermore, it is necessary to take account of certain details in connection with the calculation of structural stability. This entails a considerable increase in computational eort. The present concept unites advantageously linear and non-linear investigations with the global computational model. The FE model of a push-barge is constructed and the calculation results are presented. These consist of deformations and stresses for various cargo distributions. Additionally, non-linear results for extreme loads are obtained with a view to simulating the collapse behaviour of the vessel.

2. Aims Normally, inland ships are constructed for a relatively long service life (30 years or more), in course of which the structural features undergo considerable changes. In investigating structural stability it is very dicult to take into account by analytical calculation methods the imperfections (e.g. pre-deformations). This is a typical case for application of FEM. One important point in the calculation concept is the recording and numerical modelling of typical damages. This helps to decide which imperfections are important and which are negligible. A classication of the imperfections is given in [1]. A few examples from practice are exhibited on the Authors web site. Finally, a few design improvements are proposed to achieve lightweight, ease of construction and maximum safety against global breakdown.

3. The new calculation concept Structural stability and strength are important considerations in the development of new designs for future inland vessels. The aim is long-term safety against failure with as light a structure as possible. The calculations must take into account the following complications:
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Imperfections due to manufacturing (pre-deformation, initial stress and others). Imperfections due to service (damage, deformation, corrosion). Geometric and physical non-linearity.

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Realistic modelling of the loads due to lightweight, deadweight and hydrostatic pressure. Alteration of hydrostatic pressure due to hull deformation. Interaction between local imperfections and global structural behaviour.

These factors rule out the simplications inherent in traditional calculation methods. Hence, this paper introduces a new calculation concept based on the FEM, which allows an analysis of the complete ship hull. In the traditional application of FEM global and local FE models of the structure are used side by side to perform dierent jobs. Results of the global calculation are used as boundary conditions for the more detailed local calculations. This procedure is called sub-modelling. The interactions between local and global structural behaviour are not accurately simulated. The new calculation concept utilises only a single global model and no local models. This one model combines all useful properties and possibilities of the previous global and local models. It can cope with all the complications listed above. An additional advantage is the capability to examine the non-linear structural behaviour of the entire hull right up to total failure. A reliable assessment of the structural behaviour requires realistic boundary conditions. This is achieved by an elaborate formulation. The load on the structure arises from the ships lightweight, deadweight and buoyancy. Seven dierent load cases are considered. Load Case 1 is the empty ship. Load Case 2 comprises a uniform cargo load on the inner bottom. These are not critical cases for the structure but useful for verifying the model, the new subroutines and the post-processing. Load Cases 3 and 4 represent the traditional hogging and sagging situation. These are the most critical load cases for the structure. Load Cases 5 and 6 arise from various bulk cargoes. The loading process for gravel and ore is simulated as single transit from aft to fore following GL Rule B. Load Case 7 deals with container cargo and entails the possibility of torsion whereas load cases 16 induce pure bending. By virtue of port-starboard symmetry it suces to model a half-ship. This paper presents the results for the critical load cases 3 and 4 only. The service age of the push-barge is simulated by four models: BE. Model B represents new construction and includes only the imperfections due to production such as deformation and residual stress from rolling and welding. The other three models consider the eect of ships age. Model C subsumes model B and additionally a 10% reduction of the plate thickness as well as geometric deformations suered during service as described in [2]. Model D is same as model C except that the reduction of the plate thickness is 20%. Finally, Model E is model D plus heavy damage to the outer bottom and the hatch coaming.

4. Analysis of a push-barge Push-barges play a big role in inland shipping. The following example is of type Europa IIa.

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4.1. Description of the structure and of the FE model The dimensions and data necessary to create the FE model were taken from the technical drawings of a shipyard. As usual for push-barges, the wing passage has longitudinal frames and the double bottom has transverse oor plates only (Fig. 1). The spacing of oor plates is 0.6 m. There are no longitudinal girders in the double bottom. The wing passage has a web frame at every 3rd frame position (i.e. spaced 1.8 m apart) and a bulkhead at every 15th frame position (i.e. spaced 9 m apart), identied by an R and an S, respectively, in Fig. 1. Plates were modelled by shell elements with a linear approximation (MARC element type 75); longitudinal frames in the wing passage, by beam elements (MARC element type 78). The meshing is shown in Fig. 2. A more detailed description of the structure and the model is given in [1]. 4.2. Results of non-linear calculations All load cases were rst investigated by linear calculation, followed by non-linear calculations only if necessary. The extension of the model and the diculties arising from non-linearity are discussed in [2]. 4.2.1. HoggingFLoad Case 3 The investigation for the Load Case 3 was done for two cargo distributions (bending load only). The rst distribution lies under the value permitted by the Germanischer Lloyd. The second is an extreme load. Fig. 3 shows the two

Fig. 1. Main dimensions of the FE-model.

