Glossary Steel A

AGC See "Automatic Gauge Control" AISI See American Iron and Steel Institute. Acid Burdening Once it is assessed that it is not possible to achieve the required desulphurisation of metal inside the blast furnace to meet the hot metal sulphur specifications of the steelmaker, the blast furnace is then no longer operated to achieve desulphurisaton as such inside. he slag basicit! is reduced since high basicit! is no longer necessar!. he furnace is often operated "ith basicit! less than one i.e. the slag produced is acid and for "hich the burden chemistr! is ad#usted "ith more acid and less of basic o$ides. %ence the name "acid burdening".

Acid Steel Steel produced in a furnace "ith an acid lining, i.e. consisting of a siliceous refractor! and under a siliceous slag. &ith an acid slag, carbon, silicon and manganese onl! are removed so that the pig iron must not contain sulphur and phosphorus in percentages e$ceeding those permissible for the specification being made. 'ost steel manufactured toda! is in furnaces "ith basic linings. Actual Weight Also the scale "eight. he customer bu!s b! the actual (scale) "eight of the steel. he theoretical "eight is used in estimating, ho"ever, it ma! not be used for billing.

Age Hardening A process of ageing that increases hardness and strength and ordinaril! decreases ductilit!. Age hardening usuall! follo"s rapid cooling or cold "orking. akes effect on all cold rolled sheets in storage e$cept full! aluminium killed. Ageing A change in the properties of certain metal and allo!s (such as steel) that occurs at ambient or moderatel! elevated temperatures after a hot "orking heat treatment or cold "orking operation. !pical properties impacted are* hardness, !ield strength, tensile strength, ductilit!, impact value, formabilit!, magnetic properties, etc. See also +on,ageing. Ageing that takes place at atmospheric temperatures is kno"n as natural ageing and that "hich takes place more rapidl! at elevated temperatures is called artificial or accelerated ageing. Agglomerating Processes -ine particles of limestone (flu$) and iron ore are difficult to handle and transport because of dusting and decomposition, so the po"der! material usuall! is processed into larger pieces. he ra" material.s properties determine the technique that is used b! mills. SI+ /0 1aked particles that stick together in roughl! one,inch chunks. +ormall! used for iron ore dust collected from the blast furnaces. 2/33/ S Iron ore or limestone particles are rolled into little balls in a balling drum and hardened b! heat. 10I45/ /S Small lumps are formed b! pressing material together. %ot Iron 1riquetting (%1I) is a

concentrated iron ore substitute for scrap for use in electric furnaces. Air-Hardening Steel Sometimes referred to as self, hardening steel. A steel that becomes full! hardened "hen cooled in air from above its critical point and does not require rapid quenching b! oil or "ater. he risk of distortion is greatl! reduced b! air hardening. %igh Speed Steel "as one of the earliest e$amples of this t!pe of steel. Ajax Furnace See "A#a$ 2rocess". Ajax Process he difficult! in introducing o$!gen lances through the roof of a tilting open hearth furnace, like in stationar! t!pe, led to introducing them through the port ends. he process is popularl! kno"n as A#a$ process and the furnace emplo!ed, therefore as the A#a$ furnace. Allotropy he propert! possessed b! certain elements to e$ist in t"o or more distinct forms that are chemicall! identical but have different ph!sical properties. In the case of iron the cr!stal structure has one form at room temperature and another at high temperature. &hen heated above 678oC the atomic structure changes from bod! centered cubic to face centered cubic but reverts again "hen cooled. he allotrop! of iron modifies the solubilit! of carbon, and it is because of this that steel can be hardened. Alloy Steel A steel to "hich one or more allo!ing elements other than carbon have been deliberatel! added (e.g. chromium, nickel, mol!bdenum) to achieve a particular ph!sical propert!. Alloy Surcharge he addition to the producer.s selling price included in order to offset ra" material cost increases caused b! higher allo! prices. Alloying lement An! metallic element added during the making of steel for the purpose of increasing corrosion resistance, hardness, or strength. he metals used most commonl! as allo!ing elements include chromium, nickel, and mol!bdenum. Alpha Iron he bod! centered cubic form of iron "hich, in pure iron, e$ists up to 678oC. Alumina It is a refractor! o$ide. Aluminium !illed Steel "Special !illed# Steel deo$idised "ith aluminium in order to reduce the o$!gen content to a minimum so that no reaction occurs bet"een carbon and o$!gen during solidification. American Iron and Steel Institute An association of +orth American companies that mine iron ore and produce steel products. here are 98 member companies and over 788 associate members, "hich include customers "ho distribute, process or consume steel. he Institute has reorgani:ed into a +orth American steel trade association, "hich represents the interests of Canada, 'e$ico and the 5nited States. Its mission is to promote steel as the material of choice and to enhance the competitiveness of its members and the +orth American steel industr!.

Anneal A process, consisting of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature follo"ed b! cooling at a suitable rate, used primaril! to soften metallic materials, such as steel. he purpose of annealing ma! be to remove stresses, to soften the steel, to improve machinabilit!, to improve cold "orking properties, to obtain a desired structure. he annealing process usuall! involves allo"ing the steel to cool slo"l! in the furnace. Also see Continuous Anneal and 1atch Anneal. Annealing 7. %eating and then cooling metals in a controlled atmosphere to soften them. ;. A process involving heating and cooling usuall! applied to induce softening. In bo$ annealing, the material to be annealed is enclosed in a metal container "ith, or "ithout packing material to minimi:e o$idation. he charge is usuall! heated slo"l! to a temperature #ust belo" the transformation range, but sometimes #ust above, or "ithin it, and cooled slo"l!. Anodes in bars that are put in the plater cells and are important to the plating process in the in 'ill. Arc Furnace A steel melting furnace in "hich heat is generated b! an arc bet"een graphite electrodes and the metal. 1oth carbon and allo! steels are produced in electric arc furnaces and scrap rather than molten metal is used as the base material. -urnaces "ith capacities up to ;88 tonnes are no" in use. AS A-S!F $urnace It is a special variet! of 3adle -urnace (3-). It is essentiall! a teeming ladle for "hich additional fittings are provided. See "3adle -urnace". Ashton Byer process It is a process developed to make better qualit! "rought iron. See "&rought Iron" AS%& American Standard of esting and 'aterials. A non,profit organisation that provides a forum for producers, users, ultimate consumers, and those having a general interest (representatives of government and academia) to meet on common ground and "rite standards for materials, products, s!stems, and services. AS%& Standards A series of documents, approved and published b! AS ', that include specifications or requirements, practices, guides, test methods, etc., covering various materials, products, s!stems or services. In the steel industr!, the steel related AS ' standards are used b! both the producers and users to ensure that a steel product or service meets all intended requirements. See American Societ! for esting and 'aterials. Austempering 4uenching from a temperature above the transformation range to a temperature above the upper limit of martensite formation, and holding at this temperature until the austenite is completel! transformed to the desired intermediate structure, for the purpose of conferring certain mechanical properties. Austenite he solid solution of carbon in gamma (face centred cubic) iron. Austenitic Steels Steels containing high percentages of certain allo!ing elements such as manganese and nickel "hich are austenitic at room temperature and cannot be hardened b! normal heat,treatment but do "ork harden.

he! are also non,magnetic. !pical e$amples of austenitic steels include the 7<=< stainless steels and 7>? manganese steel. Autogenous Process Steelmaking processes "here energ! is consumed onl! in operating the equipments and as such is not a substantial factor on the cost of steelmaking. e.g. 3@, 1essemer processes Auto Stamping Plant A facilit! that presses a steel blank into the desired form of a car door or hood, for e$ample, "ith a po"erful die (pattern). he steel used must be ductile (malleable) enough to bend into shape "ithout breaking. Automatic Gauge Control "A'G'C # 5sing h!draulic roll force s!stems, steelmakers have the abilit! to control precisel! their steel sheet.s gauge (thickness) "hile it is travelling at more than 98 miles per hour through the cold mill. 5sing feedback or feed,for"ard s!stems, a computer.s gap sensor ad#usts the distance bet"een the reduction rolls of the mill 98,A8 times per second. hese ad#ustments prevent the processing of an! off,gauge steel sheet. A(aila)le Base Available 1ase B C? CaO , (SiO; D 1asicit!)E

B Chemical s!mbol for 1oron. Bainite An acicular aggregate of ferrite and carbide particles formed "hen austenite is transformed on cooling at temperatures in the intermediate (;88,>98oC) range, i.e. above the martensite and belo" the pearlite range. Ba*e Hardena)le Steel A cold,rolled, lo",carbon sheet steel used for automotive bod! panel applications. 1ecause of the steel.s special processing, it has good stamping and strength characteristics and, after paint is baked on, improved dent resistance. Balanced Steel Steels in "hich the deo$idisation is controlled to produce an intermediate structure bet"een a rimmed and killed steel. Sometimes referred to as semi, killed steels, the! possess uniform properties throughout the ingot and amongst their applications are boiler plate and structural sections. Bars 3ong steel products that are rolled from billets. 'erchant bar and reinforcing bar (rebar) are t"o common categories of bars, "here merchants include rounds, flats, angles, squares, and channels that are used b! fabricators to manufacture a "ide variet! of products such as furniture, stair railings, and farm equipment. 0ebar is used to strengthen concrete in high"a!s, bridges and buildings (see Sheet Steel). Base &etal A metal "hich o$idises "hen heated in air, e.g. lead, copper, tin, :inc, as opposed to noble metals such as gold and platinum. Basic Burdening &hen the alumina is high in the burden, the blast furnace temperature has to be increased to keep the slag

free,flo"ing since alumina raises the softening point of slag. he basicit! as "ell as the temperature are raised, to make the slag thin and basic to effectivel! desulphurise the metal inside the furnace itself to a level less than 8.8A ?. he high temperature, ho"ever, leads to high silicon content in the pig iron since at high temperature silica reduction is increased. Basic +pen Hearth See "Open %earth -urnace"

Basic +xygen Furnace "B+F#

A pear,shaped furnace, lined "ith refractor! bricks, that refines molten iron from the blast furnace and scrap into steel. 5p to F8? of the charge into the 1O- can be scrap, "ith hot metal accounting for the rest. 1O-s, "hich can refine a heat (batch) of steel in less than >9 minutes, replaced open,hearth furnaces in the 7698sG the latter required five to si$ hours to process the metal. he 1O-.s rapid operation, lo"er cost and ease of control give it a distinct advantage over previous methods. Scrap is dumped into the furnace vessel, follo"ed b! the hot metal from the blast furnace. A lance is lo"ered from above, through "hich blo"s a high,pressure stream of o$!gen to cause chemical reactions that separate impurities as fumes or slag. Once refined, the liquid steel and slag are poured into separate containers. Basic +xygen Process See "1asic O$!gen -urnace (1O-) Basic Process A steel making process involving the formation of basic slag, carried out in a furnace or vessel lined "ith basic refractories. his process is capable of removing phosphorus from the charge and also sulphur to a certain e$tent. Steel made b! this process is kno"n as 1asic Steel. Basic Steel Steel produced in a furnace in "hich the hearth consists of a basic refractor! such as dolomite or magnesite, as opposed to steel melted in a furnace "ith an acid lining. he basic process permits the removal of sulphur and phosphorous and in this respect is superior. 2resent da! 1OS and electric arc furnaces use basic linings. Be Chemical s!mbol for 1er!llium. Bearing ,uality Steels Steels suitable for use in balls, rollers, and races of high qualit! anti,friction bearings. Bend %est 1ending tests are carried out to ensure that a metal has sufficient ductilit! to stand bending "ithout fracturing. A standard specimen is bent through a specified arc and in the case of strip, the direction of grain flo" is noted and "hether the bend is "ith or across the grain. Single 1end est , %ere the test bar is bent once according to the specified angle and the radius of bend. Close 1end est , %ere the test bar is bent through an angle of 7<8 degrees and the t"o arms are folded flat on each other. 0everse 1end est , %ere the test piece is first bent through an angle of 68 degrees and then the bend is opened out so that the piece reverts to its original position. In some cases, the piece is bent through an angle of 7<8 degrees and then brought back to its original straight condition. he bending, opening out in both cases is then continued, counting the number of times a test piece is

bent till it fractures. ( his test is used for sheet, strip and "ire). Bessemer Process A steel making process in "hich pig iron is refined in an acid refractor! lined converter b! blo"ing air or a mi$ture of carbon dio$ide and o$!gen or steam through the molten metal. 1oth acid and basic processes are used. he acid process is kno"n as 1essemer 2rocess and the steel made b! this process is kno"n as 1essemer Steel, "hile the basic process is kno"n as homas 2rocess.

Bi Chemical s!mbol for 1ismuth. Billet A semi,finished steel form that is used for "long" products* bars, channels or other structural shapes. A billet is different from a slab because of its outer dimensionsG billets are normall! t"o to seven inches square, "hile slabs are F8,<8 inches "ide and ;,78 inches thick. 1oth shapes are generall! continuall! cast, but the! ma! differ greatl! in their chemistr!. BIS 1ureau of Indian Standards. Blac* Plate Cold,reduced sheet steel, 7;,F; inches "ide, that serves as the substrate (ra" material) to be coated in the tin mill. Blac* Annealing Annealing "ithout an! protective covering or using a controlled atmosphere. Also refers to annealing not follo"ed b! pickling. Blac* So$tened %ot or cold rolled sheet and strip softened b! black annealing but not !et descaled, usuall! refers to the stainless variet!. Blan*ing An earl! step in preparing flat,rolled steel for use b! an end user. A blank is a section of sheet that has the same outer dimensions as a specified part (such as a car door or hood) but that has not !et been stamped. Steel processors ma! offer blanking for their customers to reduce their labour and transportation costsG e$cess steel can be trimmed prior to shipment. Blan* Car)uri-ing he thermal treatment associated "ith carburi:ing as applied to a test piece for determining the case properties, "ithout using an! carburi:ing medium. Blast Furnace A to"ering c!linder lined "ith heat,resistant (refractor!) bricks used b! integrated steel plants for the production of pig iron or hot metal from its ore for direct conversion into steel. Its name comes from the "blast" of hot air and gases forced up through the iron ore, coke and limestone that load the furnace. 5nder e$treme heat, chemical reactions among the ingredients release the liquid iron from the ore. he blast of air burns the coke, and limestone reacts "ith the impurities in the ore to form a molten slag. he hot metal collects in the bottom of the furnace. Once fired up, the blast furnace operates continuousl! until it needs to be relined seven to ten !ears later. Blister

A local separation of a la!er of steel due to accumulated gas causing a protuberance on the surface underneath "hich, is a cavit!. Bloom A semi,finished steel form "hose rectangular cross,section is more than eight inches. his large cast steel shape is broken do"n in the mill to produce the familiar I,beams, %,beams and sheet piling. 1looms are also part of the high,qualit! bar manufacturing process* 0eduction of a bloom to a much smaller cross,section can improve the qualit! of the metal. It also refers to a large square section of steel intermediate in the rolling process bet"een an ingot and a billet. 1looms are no" also being produced b! the continuous casting process eliminating the necessit! of first producing an ingot.

Blo. 0efers to one complete c!cle of operations in a converter. Blo. Holes he entrapment of gas evolved during solidification of steel produces cavities kno"n as blo" holes in all e$cept killed steels. he blo" holes are of t"o t!pes. he primar! blo" holes are elongated or like hone!comb and are located ne$t to the ingot skin. he secondar! blo" holes are more spherical and are located further in. Blue Annealing Sub,critical annealing of steel, during "hich the surface is o$idised to a blue colour b! controlled amount of air = steam permitted into the annealing chamber. Blueing %eating in a suitable atmosphere for imparting a blue colour to bright steel. Boron Steels he addition of boron in the range 8.8889, 8.889? to certain steels increases the hardenabilit!. A range of boron steels is no" listed in the current 1S 6H8 and are "idel! used for the production of cold headed fastenings. Bottom Casting Simultaneousl! casting of a number of ingots b! pouring the metal into a central refracting,lined tube or trumpet, from "here it flo"s through refractor! runners into the bottom of the moulds. Bottom Plate 0imming and semi,killed steeps are cast in moulds open at the bottom also. he op and bottom of these moulds must be smooth and level machined to sit squarel! on a level plate called bottom plate or stool. he bottom plates are made of cast iron. Bottom Purging Introducing inert gas from bottom in an other"ise classical vessel. Bottom %eeming his is also kno"n as uphill or indirect teeming. Steel is also teemed into a vertical runner "hich is connected at the bottom to a hori:ontal through runner, the end of "hich "ith an elbo" shape, opens up in

the bottom of the mould. Box Annealing Annealing carried out in a bo$ container "ith a cover to minimise o$idation. Bra-ing 1ra:ing is a method of #oining metal parts together b! fusing a la!er of brass bet"een the ad#oining surfaces. A red heat is necessar! and a flu$ is used to protect the metal from o$idation. Brea*out An accident caused b! the failure of the "alls of the hearth of the blast furnace, resulting in liquid iron or slag (or both) flo"ing uncontrolled out of the blast furnace. Bright Annealing An annealing process that is carried out in a controlled atmosphere furnace or vacuum in order that o$idation is reduced to a minimum and the surface remains relativel! bright. Bright /ra.ing he process of dra"ing hot rolled steel through a die to impart close dimensional tolerances, a bright, scale free surface, and improved mechanical properties. he product is termed bright steel. Brinell Hardness %est he 1rinell hardness test for steel, involves impressing a ball 78 mm diameter, of hard steel or tungsten carbide, "ith a loading of F888 kilograms into the steel surface. he hardness of the steel is then determined b! measurement of the indentation. -or steels "ith a hardness over 988 1%+ the Iickers test is more reliable. 1rinell %ardness +umber B 3oad in kg=Spherical area of the impression in mm. BS 1ritish Standard Specification. Burr he ver! subtle ridge on the edge of strip steel left b! cutting operations such as slitting, trimming, shearing, or blanking. -or e$ample, as a steel processor trims the sides of the sheet steel parallel or cuts a sheet of steel into strips, its edges "ill bend "ith the direction of the cut (see /dge 0olling). Busheling Steel scrap consisting of sheet clips and stampings from metal production. his term arose from the practice of collecting the material in bushel baskets through &orld &ar II. Butt-Weld Pipe he standard pipe used in plumbing. %eated skelp is passed continuousl! through "elding rolls, "hich form the tube and squee:e the hot edges together to make a solid "eld. C , Chemical s!mbol for Carbon. CA0+1I2I3G A process of converting the surface of steel articles into a corrosion,resistant allo! la!er of aluminum and

iron. (See Cementation.) CA1BI/ S As found in steel, carbides are compounds of carbon and one or more of the metallic elements, such as iron, chromium, tungsten, etc. CA1B+3 F1 'etals and allo!s "hich are practicall! free from carbon. CA1B+-3I%1I/I3G A process of case hardening an iron,base allo! b! the simultaneous absorption of carbon and nitrogen through heat. in a gaseous atmosphere of suitable composition, follo"ed b! either quenching or cooling slo"l!, as required. CA1B+3 1A3G In steel specifications, the carbon range is the difference bet"een the minimum and ma$imum amount of carbon acceptable. CA1B+3 S% 0 Steel "hose ma#or properties depend on its carbon content and . "hich other allo!ing elements are negligible. CA1B41I2I3G Adding carbon to iron base allo!s b! absorption through heating the metal at a temperature belo" its melting point . contact "ith carbonaceous materials. he oldest method of case hardening. (See Cementation.) CA1B41I2I3G C+&P+43/ 'i$tures containing carbonaceous solids "hich "ill give up carbon to steel in the presence of heat. Gas rich in carbon is sometimes used in the carburi:ing process. CAS he surface la!er of an iron,base allo! "hich has been made substantiall! harder than the interior b! the process of case hardening. CAS HA1/ 3I3G Carburi:ing and subsequent hardening, b! heat treatment of surface areas "hose carbon content has been increased b! carburi:ing. CAS% S% 0 An! ob#ect made b! pouring molten steel into molds. CAS%I3G S%1AI3S Strains produced b! internal stresses set up b! non,uniform cooling. C & 3%A%I+3 his process consists of converting the surface of a metal into an allo! la!er b! heating it "hile surrounded b! another metal or non,metal "hich is generall! in a po"dered form. Carburi:ing, sherardi:ing, calori:ing,

chromi:ing, and nitriding are included among the cementation processes. CHA1P5 % S% A test made to determine the notched toughness, or impact strength, of a material. he test gives the energ! required to break a standard notched specimen supported at the t"o ends. CH &ICA0 A3A05SIS 4ualitative anal!sis consists of separating a substance into its component elements and identif!ing them. In quantitative anal!sis the proportion of all component elements are determined. CHI00 CAS% 2IG,2ig iron cast into metal molds or chills. If a machine is used the product is kno"n as machine cast pig. CHIPPI3G One method of removing surface defects such as small fissures or seams from partiall! "orked metal. If not eliminated, the defects might carr! through to the finished materials. If the defects are removed b! means of a gas torch the term "deseaming" or "scarfing" is used. CH1+&I4& A hard, gra!ish "hite and corrosion resistant metal "idel! used as an allo!ing element in steel and for plating steel products. C0 A6AG P0A3 Cr!stals possess the propert! of breaking more readil! in one or more directions than in others. he planes of eas! rupture are called cleavage planes. C+0/ /1AWI3G ,See "Cold -inishing." C+0/ FI3ISHI3G,Changing the shape of, or reducing the cross section of steel "hile cold,usuall! accomplished b! rolling, dra"ing through a die or turning. C+0/ 1+00I3G See "Cold -inishing." C+0/ SH4% An area in metal "here t"o portions of the metal in either a molten or plastic condition have come together but have failed to unite into an integral mass. C+0/ W+1!I3G 2ermanent deformation of a metal belo" its recr!stalli:ation temperature, "hich hardens the metal. C+&BI3 / CA1B+3 All of the carbon in iron or steel "hich is combined "ith iron or other elements to form carbide. C+1 he center portion of a piece of steel "hich ma! be of different chemical composition than the outside as in the case of carburi:ed parts, or "hich ma! have different ph!sical properties than the outside due to the failure of penetration of heat treatment effect.