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corresponding bending moment curves. In the sketch at the top each frame position is marked by an R; each bulkhead position by an S. The hatched and grey boxes at the fore and aft end of the cargo hold show the two cargo distributions, respectively.

Fig. 2. Geometrical data and mesh.

Fig. 3. Bending moment curves of Load Case 3.

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The stresses induced by the low bending moment are nearly negligible, see Fig. 4. Only amidships the crossing of the wing passage with the outer bottom shows signicant stress values. They are just under the yield point of the material. It is conspicuous that there is a bulkhead at this tender spot. So the stresses result from the concurrence of high transversal stiness with large bending moment. As the ship gets older the area with high stresses increases. The high bending moment induces several heavy damages in the structure. Fig. 5 shows 12 keel lines resulting from the combined eect of immersion, trim and deformation for the 10-year old ship under the extreme load. The rst curve is for the empty barge. The others are for increasing loads. At a load of 1500 t multiple folds develop in the outer bottom. Note that they all lie close to a bulkhead (S in the sketch). The model B is not crucial and the results of models D and E are not very dierent from C, so their curves are omitted. However, the collapse loads dier signicantly for the four models, as seen in Fig. 6. The newly built push-barge (model B) can stand a load of 2750 t. After 10 years (model C) the same load causes a strong global bending and folds are observed in the outer bottom. These folds show up as jags in the keel lines. At the age of 20 years total collapse occurs at a load of 2600 t in model D and of 2300 t in model E. So it can be said that the imperfections cause a considerable reduction of the collapse load. The following two plots (Figs. 7 and 8) show the Mises-stress distribution for the four 4 models investigated. For model B, in the hatch coaming subject to tensile load a stress level is reached, which is very close to the yield point (291 N/mm2). After 10 years (model C) there are larger plastied areas in the trough sidewall and the hatch coaming. They increase dramatically after 20 years (models D and E).

Fig. 4. Mises stress in detail (Load Case 3: Models BE).

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The next two pictures (Figs. 9 and 10) oer a direct comparison of the calculated results with real damage to a heavy push-barge. Global bending is evident both in the photograph and in the FE plot; similarity of the fold occurring in the outer shell both in reality and calculation is remarkable (Fig. 9).

Fig. 5. Keel lines under immersion, trim and deformation (Load Case 3: Model C).

Fig. 6. Keel lines under immersion, trim and deformation (Load Case 3: Models BE).

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Fig. 7. Mises stress in the cargo-hold middle segment (Load Case 3: Models BE).

Fig. 8. Mises stress in detail (Load Case 3: Models BE).

Fig. 10 displays clearly areas of plastied material in the hatch coaming and the trough sidewall. Here the structure behaves like a joint and the whole deformation is as expected. Both gures indicate that the global collapse of the push-barge is the result of a local overload.

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Fig. 9. Global bending of a push-barge.

Fig. 10. Plastic joint in the push-barge.

4.2.2. SaggingFLoad Case 4 Once again, the investigations were done for two levels of bending moment (Fig. 11). This time both are above the limit set by the rules of Germanischer Lloyd.

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Fig. 11. Bending moment curves of Load Case 4.

Fig. 12. Mises stress in detail (Load Case 4: Models BE).

A comparison of the stresses induced by the low bending moment shows once again that only a small segment amidships is highly loaded. A closer inspection in detail (Fig. 12) reveals that the areas of plastied material grow with increasing imperfections.