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C1 P S%1 3G%H he ma$imum stress "hich can be applied to steel at a specified temperature "ithout causing more than a specified percentage increase in length in a specified time. C1I%ICA0 P+I3%S, he various temperatures at "hich transformations occur in steel as it passes through its critical range,on either a rising or falling temperature. (See ransformation 0ange.) C1I%ICA0 1A3G A temperature range in passing through "hich steel undergoes transformation. he preferred term is transformation range (q. v.). C1I%ICA0 % &P 1A%41 S ,See "Critical 2oints." C1+P he imperfect ends of a rolled or forged product "hich are removed and discarded. C4P F1AC%41 A t!pe of fracture,"hich looks like a cup having the e$terior portion e$tended "ith the interior slightl! depressed,produced in a tensile test specimen. 5suall! an indication of ductilit!. C5A3I/I3G Surface hardening of an iron,base allo! article or portion of it b! heating at suitable temperatures in contact "ith molten c!anide salt and then quenching. Ca-Chemical s!mbol for Calcium. Calcium In the form of calcium silicide acts as a deo$idi:er and degasifier "hen added to steel. 0ecent developments have found that carbon and allo! steels modified "ith small amounts of calcium sho" improved machinabilit! and longer tool life. ransverse ductilit! and toughness are also enhanced. Cam)er he curvature observed in long rolled products caused b! differential cooling or fault! setting of the rolls. It is measured b! the ma$imum deviation of the middle region from the straight line #oining the ends. Capacity +ormal abilit! to produce steel in a given period. his rating should include maintenance requirements, but because such service is scheduled to match the machiner!.s needs (not the calendar.s), a mill might run at more than 788? of capacit! one month and then fall "ell belo" rated capacit! as maintenance is performed. Capped Steel Semi,killed steel "hich has characteristics similar to those of rimmed steels but to a degree intermediate bet"een rimmed and killed steel. he capping operation limits the time of gas evolution and prevents the formation of an e$cessive number of gas voids "ithin the ingot. Car)ide Precipitation he phenomenon of carbides (A compound consisting of carbon and other elements) coming out of a solid

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solution, occurring in stainless steel "hen heated into the range of <88,7A88 degrees -ahrenheit. Car)on Carbon is an essential element in steel, it is added in specific amounts to control the hardness and strength of the material. In general, increased carbon content reduces ductilit! but increases tensile strength and the abilit! of the steel to harden "hen cooled rapidl! from elevated temperatures. Car)on Boil In the conventional basic open hearth process of steelmaking, refining commences "ith the addition of iron ore. Carbon reaction starts and the boil at this stage is kno"n as carbon boil. Car)on Steel Steel that has properties made up mostl! of the element carbon and "hich relies on the carbon content for structure. 'ost of the steel produced in the "orld is carbon steel. Car)on Steel A steel "hose properties are determined primaril! b! the amount of carbon present. Apart from iron and carbon, manganese up to 7.9? ma! be present as "ell as residual amounts of allo!ing elements such as nickel, chromium, mol!bdenum, etc. It is "hen one or more allo!ing elements are added in sufficient amount that it is classed as an allo! steel. Car)o-3itriding A case,hardening process in "hich steel components are heated in an atmosphere containing both carbon and nitrogen. Car)urising he introduction of carbon into the surface la!er of a steel that has a lo" carbon content. he process is carried out b! heating the components in a solid liquid, or gaseous carbon containing medium. he depth of penetration of carbon into the surface is controlled b! the time and temperature of the treatment. After carburising it is necessar! to harden the components b! heating to a suitable temperature and quenching. Case-Hardening he process of hardening the surface of steel "hilst leaving the interior unchanged. 1oth carbon and allo! steels are suitable for case,hardening providing their carbon content is lo", usuall! up to a ma$imum of 8.;?. Components sub#ect to this process, particularl! in the case of allo! steels, have a hard, "ear, resistant surface "ith a tough core. Casing Casing is the structural retainer for the "alls of oil and gas "ells, and accounts for H9? (b! "eight) of OC G shipments. Casing is used to prevent contamination of both the surrounding "ater table and the "ell itself. Casing lasts the life of a "ell and is not usuall! removed "hen a "ell is closed. Cast Iron A definition can be applied that Cast Iron is an allo! of iron and carbon in "hich the carbon is in e$cess of the amount that can be retained in solid solution in austenite at the eutectic temperature. Carbon is usuall! present in the range of 7.<? to >.9?, in addition, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus are contained in var!ing amounts. Iarious t!pes of cast iron are covered b! a 1ritish Standard classification and includes gre!, malleable and "hite irons. /lements such as nickel, chromium, mol!bdenum, vanadium can be added to produce allo! cast irons. Cast Steel

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A term originall! applied to crucible steel and sometimes toda! used to describe tool steels. he term is misleading and is falling into misuse. It can also be applied to steel castings made b! pouring molten steel into a mould but "hich are not sub#ect to further forging or rolling. C) Chemical s!mbol for Columbium. Ce Chemical s!mbol for Cerium. Cementite An iron carbide (-eFC) constituent of steel. It is hard, brittle and cr!stalline. Steel "hich has cooled slo"l! from a high temperature contains ferrite and pearlite in relative proportions var!ing "ith the chemical composition of the steel. 2earlite is a lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite. Charge he act of loading material into a vessel. -or e$ample, iron ore, coke and limestone are charged into a 1last -urnaceG a 1asic O$!gen -urnace is charged "ith scrap and hot metal. he charge itself is the amount of material loaded into the furnace. Charpy %est A test to measure the impact properties of steel. A prepared test piece, usuall! notched, is broken b! a s"inging pendulum. he energ! consumed in breaking the test piece is measured in Joules. he more brittle the steel the lo"er the impact strength. I:od is a similar and more "idel! used impact test in this countr!. 1oth are quoted in the current edition of 1S 6H8. Chec* Analysis An anal!sis of the metal after it has been rolled or forged into semi,finished or finished forms. It is not a check on the ladle anal!sis, but is a check against the chemistr! ordered. Chromium "Cr# An allo!ing element that is the essential stainless steel ra" material for conferring corrosion resistance. A film that naturall! forms on the surface of stainless steel self,repairs in the presence of o$!gen if the steel is damaged mechanicall! or chemicall!, and thus prevents corrosion from occurring. Chromium &hen used as an allo!ing element, chromium increases the hardenabilit! of steel and in association "ith high carbon gives resistance to "ear and abrasion. Chromium has an important effect on corrosion resistance and is present in stainless steels in amounts of 7;? to ;8?. It is also used in heat,resisting steels and high dut! cast irons. Circored A gas,based process developed b! 3urgi 'etallurgie in German! to produce @0I or %1I (see @irect 0educed Iron and %ot 1riquetted Iron). he t"o,stage method !ields fines "ith a 6F? iron content. Iron ore fines pass first through a circulating fluidi:ed,bed reactor, and subsequentl! through a bubbling bed fluidi:ed,bed reactor. Cladding 'ethod of appl!ing a stainless steel coating to carbon steel or lo"er,allo! steel (i.e., steel "ith allo!ing element content belo" 9?), to increase corrosion resistance at lo"er initial cost than e$clusive use of stainless steel b! (7) "elding stainless steel onto carbon steel, (;) pouring melted stainless steel around a solid carbon steel slab in a mould, or (F) placing a slab of carbon steel bet"een t"o plates of stainless steel

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and bonding them b! rolling at high temperature on a plate mill. Clad Steel A composite material obtained b! firml! bonding together a carbon or allo! steel "ith a surface la!er of another metal or allo!. Clean Steel ,See "Cleanliness of Steel" Cleanliness o$ Steel he relative freedom of steel from inclusions as a result of elimination of products of deo$idisation from the melt. Co Chemical s!mbol for Cobalt. Co)alt An allo!ing element used in tool, magnet and heat resisting steels. ogether "ith tungsten and mol!bdenum, cobalt is used to form the super high speed steels. It improves the red hardness value of the steel, that is, it enables the steel to resist softening at a high temperature or in the case of a cutting tool to hold its edge under severe conditions. Coe$$icient o$ xpansion he ratio of change in length, area, or volume per degree to the corresponding value at a standard temperature. Cogging An intermediate rolling process "hen a hot ingot is reduced to a bloom or slab in a cogging mill. Coils Steel sheet that has been "ound. A slab, once rolled in a hot,strip mill, is more than one,quarter mile longG coils are the most efficient "a! to store and transport sheet steel. Co*e he basic fuel consumed in blast furnaces in the smelting of iron. Coke is a processed form of coal. About 7,888 pounds of coke are needed to process a ton of pig iron, an amount "hich represents more than 98? of an integrated steel mill.s total energ! use. 'etallurgical coal burns sporadicall! and reduces into a stick! mass. 2rocessed coke, ho"ever, burns steadil! inside and out, and is not crushed b! the "eight of the iron ore in the blast furnace. Inside the narro" confines of the coke oven, coal is heated "ithout o$!gen for 7< hours to drive off gases and impurities. Co*e +(en Battery A set of ovens that process coal into coke. Coke ovens are constructed in batteries of 78K788 ovens that are ;8 feet tall, >8 feet long, and less than t"o feet "ide. Coke batteries, because of the e$haust fumes emitted "hen coke is pushed from the ovens, often are the dirtiest area of a steel mill comple$. Cold /ra.ing he process of reducing the cross sectional area of "ire, bar or tube b! dra"ing the material through a die "ithout an! pre,heating. Cold dra"ing is used for the production of bright steel bar in round square, he$agonal and flat section. he process changes the mechanical properties of the steel and the finished product is accurate to si:e, free from scale "ith a bright surface finish.

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Cold 1eduction -inishing mills roll cold coils of pickled hot,rolled sheet to make the steel thinner, smoother, and stronger, b! appl!ing pressure, rather heat. Stands of rolls in a cold,reduction mill are set ver! close together and press a sheet of steel from one,quarter inch thick into less than an eighth of an inch, "hile more than doubling its length. Cold-1olled Strip "Sheet# Sheet steel that has been pickled and run through a cold,reduction mill. Strip has a final product "idth of appro$imatel! 7; inches, "hile sheet ma! be more than <8 inches "ide. Cold,rolled sheet is considerabl! thinner and stronger than hot,rolled sheet, so it "ill sell for a premium (see Sheet Steel). Cold-rolling "C1# 0olling steel "ithout first reheating it. his process reduces thickness of the steel, produces a smoother surface and makes it easier to machine. Cold Shortness , 0efers to lack of ductilit! at atmospheric temperatures. Cold Wor*ing "1olling# Changes in the structure and shape of steel achieved through rolling, hammering, or stretching the steel at a lo" temperature (often room temperature). o create a permanent increase in the hardness and strength of the steel. he application of forces to the steel causes changes in the composition that enhance certain properties. In order for these improvements to be sustained, the temperature must be belo" a certain range, because the structural changes are eliminated b! higher temperatures. Cold Wor*ing Altering the shape or si:e of a metal b! plastic deformation. 2rocesses include rolling, dra"ing, pressing, spinning, e$truding and heading, it is carried out belo" the recr!stallisation point usuall! at room temperature. %ardness and tensile strength are increased "ith the degree of cold "ork "hilst ductilit! and impact values are lo"ered. he cold rolling and cold dra"ing of steel significantl! improves surface finish. Compression %est A test for determining the ma$imum compressive load for producing a specified strain or fracture in metal. Also used for assessing surface qualit! of steel. Conditioning he removal of surface defects (seams, laps, pits, etc.) from steel. Conditioning is usuall! done "hen the steel is in semi,finished condition (bloom, billet, slab). It ma! be accomplished, after an inspection, b! chipping, scarfing, grinding, or machining. Consumption 'easures the ph!sical use of steel b! end users. Steel consumption estimates, unlike steel demand figures, account for changes in inventories. A22A0/+ S5223L. @erived demand for steel using AISI reported steel mill shipments plus Census 1ureau reported imports, less Census 1ureau reported e$ports. @omestic market share percentages are based on this figure, "hich does not take into account an! changes in inventor!. Contact Corrosion &hen t"o dissimilar metals are in contact "ithout a protective barrier bet"een them and the! are in the presence of liquid, an electrol!tic cell is created. he degree of corrosion is dependent on the area in contact and the electro,potential voltage of the metals concerned. he less noble of the metals is liable to be attacked, i.e. :inc "ill act as a protector of steel in sea "ater "hereas copper or brass "ill attack the steel in

15

the same environment. Continuous Casting A method of pouring steel directl! from the furnace into a billet, bloom, or slab directl! from its molten form. Continuous casting avoids the need for large, e$pensive mills for rolling ingots into slabs. Continuous cast slabs also solidif! in a fe" minutes versus several hours for an ingot. 1ecause of this, the chemical composition and mechanical properties are more uniform. Steel from the 1O- or electric furnace is poured into a tundish (a shallo" vessel that looks like a bathtub) a op the continuous caster. As steel carefull! flo"s from the tundish do"n into the "ater,cooled copper mould of the caster, it solidifies into a ribbon of red,hot steel. At the bottom of the caster, torches cut the continuousl! flo"ing steel to form slabs or blooms. Continuous Casting A method of producing blooms, billets and slabs in long lengths using "ater cooled moulds. he castings are continuousl! "ithdra"n through the bottom of the caster "hilst the teeming of the metal is proceeding. he need for primar! and intermediate mills and the storage and use of large numbers of ingot moulds is eliminated. he continuous casting process is also used in the production of cast iron, aluminium and copper allo!s. Controlled Atmosphere A gas or mi$ture of gases in "hich steel is heated to produce or maintain a specific surface condition. Controlled atmosphere furnaces are "idel! used in the heat treatment of steel as scaling and decarburisation of components is minimised b! this process. Controlled Cooling Cooling from the final hot,forming or heat treatment operation in a predetermined pattern to control camber, prevent flaking etc. Con(ersion Cost 0esources spent to process material in a single stage, from one t!pe to another. he costs of converting iron ore to hot metal or pickling hot,rolled coil can be isolated for anal!sis. Con(erter7Processor @emand from steel customers such as rerollers and tube makers, "hich process steel into a more finished state, such as pipe, tubing and cold,rolled strip, before selling it to end users. Such steel generall! is not sold on contract, making the converter segment of the mills. revenues more price sensitive than their suppl! contracts to the auto manufacturers. Cooling 1ate he decrease of temperature in time unit on cooling through a certain temperature range. Core In the case of steel this refers to a component that has been case,hardened "here the centre is softer than the hard surface la!er or case. It can also be applied to the central part of a rolled rimming steel. C+1 89 CO0/D is a coal,based smelting process that !ields hot metal or pig iron. he output can be used b! integrated mills or /A- mills. he process gasifies non,coking coal in a smelting reactor, "hich also produces liquid iron. he gasified coal is fed into a shaft furnace, "here it removes o$!gen from iron ore lumps, pellets or sinterG the reduced iron

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is then fed to the smelting reactor. Corrosion he gradual degradation or alteration of steel caused b! atmosphere, moisture, or other agents. Galvanic Corrosion, Corrosion associated "ith the presence of t"o dissimilar metals in a solution (electrol!te). In principle, it is similar to bath,t!pe plating in the sense that the anode surface has lost metal (corroded). Intergranular Corrosion, Corrosion "hich occurs preferentiall! along the grain boundaries of the allo!. 2itting Corrosion, +on,uniform corrosion usuall! forming small cavities in the metal surface. Corrosion Fatigue -atigue that arises "hen alternating or repeated stress combines "ith corrosion. he severit! of the action depends on the range and frequenc! of the stress, the nature of the corroding condition and the time under stress. Cr ,Chemical s!mbol for Chromium. Crac* hese are marks on the surface of the steel product resulting from cracks in the surface of the roll used for hot rolling. Creep he form of plastic deformation that takes place in steel held for long periods at high temperature. 'ethods of creep testing involve the determination of strain=time curves under constant tensile load and at constant temperature. Creep 0imit he ma$imum stress "hich a metal or allo! can "ithstand indefinitel! "ithout deforming faster than at a specified strain rate. Creep Strength he constant nominal stress that "ill cause a specified quantit! of creep in a given time at a constant temperature. It is a measure of a tubes abilit! to "ithstand prolonged stress or load "ithout significant continuous deformation. In steels it is an important factor onl! at elevated temperatures. Critical Cooling 1ate he slo"est rate of cooling from the hardening temperature "hich "ill produce the full! hardened martensitic condition. Critical Point his generall! refers to a temperature at "hich some chemical or ph!sical change takes place. hese transformations cause evolution of heat on cooling or absorption of heat on heating and appear as discontinuities or arrest points in the heating and cooling curves. he temperatures var! "ith the carbon content of the steel and the rate of cooling. Critical %emperature he temperature at "hich some phase change occurs in a metal during heating or cooling, i.e. the temperature at "hich an arrest or critical point is sho"n on heating or cooling curves. Cro.n Cro"n, in plates, sheet, or strips, is characteri:ed b! a greater thickness in the middle than at the edges. It

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ma! be caused b! a deflecting (bending) of the rolls or b! "orn rolls. Cu , Chemical s!mbol for Copper. Cruci)le Process A steel making process in "hich the charge, generall! small (roughl! ;8,;9 kg), is melted in a crucible for the production of ver! high qualit! steel out of contact "ith fuel. he product, kno"n as crucible steel, is used for making tool steel. Crystalline Fracture A t!pe of fracture that appears bright and glittering, it having formed along the cleavage planes of the individual cr!stals. +ormall! an indication that brittle fracture has occurred. Cul(ert Pipe %eav! gauge, galvani:ed steel that is spiral,formed or riveted into corrugated pipe, "hich is used for high"a! drainage applications. Cupping %est A ductilit! test for sheet and strip. he test involves forming a bulge or cup b! stretch,forming the blank (test piece) through a circular die "ith the aid of a special dome shaped punch and measuring the depth or the bulge of the cup prior to fracture. Cut-to-0ength 2rocess to uncoil sections of flat,rolled steel and cut them into a desired length. 2roduct that is cut to length is normall! shipped flat,stacked. Cyanide Hardening A process of introducing carbon and nitrogen into the surface of steel b! heating it to a suitable temperature in a molten bath of sodium c!anide, or a mi$ture of sodium and potassium c!anide, diluted "ith sodium carbonate and quenching in oil or "ater. his process is used "here a thin case and high hardness are required. Cyaniding A process in "hich an iron,base allo! is heated in contact "ith a c!anide salt so that the surface absorbs carbon and nitrogen. C!aniding is follo"ed b! quenching and tempering to produce a case "ith a desired combination of hardness and toughness. / /amping Capacity he abilit! of a metal or allo! to absorb the energ! of mechanical vibrations. /ead So$t Steel A ver! lo",carbon steel characterised b! high ductilit!, generall! supplied in the full annealed condition. /ecalescence A term used in reference to the absorption of heat "ithout a corresponding increase in temperature, "hen

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steel is heated through the critical points (phase changes). / CA0 SC 3C he absorption of heat, due to internal changes, "hich occurs "hen steel is heated through the critical temperature range. / +8I/I2 1 A substance added to molten steel for the purpose of removing o$!gen. / P%H +F P 3 %1A%I+3 he depth to "hich appreciable hardening occurs "hen steel is quenched from its hardening temperature. /IFF 1 3%IA0 H A%I3G %eating so that various portions of an article reach different temperatures to produce different properties upon cooling. /ISCA1/ See "Crop." /IS%+1%I+3 A change in shape (usuall! refers to changes of shapecaused b! internal stress). /1AWI3G @ra"ing ma! refer to the pulling of steel through a die,as in dra"ing "ire, or deforming steel in dies on a press (deepdra"ing). /1AWI3G BAC! 0eheating after hardening to a temperature belo" the critical for the purpose of changing the hardness of the steel. /4C%I0I%5 he abilit! to permit change of shape "ithout fracture. In steel, ductilit! is usuall! measured b! elongation and reduction of area as determined in a tensile test. /ecar)urisation he loss of carbon from the surface of steel as a result of heating in a carbon "eak atmosphere. @uring the rolling of steel hot surfaces are e$posed to the decarburising effects of o$!gen in the atmosphere and as a result the surface is depleted of carbon. In steels "here the components are to be subsequentl! heat treated it is necessar! to remove the decarburised surface b! machining. /eep /ra.ing -orming cup shaped articles or shells b! using a punch to force sheet metal into a die. /egassing he gases dissolved in steel, be!ond a certain limit, are undesirable because their presence finall! leads to several defects in steel products. he present da! degassing ma! involve one or more of the follo"ing functions* o remove h!drogen from steel so that the prolonged annealing treatment is not required, particularl! in forging qualit! steels.

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o improve cleanliness b! removing o$!gen in the form of CO gas. o produce steels of ver! lo" carbon content (belo" 8.8F ?) b! transfering part of the refining from furnace to the degassing unit. o bring about desulphurisation of steel b! reagents carried along "ith an inert gas like argon bubbled through the bath.

To ensure better control of chemical composition of steel by adding the re uisite amount of additions under !acuum"

/elta Iron &hen pure or practicall! carbon,free iron is cooled from above its melting point it solidifies at about 79F9oC as delta iron having a bod!,centred cubic lattice structure, "hich persists do"n to about 7>88oC. On further cooling it undergoes an allotropic change to gamma iron "hich has a face,centred cubic lattice and is non, magnetic. /eoxidation /lements such as silicon and aluminium "hen added to molten steel react to form stable o$ides and reduce the amount of dissolved o$!gen. he solubilit! of o$!gen in steel is reduced as temperature is lo"ered during solidification and the e$cess o$!gen combines to form carbon mono$ide. If the molten metal is not deo$idised the effervescence produced b! the evolution of carbon mono$ide during solidification "ould result in blo" holes and porosit!. Steel treated in this "a! is termed, "Milled Steel". /escaling It is necessar! to remove the scale from hot rolled bars or coil before bright dra"ing. his is normall! carried out b! shot blasting or pickling in acid. Other methods of descaling steel products include sand blasting, flame descaling and tumbling. /eseaming A process of burning out defective areas on the surface of ingots, blooms or billets. he condition of the surface is such that it can then be rolled or forged into a satisfactor! product. /esiliconisation he inevitable nature of ironmaking results in it containing more than 7? silicon. he process of removing the e$cess silicon before the metal enters the steel making furnace is called desiliconisation. /esulphuri-ation Operation that in#ects a chemical mi$ture into a ladle full of hot metal to remove sulphur prior to its charging into the 1asic O$!gen -urnace. Sulphur enters the steel from the coke in the blast furnace smelting operation, and there is little the steelmaker can do to reduce its presence. 1ecause e$cess sulphur in the steel impedes its "elding and forming characteristics, the mill must add this step to the steelmaking process. /-H /egassing Process In this process a small portion, about 78 , 79 ?of the total steel in the ladle, is treated at a time under vacuum. he process is repeated until required degassing is achieved. It "as developed b! @ortmund , %orter , %uttenunion in German!. It is also kno"n as a lifter degassing process. /iamond Pyramid Hardness %est his test, more commonl! kno"n as the Iickers test, finds greater use in the laborator! than the "orkshop. It emplo!s a p!ramid shaped diamond "ith an included angle of 7FA degrees "hich is impressed into the specimen using loads of 9 to 7;8 kg making a small square impression. his test is used for finished or

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polished components because the impression can be ver! small. he diamond p!ramid hardness number is obtained from a calculation based on measuring the diagonals of the impressions in the steel. he @iamond 2!ramid %ardness +umber (%I) - B Applied load in Milogram,-orce . A 2!ramidal area of indentation in mm. /ie he term die is most commonl! used in tooling, i.e. press tools "punch and die" but there are man! other t!pes of die, e.g. thread cutting dies, forming dies, forging dies, die,casting dies, etc. he term "hen applied to steel often refers to dra"ing dies through "hich hot rolled "ire and bar are dra"n to produce the finish and dimensional accurac! that is required for bright steel. /I3 @eutsche Industrie +orm, the s!mbol of the German Standards Association (@eutscher +ormenausschuss). /irect 1educed Iron "/1I# 2rocessed iron ore that is iron,rich enough to be used as a scrap substitute in electric furnace steelmaking. As mini,mills e$pand their product abilities to sheet steel, the! require much higher grades of scrap to approach integrated mill qualit!. /nabling the mini,mills to use iron ore "ithout the blast furnace, @0I can serve as a lo" residual ra" material and alleviate the mini,mills. dependence on cleaner, higher,priced scrap. he impurities in the crushed iron ore are driven off through the use of massive amounts of natural gas. &hile the result is 6H? pure iron (compared "ith blast furnace hot metal, "hich, because it is saturated "ith carbon, is onl! 6F? iron), @0I is onl! economicall! feasible in regions "here natural gas is attractivel! priced. /islocation A discontinuit! in the cr!stal lattice of a metal. he movement of dislocations under stress ma! be used to e$plain slip, creep, plastic !ielding, etc. /istortion- An! deviation from the desired si:e or shape, as occurring in heat treatment. /olomite -A natural carbonate of calcium and magnesium generall! used as a flu$ in blast furnaces. /ou)le Slag Practice It means refining under o$idising as "ell as reducing slags made separatel!. he first slag is o$idising and it eliminates all impurities like 2, Si, C, 'n, etc. his slag is removed and a reducing slag is made b! fresh additions of lime, coke and spar to desulphurise the metal and to carr! out allo!ing ver! effectivel!. he practice is a must if effective desulphurising and the large allo!ing additions are to be made. It is costl! but the !ield of the allo!ing additions is ver! high and the qualit! of the product is much better. /ra.ing he process of pulling metal "ire, rods, or bars through a die "ith the effect of altering the si:e, finish and mechanical properties. In the 5SA, it is a term used for tempering. /ra.n-+(er-&andrel A procedure for producing specialt! tubing using a dra"bench to pull tubing through a die and over a

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mandrel, giving e$cellent control over the inside diameter and "all thickness. Advantages of this technique are its inside and outside surface qualit! and gauge tolerance. 'a#or markets include automotive applications and h!draulic c!linders. /1I , See "@irect 0educed Iron" /ri$t %est Also kno"n as 2in /$pansion est, this is a test for plate, carried out b! boring a hole in a given diameter near the edge of the test piece and enlarging it b! a conical tool having a specified taper until either a specified increase in diameter takes place or cracking occurs. /rill Pipe 2ipe used in the drilling of an oil or gas "ell. @rill pipe is the conduit bet"een the "ellhead motor and the drill bit. @rilling mud is pumped do"n the centre of the pipe during drilling, to lubricate the drill bit and transmit the drilled core to the surface. 1ecause of the high stress, torque and temperature associated "ith "ell drilling, drill pipe is a seamless product. /rop Forging An operation in "hich a metal shape is formed b! forcing hot metal into impressions formed in solid blocks of hardened allo! steel, the forging dies. he dies are made in halves, one attached to the rising and falling block of the drop forge and the other to the stationar! anvil. @rop forgings are "idel! used in the automotive industr! for crankshafts, stub,a$les, gears, etc. /rop %est his is a test carried out on a material to determine its resistance to fracture or breakage under specific conditions. he usual form of this test is to drop the finished article from a predetermined height. /uctility he propert! of metal "hich permits it to be reduced in cross sectional area "ithout fracture. In a tensile test, ductile metals sho" considerable elongation eventuall! failing b! necking, "ith consequent rapid increase in local stresses. /ump %est A test to detect surface in materials intended for hot or cold forging, this test is carried out b! upsetting a test piece of suitable length either cold or after heating to the forging temperature, as the case ma! be, till a specified reduction is obtained. /uplexing he name itself is indicative of the use of t"o different steelmaking processes for carr!ing out the required amount of refining. %ere it "ill mean combination of an acid 1essemer and 1O% (1asic Open %earth) processes. /ye Penetrant Inspection A method for detecting surface porosit! or cracks in metal. he part to be inspected is cleaned and coated "ith a d!e "hich penetrates an! fla"s that ma! be present. he surface is "iped clean and coated "ith a "hite po"der. he po"der absorbs the d!e held in the defects indicating their location. /ynamic Strength 0efers to the strength of a material "hen sub#ected to suddenl! applied or changing loads.

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AF , See "/lectric Arc -urnace" dge Conditioning , See "/dge 0olling" dge 1olling 0olling a strip of steel to smooth the edges. 1! removing the burr off the coil, it is safer for customers to manipulate. 0AS%IC 0I&I% he ma$imum load per unit of area (usuall! stated as pounds per square inch) that ma! be applied "ithout producing permanent deformation. It is common practice to appl! the load at a constant rate of increase and also measure the increase of length of the specimen at uniform load increments. he point at "hich the increase in length of the specimen ceases to bear a constant ratio to the increase in load, is called the proportional limit. he elastic limit "ill usuall! be qualto or slightl! higher than the proportional limit. 0+3GA%I+3 he increase in length of a test specimen after rupture in a tensile test, e$pressed as a percentage of the original length. 3/41A3C 0I&I% 'a$imum d!namic stress to "hich material ma! be submitted for an indefinite number of times "ithout causing fatigue failure. 1ICHS 3 6A04 S hese are "idel! used is con#uction "ith other measures as an indication of the deep dra"ing properties of steel sheets and strip. he! are determined in a cupping test in "hich a conical punch "ith a round end is advanced into a test specimen held b! a blank,holder until the test specimen fractures. he depth of the cup is measured in millimeters on a scale and becomes the /richen value. 4% C%+I/ S% 0 Carbon steel "ith a 788 ? pearlitic structure, "hich is the structure normal conditions of hot "orking and cooling "hen the proportion of carbon is about .<8 per cent. %!per,eutectoid steel has a greater percentage of carbon, and h!po,eutectoid steel has less carbon. lastic 0imit he ma$imum stress that can be applied to a metal "ithout producing permanent deformation. &hen e$ternal forces act upon a material the! tend to form internal stresses "ithin it "hich cause deformation. If the stresses are not too great the material "ill return to its original shape and dimension "hen the e$ternal stress is removed. lasticity he propert! "hich enables a material to return to its original shape and dimension. lectric Arc Furnace " AF# Steelmaking furnace "here scrap is generall! 788? of the charge. %eat is supplied from electricit! that arcs from the graphite electrodes to the metal bath. -urnaces ma! be either an alternating current (AC) or direct

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current (@C). @C units consume less energ! and fe"er electrodes, but the! are more e$pensive. lectric Process Also kno"n as the Arc 2rocess, this is a process of steel making "herein the source of fuel is electrical energ!, i.e. heat from the electric arc or induced edd! currents. Called the /lectric Arc process or Induction 2rocess depending on the t!pe of process used. lectric 1esistance Welded " 1W# Pipe 2ipe made from strips of hot,rolled steel "hich are passed through forming rolls and "elded. &hile seamless pipe is traditionall! stronger and more e$pensive than comparable /0& pipe, /0& technolog! is improving and the technique no" accounts for appro$imatel! ><? of OC G shipments b! tonnage. lectrical Steels Steels "hich are characterised b! their magnetic properties and are intended for the manufacture of electrical circuits. he! are supplied in the form of cold rolled sheet or strip, generall! less than ;mm thick and up to 7988mm "ide. Grain orientated steels have preferential magnetic properties in the direction of rolling and non, grain orientated steels have similar magnetic properties both transversel! and in the direction of rolling. lectro-Gal(anising , he process of Ninc coating b! electrodeposition. lectroslag 1e$ining " S1 process# A specialised steel making process in "hich a rolled or a cast ingot in the form of an electrode is remelted in a "ater cooled copper mould. he melting is activated b! resistive heat generated in a conductive slag. he resulting product has a similar basic chemical composition to the original ingot, but is characterised b! high purit! and lo" inclusion content. !pical applications include high integrit! components for the aerospace industr!. lectrostatic Precipitator " SP# , It cleans the gas in dr! or "et condition le(ated %emperature /ra.ing A process of dra"ing steel bars at elevated temperatures (normall! ;98,F88oC) "hich under optimum conditions produce steels that have higher tensile and !ield strengths than those cold dra"n "ith the same degree of reduction. he process is little used in the 5nited Mingdom. longation A test to measure the ductilit! of steel. &hen a material is tested for tensile strength it elongates a certain amount before fracture takes place. he t"o pieces are placed together and the amount of e$tension is measured against marks made before starting the test and is e$pressed as a percentage of the original gauge length. longation Percentage 0efers to the e$tension of the gauge length of a tensile test piece e$pressed as a percentage of the original gauge length. nd ,uench %est 'ore commonl! referred to as Jomin! est it is used to determine the hardening abilit! of steel. In this test the test piece is heated to a suitable temperature above the transformation range and then quenched at one end. he gradution of hardness along the length is then determined.

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ndurance 0imit he ma$imum stress belo" "hich a material can presumabl! endure an infinite number of stress c!cles. nergy +ptimi-ing Furnace he /O- is essentiall! a batch o$!gen steelmaking process "ith high post,combustion, "ith coal additions and e$tensive scrap preheating. he process theoreticall! can charge upto 788 ? scrap, but t!picall! >8 , A8 ? scrap is used. %ot metal is charged into the vessel follo"ed b! scrap from the lo"er preheating chamber. In some cases, a second scrap charge is added about five minutes into the blo". he scrap is preheated in a series of preheat chambers to about <88,7;88 deg.C. -or a 98 = 98 scrap to hot metal mi$ about H8 cu.m = ton of o$!gen, "ith about one third into the metal and t"o thirds above the bath for post, combustion, and about ;8 kg = ton of coal is used. he post,combustion gas is used to preheat the scrap and, therefore, the energ! from post,combustion does not have to be completel! transferred to the bath. he blo"ing time is about ;H , F; minutes and tap,to,tap is less than one hour. 0efractor! consumption increases "ith scrap usage and is appro$imatel! ;.9 kg = ton for a 98 = 98 mi$. +F - See "/nerg! Optimi:ing -urnace" :uiaxed Crystals Cr!stals, each of "hich has a$es appro$imatel! equal in length. hese are normall! present in the centre of a steel ingot. :uili)rium A diagram constructed from thermal and other data sho"ing the limits of composition and temperature "ithin "hich the various constituents or phases of allo!s are stable. richsen %est his is a test for Sheets in "hich the depth of the impression at fracture, obtained b! forcing a cone shaped plunger "ith a spherical end into the test piece, is measured in mm and used as an inde$ of ductilit!. tching reatment of a prepared metal surface "ith acid or other chemical reagent "hich, b! differential attack, reveals the structure. utectic A mi$ture of t"o or more constituents "hich solidif! simultaneousl! out of the liquid at a minimum free:ing point. utectoid A mi$ture of t"o or more constituents "hich forms on cooling from a solid solution and transforms on heating at a constant minimum temperature. A eutectoid steel contains appro$imatel! 8.<F? carbon. xtrusion he production of a section b! forcing a billet to flo" through a die. Often used for producing comple$ sections, the process is used "ith both hot and cold metal. Seamless tubes are produced b! forcing a hot billet to flo" through a die over a mandrel positioned centrall! in the die. F Chemical sym)ol $or Fluorine'

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FA%IG4 FA%IG4

- See comments under spring steel and endurance strength of steels. 0I&I% , See "/ndurance 3imit."

F 11+ A00+5S Iron allo!ed "ith some element manganese, chrome, or silicon, etc., used in adding the element to molten steel. FIB 1 A characteristic of "rought metal manifested b! a fibrous or "ood! appearance of fractures and indicating directional properties. -iber is due chiefl! to the direction of "orking of the constituents of the metal both, metallic and non,metallic. FIB 1 S%1 SS - 5nit stress at a certain point "hen on section stress is not uniform. FI3- 2rotuberances resulting from the improper squee:ing of steel during rolling. Also see "-lash." FI3ISH / S% 0 Steel "hich is read! for the market "ith an! further "ork or treatment such as "ire, bars, sheets rails, plates, etc.. 1looms, billets, slabs, and "ire rods semi,nished. FI3ISHI3G % &P 1A%41 - emperature at "hich hot "orking is completed.

F0A! S - Cr!stalline areas of a steel fracture "ith a bright scal! appearance. F0A& A33 A0I3G he direct application of a high temperature flame to a steel surface for the purpose of removing stresses and softening the metal. Commonl! used to remove the stresses from "elds. F0A& HA1/ 3I3G In this method of hardening, the surface la!ers of a medium or high carbon steel is heated b! a high temperature torch and then quenched. F0ASH A thin fin of metal formed at the sides of a die forging or sometimes a rolledbar "here a small portion of the metal is forced out bet"een the edges of the forging dies or the rolls. F0ASH P+I3% , Ingnition point,usuall! applied to oils. -O0GI+G,A piece of metal "hich has been shaped or formed, "hile hot b! forging "ith a hammer (hand or po"er), in a press, or b! a drop hammer. F+1GI3G S%1 SS S - Stresses resulting from forging or from coolingfrom the forging temperature. F1AC%41 F1AC%41 - he surface of a break in metal. % S% - 1reaking metal to determine structure or ph!sical condition b! e$amining the fracture.

F1 &ACHI3I3G A term used to describe a metal "hich ma! be machined at relativel! high speed "ithout the development of

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e$cessive heat and from "hich the chips "ill break off easil! leaving a smooth surface. F400 A33 A0I3G %eating to above the critical temperature range follo"ed b! slo" cooling through the range , producing ma$imum softness. F400 HA1/3 SS- 5susall! the hardness of heat treated steel afterquenching and before tempering. Fa)ricator A producer of intermediate products that does not also produce primar! metal. -or e$ample, a rebar (see 0einforcing 1ar) fabricator purchases rebar and processes the material to the specifications of a particular construction pro#ect. Face Centred Cu)ic 0attice An arrangement of atoms in cr!stals in "hich the atomic centres are disposed in space in such a "a! that one atom is located at each of the corners of the cube and one at the centre of each face. Steel in the face, centred cubic arrangement is termed austenite. Falling %est &ethod %ere a specified "eight is dropped from a definite height on to the material to be tested. his test is normall! applied to a$les, rails etc. "here a specified deflection "ithout fracture is required. Fastmet A process to directl! reduce iron ore to metallic iron pellets that can be fed into an electric arc furnace "ith an equal amount of scrap. his process is designed to b!pass the coke oven,blast furnace route to produce hot metal from iron ore. It is also one of several methods that mini,mills might use to reduce their dependence on high,qualit! scrap inputs (see @irect 0educed Iron and %ot 1riquetted Iron). Fatigue he effect on metal of repeated c!cles of stress. he insidious feature of fatigue failure is that there is no obvious "arning, a crack forms "ithout appreciable deformation of structure making it difficult to detect the presence of gro"ing cracks. -ractures usuall! start from small nicks or scratches or fillets "hich cause a localised concentration of stress. -ailure can be influenced b! a number of factors including si:e, shape and design of the component, condition of the surface or operating environment. Fatigue 0imit he ma$imum value of the applied alternating stress "hich a test piece can stand indefinitel!. Fatigue %esting -atigue tests are made "ith the ob#ect of determining the relationship bet"een the stress range and the number of times it can be applied before causing failure. esting machines are used for appl!ing c!clicall! var!ing stresses and cover tension, compression, torsion and bending or a combination of these stresses. Fe Chemical sym)ol $or Iron. Feedstoc* - An! ra" material. Ferrite, he solid solution of carbon in bod!,centred cubic iron, a constituent of carbon steels.