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The deformations of the ship under the extreme load are dramatic. Even the newly built push-barge (Model B) suers an extraordinary deexion, up to 300 mm under maximum load. At age 10 to 20 years (Models C and D, respectively), there is considerable risk of total collapse. Fig. 13 shows once again the keel lines under the combined eect of immersion, trim and deformation during the loading process for Model E, in which the barge is additionally assumed to be pre-deformed at the hatch coaming over the entire length. It is seen that in Load Case 4 these imperfections lead to large local deformations. To simulate the local failure of the hatch coaming it is necessary to use shell elements instead of beam elements for the girders and the stieners. At a load of 2500 t the structure collapses. Fig. 14 shows the evolution of ship collapse in typical FE plots. The push-barge at age 20 years (Model D) displays areas of plastied material. At rst sight it may seem surprising that these occur in the trough sidewall and not in the hatch coaming. However this is just a result of the dierent transverse stiness of these two components. The hatch coaming is weaker than the wing passage and gives way outward. The next four pictures (Figs. 1518) show a comparison of real damages in practice and results of calculation (Model E). Fig. 15 illustrates a global sagging collapse of the push-barge. The photograph shows a barge, which broke up in the middle while loading a heavy parcel. Its similarity to the result of FEM calculations (right half of Fig. 15) is evident.

Fig. 13. Keel lines under immersion, trim and deformation (Load Case 4: Model E).

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Fig. 14. Mises stress in the global model (Load Case 4: Models D and E).

Fig. 15. Sagging collapse of a push-barge.

Fig. 16 shows the hatch coaming and the hatch girder after the overload. The buckling of the girder is clearly seen both in the photograph and in the FE-plot. As mentioned before, the local deformations of the girder can be simulated only by use of shell elements. Fig. 17 shows another local damage, namely the deformation of the gangboard. For further investigation it would be necessary to implement a crack criterion in the software. Then it would be possible to take into account the total loss of an important component. An example for such a crack in the outer shell is visible in the photograph in the left half of Fig. 17. Fig. 18 documents the similarity of the plastic deformation of the trough sidewall as observed in practice (photograph) and in calculation (FE plot).

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Fig. 16. Structural damage to the hatch coaming.

Fig. 17. Structural damage to the gangboard.

5. Recommendations for improved design First, it may be noted that the design of push-barges and other inland vessels according to the rules of Germanischer Lloyd lies on the safe side. Taking into account a factor of safety about 1.52.0 there is sucient margin up to the collapse moments. However, the damage examples from practice (see also Authors website) suggest that in operation the ships are sometimes loaded beyond this limit. Nowadays, the method of designing push-barges still rests on 25-year old investigations [36]. The transverse framing system of the double bottom and the narrow spacing of the oor plates results in a heavy construction with high

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Fig. 18. Structural damage to the trough sidewall.

transverse stiness and weak longitudinal stiness. This makes it especially sensitive to imperfections. This design is advantageous for carrying bulk cargo of high density (ore, coal and gravel). For other cargoes, like containers or parcels, it makes more sense to adopt a lighter construction. This would have the eect of enabling a higher transport capacity or a lower draught. This paper and [1] show that it is not absolutely inevitable for a construction to collapse totally under overload. However, when the stresses reach the range of plasticity there is a permanent deformation. The calculations in [1] show that heavy damage is possible during everyday loading. For example, during the loading of ore folds can form in the outer bottom. Later, these pre-deformations can trigger a local structural failure, which in turn can cause a global collapse. On the basis of the calculations performed several design recommendations have been worked out. These follow from the weak spots in the structure. (Obviously, a reduction of the plate thickness of inner bottom, outer bottom, trough sidewall and hatch coamings are out of question). (1) Plate-thickness reduction due to corrosion has been found to have the largest detrimental inuence on the structural behaviour. Similar harm can arise from severe deformations of the hatch coaming or the double bottom. Hence, the most eective safeguard against global collapse of the ship is good corrosion protection, careful handling and regular maintenance. (2) Inland vessels should be constructed to avoid crossing the yield point. To this end, the designer may be tempted to raise the plate thickness in a local area