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Ferrochrome An allo! of iron and chromium "ith up to H;? chromium. -errochrome is commonl! used as a ra" material in the making of stainless steel. Ferro alloy A metal product commonl! used as a ra" material feed in steelmaking, usuall! containing iron and other metals (chromium, manganese, silicon, tungsten, mol!bdenum, vanadium) to aid various stages of the steelmaking process such as deo$idation, desulphuri:ation, and adding strength. /$amples* ferrochrome, ferromanganese, and ferrosilicon. Ferrochrome An allo! of iron and chromium "ith up to H;? chromium. -errochrome is commonl! used as a ra" material in the making of stainless steel. Ferrous , 'etals that consist primaril! of iron. Ferrous Alloy , See "Allo! Steel" Fettling he removal of sand adhering to castings b! hammering, tumbling or shot blasting. Fin In rolling mill practice a fin is a pro#ection e$tending from the side of rolled sections. It causes considerable trouble and is the result of overfill. he fin, formed "hen the bar or shape is fed through one pass, is likel! to be rolled back into the bar at the ne$t pass. It is rarel! encountered in modern rolling mills. Finmet he process reduces iron ore fines "ith gas in a descending series of fluidi:ed bed reactors. he reduced iron is hot briquetted. Finish he surface appearance of steel after final treatment. Finishing Facilities he portion of the steelmaking comple$ that processes semi,finished steel (slabs or billets) into forms that can be used b! others. -inishing operations can include rolling mills, pickle lines, tandem mills, annealing facilities, and temper mills. Fire Crac*ing 'oulds generall! fail in service primaril! due to fire,cracking of the mould chamber "alls. It affects the surface qualit! of ingots and if deep enough also obstructs smooth stripping of the mould. Flame Hardening A surface hardening process in "hich heat is applied b! a high temperature flame follo"ed b! quenching #ets of "ater. It is usuall! applied to medium to large si:e components such as large gears, sprockets, slide "a!s of machine tools, bearing surfaces of shafts and a$les, etc. Steels most suited have a carbon content "ithin the range 8.>8,8.99?. Flanging %est

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his is a test for tubes in "hich the end of a tube is turned back to form a flange at right angles to the a$is of the tube. Flash A fin that arises from metal in e$cess of that required to fill the final impression in a forging die and is e$uded from the parting line bet"een the diesG similarl! it can arise at the mould #oint in a casting. Flat-rolled steel Steel processed on rolls "ith flat faces as opposed to grooved or cut faces. -lat,rolled products include sheet, strip and tin plate, among others. Flats A finished product generall! of rectangular cross section "ith edges of controlled contour and of thickness of Fmm and above and "idth >88 mm and belo" supplied in straight lengths. Flattening %est his is a test for tubes "here a short length of tube is flattened diametricall! b! a specified amount. Flush Slag practice In this practice the slag is not allo"ed to accumulate in the open hearth furnace be!ond a certain safe limit at an! time during refining so that the heat transfer across the slag la!er is not affected adversel!. he slag is allo"ed to flush,off either through an opening in the back "all or over the central door sill "hich is deliberatel! kept at a lo"er level than that of the rest. Flux An iron cleaning agent. 3imestone and lime react "ith impurities "ithin the metallic pool to form a slag that floats to the op of the relativel! heavier (and no" more pure) liquid iron. F+B Pricing -0/IG% O+ 1OA0@ 20ICI+G. 2hrase that e$plains "hether the transportation costs of the steel are included. "-O1 'ill" is the price of steel at the mill, not including shipping. Forging A process of "orking metal to a finished shape b! hammering or pressing and is primaril! a "hot" operation. It is applied to the production of shapes either impossible or too costl! to make b! other methods or needing properties not obtainable b! casting. Categories of forgings include %ammer, 2ress, @rop or Stamping. Fracture -ractures are often described b! the appearance of the surface of the break in a piece of steel. Cr!stalline is bright and glittering, failure having developed along the cleavage planes of individual cr!stals and can be t!pical of brittle material. A silk! fracture has a smooth dull grain indicative of ductile material such as a mild steel. In tensile testing fractures are described b! shape, e.g. cup and cone. Freecutting Steels Steels "hich have had additions made to improve machinabilit!. he most common additives are sulphur and lead, other elements used include tellurium, selenium and bismuth. Freight :uali-ation A common industr! practice "hen a mill sells steel outside its geographic areaG it "ill assume an! e$tra

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shipping costs (relative to the competition) to quote the customer an equivalent price to get the business. G Ga Chemical sym)ol $or Gallium' Grain Gro.th he increase in the si:e of grains making up the microstructure of steel such as ma! occur during heat treatmens. Grain 1e$inement 0educing the cr!stalline structure as observedb! e!e or under the microscope. Graphiti-ing Annealing gre! cast iron so that most of the carbonis transformed to the graphitic condition. COntrolled b! increasingsilicon and b! thermal treatment. Gal(alume9 Steel sheet "ith a unique coating of 99? aluminum and >9? :inc that resists corrosion. he coating is applied in a continuous hot,dipped process, "hich improves the steel.s "eather resistance. GalvalumeO is a trademark of 1%2 Steel, and the product is popular in the metal building market. Gal(anic Action &hen iron and steel are sub#ect to conditions of aqueous corrosion the incidence and rate at "hich the corrosion takes place "ill alter if the steel is coupled "ith other metals or allo!s that are also e$posed to the electrol!te. Copper, brass, bron:e, lead and nickel are more "noble" and act as au$iliar! cathodes to the steel and accelerate its anodic dissolution, that is, its corrosion. 'agnesium, :inc and :inc,base allo! are nearl! al"a!s less noble and tend to divert the attack from the steel to themselves. he galvanic relationship of various metals is an important factor affecting corrosion. Gal(ani-ed Steel Steel coated "ith a thin la!er of :inc to provide corrosion resistance in underbod! auto parts, garbage cans, storage tanks, or fencing "ire. Sheet steel normall! must be cold,rolled prior to the galvani:ing stage. %O ,@I22/@. Steel is run through a molten :inc coating bath, follo"ed b! an air stream ""ipe" that controls the thickness of the :inc finish. /3/C 0OGA3IA+IN/@. Ninc plating process "hereb! the molecules on the positivel! charged :inc anode attach to the negativel! charged sheet steel. he thickness of the :inc coating is readil! controlled. 1! increasing the electric charge or slo"ing the speed of the steel through the plating area, the coating "ill thicken. @I--/0/+C/S. /lectrogalvani:ing equipment is more e$pensive to build and to operate than hot dipped, but it gives the steelmaker more precise control over the "eight of the :inc coating. he automotive manufacturers, because the! need the superior "elding, forming and painting abilit! of electrogalvani:ed steel, purchase 68? of all tonnage produced. Gamma Iron he allotropic form of iron e$isting bet"een the temperature 678oC and 7>88oC is kno"n as Gamma Iron. It has a face centred cubic lattice and is non,magnetic. Gamma iron containing carbon or other elements in solution is kno"n as austenite.

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Gas Car)urising A heat treatment method used in the case, hardening of steel. Carbon is absorbed into the outer la!ers of the components b! heating in a current of gas, rich in carbon compounds. he process is more versatile than some other methods as the depth of the case and the limiting carbon content of the case can be controlled b! the composition of the atmosphere, the de" point and the temperature. Gauge he thickness of sheet steel. 1etter,qualit! steel has a consistent gauge to prevent "eak spots or deformation. Gauge 0ength 5sed in the mechanical testing of steel, it is the length marked on the parallel portion of a tensile test piece from "hich the elongation is measured. Gauge Plate An allo! tool steel supplied in flat and square section "ith the surfaces ground to close limits. It is also kno"n as Ground -lat Stock and is used for the manufacturing of gauges, punches, dies, #igs, templates etc. Ge Chemical sym)ol $or Germanium. Gothics 0olled free stock for seamless tube ,making of square cross section "ith rounded corners. Grain 1e$ining his is the process of heating appropriatel! through the transformation range follo"ed b! cooling suitabl! from above that range, for obtaining desired refinement of grains. his ma! also be obtained b! controlling the finishing temperature of hot "orked material or b! suitable cold "ork follo"ed b! annealing. Grain Si-e A measure of the si:e of individual metallic cr!stals usuall! e$pressed as an average. Grain si:e is reported as a number in accordance "ith procedures described in AS ' Grain si:e specifications. Apparent -errite Grain Si:e is average of the si:e of the ferrite grains as microscopicall! vie"ed in the normali:ed or annealed condition. Austenitic Grain Si:e, "hich is usuall! measurement b! the 'c4uaid,/hn method, represents the austenitic grain si:e of a material at a prescribed temperature above the upper critical, frequeintl! 7H88-. -or austenitic stainless steels the grain si:e does not change upon cooling and is that observed microscopicall! at room temperature. Grain Si-e Control &hen a steel is austenitised b! heating to above the critical range, time is required for the production of a homogeneous structure during "hich there is a tendenc! to"ards grain gro"th. Although subsequent hot and cold "orking affect the grain si:e, it is originall! controlled at the steel making stage b! the addition of aluminum. Grain Si-e Crac*s hese are internal ruptures in steel caused b! stresses "hich ma! arise from the combination of several factors, like volume changes due to transformation, brittleness due to the presence of h!drogen and the arrangement of the microstructure, resulting from hot "orking. he si:e of such ruptures ma! var! considerabl! but are usuall! comparativel! short in length "hen vie"ed on a surface cut at right angles to the plane of the defect, and are generall! so fine that the! can not be discerned e$cept after etching or b!

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magnetic crack detection. Grain Si-e &easurement Grain si:e is normall! quantified b! a numbering s!stem. Coarse 7,9 and fine 9,<. he number is derived from the formula +B;n,7 "here n is the number of grains per square inch at a magnification of 788 diameters. Grain si:e has an important effect on ph!sical properties. -or service at ordinar! temperatures it is generall! considered that fine grained steels give a better combination of strength and toughness, "hereas coarse grained steels have better machinabilit!. Graphitising An annealing process applied to cast iron and steels "ith a high carbon and high silicon content b! "hich the combined carbon is "holl! or in part transformed to graphitic or free carbon. Green$ield Steel &ill +e" mill that is built "from scratch," presumabl! on a green field. Grey Iron Also kno"n as flake iron on account of all or part of the carbon content being in the form of graphite distributed through the metal as flakes. Grinding A machining process*, (a) to shape components that are too hard to be machined b! conventional methods such as hardened tool steels and case or induction hardened components. (b) to obtain a high degree of dimensional accurac! and surface finish on a component. Grinding Crac*s Cracks can arise from incorrect grinding and appear in the form of a net"ork. he! are caused b! the generation of high heat and rapid cooling in the area of contact and the! mostl! occur "hen grinding full! hardened material such as tool steel. H Chemical sym)ol $or Hydrogen' Haematite Iron If the iron produced from blast furnace (to be used subsequentl! for steel making) contains less than 8.89 ? phosphorus, it is called acid, or haematite or s"edish Iron. Hard &etal Facing A method of increasing the "ear resistance of a metal b! the deposition of a hard protective coating. Allo!s such as Stellite or a metallic carbide are most often used for the coating. Hard &etals A group of materials more commonl! kno"n as cemented carbides. he! consist of mi$tures of one or more of the finel! divided carbides of tungsten, titanium, tantalum and vanadium embedded in a matri$ of cobalt or nickel b! sintering. &idel! used for cutting tools "here for man! applications the! have replaced conventional high speed steels. Hardena)ility he propert! that determines the depth and distribution of hardness "hen steel is heated to a given temperature and then quenched (more precisel! it ma! be defined as an inverse measure of the severit! of cooling conditions necessar! to produce on continuous cooling a martensitic structure in a previousl!

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austeniti:ed steel i.e. to avoid transformations in the pearlitic and bainitic ranges). he lo"er the cooling rate to avoid these transformations, the greater the hardenabilit!. he critical cooling rate is largel! a function of the composition of the steel. In general the higher the carbon content, the greater the hardenabilit!, "hilst allo!ing elements such as nickel, chromium, manganese and mol!bdenum increase the depth of hardening for a given ruling section. HAI1 0I3 S A& See "Seam."

HA1/ 3ABI0I%5 (Of Steel) he abilit! of a steel to harden "hen cooled from its hardening temperature, as measured belo" the surface. HA1/ 3I3G (As applied to heat treatment of steel.) %eating and quenching to produce increased hardness. H A% +/ S% 0 he steel produced from one charge in the furnace, and conse"uentl! practicall! identical in its characteristics. H A% 1 SIS%I3G S% 0 hose steels "hich are used for service at relativel! high temperatures because the! retain much of their strength and resist o$idation under such condition. H A% %I3%I3G %eating a polished specimen in air for the purpose of obtaining an o$idi:ed properties. HIGH /1AW A dra"ing temperature not ver! much belo" the Ac7 point of the steel,used to develop high ductilit! "heen tempering steel after the quench. H+% SH+1%3 SS 1ritleness in metal,at an elevated temperature. H+% %+P s// "Sinkhead." H+% W+1!I3G he mechanical "orking of metal above the recr!stilli:ation temperature. Hardening Increasing the hardness of steel b! heat treatment. his normall! implies heating the steel to a required temperature and quenching in a suitable medium, e.g. oil or "ater. %ardening 2rocess that increases the hardness of steel, i.e., the degree to "hich steel "ill resist cutting, abrasion, penetration, bending, and stretching. he increased endurance provided b! hardening makes steel suitable for additional applications. %ardening can be achieved through various methods, including (7) heat treatment, "here the properties of steel are altered b! sub#ecting the steel to a series of temperature changesG and (;) cold "orking, in "hich changes in the structure and shape of steel are achieved through rolling, hammering, or stretching the steel at a relativel! lo" temperature. Hardness

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he hardness of steel is generall! determined b! testing its resistance to deformation. A number of methods are emplo!ed including 1rinell, Iickers and 0ock"ell. he steel to be tested is indented b! a hardened steel ball or diamond under a given load and the si:e of the impression is then measured. -or steel there is an empirical relationship bet"een hardness and tensile strength and the hardness number is often used as a guide to the tensile strength, e.g. ;;6 1rinell B HH;+=mm; (98 tons=sq.in). Hardness %est hese are tests to determine the hardness and are measures of resistance of material to deformation under standard condition. here are several forms of these tests using different instruments for measuring indentation. (e.g. Iickers, 0ock"ell, 1rinell etc.) Heat In steel making terms this is often used to define the batch or cast produced from a single melting operation. Heat "o$ steel# A batch of refined steel. A basic o$!gen or electric furnace full of steel. One heat of steel "ill be used to cast several slabs, blooms or billets. Heat %reatment Altering the properties of steel b! sub#ecting it to a series of temperature changes. o increase the hardness, strength, or ductilit! of steel so that it is suitable for additional applications. he steel is heated and then cooled as necessar! to provide changes in the structural form that "ill impart the desired characteristics. he time spent at each temperature and the rates of cooling have significant impact on the effect of the treatment. Heat %reatment A combination of heating and cooling operations applied to a metal or allo! in the solid state to obtain desired conditions or properties. %eating for the sole purpose of hot "orking is e$cluded from the meaning of this definition. See various t!pes belo". Age %ardening, %ardening b! aging, usuall! after rapid cooling or cold "orking. %ardening is a result of a precipitation process, often submicroscopic, "hich occurs "hen a supersaturated solid solution is naturall! aged at atmospheric temperature or artificiall! aged in some specific range of elevated temperature. Aging occurs more rapidl! at higher temperatures. (S!non!mous "ith precipitation hardening) Air %ardening, %eating a suitable grade of steel "ith high hardenabilit! above the critical temperature range and then cooling in air for the purpose of hardening. Annealing, Annealing is a heat treatment process "hich usuall! involves a relativel! slo" cooling after holding the material for some time at the annealing temperature. he purpose of the annealing treatment ma! include the follo"ing* (a) to induce softnessG (b) to remove internal stressesG (c) to refine the grain si:eG (d) to modif! ph!sical and=or mechanical propertiesG (e) to produce a definite microstructureG (f) to improve machinabilit!. It is generall! desirable to use more specific terms in describing the heat treatment to be used, e.g., finish anneal, full anneal, or medium anneal, as applicable. 1right Anneal, Carried out in a controlled furnace atmosphere, so that surface o$idation is reduced to a minimum and the tube surface remains relativel! bright. @ead Soft, A heat treatment applied to achieve ma$imum softness and ductilit! @ra"ing, S!non!mous "ith /'2/0I+G, "hich is preferable. -inish Anneal, %eating of cold,"orked tubing to a temperature belo" the lo"er critical, usuall! 698-. Generall! this treatment "ill relieve peak stresses "ithout altering hardness to an! e$tent. -ull Anneal, %eating to a temperature above the upper critical and slo" cooling belo" the lo"er critical.

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Isothermal Anneal, Austeniti:ing a heat treatable allo! and cooling to and holding "ithin the range of temperature at "hich austenite transforms to a relativel! soft ferrite,carbide aggregate. 'edium Anneal, Sub#ecting tubing to a subcritical temperature to obtain specific mechanical properties. +ormali:e, +ormali:ing is a process "hich consists of heating to a temperature appro$imatel! 788- above the upper critical temperature and cooling in still air. 4uenching, A process of rapid cooling from an elevated temperature, b! contact "ith liquids or gases. Soft Anneal, A high temperature stress relieving anneal usuall! preformed in the temperature range of 7;98 to 7F98-. his anneal reduces hardness and strength of a cold "orked steel to achieve near ma$imum softness. Solution Anneal, %eating steel into a temperature range "herein certain elements or compounds dissolve, follo"ed b! cooling at a rate sufficient to maintain these elements in solution at room temperature. he e$pression is normall! applied to stainless and other special steels. Spheroidi:ing Anneal, A general term "hich refers to heat treatments that promote spheroidal or globular forms of carbide in carbon or allo! steels. Stabili:ing Anneal, A treatment applied to austenitic stainless steels "herein carbides of various forms are deliberatel! precipitated. Sufficient additional time is provided at the elevated temperature to diffuse chromium into the areas ad#acent to the carbides (usuall! grain boundaries). his treatment is intended to lessen the chance of intergranular corrosion. Stress 0elieving, A heat treatment "hich reduces internal residual stresses that have been induced in metals b! casting, quenching, "elding, cold "orking, etc. he metal is soaked at a suitable temperature for a sufficient time to allo" read#ustment of stresses. he temperature of stress relieving is al"a!s belo" the transformation range. -inish anneal, medium anneal, and soft anneal (sub,critical) describe specific t!pes of stress relief anneals. empering, 0eheating quenched or normali:ed steel to a temperature belo" the transformation range (lo"er critical) follo"ed b! an! desired rate of cooling. Hea(y Structural Shapes A general term given to rolled flanged sections that have at least one dimension of their cross sections three inches or greater. he categor! includes beams, channels, tees and :ees if the depth dimension is three inches or greater, and angles if the length of the leg is three inches or greater. High Car)on Steel Steel "ith more than 8.F? carbon. he more carbon that is dissolved in the iron, the less formable and the tougher the steel becomes. %igh,carbon steel.s hardness makes it suitable for plo" blades, shovels, bedsprings, cutting edges, or other high,"ear applications. High Speed Steel he term Phigh speed steel. "as derived from the fact that it is capable of cutting metal at a much higher rate than carbon tool steel and continues to cut and retain its hardness even "hen the point of the tool is heated to a lo" red temperature. ungsten is the ma#or allo!ing element but it is also combined "ith mol!bdenum, vanadium and cobalt in var!ing amounts. Although replaced b! cemented carbides for man! applications it is still "idel! used for the manufacture of taps, dies, t"ist drills, reamers, sa" blades and other cutting tools. Homogenising 0efers to holding at a high temperature to eliminate or decrease segregation diffusion. Hoo*e;s 0a. his states that ""ithin the limits of elasticit! the strain produced b! a stress of an! one kind is proportional to the stress". he stress at "hich a material ceases to obe! %ooke.s 3a" is kno"n as the limit of

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proportionalit! Hot Band "Hot-1olled Steel# A coil of steel rolled on a hot,strip mill (hot,rolled steel). It can be sold in this form to customers or further processed into other finished products. Hot Bri:uetted Iron "HBI# @irect reduced iron that has been processed into briquettes. Instead of using a blast furnace, the o$!gen is removed from the ore using natural gas and results in a substance that is 68?,6;? iron. 1ecause @0I ma! spontaneousl! combust during transportation, %1I is preferred "hen the metallic material must be stored or moved. Hot /ip Gal(anising his is process for coating a product "ith :inc b! immersion in a hot bath of molten :inc. Hot nd he section of a steelmaking comple$ from the furnace up to, but not including, the hot,strip mill. Hot &etal he name for the molten iron produced in a blast furnace. It proceeds to the basic o$!gen furnace in molten form or is cast as pig iron. Hot ,uenching Cooling in a medium, the temperature of "hich is substantiall! higher than room temperature. Hot-rolling< hot-rolled steel "H1# 0olling steel slabs into flat,rolled steel after it has been reheated. Hot Shortness 0efers to tendenc! to crack during hot "orking. Hot-Strip &ill A rolling mill of several stands of rolls that converts slabs into hot,rolled coils. he hot,strip mill squee:es slabs, "hich can range in thickness from ;,78 inches, depending on the t!pe of continuous caster, bet"een hori:ontal rolls "ith a progressivel! smaller space bet"een them ("hile vertical rolls govern the "idth) to produce a coil of flat,rolled steel about a quarter,inch in thickness and a quarter mile in length. Hot %op -ull! deo$idised or killed steels such as those used for high qualit! forgings shrink deepl! on solidification and ma! lead to the formation of a pipe. he use of hot op acts as a reservoir to feed metal to the main part of the ingot and avoid the formation of such a pipe "hich other"ise leads to e$cessive loss of ingot !ield during "orking. %ot op is also called a feeder head. Hot Wor* he rolling, forging or e$truding of a metal at a temperature above its recr!stallisation point. H50 I< H50 III 2rocesses for producing @0I and %1I developed b! %!lsa. he processes reduce iron ore lump or pellets "ith reformed natural gas in a vertical shaft furnace. he %L3 I process uses four fi$ed,bed reactorsG %L3 III uses

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a single,shaft furnace. Hydro$orming A forming process in "hich a tube is placed into a forming die. he tube is then formed to the shape of the die through the application of internal "ater pressure. Hydro$orming A forming process in "hich a tube is placed into a forming die. he tube is then formed to the shape of the die through the application of internal "ater pressure. he h!droforming process allo"s for severe shape deformation, making it ideal for automotive structural parts such as engine cradles, radiator supports and bod! rails. Iarious shaped and si:ed holes can be punched in the tube almost an!"here during the process. Hydrogen An undesirable impurit! if present in steel and a cause of fine hairline cracks especiall! in allo! steels. 'odern vacuum treatment eliminates this problem. he h!droforming process allo"s for severe shape deformation, making it ideal for automotive structural parts such as engine cradles, radiator supports and bod! rails. Iarious shaped and si:ed holes can be punched in the tube almost an!"here during the process. Hydrogen m)rittlement his refers to loss in ductilit! due to the absorption of h!drogen. Hyper- utectoid Steel A steel that contains more than 8.<F? carbon "hich "ith appropriate heat treatment consists of pearlite and cementite. Hypo- utectoid Steel A steel that contains less than 8.<F? carbon and "hich in annealed condition has a structure of ferrite and pearlite. I I&PAC% 6A04 S 0esistance to shock and abilit! to distribute locali:ed stress as measured b! impact test,usuall! e$pressed in foot pounds. I3C04SI+3S 2articles of slag, dirt or ohter non,metallic substances in molten metal that are retained during solidification. I3G+% A casting intended for subsequent rolling or forging. 5suall! case in metallic molds. I2+/ % S% A test made to determinee the notched toughness of a material. he test gives the eneg! required to break a standard notched specimen supported as a cantilever. I -Chemical s!mbol for Iodine. I-Beams Structural sections on "hich the flanges are tapered and are t!picall! not as long as the flanges on "ide,

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flange beams. he flanges are thicker at the cross sections and thinner at the toes of the flanges. he! are produced "ith depths of F,;> inches. Impact %est A test designed to give information on ho" a specimen of a kno"n material "ill respond to a suddenl! applied stress, e.g. shock. he test ascertains "hether the material is tough or brittle. A notched test piece is normall! emplo!ed and the t"o methods in general use are either the I:od or Charp! test. he result is usuall! reported as the energ! in ft.lbs. or MJ. required to fracture the test piece. In , Chemical s!mbol for Indium. Inclusions 5suall! non,metallic particles contained in metal. In steel the! ma! consist of simple or comple$ o$ides, sulphides, silicates and sometimes nitrides of iron, manganese, silicon, aluminium and other elements. In general the! are detrimental to mechanical properties but much depends on the number, their si:e, shape and distribution. Inclusion Count A method of assessing the number and si:e of non,metallic inclusions present in metal. Induction Hardening A "idel! used process for the surface hardening of steel. he components are heated b! means of an alternating magnetic field to a temperature "ithin or above the transformation range follo"ed b! immediate quenching. he core of the component remains unaffected b! the treatment and its ph!sical properties are those of the bar from "hich it "as machined, "hilst the hardness of the case can be "ithin the range FH=9< 0c. Carbon and allo! steels "ith a carbon content in the range 8.>8=8.>9? are most suitable for this process. Ingot A form of semi,finished steel. 3iquid steel is teemed (poured) into molds, "here it slo"l! solidifies. Once the steel is solid, the mold is stripped, and the ;9, to F8,ton ingots are then read! for subsequent rolling or forging. Ingot he mass of metal that results from casting molten steel into a mould. An ingot is usuall! rectangular in shape and is subsequentl! rolled into blooms and billets for rods, bars and sections and slabs for plates, sheet and strip. &ith the increasing use of the continuous casting process the ingot route is less used as the molten steel is no" directl! cast into a bloom or billet. Ingot &ould he receptacle into "hich molten steel is poured to form an ingot. After solidification the steel is suitable for subsequent "orking, i.e. rolling or forging. Inmetco Inmetco is a coal,based process similar to -AS '/ that uses iron o$ide fines and pulveri:ed coal to produce a scrap substitute. 'ill scale and flue dust, ine$pensive b!products of steelmaking, can be mi$ed "ith the iron o$ide fines. Inmetco, unlike other direct reduction products, is intended to be hot charged into an /A-, "ith attendant energ! savings. he process includes three steps. -irst, iron o$ide fines, pulveri:ed coal and a binder are formed into pellets.

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Second, the pellets, t"o to three la!ers deep, are heated in a gas,fired rotar! hearth furnace for 79,;8 minutes to produce sponge iron. Subsequentl!, the iron must be desulfuri:ed. he coal in the pellets provides much of the energ! required in the second phase. Integrated &ills hese facilities make steel b! processing iron ore and other ra" materials in blast furnaces. echnicall!, onl! the hot end differentiates integrated mills from mini,mills. %o"ever, the differing technological approaches to molten steel impl! different scale efficiencies and, therefore, separate management st!les, labor relations and product markets. +earl! all domestic integrated mills speciali:e in flat,rolled steel or plate. Intercrystalline Corrosion Chromium,nickel austenitic stainless steels are prone to this form of corrosion "hen the! are "elded and subsequentl! in contact "ith certain t!pes of corrosive media. &hen heated "ithin a temperature range of >98,<88oC precipitation of the chromium carbides takes place at the grain boundaries in the area of the "eld and these areas no longer have the protection of the chromium on the peripheries of the grains. his t!pe of corrosion is also kno"n as &eld @eca! and Intergranular Corrosion. he most common "a! to avoid the problem is to select a grade of steel that is ver! lo" in carbon i.e. 8.8F? or less, or one that is stabilised "ith niobium or titanium. Interrupted ,uenching 0apid cooling to a selected temperature b! quenching in a suitable medium, usuall! molten salt, holding at the temperature for an appropriate time and then cooling to room temperature. his process is used to minimise the risk of distortion. Interstitial Free Steel A recentl! developed sheet steel product "ith ver! lo" carbon levels that is used primaril! in automotive deep,dra"ing applications. Interstitial -ree Steel.s improved ductilit! (dra"ing abilit!) is made possible b! vacuum degassing. Iron he term iron, as used in the chemical or scientific sense of the "ord, refers to the chemical element iron or pure iron and is the chief constituent of all commercial iron and steel. Iron Car)ide One of several substitutes for high,qualit!, lo",residual scrap for use in electric furnace steelmaking. Iron carbide producers use natural gas to reduce iron ore to iron carbide. Iron +re 'ineral containing enough iron to be a commerciall! viable source of the element for use in steelmaking. /$cept for fragments of meteorites found on /arth, iron is not a free elementG instead, it is trapped in the earth.s crust in its o$idi:ed form. IS , Indian Standards Specification. IS+ - International Organisation for Standardisation Isothermal Annealing %eating to and holding at a temperature above the transformation range, then cooling to and holding at a suitable temperature until the austenite to pearlite change is complete.

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Isothermal %rans$ormation Cur(e Also kno"n as the ime emperature ransformation Curve. If a small piece of steel is heated sufficientl! slo"l! for it to become austenitic and then plunged into a salt bath and held at a constant temperature belo" the upper critical point for a definite time follo"ed b! rapid quenching, it is possible b! e$amination to determine the e$tent to "hich the transformation of the austenite has occurred. 1! taking a number of specimens of the same steel and treating them in the same "a!, but var!ing the holding temperature and time the behaviour of the steel "ith time and temperature can be studied. he information obtained can be plotted as time, temperature transformation curves "hich is useful in heat treatment practice, particularl! for martempering and austempering. I-od Impact %est A test specimen, usuall! of square crossed section is notched and held bet"een a pair of #a"s, to be broken b! a s"inging or falling "eight. &hen the pendulum of the I:od testing machine is released it s"ings "ith a do"n"ard movement and "hen it reaches the vertical the hammer makes contact "ith the specimen "hich is broken b! the force of the blo". he hammer continues its up"ard motion but the energ! absorbed in breaking the test piece reduces its momentum. A graduated scale enables a reading to be taken of the energ! used to fracture the test piece. o obtain a representative result the average of three tests is used and to ensure that the results conform to those of the steel specification the test specimens should meet the standard dimensions laid do"n in 1S 7F7. = =et Force 3um)er "=F3# In a 3@ steel making vessel, o$!gen is in#ected into the vessel using a lance "ith an appropriatel! shaped no::le. -or efficient refining (decarburisation as "ell as dephosphorisation), the supersonic #et issuing from the no::le of the lance should penetrate the bath adequatel!. he depth of penetration of a #et in a bath can be assessed in terms of the Jet -orce +umber (J-+) as * J-+ B (Gas pressure $ +o::le throat dia) = %eight of no::le =+&I3I3 3/-,4 3CH % S% "Cont'# method "hich provides a ver! rapid rate of cooling all the "a! up to the other end. =IS - Japanese International Specification =unghan;s principle @uring continuous casting of molten steel, the principle of moving the mould is kno"n as Junghan.s principle, so named after the investigator. In this the mould is moved up and do"n variousl!, through a stroke of 7; to >8 mm. he ratio of speeds of do"n"ard to up"ard strokes is nearl! 7*F. =ominy %est A method for determining the hardenabilit! of steel. he Jomin! test is covered b! 1S >>FH*76<H. A standard test piece ;9mm $ 788mm is heated to a pre, determined temperature and quenched b! a #et of "ater spra!ed onto one end. &hen the specimen is cold, hardness measurements are made at intervals along the test piece from the quenched end and the results are plotted on a standard chart from "hich is derived the hardenabilit! curve. 1S 6H8 contains hardenabilit! curves for man! of the steels in the Standard. 2roperl! carried out, this test "ill illustrate the effect of mass upon a chosen steel "hen heat treated and indicate if the steel is of a shallo", medium or deep hardening t!pe. =oule

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A unit of energ!. One #oule is equal to the energ! e$pended in one second b! one ampere against the resistance of one ohm. In the mechanical testing of steel it is the unit used in the Charp! I notch impact test. ! ! , Chemical s!mbol for potassium. !I00 / S% 0 Steel to "hich sufficient deo$idi:ing agents have been added to prevent gas evolution during solidification. 3A2,A surface defect appearing as a seam caused from folding over hot metal, fins, or sharp corners and then rolling or forging, "ithout "elding them into the surface. !aldo Process A method of producing steel from molten iron, using an inclined rotating converter and a "ater cooled o$!gen lance inserted through the converter mouth. his process originated in S"eden. !illed Steel he term indicates that the steel has been completel! deo$idised b! the addition of an agent such as silicon or aluminium, before casting, so that there is practicall! no evolution of gas during solidification so that no harmful reaction occurs bet"een carbon and o$!gen during solidification. Milled steels are characterised b! a high degree of chemical homogeneit! and freedom from porosit!. !noop Hardness %est A micro hardness test in "hich an elongated p!ramidical diamond is pressed into the surface. 3 0a Chemical sym)ol $or 0anthanum 0adle Container for holding hot metal, steel etc. @epending on the use these ladles are put to, these are called ransfer ladles, eeming ladles, @egassing 3adles, @esiliconisation ladles etc. 0adle &etallurgy Furnace "0&F# An intermediate steel processing unit that further refines the chemistr! and temperature of molten steel "hile it is still in the ladle. he ladle metallurg! step comes after the steel is melted and refined in the electric arc or basic o$!gen furnace, but before the steel is sent to the continuous caster. 0adle Analysis , Chemical anal!sis obtained form a sample taken during the pouring of the steel. 04% A firecla! mi$ture for sealling cracks to make a gas tight #oint on annealing bo$ covers, crucible coverss, etc. 0A& "0/ Alloy-Steel &a*ing# Process One of the processes of making stainless steel using the 3@ vessel. 0amination A defect in rolled materials characterised b! a tendenc! to split into la!ers along the direction of rolling

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usuall! due to the presence of non,metallic inclusions or an! other discontinuit! in steel. 0ap A defect appearing as a seam on a rolled bar. 3aps are rolled over pieces of material that arise "hen a bar is given a pass through the rolls after a sharp overfill or fin has been formed, causing the protrusion to be rolled into the surface of the product. he presence of o$ides usuall! prevents the lap "elding to the original bar surface, so that in subsequent cold "orking it is carried through as a longitudinal crack. 0/ Process An o$!gen steel making process named after the to"ns in Austria, 3in: and @ona"it:, "here it "as first developed. It is a modified 1essemer process, steel is produced in a solid bottom converter b! in#ection of o$!gen into the molten iron bath from a "ater cooled lance inserted through the converter mouth. 2resent da! 1OS (basic o$!gen steelmaking) plants are developments of the 3, @ 2rocess. 0eaded Steels &hen added to steel, lead does not go into solution but e$ists in a ver! finel! divided state along the grain boundaries. It greatl! assists machinabilit! as it acts as a lubricant bet"een the steel and the tool face. 3ead is normall! added in amounts bet"een 8.79,8.F9? and "hen combined "ith similar amounts of sulphur, optimum machinabilit! is attained as in such steel as 1S 6H8 ;F8'8H 2b. 0e(eling 0ine A process to flatten an! shape deficiencies ("av! edges and buckles) in the sheet, prior to final shipment. 'ost cold,rolled sheet initiall! has a cro"ned cross,section that, if such a shape is undesirable to the customer, must be flattened in the leveling line. 0i - Chemical s!mbol for 3ithium. 0i$e Cycle Costing An accounting method of costing "here e$penses are allocated over the life of the product. 3ife c!cle costs are often lo"er for stainless steel than for alternatives despite a higher initial outla!, because stainless products generall! last longer and require little maintenance. 0ight-Gauge Steel Ier! thin steel sheet that has been temper,rolled or passed through a cold,reduction mill. 3ight gauge steel normall! is plated "ith tin or chrome for use in food containers. 0imits o$ Proportionality he stress (load divided b! original area of cross section of the test piece) at "hich the strain (elongation per unit of gauge length) ceases to be proportional to the corresponding stress. It is usuall! determined from a load,elongation diagram, obtained b! plotting e$tensometer readings and is the stress at "hich the load,elongation line ceases to be straight. 0imiting 1ange o$ Stress he greatest range of stress that a metal can "ithstand for an indefinite number of c!cles "ithout failure. If e$ceeded, the metal fractures after a certain number of c!cles, "hich decrease as the range of stress increases. 0imiting 1uling Section he ma$imum diameter of cross section of a bar or component in "hich certain specified mechanical

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properties are achieved after heat treatment. 0imits A term used to determine a minimum and ma$imum. In a mechanism, it should denote the minimum and ma$imum si:es for each part, bet"een "hich the parts "ill function properl! in con#unction "ith each other and outside of "hich the! "ill not. he "ords "limits" and "tolerances" are often interchanged, "tolerance" represents the difference bet"een the minimum and ma$imum limits. 0ine Pipe - 2ipe used in the surface transmission of oil, natural gas and other fluids. 0i:uid Car)urising A "idel! used method of case,hardening steel that eliminates scaling and the tendenc! to decarburisation and results in clean components. Sodium c!anide is the common media for this process, usuall! heated "ithin the range of 688,6F8oC. It is advisable to pre,heat the components in neutral salts to avoid a temperature drop resulting from immersing cold components into the c!anide. After carburising, either single quench hardening or refining and hardening and tempering is carried out. 0&F , See "3adle 'etallurg! -urnace" 0ong Products Classification of steel products that includes bar, rod and structural products, that are "long", rather than "flat". 0o.-Car)on Steel Steel "ith less than 8.889? carbon is more ductile (malleable)* It is capable of being dra"n out or rolled thin for use in automotive bod! applications. Carbon is removed from the steel bath through vacuum degassing. & & sections "Bantam Beams%& < =unior Beams%&# 3ight foot"eight beams primaril! used in the construction of pre,engineered housing. hese beams are produced in lighter foot"eights, usuall! si$ to 78 pounds per foot, than traditional structural products. &achina)ility Simpl! defined as a measure of the ease "ith "hich a metal can be machined satisfactoril!. &acroetch A testing procedure for locating and identif!ing porosit!, pipes, bursts, unsoundness, inclusions, segregations, carburi:ation, flo" lines from hot "orking, etc. Surface of the test piece should be reasonabl! smooth or even polished. After appl!ing a suitable etching solution, the structure developed b! the action of the reagent ma! be observed "ithout a microscope. &acrostructure he general cr!stalline structure of a metal and the distribution of impurities seen on a polished or etched surface b! either the naked e!e or under lo" magnification of less than $78. &agna$lux %est his test is conducted b! suitabl! magneti:ing the material and appl!ing a prepared "et or dr! magnetic

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po"er or fluid "hich adheres to it along lines of flu$ leakage. It sho"s the e$istence of surface and slightl! subsurface non,uniformities. &agnetic Change Point "&agnetic %rans$ormation Point# Also kno"n as the Surie 2oint, the temperature at "hich iron loses its ferro,magnetism on heating and recovers the same during cooling (temperature corresponding to this point for pure iron is appro$. HH degrees Centigrade) &agnetic Crac* /etection he bar or component to be tested is magnetised b! passing a heav! current through it or b! making it the core of a coil through "hich a heav! current is passed. Cracks or inclusions cause the magnetic flu$ to break the surface forming free magnetic poles. &hen the component is spra!ed "ith a suspension of finel! divided magnetic particles the! collect at the free poles to visibl! sho" the presence of defects. &ACHI3ABI0I%5 he ease of metal removal during machining, the tool life obtained, the surface finish obtained or an! combination of these three. &ACHI3 S%1AIGH% 3I3G - Straightening metal bars b! rolling in a straightening machine.

&A00 ABI0I2I3G An annealing operation performed on "hite cast iron for the purpose of partiall! or "holl! transforming the combined carbon to temper carbon, and in some cases to remove completel! the carbon from the iron b! decarburi:ation. &A1% 3SI% &ith most steels, cooling as rapidl! as possible from their quenching temperature develops a distinctive structure called martensite. In this form, the steel is at its ma$imum hardness. &A%1I8 - he ground mass or principal substance in "hich a constituent is embedded. & CHA3ICA0 W+1!I3G &orking metal through rolls, presses, hammers, etc., to change its shape, properties or structures. &IC1+SC+PIC /$tremel! small,not large enough to be seen "ith the naked e!e. 'IC0OS 05C 50/, he structure of metals as revealed b! e$amination of polished and etched samples "ith the microscope. &ISCIB0 - Capable of being mi$ed. &+/404S +F 0AS%ICI%5 he ratio, "ithin the limit of elasticit!, of the stress to the corresponding strain. he stress in pounds per square inch is divided b! the elongation in inches for each inch of the original gauge length of the specimen. &allea)ility It can be defined as the propert! of a metal to be deformed b! compression "ithout cracking or rupturing. he load ma! be applied slo"l! or suddenl! and "ill determine "hether the material "ill be suitable for forging or rolling into thin sheet.

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&allea)le Cast Iron Cast iron that is cast "hite and made malleable b! annealing in an o$idising or neutral medium. Also kno"n as 'alleable Iron. &anganese One of the most important constituents of steel in "hich it fulfils a number of functions. It acts as a mild de,o$idising agent. It combines "ith the sulphur present to form globular inclusions of 'anganese Sulphide "hich are beneficial to machining. It increases tensile strength and the hardenabilit! of steel. &an-Hours Per %on his is a measure of labor efficienc!Kthe ratio of total hours "orked b! steel emplo!ees to the tons shipped for a given period of time. Changes in the inventor! level and "ork that is contracted out "ill affect the reported measurement. &araging A process of improving the mechanical strength of certain ferrous allo!s. he name "as derived from t"o hardening reactionsG martensite and aging. he maraging strengthening mechanism is based on the age hardening (precipitation hardening) of e$tra,lo" carbon martensite. &artempering A heat treatment involving austenitisation follo"ed b! step quenching, at a rate fast enough to avoid the formation of ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a temperature slightl! above the 's point. Soaking must be long enough to avoid the formation of bainite. he advantage of martempering is the reduction of thermal stresses compared to normal quenching. his prevents cracking and minimises distortion. &artensite he hard constituent produced "hen steel is cooled from the hardening temperature at a speed greater than its critical cooling rate. 'artensite is an acicular phase "hen seen in the microstructure of steel. &artensitic Small categor! of stainless steel characteri:ed b! the use of heat treatment for hardening and strengthening. 'artensitic stainless steels are plain chromium steels "ith no significant nickel content. he! are utili:ed in equipment for the chemical and oil industries and in surgical instruments. he most popular martensitic stainless steel is t!pe >78 (a grade appropriate for non,severe corrosion environments requiring high strength). &ass $$ect A term used to signif! the effect of si:e and shape during heat treatment, since it is the rate of cooling of a piece of steel "hich determines the properties resulting from the hardening and quenching process. &atrix he mass or principal constituent (e.g. iron in the case of steel) in "hich other constituents are embedded. &aximum Stress In the testing of the strength of steel a sample is machined into a standard test piece and is stretched in a tensile testing machine until it breaks. he results are e$pressed in +=mm; and is the value of the ma$imum load reached in the test divided b! the original cross sectional area of the specimen. &c,uaid H3 Grain Si-e %est A method of assessing grain si:e. It consists of a test piece at 6;HoC for < hours b! slo" cooling and subsequent microscopical e$amination. he grain si:e is measured at $788 magnification and compared to

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standard charts, the figures range from +o. 7 , ver! coarse, to +o. < , ver! fine. &echanical Properties hose properties of a material that reveal the elastic and in,elastic reaction "hen force is applied, or that involve the relationship bet"een stress and strain for e$ample, the modulus of elasticit! hardness, tensile strength and fatigue limit. hese properties have often been referred to as "ph!sical properties," but the term "mechanical properties" is correct. &edium Car)on Steel Carbon steel containing generall! minimum of 8.F8 ? to ma$imum of 8.A8 ? of Carbon. &eehanite - A trade name applied to a certain t!pe of cast iron. &elting Point - he temperature at "hich a solid begins to liquef!. &erchant Bar A group of commodit! steel shapes that consist of rounds, squares, flats, strips, angles, and channels, "hich fabricators, steel service centers and manufacturers cut, bend and shape into products. 'erchant products require more speciali:ed processing than reinforcing bar. &etallography he science dealing "ith the constitution, and structure of metals and allo!s as revealed b! the unaided e!e or b! such tools as lo" po"ered magnification, optical microscope, electron microscope and diffraction or D, ra! techniques. &g , Chemical s!mbol for 'agnesium. &icrocleanliness 0efers to the e$tent or qualit! of nonmetallic inclusions observed b! e$amination under a microscope. &icron - A unit of length equal to one millionth of a metre (8.887mm). &icrostructure he structure that is observed "hen a polished and etched specimen of metal is vie"ed in an optical microscope at magnifications in range of appro$imatel! $;9 to $7988. &I/1 8 /irect 1eduction Process 'I@0/D "as developed b! the 'idre$ Corporation, "hich produces about A9? of @0I globall!. he continuous process uses iron ore lumps or pellets as a ra" materialG the limit is roughl! H8? pellet. 0eformed natural gas flo"s into the bottom of a vertical shaft furnace as ore is charged into the op. As gas rises through the ore, "hich is falling through the shaft, it removes o$!gen from the ore. he @0I is removed from the bottom of the furnace. It can be discharged as pellets and lumps, or hot briquetted. &ild Steel , Carbon Steel containing appro$imatel! 8.7; to 8.;9 ? carbon. &ill Scale It is the o$ide of iron produced during hot fabrication of steel and is readil! available in an integrated steel plant.