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(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(amidships). This would result in undesirable augment of the weight and jumps in the stiness. A better way is to employ high-tensile steel. So far, application of high-tensile steel on inland vessels is restricted to the hatch coaming girder. Since high stresses and deformations occurred in Load Cases 3 and 4 in a broader area of the upper boom, a wider-ranging application of high-tensile steel in this region would be useful, namely for the hatch coaming, the gangboard and, if necessary, also for the upper part of the trough sidewall. The behaviour of stiened structures is determined by the spacing of the stieners. As investigated in [7], it can be improved by use of trapezoidal proles. It is reasonable to suppose that the inuence of compressive stress due to welding can be neglected. Therefore, it would be advantageous to employ trapezoidal proles on the trough sidewalls, the outer shell and the double bottom. An obvious modication of the construction would be to use corrugated sheets wherever a at surface is not absolutely necessary, for example the trough sidewall. Sheets with trapezoidal corrugations have the advantage that production costs for welding the stiener can be saved. Moreover, they are less susceptible to corrosion and cracks. The slight gain in hold capacity for bulk cargo is another welcome side eect; however, care should be taken to ensure that inspection of the wing passage is still possible. Calculations show that the longitudinal bending stiness of the push-barge suers from the lack of longitudinal girders in the double bottom. Deformations (folds) of the outer bottom (resulting from the transverse framing system) together with a large bending moment can cause global collapse. Practical shipbuilders have already suggested continuing the trough sidewall down to the outer bottom to get a higher longitudinal stiness. This has the disadvantage of intercostal oor-plate assembly. The wing passage and the bilge plating possess a relatively high stiness, so it is not useful to increase it further. Better is an intercostal longitudinal girder in the middle of the ship. The best solution would be two intercostal longitudinal girders, which divide the width of the cargo hold in three parts. If container transport is planned the spacing of the girders should be adjusted accordingly. Another positive eect is the prevention of folds in the outer bottom. The additional weight could be compensated for by the following means. The small (elastic!) deformations of the hatch coaming speak for a high transverse bending stiness of the push-barge. To save weight and production costs, it is conceivable to enhance the spacing of oor plates. Instead of the usual 0.6 m spacing (15 oor plates in a 9 m section) also 0.75 m or even 0.9 m would be enough. Push-barges are being increasingly used for container transport. So it appears useful to widen the cargo hold to accommodate four container stacks side by side. With due consideration of the aforesaid points an appropriate main section seems feasible.

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6. Summary The main aim of this study was to introduce the FEM for the strength calculation of complete inland vessels. A new calculation concept was developed with special regard to imperfections. Four FE models were devised to represent a new ship, a 10-year old ship, a 20-year old ship and a damaged 20-year old ship, diering in the degree of imperfections. These models were investigated for dierent load distributions (heavy parcels, ore, gravel, and containers). The results comprised deformations and stresses on a push-barge under extreme load. It was assumed that heavy parcels were loaded to produce hogging and sagging conditions. This resulted in highly non-linear behaviour (geometric and material). The software assembled was found to be very suitable for the calculations required involving large deformations and strongly non-linear material behaviour. The results obtained provided a detailed view of the stress distribution in the components as well as of the deformations of particular structural members. For the push-barge construction investigated there was no appreciable hazard in the hogging or sagging condition as long as the bending moment stayed under the value set by the Germanischer Lloyd. However, when overloaded the components subject to compression and shear started to buckle. In the newly built condition the push-barge endured this extreme load relatively well. At age 10 years it began to develop local plastic deformations. At age 20 years nearly the whole cross-section was in the plastic range, nally ending up in total collapse. This was due to the very strong inuence of imperfections, especially of plate-thickness reduction ensuing from corrosion. Calculated results agreed very well with examples of real damage recorded in practice. The calculations indicated that the construction of the push-barge was very strong but too heavy. The transverse stiness was very high due to the narrow spacing of the oor plates. The longitudinal bending stiness was very sensitive to imperfections. Especially, folds in the outer bottom decreased the collapse load. Finally, several recommendations for improved design of push-barges were worked out, the most important being the application of high-tensile steel and the conguration of longitudinal girders.

References
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. [4] Schellenberger KH, Koster D, Payer HG. Optimization of the construction of push-barges. Optimierung der Konstruktion von Schubleichtern. FDS-Bericht No. 54:1976. [5] Schellenberger KH. Optimization of the constructive structure of motor inland vessels, push-barges. Optimierung des konstruktiven Aufbaus von Binnenmotorguterschien . und Schubleichtern. FDSBericht No. 77, 1978. . [6] Payer HG. New knowledge about the strength of inland vessels. Neuere Erkenntnisse uber die Festigkeit von Binnenschien. STG-Jahrbuch 1979;73:31936. [7] Lehmann E, Zhang L. Non-linear behaviour of stiened frame-works with examples from shipbuilding, oshore and systems engineering. Nichtlineares Verhalten von ausgesteiften Tragwerken mit schibaulichen, meeres- und anlagentechnischen Beispielen. Springer, Berlin, 1997, ISBN 3-540-63444-4.