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&ini Steel plants +ormall! defined as steel plants that melt scrap metal in an electric furnace to produce commodit! products. Although the mini steel plants are sub#ect to the same steel processing requirements after the caster as the integrated steel companies, the! differ greatl! in regard to their minimum efficient si:e, labor relations, product markets, and management st!le. 0egular (and cheap) electrical po"er is imperative for such plants to survive. &ixer he hot metal from blast furnace needs to be stored in a vessel called 'i$er because the blast furnace tap and steelmaking need not necessaril! be s!nchronised "ith respect to its time and amount. he mi$er acts as a buffer to store "hatever metal comes from blast furnace and to suppl! metal to the steelmaking furnace as and "hen required. &n , Chemical s!mbol for 'anganese &o , Chemical s!mbol for 'ol!bdenum. &odulus o$ lasticity &hen a material is sub#ected to an e$ternal load it becomes distorted or strained. &ith metals, provided the loading is not too great, the! return to their original dimensions "hen the load is removed, i.e. the! are elastic. &ithin the limits of elasticit!, the ratio of the linear stress to the linear strain is termed the modulus of elasticit! or more commonl! kno"n as Loung.s 'odulus. &odulus o$ 1igidity - 0efers to the ratio of direct stress to strain "ithin the elastic limit, in shear. &oly)denum Its use as an allo!ing element in steel increases hardenabilit! and in lo" allo! steels reduces the risk of temper brittleness. &hen added to stainless steels it increases their resistance to corrosion. It is also used in high speed steels. &oly)denum "&o# An allo!ing element used as a ra" material for some classes of stainless steel. 'ol!bdenum in the presence of chromium enhances the corrosion resistance of stainless steel. &onths o$ In(entory - 0atio of the end,of,period inventor! to average monthl! level of sales for the period. 3 , Chemical s!mbol for +itrogen. 3a , Chemical s!mbol for Sodium. 3) , Chemical s!mbol for +iobium. 3i - Chemical s!mbol for +ickel. 3ic*el "3i# An allo!ing element used as a ra" material for certain classes of stainless steel. +ickel provides high degrees of ductilit! (abilit! to change shape "ithout fracture) as "ell as resistance to corrosion. Appro$imatel! A9? of all nickel is used in the making of stainless steel.

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3 %W+1! S%14C%41 A structure in "hich the cr!stals of one constituent are partiall! or entirel! surrounded b! envelopes of another constituent, an arrangement that gives a net"ork appearance to a polished and etched specimen. 3IC! 0 S% 0 -Allo! steel containing nickel as its principal allo!ing element.

3I%1I/I3G Adding nitrogen to the solid iron,base allo!s b! heating at a temperature belo" the critical in contact "ith ammonia or some other nitrogeneous material. 3+1&A0I2I3G %eating to about 788Q-. above the critical temperature and cooling to room temperature in still air. 2rovision is often made in normali:ing for controlled cooling at a slo"er rate, but "hen the cooling is prolonged the term used is annealing. 3ic*el One of the most "idel! used allo!ing elements in steel. In amounts 8.98? to 9.88? its use in allo! steels increases the toughness and tensile strength "ithout detrimental effect on the ductilit!. +ickel also increases the hardenabilit!, thus permitting the steel to be oil, hardened instead of "ater quenched. In larger quantities, <.88? and up"ards, nickel is the constituent, together "ith chromium, of man! corrosion resistant and stainless austenitic steels. 3io)ium Also kno"n as columbium. +iobium is a strong carbide forming element "hich is added to certain 7<=<? chromium,nickel stainless steels as a stabiliser to prevent inter,granular corrosion arising from "elding. 3itriding A case hardening process that depends on the absorption of nitrogen into the steel. All machining, stress relieving, as "ell as hardening and tempering are normall! carried out before nitriding. he parts are heated in a special container through "hich ammonia gas is allo"ed to pass. he ammonia splits into h!drogen and nitrogen and the nitrogen reacts "ith the steel penetrating the surface to form nitrides. +itriding steels offer man! advantages* a much higher surface hardness is obtainable "hen compared "ith case,hardening steelsG the! are e$tremel! resistant to abrasion and have a high fatigue strength. 3itrogen +itrogen is a gas that forms appro$imatel! H6? b! volume or HH? b! "eight of the atmosphere. It can combine "ith man! metals to form nitrides and is thus applied to the case,hardening of steel, the usual source for this purpose being ammonia. 3o)le &etals 'etals such as gold, silver and platinum "hich are resistant to corrosion b! all but the most po"erful acids. 3on /estructi(e %esting hose forms of testing that do not result in permanent damage or deformation to the part being tested. !pical e$amples are magnetic crack detection, ultrasonic inspection, D,0a! inspection and gamma radiograph!. 3on &agnetic Steels Austenitic steels such as the 7>? manganese steels and the F8F t!pe 7<=<? chromium,nickel stainless steels.

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3ormalising A heat treatment process that has the ob#ect of relieving internal stresses, refining the grain si:e and improving the mechanical properties. he steel is heated to <88,688oC according to anal!sis, held at temperature to allo" a full soak and cooled in still air. 3otch Brittleness endenc! of a metal to fail b! brittle fracture at a notch or stress raised b! a suddenl! applied load. 3otched Bar %est A test to determine the resistance of a material to a suddenl! applied stress, i.e. shock. A notched test piece is emplo!ed in an I:od or Charp! machine and the results are recorded in ft.lbs. or Joules. 3o' > Hea(y &elt Obsolete steel scrap grade, at least one,quarter inch in thickness and in sections no larger than five feet b! t"o feet. 'uch of the metal comes from demolished buildings, truck frames and heav! dut! springs. 'ini, mills are primar! consumers of +o. 7 heav! scrap. + Chemical s!mbol for O$!gen. +cclusion A term applied, in the case of metals, to the absorption or entrapment of gases. +I0 ,4 3CH A quench from the hardening temperature, in "hich oil is the cooling medium. +0S 3 % S% his is a cupping test made on an Olsen machine as an aid in determining ductilit! and deep dra"ing properties. he test simulates a deep dra"ing operation. I* is continued until the cup formed from the steel sample fractures. @uctilit! and dra"ing properties are #udged b! the depth of the cup, position of the break, condition of the sur, the break, etc. +6 1H A%I3G %eating to such a temperature that "hile the properties of the metal are impaired, it has not been burned and can therefore be restored b! heat treatment. +C%G includes casing, drill pipe and oil "ell tubing, "hich, depending on their use, ma! be formed through "elded or seamless processes. +il Country %u)ular Goods "+C%G# 3abel applied to the pipe products used b! petroleum e$ploration customers. +il Hardening Steel 5sed to describe tool or allo! steels "here oil is used as the quenching medium in the hardening process. +pen Hearth Furnace @eveloped in the middle of the last centur!, the open hearth or Siemens,'artins process, as it is kno"n, accounted for a ma#or proportion of 5M steel production until the earl! 76H8.s. -or economic and qualit! reasons it has been replaced b! the /lectric Arc -urnace and the 1asic O$!gen Steelmaking process. here are no open hearth furnaces in use in 1ritain toda! but the! are still in use in 0ussia and /astern /urope.

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+pen Hearth Furnace A broad, shallo" hearth to refine pig iron and scrap into steel. %eat is supplied from a large, luminous flame over the surface, and the refining takes seven to nine hours. Open %earths, at one time the most abundant steelmaking furnaces among integrated companies, have been replaced b! the basic o$!gen furnace. +perating 1ates he ratio of ra" steel production to the mill.s stated capacit!. /ach @ecember, steel companies report to the AISI their estimated capacit! (if the! could sell all steel the! produced) for the follo"ing !ear, ad#usted for an! facilit! do"ntime. +range Peel $$ect An effect that arises on the surface of steel sheets "hen the! are stretched be!ond their elastic limit. +rder 1ate he ratio of ne" orders recorded to the mill.s capacit! to produce the steel to fill the orders. 'an! anal!sts vie" trends in the order rate as harbingers of future production levels. +re An ore is a material that contains a metal in such quantities that it can be mined and "orked commerciall! to e$tract that metal. he metal is usuall! contained in chemical combination "ith some other element in addition to various impurities. +s Chemical s!mbol for Osmium. +scillating A method of "inding narro" strip steel over a much "ider roll. Customers "ant to have as much steel on a coil as "ill fit in their machines, so the! can spend less time moving the material and more time using it. 1! coiling the strip like fishing line (or thread) over a spool, a much longer strip can fit onto a coil of proper diameter. Oscillate,"ound coils allo" the customer to en#o! longer processing runs. +(er$ill A cross section that protrudes out"ard so that it is inaccurate in both dimension and shape. +(erheating -ailure of tools and components in heat treatment can arise through overheating. his ma! be caused due to quenching from a temperature too high for the t!pe of steel involved. Overheating is evidenced b! cracking, grain,coarseness, erratic surface hardness and pitting. +xidation A common form of chemical reaction "hich is the combining of o$!gen "ith various elements and compounds. he corrosion of metals is a form of o$idation, rust on iron for e$ample is iron o$ide. +xy-Acetylene Welding A process for #oining t"o pieces of metal in "hich the required high temperature is obtained b! the combustion of acet!lene gas and o$!gen. he gases are thoroughl! mi$ed in the no::le or tip of the "elding torch to ensure perfect combustion. he "eld ma! be formed directl! bet"een t"o ad#oining surfaces, but usuall! metal from a "elding rod is fused in bet"een the surfaces of the #oint. +xygen

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O$!gen is one of the chief constituents of the atmosphere of "hich it forms appro$imatel! one fifth. It is odourless and invisible. Although o$!gen itself does not burn it is e$tremel! efficient in supporting combustion, nearl! all other chemical elements combine "ith it under evolution of heat. It has man! uses in industr! and is essential to the 1OS (1asic O$!gen Steelmaking 2rocess). P Chemical s!mbol for 2hosphorus. Par*erising A chemical treatment applied to ferrous metals to improve their corrosion resistance. he process is based on a manganese phosphate solution "hich produces a fairl! thick coating. his can subsequentl! be painted or impregnated "ith oil. Patenting A heat treatment process often applied to high carbon "ire. he steel is heated to a suitable temperature "ell above the transformation range, follo"ed b! cooling in air or a bath of molten lead or salt. A structure is produced suitable for subsequent cold dra"ing and "hich "ill give the desired mechanical properties in the finished state. 2atenting 2atenting or Air 2atenting refers to heating to an appropriate temperature above the transformation range and then cooling at a controlled rate in the desired medium (e.g. air, lead or salt bath) to produce structure desirable for subsequent cold "orking. his method is usuall! adopted in "ire dra"ing. PASSI6A%I+3 Generall! refers to a process for the surface treatment of stainless steels. 'aterial is sub#ected to the action of an o$idi:ing solution, usuall! nitric acid, "hich augments and strengthens the normal protective o$ide film enabling the material to resist corrosive attack. he passivating process also removes foreign substances from the surface "hich might cause local corrosion. PA% 3%I3G %eating iron,base allo!s above the critical temperature range follo"ed b! cooling belo" that range in air, or in molten lead or a molten mi$ture of nitrates or nitrites maintained at a temperature usuall! bet"een <88, 7898Q-., depending on the carbon content of the steel and the properties required of the finished product. 2/A03I /,A relativel! hard constituent of steel made up of alternate la!ers of ferrite (iron), and cementite (iron carbideG that is, a compound of iron and carbon). See "/utectoid Steel" P 1&A3 3% &+0/ A metal mold "hich is used repeatedl! for the production of man! castings of the same form. P 1&A3 3% S % 2ermanent change in shape due to applicationof stress. PH+SPH+1+4S BA3/I3G A visible band occurring in metals caused b! locali:ed phosphide segregations. PIC!0I3G Immersion of steel in a dilute solution of acid for the purpose of removing the scale. PI 1CI3G 2roducing a hole in hot metal b! forcing a pointed tool through it. -requentl! used in making steel tubes

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from solid steel bars. PIG I1+3 So called "hether cast in metal molds to form pigs or kept molten a"aiting transfer to the steelmaking furnaces. he term, "hot metal," is also applied to molten pig iron. PIP cavit! formed in metal (especiall! ingots) during the solidification of the last portion of liquid metal Contraction of the metal causes this cavit! or pipe. PI% A depression in the surface of metal occurring during its manufacture P+% A33 A0I3G See "1o$ Annealing." P1 CIPI%A%I+3 HA1/ 3I3G he process of hardening an allo! b! heating it for the purpose of allo"ing a structural constituent to precipitate from a solid solution. P1 H A%I3G As a general term, preheating means a heating applied preliminar! to some further thermal or mechanical treatment It also has a specific meaning in describing the process b! "hich tool steel is heated slo"l! and uniforml! to a temperature belo" the hardening temperature follo"ing "hich the steel is transferred to a furnace in "hioh the temperature is substantiall! above the preheating temperature. P1+C SS A33 A0I3G %eating to a temperature belo" or close to the lo"er limit of the critical temperature range and then cooling as desired. P1+P+1%I+3A0 0I&I% Stress at "hich the deformation ceases to be proportional to the load as determined b! straino,meter (also, b! a e$tensometer for tension, compressometer for compression and deflectometer for transverse tests, value being read from plotted results). See "/lastic 3imit." P) Chemical s!mbol for 3ead. Pd Chemical s!mbol for 2alladium. Pearlite A lamellar constituent of steel consisting of alternate la!ers of ferrite (alpha,iron) and cementite (iron Carbide -eFC) and is formed on cooling austenite at H;FoC. his produces a tough structure and is responsible for the mechanical properties of unhardened steel. Pellets See "Agglomerating 2rocesses"

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pH 6alue A method of e$pressing differences in the acidit! or alkalinit! of a solution. A figure of H is regarded as neutral, figures belo" this indicate the decree of acidit! and above alkalinit!. Phosphating 0efers to the treatment of descaled surface b! immersing in or brushing on a solution of phosphoric acid or :inc phosphate to produce a rust resisting finish suitable for the application of paint or other coatings. Phosphorus An element that forms 8.7;? of the earth.s crust, chiefl! in the form of phosphates. Its presence in steel is usuall! regarded as an undesirable impurit! due to its embrittling effect, for this reason its content in most steels is limited to a ma$imum of 8.898?. Pic*ling A process to chemicall! remove scale or o$ide from steel to obtain a clean surface. &hen applied to bars or coils prior to bright dra"ing, the steel is immersed in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid heated to a temperature of around <8oC. An inhibitor is added to prevent attack and pitting of the cleaned metal. After pickling, a "ashing process takes place follo"ed b! immersion in a lime,"ater bath to neutralise an! remaining acid. -or environmental reasons shot blasting has largel! replaced pickling. Pic*ling 2rocess that cleans a steel coil of its rust, dirt and oil so that further "ork can be done to the metal. &hen hot,rolled coils cool, rust forms on the unprotected metalG often coils are stored or transported "hile e$posed to outside air and "ater. hrough a continuous process, the steel is uncoiled and sent through a series of h!drochloric acid baths that remove the o$ides (rust). he steel sheet is then rinsed and dried. Pig Ingot or virgin metal to be remelted for use. Pig Iron he name for the melted iron produced in a blast furnace, containing a large quantit! of carbon (above 7.9?). +amed long ago "hen molten iron "as poured through a trench in the ground to flo" into shallo" earthen holes, the arrangement looked like ne"born pigs suckling. he central channel became kno"n as the "so"," and the molds "ere "pigs." Pig Iron he product of the blast furnace. he term "as derived from the method of casting the bars of the pig iron in depressions or moulds formed in the sand floor ad#acent to the furnace. hese "ere connected to a runner (kno"n as a so") and "hen filled "ith metal the runner and the numerous smaller moulds "ere supposed to resemble a litter of suckling pigs, hence the term pig iron. 2ig iron toda! is sold on chemical anal!sis. Piling "Sheet Piling# A structural steel product "ith edges designed to interlockG used in the construction of cofferdams or riverbank reinforcement. Pinch Pass A term applied "hen, after annealing, sheet or strip is lightl! rolled "ith the ob#ect of preventing stretcher

53

lines or kinks on subsequent cold "orking. Pipe "># echnicall! a tube used to transport fluids or gases. %o"ever, pipe and tube are often used interchangeabl! in steel le$icon, "ith a given label applied primaril! as a matter of historical use. Pipe "?# A defect that arises during the solidification of steel in the ingot mould. As steel contracts on solidification a central cavit! forms in the upper portion of the ingot, if this is not completel! removed before rolling into bars a central defect kno"n as "pipe" results. he risk of piping is considerabl! reduced on continuousl! cast steel due to molten steel being available to fill an! shrinkage cavit!. Pit A sharp, usuall! small, depression in the surface of metal. Plasticity his is the abilit! of a metal or allo! to undergo plastic deformation "ithout rupture. Plate &ide, flat,rolled steel. It is no" generall! accepted that steel more than F mm (7=< inch) thick is plate and less than F mm is sheet (See Sheet). P& ?'@ he name for the /nvironmental 2rotection Agenc!.s ne" 2articulate 'atter standards. he /2A is revising current 2' standards and establishing a ne" 2' ;.9 standard regarding the release of particulate matter do"n to ;.9 micrometers in diameter (less than one,third the "idth of a human hair). Poisson;s 1atio If a square bar is stressed in a testing machine in the direction of its length so that the length increases, there is a contraction in each opposite direction, "hich produces a decrease in the thickness of the bar. he ratio bet"een the contraction at right angles to a stress and the direct e$tension is called the 2oisson.s ratio. Its value in steel is in the order of 8.;<. P+1 See "2rime Overruns" Porosity 5nsoundness caused in cast metals b! the presence of blo"holes or shrinkage cavities. Pot ,uenching 4uenching carburised parts directl! from the carburising pot or bo$. Po.der &etallurgy A method of producing components b! pressing or moulding metal po"ders "hich ma! be simultaneousl! or subsequentl! heated to produce a coherent mass. Po.der &etals -abrication technolog! in "hich fine metallic po"der is compacted under high pressure and then heated at a temperature slightl! belo" the melting point to solidif! the material. 2rimar! users of po"der metal parts

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are auto, electronics and aerospace industries. Pre-Heating 5sed in the hardening process. ools are pre, heated before heating to the final temperature, this is particularl! important in tools of comple$ shape to prevent distortion or cracking. 2re,heating reduces the time of e$posure to the hardening temperature and helps to minimise scaling and decarburisation. Precipitation Hardening "PH# A small group of stainless steels "ith high chromium and nickel content, "ith the most common t!pes having characteristics close to those of martensitic (plain chromium stainless class "ith e$ceptional strength) steels. %eat treatment provides this class "ith its ver! high strength and hardness. Applications for 2% stainless steels include shafts for pumps and valves as "ell as aircraft parts. Prime +(erruns "P+1# Steel that does not meet the original customer.s specifications because of a defect in its chemistr!, gauge or surface qualit!. 'ills must search to find another customer (that can accept the lo"er qualit!) to take the off,spec steel at a discount. &hile secondar! "ill not affect the reported !ield, margins "ill suffer. Projection Welding A "elding process that uses small pro#ections on one or both components of the "eld to localise the heat and pressure, the pro#ections collapse "hen the "eld is made. Proo$ Stress he stress that "ill cause a specified small, permanent e$tension of a tensile test piece. Commonl! the stress to produce 8.;? e$tension is quoted in +=mm; for steel. his value appro$imates to the !ield stress in materials not e$hibiting a definite !ield point. Pul(eri-ed Coal Injection System "PCI# A blast furnace enhancement to reduce an integrated mill.s reliance on coke (because of environmental problems "ith its production). 5p to F8? of the coke charged into the blast furnace can be replaced b! this talcum,like coal po"der, "hich is in#ected through no::les at the bottom of the furnace. ,-B+P 'odified 1asic O$!gen -urnace in "hich the o$!gen and other gases are blo"n in from the bottom, rather than from the op. &hile the 4,1O2 stirs the metal bath more vigorousl!, allo"ing for faster processing, the design produces essentiall! the same steel grades as the op,blo"ing basic o$!gen furnace. oda!.s state, of,the,art furnace design combines the previous technologies* A8? of the o$!gen is blo"n from above, "ith the rest blo"n through the bottom of the vessel. ,uali$ication %rials he testing required for a ne" process adopted to make certain grades of steel "ith e$acting end uses. In order for the process to become qualified, the steel made b! the process must be tested. ,uenching 0apid cooling from a high temperature b! immersion in a liquid bath of oil or "ater. 'olten salts ma! also be used. ,uenching Crac* A fracture, often termed a hardening crack, "hich arises from thermal stresses induced during rapid cooling.

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,4 3CHI3G Cooling rapidl! b! immersion in oil, "ater, etc. ,4 3CHI3G & /I4& he medium used for cooling steel during heat treatment,usuall! oil, "ater, air, or salts. ,4 3CHI3G % &P 1A%41 he temperature from "hich steel is quenched during a heat treating process. 1a Chemical s!mbol for 0adium. 1adiography A method of non,destructive testing. Internal e$amination of a metallic structure or component is carried out b! e$posing it to a beam of D,0a! or gamma radiation. Internal defects can be seen on a screen or recorded on film. 1) Chemical s!mbol for 0ubidium. 1e Chemical s!mbol for 0henium. 1e-crystallisation he re,arrangement of cr!stals in cold "orked metal brought about b! heating so that the deformed cr!stals are absorbed b! ne"l!,formed cr!stals and the effects of "ork hardening are removed. Also occurs "hen steel is heated through the transformation range and "hen steel is hot "orked. 1ed Hardness A term sometimes associated "ith high speed steel because it has the propert! of retaining sufficient hardness for cutting metals even "hen heated to a temperature high enough to cause a dull redness. he tungsten content has a significant influence on this propert!. 1educing Agent /ither natural gas or coal can be used to remove the o$!gen from iron ore in order to produce a scrap substitute. In gas,based processes, the iron ore is heated in a vessel as reformed natural gas passes through. In coal,based processes, iron ore is combined "ith gasified or ground coal and heated. he o$!gen in the ore combines "ith carbon and h!drogen in the gas or coal, producing reduced, or metallic, iron. 1eduction o$ area he percentage decrease in the cross, sectional area of a tensile test piece caused b! "asting or necking of the specimen. It is e$pressed as a percentage of the original area of the test piece and is a measure of ductilit!. 1 CA0 SC 3C he liberation of heat due to internal changes, "hich occurs "hen steel is cooled through the critical tetriperature range. 1 / SH+1%3 SS

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See "%ot Shortness." 1 /4C%I+3 +F A1 A he difference bet"een the original cross,sectional area of a tensile specimen and that of the small,est area at the point of rupture. It is usuall! stated as a per,centage of the original areaG also called "contraction of area." 1 FI3 & 3% +F S%14C%41 See "Grain 0efinement." 1 FI3I3G % &P 1A%41 A temperature emplo!ed in heat treatment to refine structure, in particular, to refine the grain si:e. 5suall! #ust above AcF in steel. 1 G 3 1A%I6 ,4 3CHI3G 4uenching carburi:ed parts from t"o differnet temperatures to refine case and core. (often called double quenching.) 1I& / S% 0 A steel that is poured containing enough o$!gen to evolve appreciable gas during solidification. he ggas evolution results in a finished product having a ver! pure surface "ith the impurities concentrated in the interior. he pure :one "hich is readil! sho"n b! etching is reffered to as the "rim". 1+C!W 00 HA1/3 SS % S% -orcing a cone,shaped diamond or hardened steel ball into the specimen being tested under standard pressure. he depth of penetration is an indication of the 0ock"ll %ardness. 1+00 1 0 6 0 1 A rolling device used for eliminating buckles and "aves in steel sheets and strip and for producing sheets of commercial flatness. he roller leveler has sets of rolls that are staggered to fle$ the sheet as it pasess bet"een them. 1esides its use in leveling, it has e$tensive application for minimi:ing or temporaril! eliminating the tendenc! to develop stretcher strains. , 0efining a. he removal of impurities and metallic o$ides from the molten bath b! the reaction of the slag and other additions. b. A heat treatment process "ith the ob#ect of refining or making the grain si:e of the steel uniform. 1e$ractory A ceramic material that can resist great heat and is therefore suitable for lining furnaces. -irecla!, dolomite, magnesite and silica are e$amples. his is not to be confused "ith refractor! metals, such as columbium and tantalum 1e$ractory Bric* %eat,resistant brick. 1ecause its melting point is "ell above the operating temperatures of the process, refractor! bricks line most steelmaking vessels that come in contact "ith molten metal, like the "alls of the

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blast furnace, sides of the ladles, and inside of the 1O-. 1ein$orcing Bar "1e)ar# A commodit!,grade steel used to strengthen concrete in high"a! and building construction. 1eline he process of replacing the refractor! lining of a liquid steel vessel. Once it "ears out, the brick lining of a furnace must be cooled, stripped and replaced. his maintenance can be significant because a blast furnace reline ma! require up to three months to complete. 1esidual Stress he stress "hich e$ists in an elastic solid bod! in the absence of, or in addition to, the stresses caused b! an e$ternal load. Such stresses can arise from deformation during cold "orking such as cold dra"ing or stamping, in "elding from "eld metal shrinkage, and in changes in volume due to thermal e$pansion. 1esiduals he impurities in mini,mill steel as the result of the mi$ of metals entering the process dissolved in obsolete scrap. 0esiduals are ke! concerns regarding the mini,mills. recent entr! into the flat,rolled market, "here high residuals can leave sheet steel too brittle for customer use. 1e(erse %orsion %est his is a test for "ires carried out b! t"isting the test piece a specified number of times in one direction and then in the opposite direction. 1e(ersing &ill he stand of rolls used to reduce steel sheet or plate b! passing the steel back and forth bet"een the rollsG the gap bet"een the rolls is reduced after each pass. 0eversing mill An! rolling mill in "hich the direction of rotation of the rolls can be reversed at "ill. %eav! primar! mills for bloom and slab rolling are the most common, but others, including some cold,rolling mills, are also made to reverse. 1h Chemical s!mbol for 0hodium. 1immed Steel A steel "hich forms a relativel! clean outer la!er (rim) during solidification. Sheet and strip made from such steel has good surface qualit!. 'olten steel contains dissolved gases, in particular o$!gen. If the steel is not deo$idised (as in killed steel), CO evolution is possible during solidification. @epending upon the amount of gas evolved, a series of ingot structures are produced. If the evolution of gas is appreciable, in other "ords deo$idation is not full! carried out, it gives appearance of boiling to liquid steel in the mould. his boiling action is called 0imming and the steel is kno"n as 0imming Steel. 1oc*.ell Hardness %esting A method for testing the hardness of metals b! determining the depth of penetration of a steel ball or a diamond sphero,conical indentor. he value is read from a dial and is an arbitrar! number related to the depth of penetration. -or testing hard steels, a sphero,conical diamond is used "ith a 798 kg load, the result is read from the black scale on the dial and is prefi$ed "ith the letter C. A hardened tool steel "ould t!picall! give a reading of A;0c. -or softer metals Scale 1 is used "ith a 7=7A" diameter steel ball and a standard load of 788 kgs. 1od

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0ound, thin semi,finished steel length that is rolled from a billet and coiled for further processing. 0od is commonl! dra"n into "ire products or used to make bolts and nails. 0od trains (rolling facilities) can run as fast as ;8,888 feet per minuteKmore than ;88 miles an hour. 1oll Force Systems 'ill stands place considerable pressure on slabs, blooms and coils to further process the material. here are t"o general "a!s of appl!ing the force to the steelKscre" and h!draulic s!stems. SC0/& (I+C3I+/ 23A+/) his older method used the basic principle of the scre" to ad#ust the space bet"een the mill rolls. 1ecause metal touches metal, these configurations "ill "ear do"n over time and can cause qualit! problems. %L@0A53IC (2A+CAM/ CL3I+@/0) his modern s!stem uses fluid pressure to rapidl! ad#ust the roll spacing several times per second. hese minute, instantaneous ad#ustments allo" for superior gauge tracking and higher,qualit! products. 1olled in-scale 3ocal areas of scale pressed into the surface of the products during rolling. 1olling he process of shaping metal b! passing it bet"een rolls revolving at the same peripheral speed and in opposite directions. In steel there are a number of different t!pes of rolling mill for processing the ingot to its finished shape. hese are variousl! kno"n as Cogging mills, Slabbing mills, 1illet mills, 1ar mills and Strip mills, "hich produce plate, sections, bars, sheet and strip. Cold rolling of previousl! hot rolled strip is carried out to produce strip that is accurate to si:e and "ith a smooth bright polished surface. 1olling 0ap A fault arising from the overfilling or mis, alignment of rolls, the result is a bulge on the bar "hich is rolled into the metal and is lapped over. It remains throughout subsequent "orking and appears as a longitudinal crack. 1otary Hearth A gas fired rotating furnace for reheating the billets prior to sub#ecting to piercing process. 1u Chemical s!mbol for 0uthenium. 1uling Section 'ore accuratel! termed limiting ruling section. One of the most important factors associated "ith the choice of steel for a given purpose is to ensure that the desired mechanical properties are obtained throughout the section "hen the material has been heat treated. he limiting ruling section determines the ma$imum diameter or cross,section of a bar or component in "hich the specified properties can be achieved b! a given heat treatment. he anal!sis of the steel also has an important bearing on this. S Chemical s!mbol for Sulphur. Salt Bath A method of heating steel using a bath of molten salts. Salt baths give uniform heating and prevent o$idation, the! are used for hardening, tempering or quenching. he t!pe of salt used depends on the

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temperature range required. -or hardening, sodium c!anide, sodium carbonate and sodium chloride are in common use. S) Chemical s!mbol for Antimon!. SCAB A defect on the ingot caused b! metal "hich splashes during teemingG on rolled or forged products it appears as a silver,like defect partiall! "elded or mechanicall! bound to the parent metal surface. SC0 1+SC+P or SH+1 HA1/3 SS % S% his test consists of ropping a small diamond tipped hammer rebounds is a measure of the surface hardness of the specimen. S A& An elongated discontinuit! in metal caused b! blo" hole or other defect "hich has been closed b! rolling or forging mechanical! but not "elded. S C+3/A15 HA1/ 3I3G An increase in hardnessfollo"inging the normal softening during the tempering of certain allo! steels. S 0F-HA1/ 3I3G S% 0 An allo! tool steel that hard "hen cooled in air and "hich "ill hold a cutting edge at temperatures nearing a dark red. S &I-FI3ISH / See P-inished Steel.. SH 1A1/I2I3G A cementation process used to give steel articles, such as bolts, a corrosion resistant surface :inc,rich allo!. he articles are packed "ith :inc dust in drums "hich are heated for several hours "hile slo"l! rotating. SH+1%3 SS 1rittleness. SI0!5 F1AC%41 A steel fracture having a ver! smooth, fine grain, or silk! appearance. SI3!H A/ A heat,insulated reservoir for e$cess molten metal, placed at the op of an ingot mold in order to feed molten metal into the shrinkage in the op of the ingot proper. S! 0P Steel or iron plate from "hich pipe or tubing is made. S0AB A ver! thick rectangular piece of steel for rolling do"n into plates. S0ABBI3G &I00

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A mill for rolling slabs from ingots. S0IP BA3/S A series of parallel lines running across a cr!stalline grain. Slip bands are formed "hen the elastic limit is passed b! one la!er or portion of the cr!stal slipping over another portion along a plane, kno"n as the slip plane. S0IP P0A3 See "Slip 1ands." S+A!I3G %olding steel at a predetermined temperature for a sufficient time to assure heat penetration and=or to complete the solution of carbides. S+0I/IFICA%I+3 1A3G he temperature range through "hichmetal free:es or solidifies. S+0I/ S+04%I+3 A condition "herein one element is dissolved in another element "hile the dissolving element is in a solid and not liquid condition. S+3I&S Solid non,metallic inclusions in metal SPA00I3 G,Cracking and flaking of a metal surface. SPH 1+I/I2I3G An! of a number of processes of heating and cooling "hich cause the carbides to assume a spherical,like shape Ordinar! steels are commonl! spheroidi:ed b! prolonged heating at a temperature #ust belo" the lo"er limit of the transformation range "ith subsequent slo" cooling. SPI G 0 "+1 SPI G 0 IS 3# A pig iron containing 79 to F8? manganese and >.9 to 9.9? carbon. S%A%IC 0+A/ A load "hich is sustained "ithout motion such a "eight hanging on a string. S% P /+W3 % S% In this test, a sample of steel is machined do"n to a series of different diameters so that inspection can be made at different distances from the surface. S%1 SS he load per unit area tending to deform a material. S%1 %CH 1 0 6 0I3G A method of producing unusual flatness in steel sheets b! stretching them in a h!draulic device. S%1 CH 1 S%1AI3S

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hese are vein,like surface defects appear in lo" carbon steel during cold deformation. he! are associated "ith the irregular movement of the metal "hen it is being strained at the !ield point. Stretcher strains are also kno"n as "3uder.s lines," "strain figures," etc. S%14C%41A0 G1AI3 SI2 See "Grain Structure." Scale he o$idised surface of steel produced during hot "orking, as in rolling, and b! e$posure to air or steam at elevated temperature. Scale Pit hese are cavities on the surface of the products resulting from unsatisfactor! processing. Scar$ing Also termed deseaming. It is a process for burning out defective areas on the surface of ingots or semi, finished products such as billets so that the product is suitable for subsequent rolling or forging. Scrap It forms the basic ra" material for making steel b! the electric arc process. Steel offers ecological advantages as it can be rec!cled enabling the discarded car of toda! to appear as part of a ne" model tomorro". Scrap is sorted and graded before use and the necessar! elements are added during the steel making process to achieve the desired specifications. Scrap "Ferrous# -errous (iron,containing) material that generall! is remelted and recast into ne" steel. Integrated steel mills use scrap for up to ;9? of their basic o$!gen furnace chargeG 788? of the mini,mills. ra" material for their electric furnaces generall! is scrap. %O'/ SC0A2 &aste steel that is generated from "ithin the steel mill, through edge trimming and re#ects. It normall! is sent directl! back to the furnace. 20O'2 (I+@5S 0IA3) SC0A2 /$cess steel that is trimmed b! the auto and appliance stampers and auctioned to scrap bu!ers as factor! bundles. his is a high,qualit! scrap as the result of its lo",residual content and consistent chemistr!. O1SO3/ / SC0A2 Iron,bearing trash. Automobile hulks, "orn,out refrigerators and useless storage tanks, for e$ample, can be recovered from the #unk!ard and remelted. he residual impurit! of such scrap normall! relegates obsolete scrap to the mini,mills (see +o. 7 %eav! 'elt). Scrap Su)stitute 0a" material that can be charged in place of scrap in electric arc furnaces and basic o$!gen furnaces. Scrap substitutes include, among others, @0I, %1I, iron carbide, and pig iron. Se Chemical s!mbol for Selenium. Seams A surface defect caused during the steel making process. Seams are generall! formed from blo" holes in the

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ingot, non metallic inclusions, or stresses arising during the solidification stage. he! appear as longitudinal discontinuities in the bar. Seam A tight, but un"elded imperfection on the surface of a "rought metal product. Also refers to long, shallo" grooves formed during "orking b! the elongation of o$idised surface or sub,surface holes. Seamless Pipe 2ipe made from a solid billet, "hich is heated, then rotated under e$treme pressure. his rotational pressure creates an opening in the center of the billet, "hich is then shaped b! a mandrel to form pipe. Secondary Hardness An increase in hardness "hich sometimes occurs "hen hardened steel is re,heated. It can be caused b! the transformation of retained austenite to martensite or b! the precipitation of allo! carbides. Secondary Steelma*ing he ma#or bulk steelmaking processes like Open hearth, 3@ etc. are classified as "2rimar! steelmaking" processes "herein ma#or portion of the total refining or melting is carried out. he final refining and finishing is carried out in an! one of the secondar! steelmaking processes. 1asicall!, secondar! steelmaking is resorted to achieve one or more of the follo"ing requirements* 7. ;. F. >. 9. A. improvement in qualit!. improvement in production rate. @ecrease in energ! consumption. 5se of relativel! cheaper grade or alternative ra" materials. 5se of alternative sources of energ!. %igher recover! of allo!ing elements.

Segregation A term applied to the concentration and partial separation of one or more elements from solution during solidification of liquid steel in an ingot mould. Sulphur and phosphorus tend to segregate to a greater e$tent than other elements "hich can have a particular adverse effect on machinabilit! in high sulphur free, cutting steels. 'odern steel making and continuous casting have largel! overcome this problem. Selenium An element that closel! resembles sulphur in its properties. he main use in steel is as a freecutting additive but due to high cost its use is limited to stainless steel. One of the benefits being the abilit! to obtain a ver! good surface finish on machined components. Semi-$inished Steel Steel shapes,for e$ample, blooms, billets or slabs,that later are rolled into finished products such as beams, bars or sheet. Semi-*illed Steel 'olten steel contains dissolved gases, in particular o$!gen. If the steel is not deo$idised (as in killed steel), CO evolution is possible during solidification. @epending upon the amount of gas evolved, a series of ingot structures are produced. If the evolution of gas is appreciable, in other "ords deo$idation is not full! carried out, it gives appearance of boiling to liquid steel in the mould. his boiling action is called 0imming and the steel is kno"n as 0imming Steel. In bet"een violentl! rimming and killed steels lie the semi,killed steels "hich are onl! partiall! deo$idised such that some gas evolution takes place duringlater stages of solidification. he capped steel is onl! a special variet! of rimming steels in "hich the rimming action is less

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violent. Send-imir &ill "2-mill# A Compact mill used for rolling cold coils of stainless steel in order to make the steel thinner, smoother, and stronger. It is used to to control the thickness of steel better at lo"er capital cost, and to roll thinner sheets and strips. Steel sheet or strip passes bet"een a matching pair of small "ork rolls "ith e$tremel! smooth surfaces, heavil! reinforced b! clusters of back,up rolls. he rolls reduce the steel to the desired thickness. Ser(ice Cente A catchall name for an operation that bu!s steel, often processes it in some "a! and then sells it in a slightl! different form. A service center is distinguished from an end,user b! the fact that, unlike an end,user, a service center sells steel, not a fabricated product. Service centers are manufacturers to the e$tent that the! add labor to steel b! providing a service. SG Iron An abbreviation for Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron. As the name implies, graphite is present in spheroidal form instead of flakes and compared "ith Gre! Cast Iron it has higher mechanical strength, ductilit! and increased shock resistance. Shape Correcting 0olling, heating and quenching steel sheets often affect the dimensions of the steel. 3evelers, temper mills and edge trimmers re"ork the processed steel to match customer specifications. Shearing If the edges of sheet and strip are not controlled during reduction, the! must be trimmed parallel b! shears. his process ma! be performed b! either the steel mill or steel processor to match customer needs. Shearing %est he test applied to metal to determine the stress required to fracture it across its section. Sheet Bar A semi,finished hot rolled steel product of appro$imatel! rectangular section, sheared to length and used to produce a hot rolled sheet b! cross rolling. Sheet Steel hin, flat,rolled steel. Coiled sheet steel accounts for nearl! one,half of all steel shipped domesticall! and is created in a hot,strip mill b! rolling a cast slab flat "hile maintaining the side dimensions. he malleable steel lengthens to several hundred feet as it is squee:ed b! the rolling mill. he most common differences among steel bars, strip, plate, and sheet are merel! their ph!sical dimensions of "idth and gauge (thickness). Product Classi$ication )y Si-e Specified hickness In Inches Specified &idth in Inches 5p to A Over A to < Over < to 7; Over 7; to >< Over >< 8.;F88 R 1ar 1ar 2late 2late 2late 8.;;66 , 8.;8>8 1ar 1ar 2late 2late 2late 8=;8F6 , 8.7<88 Strip Strip Strip Sheet 2late

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8.7H66 , 8.8>>6 Strip Strip Strip Sheet Sheet Source* Smith 1arne! Inc.=Salomon 1rothers Inc. Sherardi-ing A process developed in 1ritain in 768> b! Sherard Co"per,Coles. It is a method of producing a protective :inc coating on iron and steel products. Shore Scleroscope An instrument that measures the hardness of a sample in arbitrar! terms of elasticit!. A diamond tipped hammer is allo"ed to fall freel! do"n a graduated glass tube on to the sample under test. he hardness is measured b! the height of the rebound. In another form the rebounding hammer actuates the pointer of a scale so that the height of the rebound is recorded. Shredded Scrap -ist,si:ed, homogenous pieces of old automobile hulks. After cars are sent through a shredder, the rec!clable steel is separated b! magnets. 'ini,mills consume shredded scrap in their electric arc furnace operations. SI 4nits A s!stem of units (S!stem International d.5nites) used as a basis for metrication in 1ritain and is recommended for all countries using the metric s!stem. Silicon lectrical Steel A t!pe of specialt! steel created b! introducing silicon during the steelmaking process. /lectrical steel e$hibits certain magnetic properties, "hich make it optimum for use in transformers, po"er generators and electric motors. G0AI+,O0I/+ /@ he metal.s grain runs parallel "ithin the steel, permitting eas! magneti:ation along the length of the steel. Although grain,oriented steel ma! be t"ice as e$pensive to produce, its magnetic directional characteristics enable po"er transformers, made from this metal, to absorb less energ! during operation. +O+,G0AI+,O0I/+ /@ 1ecause there is no preferential direction for magneti:ation, non,grain,oriented steel is best used in rotating apparatus such as electric motors. Sinter See "Sintering" Sintering A process that combines iron,bearing particles, once recovered from environmental control filters, into small pellets. 2reviousl!, these materials "ere too fine to "ithstand the air currents of the smelting process and "ere thro"n a"a!. he iron is no" conserved because the chunks can be charged into the blast furnace (see Agglomerating 2rocesses). S*elp Steel that is the entr! material to a pipe mill. It resembles hot,rolled strip, but its properties allo" for the severe forming and "elding operations required for pipe production. Sla) he most common t!pe of semi,finished steel. raditional slabs measure 78 inches thick and F8,<9 inches

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"ide (and average about ;8 feet long), "hile the output of the recentl! developed "thin slab" casters is appro$imatel! t"o inches thick. Subsequent to casting, slabs are sent to the hot,strip mill to be rolled into coiled sheet and plate products. Slag he impurities in a molten pool of iron. -lu$ such as limestone ma! be added to foster the congregation of undesired elements into a slag. 1ecause slag is lighter than iron, it "ill float on op of the pool, "here it can be skimmed. Slitting Cutting a sheet of steel into narro"er strips to match customer needs. 1ecause steel mills have limited fle$ibilit! as to the "idths of the sheet that the! produce, service centers normall! "ill cut the sheet for the customer. Sli(er A relativel! thin film of metal imperfectl! attached to the surface of the steel. Smelter -acilit! is used to e$tract metal concentrates found inside mined ore. he ore "ill often contain more than one kind of metal concentrate and this facilit! also separates them. Soa* o hold an ingot, slab, bloom, billet, or other piece of steel in a hot furnace, pit, or chamber to secure uniform temperature. Soa*ing Pit A furnace or pit for the heating of ingots of steel to make their temperature uniform prior to rolling or forging. Spar* %est A visual test for an appro$imate estimation of chemical composition b! observing sparks produced b! holding a sample against a grinding "heel. Special Bar ,uality "SB,# S14 represents a "ide variet! of higher,qualit! carbon and allo! bars that are used in the forging, machining and cold,dra"ing industries for the production of automotive parts, hand tools, electric motor shafts and valves. S14 generall! contains more allo!s than merchant qualit! and commodit! grades of steel bars, and is produced "ith more precise dimensions and chemistr!. Specialty Steel Categor! of steel that includes electrical (see Silicon /lectrical Steel), allo! (see Allo! Steel), stainless (see Stainless Steel) and tool (see ool Steels) steels. Specialty %u)e 0efers to a "ide variet! of high,qualit! custom,made tubular products requiring critical tolerances, precise dimensional control and special metallurgical properties. Specialt! tubing is used in the manufacture of automotive, construction and agricultural equipment, and in industrial applications such as h!draulic c!linders, machine parts and printing rollers. 1ecause of the range of industrial applications, the market t!picall! follo"s general economic conditions.

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Speci$ication A document defining the measurements, tests, and other requirements to "hich a product must conform t!picall! covering chemistr!, mechanical properties, tolerances, finish, reports, marking, and packaging. Spheroidising A process of heat treatment to produce globular form of carbide in steel and consists in prolonged heating of steel to suitable temperature, "ithin or near the transformation range. his treatment improves machinabilit! and facilitates finishing b! cold "ork. It is also useful "here such structure is desirable for further heat treatment in processing certain materials. Spinning he formation of sheet metal blanks into hollo" circular shapes. his is carried out on a lathe "ith forming tools "hich service to press and shape the metal. Annealing ma! be needed during and=or after the operation to remove the effects of "ork hardening. Sponge Iron See "@irect 0educed Iron (@0I)" Spot &ar*et Sales for deliver! in less than three months. Spot Welding A process for #oining steel sheets. he t"o parts are held bet"een electrodes and the heat generated at the interface bet"een the sheets causes local "elding "hen pressure is applied. Spring Steel he steels used for spring making depend on the application and t!pe of spring. he! range from plain carbon grades in the range 8.9? to 7.88? C. to Chromium, Chromium,Ianadium, +ickel,Chromium, 'ol!bdenum, Silico, 'anganese and Silicon,'anganese,Chromium,'ol!bdenum t!pes. -ull details can be found in 1S9HH8. Sta)ilisation A term applied to a number of processes* a) A t!pe of heat treatment to relieve internal stresses* b) he retarding or prevention of a particular reaction b! the addition of a stabilising elementG c) A thermal and=or mechanical treatment given to magnetic material in order to increase the permanenc! of its magnetic properties or condition. Stainless Steel Can be defined as a group of corrosion resisting steels containing a minimum 78? chromium and in "hich var!ing amounts of nickel, mol!bdenum, titanium, niobium as "ell as other elements ma! be present. An /nglishman, %arr! 1rearle!, is generall! ackno"ledged to be the pioneer "ho developed stainless steels for commercial use. Stainless Steel he term for grades of steel that contain more than 78? chromium, "ith or "ithout other allo!ing elements. Stainless steel resists corrosion, maintains its strength at high temperatures, and is easil! maintained. -or these reasons, it is used "idel! in items such as automotive and food processing products, as "ell as medical and health equipment. he most common grades of stainless steel are* L2/ F8> he most commonl! specified austenitic (chromium,nickel stainless class) stainless steel,

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accounting for more than half of the stainless steel produced in the "orld. his grade "ithstands ordinar! corrosion in architecture, is durable in t!pical food processing environments, and resists most chemicals. !pe F8> is available in virtuall! all product forms and finishes. L2/ F7A Austenitic (chromium,nickel stainless class) stainless steel containing ;?,F? mol!bdenum ("hereas F8> has none). he inclusion of mol!bdenum gives F7A greater resistance to various forms of deterioration. L2/ >86 -erritic (plain chromium stainless categor!) stainless steel suitable for high temperatures. his grade has the lo"est chromium content of all stainless steels and thus is the least e$pensive. L2/ >78 he most "idel! used martensitic (plain chromium stainless class "ith e$ceptional strength) stainless steel, featuring the high level of strength conferred b! the martensitics. It is a lo",cost, heat, treatable grade suitable for non,severe corrosion applications. L2/ >F8 he most "idel! used ferritic (plain chromium stainless categor!) stainless steel, offering general, purpose corrosion resistance, often in decorative applications. Stamp Charging Stamp charging of coke ovens is a breakthrough in cokemaking that has been developed in recent times. In stamp charging the coal,mi$ charge of coke ovens is prepared b! compacting it b! drop hammer such that the bulk densit! of mi$ is higher than "hat other"ise e$ist "hen coal mi$ is #ust added to the ovens. his increased densit! is obtained b! dropping heav! "eight on the mi$ and the cake thus formed is charged in the ovens. Statistical Process Control "SPC# A technique used to predict "hen a steelmaking function.s qualit! ma! deteriorate. 1! tightl! monitoring the product.s variance from specifications, the operator can determine "hen to appl! preventative maintenance to a machine before an! lo",qualit! (secondar!) steel is produced. Stec*el &ill A reversing steel sheet reduction mill "ith heated coil bo$es at each end. Steel sheet or plate is sent through the rolls of the reversing mill and coiled at the end of the mill, reheated in the coil bo$, and sent back through the Steckel stands and recoiled. 1! reheating the steel prior to each pass, the rolls can squee:e the steel thinner per pass and impart a better surface finish. Steel Generall! defined as a metallic product "hose principal element is iron and "here the carbon content is not more than ;?. ( he presence of large quantities of carbide forming elements ma! modif! the upper limit of the carbon content.) Steelnext'com A his is the steel trading portal of the 1;1 e,commerce compan! eCircle. Steel Intensity he amount of steel used per unit of gross domestic product. Intensit! reflects the secular demand for steel, as opposed to c!clical demand. he amount of steel used in vehicles and the popularit! of alternative materials affect the intensit!, or ho" much steel is needed per unit produced. he state of the econom!, ho"ever, determines the number of units.

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Steel-Intensi(e Products Consumer products such as automobiles and appliances that, because so much of their "eight is from steel, e$hibit a high demand correlation "ith steel. Steel not ordered Steel that does not meet the original customer.s specifications because of a defect in its chemistr!, gauge or surface qualit!. 'ills must search to find another customer (that can accept the lo"er qualit!) to take the off,spec steel at a discount. &hile secondar! "ill not affect the reported !ield, margins "ill suffer. Steel Strapping 1anding and packaging material that is used to close and reinforce shipping units, such as bales, bo$es, cartons, coils, crates, and skids. Strain Ageing he gradual changes in ph!sical and mechanical properties, in particular hardness and tensile strength, "hich takes place follo"ing cold rolling or deformation. At atmospheric temperatures, this ma! take place over a number of "eeks but can be accelerated b! heating. Strain Hardening he loss of ductilit! and gain in hardness resulting from strain ageing. Strength 2roperties related to the abilit! of steel to oppose applied forces. -orms of strength include "ithstanding imposed loads "ithout a permanent change in shape or structure and resistance to stretching. Stress Corrosion Crac*ing Cracking of metals under combined action of temperature, corrosion, and stress. he stress can be either applied or residual. Austenitic stainless steels are either applied or residual. Austenitic stainless steels are especiall! susceptible to cracking in chloride containing and some caustic environments. Stress 1elie(ing A heat treatment including heating and soaking at a suitable temperature (e.g. A88,A98oC) follo"ed b! cooling at an appropriate rate in order to reduce internal stresses "ithout substantiall! modif!ing the steel.s structure. his treatment ma! be used to relieve stresses induced b! machining, quenching, "elding or cold "orking. Stress Strain Cur(e A graph in "hich stress (load divided b! the original cross sectional area of the test piece) is plotted against strain (the e$tension divided b! the length over "hich it is measured). Strip hin, flat steel that resembles hot,rolled sheet, but it is normall! narro"er (up to 7; inches "ide) and produced to more closel! controlled thicknesses. Strip also ma! be cut from steel sheet b! a slitting machine (see Sheet Steel). Structurals Steel product group that includes I,beams, %,beams, "ide,flange beams and sheet piling. hese products are used in the construction of multi,stor! buildings, industrial buildings, bridge trusses, vertical high"a! supports, and riverbank reinforcement.

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Su)-Critical Annealing %eating to, and holding at, some point belo" the critical temperature. Subsequent cooling ma! be in air. his form of heat treatment has a variet! of uses depending on the temperature and specification of the steel, its purpose is often to soften the material. Su)--ero %reatment A lo" temperature treatment carried out after quenching on hardened steel to transform the retained austenite into martensite. It involves immersing the component in a bath of solid carbon dio$ide at a temperature of minus H8,<8oC. Su)strate 0a" material used as an input for steel processing* -or e$ample, hot,rolled steel is the substrate for cold, rolling operations. Sulphur Generall! regarded as an impurit! in steel as it can have detrimental effects on strength, ductilit! and "eldabilit! as "ell as producing hot and cold shortness. Its content in most steels is limited to a ma$imum of 8.898?. Sulphur is beneficial to machining and is added to freecutting steels in amounts up to 8.F9? "ith the manganese content increased to overcome an! detrimental effects. Sur$ace Hardening A method of hardening the surface of steel to increase its "ear resistance. @epending on the anal!sis of the steel, the follo"ing treatments can be emplo!ed* Case,hardening, +itriding, induction hardening, -lame hardening. S.aging A method of forming or reducing steel or other metals to a desired shape b! a series of blo"s rapidl! applied b! dies or hammers. he process is applied to "ires, rods and tubes and can be used for a variet! of pointing, tapering, si:ing and reducing operations. S.ar$ he particles of metal arising from machining or grinding operations, much of it finds its "a! to the steel maker for remelting. % %a Chemical s!mbol for antalum %aconite &%A +atural mineral containing less than F8? iron. It is the primar! ore used in blast furnaces. &%L @omestic supplies of iron,rich ores (greater than 98? iron) "ere largel! depleted in the 76>8s, so integrated steel companies no" process the lo"er,grade taconite to make it useful. %ailings he end,product or "aste of ore mining, usuall! piled up in close pro$imit! of a mining area. Some "ill often contain some metal that can be e$tracted. %ailored Blan*s A section of sheet or strip that is cut,to,length and trimmed to match specifications for the manufacturer.s

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stamping design for a particular part. 1ecause e$cess steel is cut a"a! (to save shipping costs), all that remains for the stamper is to impart the three,dimensional shape "ith a die press (see 1lanking). %andem &ill A t!pe of cold,rolling mill, the tandem mill imparts greater strength, a uniform and smoother surface, and reduced thickness to the steel sheet. 5nlike the original single,stand mills, a tandem mill rolls steel through a series of rolls (generall! three to five in a ro") to achieve a desired thickness and surface qualit!. %antalum A rare metal of silver "hite colour having e$cellent corrosion resistance and a high melting point. It is "idel! used for chemical process equipment and specialised aero,space and nuclear applications. %ap to %ap time ap to time or heat time is the total time required for converting a batch of ra" materials into steel, including handling time. %apping he act of pouring molten metal form a furnace into a ladle. %e Chemical s!mbol for ellurium. %eeming 2ouringG ingot molds are filled (teemed) b! iron,bearing ladles. %ellurium Its main use in the steel industr! is as an additive in leadbearing freecutting steels to further improve their machinabilit!. Its presence in the steel is either "ithin the manganese sulphide particles, "here it is partiall! soluble, or as particles combined "ith lead or manganese. -or certain applications it offers significant improvements in machinabilit! but the added cost is a factor that should be taken into account. %APPI3G 0emoving molten metal from a furnace. % &I3G 2ouring steel from the ladle to the molds. % &P 1 CA1B+3 A form of graphite in iron,base allo!s produced b! heating belo" the melting point. % &P 1I3G 0eheating after hardening to a temperature range vital and then cooling. % 3SI0 S%1 3G%H he ma$imum load per unit cross,sectional area obtained before rupture of s tensile specimen. %1A3SF+1&A%I+3 1A3G he temperature range in "hich varios changes occur in the structure of steel and above necessar! to heat steel to effect complete structural change. +ormall!, distinction should be made bet"en the transformation

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range "hen heating and the range "hen cooling. %emper A term to "hich a number of definitions can be applied. hese include* a) he operation of temperingG b) he degree of hardness left in a steel bar after quenching and temperingG c) he grading of the hardness of lo" carbon cold rolled strip, e.g. %ard, %alf %ard, 4uarter %ard, Skin 2assed, SoftG d) An indication of the amount of carbon present in a tool steel, e.g. ra:or temper, file temper, die temper, etc. %emper Brittleness he loss in impact resistance that is present in some lo" and medium carbon allo! steels "hen tempered in the range of F98oC , A88oC. It is revealed b! the notched bar impact test but not the tensile test. %emper Colours 1efore the use of instruments such as p!rometers, colours "ere used to #udge temperatures "hen hardening and tempering. -or e$ample, on carbon tool steel "here the tempering range ma! t!picall! be from ;88oC to F98oC, the colours change "ith the rise in temperature giving 3ight Stra" at around ;78oC, 2urple at ;H9oC, and Gre! at FF8oC. he practice still continues in "orkshops "here controlled heat treatment facilities are not available. %emper 1olling A light pass given to annealed cold rolled strip to prevent the formation of kinks and stretcher strain markings on subsequent cold "orking. Also termed 2inch pass and Skin pass. %empering Also kno"n as dra"ing, the process b! "hich steel or iron is softened b! reheating it at a considerabl! lo"er temperature than that at "hich its previous hardening "as done. %emper &ill A t!pe of cold,rolling mill, usuall! "ith onl! one or t"o stands, that finishes cold,rolled, annealed sheet steel b! improving the finish or te$ture to develop the required final mechanical properties. 1! changing the rolls of the temper mill, steel can be shipped "ith a shin!, dull or grooved surface. %erne Sheet steel coated "ith a mi$ture of lead and tin. erne principall! is used in the manufacture of gasoline tanks, although it also can be found in chemical containers, oil filters and television chassis. %empering A heat treatment applied to ferrous products after hardening. It consists of heating the steel to some temperature belo" the transformation range and holding for a suitable time at the temperature, follo"ed b! cooling at a suitable rate. he ob#ect of tempering is to decrease hardness and increase toughness to produce the desired combination of mechanical properties. %ensile Strength he ma$imum load applied in breaking a tensile test piece divided b! the original cross,sectional area of the test piece. Originall! quoted as tons=sq.in. it is no" measured as +e"tons=sq.mm. Also termed 'a$imum Stress and 5ltimate ensile Stress. %ensile %est A standard test piece is gripped at either end b! suitable apparatus in a testing machine "hich slo"l! e$erts an a$ial pull so that the steel is stretched until it breaks. he test provides information on limit of

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proportionalit!, proof stress, !ield point, tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area. %homas Process he Continental name for the basic 1essemer steel making process, no" superseded b! modern da! 1OS plants. %i Chemical s!mbol for itanium. %ime %emperature %rans$ormation Cur(e An isothermal transformation diagram sho"ing the relationship bet"een temperature and the time taken for the decomposition of austenite "hen the transformation occurs at constant temperature. %in &hen present in steel it is an undesirable impurit! "hich gives rise to temper brittleness. &hen used as a coating on steel, it has a good resistance to corrosion for man! applications. %in &ill Continuous tin,plating facilit! to produce tin mill steel sheet to be used in food and beverage cans and other containers. %in7Chrome Plating A plating process "hereb! the molecules from the positivel! charged tin or chromium anode attach to the negativel! charged sheet steel. he thickness of the coating is readil! controlled through regulation of the voltage and speed of the sheet through the plating area. %in-Free Steel Chromium,coated steel. 1ecause it is used in food cans #ust like tin plate, it ironicall! is classified as a tin mill product. in,free steel is easier to rec!cle because tin "ill contaminate scrap steel in even small concentrations. %in Plate hin sheet steel "ith a ver! thin coating of metallic tin. in plate is used primaril! in canmaking. %itanium Small amounts added to steel contribute to its soundness and give a finer grain si:e. In austenitic stainless steels it acts as a carbide stabiliser and is used to prevent intercr!stalline corrosion, commonl! termed ""eld deca!". itanium carbide is also used "ith tungsten carbide in the manufacture of hard metal tools. %olerances he amount of variation permitted on dimensions or surfaces. he tolerance is equal to the difference bet"een the ma$imum and minimum limits of an! specified dimension. olerances A customer.s specifications can refer to dimensions or to the chemical properties of steel ordered. he tolerance measures the allo"able difference in product specifications bet"een "hat a customer orders and "hat the steel compan! delivers. here is no standard tolerance because each customer maintains its o"n variance ob#ective. olerances are given as the specification, plus or minus an error factorG the smaller the range, the higher the cost. %oll Processing he act of processing steel for a fee ("toll"). O"ners of the steel sheet ma! not possess the facilities to

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perform needed operations on the material (or ma! not have the open capacit!). herefore, another steel mill or service center "ill slit, roll, coat, anneal, or plate the metal for a fee. %on 5nit of measure for steel scrap and iron ore. G0OSS O+ ;,;>8 pounds. 3O+G (+/ ) O+ ;,;>8 pounds. S%O0 (+/ ) O+ ;,888 pounds. +ormal unit of statistical ra" material input and steel output in the 5nited States. '/ 0IC O+ 7,888 kilograms. ;,;8>.A pounds or 7.78; short tons. %ool Steel A generic term applied to a "ide range of steels, both plain carbon and allo!. It includes steels suitable for various t!pes of cutting tools, press tools, hot and cold heading dies, moulds for plastics and die, casting, e$trusion tools, hand tools, etc. %ool Steels Steels that are hardened for the use in the manufacture of tools and dies. %orsion %est his is a test carried out b! t"isting a test piece about its a$is until fracture occurs. &hen the test piece is machined off from a bar, the practice is to state the ma$imum stress in shear and the angle or rotation. In testing "ires, the acting length in relation to the diameter and the number of t"ists is required. %orsional Strength he resistance of a bar to t"isting. Closel! related to its shear strength. %oughness he abilit! of a metal to rapidl! distribute "ithin itself both the stress and strain caused b! a suddenl! applied load, or more simpl! e$pressed, the abilit! of a material to "ithstand shock loading. It is the e$act opposite of "brittleness" "hich carries the implication of sudden failure. A brittle material has little resistance to failure once the elastic limit has been reached. %ramlines An overfill or lap usuall! occurring in parallel pairs of lines. 3ong straight marks due to dra"n,out inclusions on rolled sheets are also called tramlines. %rans$ormation 1ange he temperature range "ithin "hich austenite forms and ferrite or carbide progressivel! dissolves "hile ferrous allo!s are being heated. Also the temperature range "ithin "hich austenite decomposes to form ferrite and carbide on cooling. %rans$ormation %emperature he temperature at "hich a change in phase occurs or the limiting temperature of a transformation range. hese critical points are denoted b! s!mbols, e.g. Ac7G the temperature at "hich austenite begins to form

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on heating. here are 7; principal temperatures to "hich s!mbols are applied. %ransition %emperature he temperature at "hich a transition from ductile to brittle fracture takes place in steel. It is usuall! determined b! making a series of Charp! impact tests at various temperatures, the transition temperature is usuall! taken as the point "here 98? of the fracture is brittle. %rans(erse Strength A measurement of strength "hen the load is applied across the longitudinal flo" of the grain of a metal. Certain impurities such as sulphur have a detrimental effect on the transverse strength. his can be minimised b! the inclusion modification process. %rans(erse %est Also kno"n as 0adial or angential est. A test taken at right angles to the principal direction of rolling or forging. %rans(erse %ension %est A tension test for evaluating mechanical properties of a material in a direction transverse to that of rolling. %%% Cur(e An abbreviation of ime emperature ransformation Curve. %u)ing &hen referring to OC G, tubing is a separate pipe used "ithin the casing to conduct the oil or gas to the surface. @epending on conditions and "ell life, tubing ma! have to be replaced during the operational life of a "ell. %u$$triding A form of surface hardening, the process involves nitrogen but does not achieve the hardness of conventional nitriding. %undish he shallo" refractor!,lined basin on op of the continuous caster. It receives the liquid steel from the ladle, prior to the cast, allo"ing the operator to precisel! regulate the flo" of metal into the mold. %ungsten &hen used as an allo!ing element it increases the strength of steel at normal and elevated temperatures. Its "red hardness" value makes it suitable for cutting tools as it enables the tool edge to be maintained at high temperatures. In con#unction "ith other allo!ing elements it finds applications in heat resisting and other severe service conditions. %unnel Furnace !pe of furnace "hereb! stock to be heated is placed upon cars "hich are then pushed or pulled slo"l! through the furnace. %uyeres hese are located above the hearth of the blast furnace through "hich hot air blast is blo"n into the furnace. he number of tu!eres var! "ith the si:e of the furnace. 5suall! it is an! even number bet"een 78

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, ;8 and are uniforml! spaced all over the peripher!. 4 Chemical s!mbol for 5ranium. 4ltimate Analysis In chemistr!, this is a quantitative anal!sis in "hich percentages of all elements in the substance are determined. 4ltimate %ensile Strength he highest load applied in breaking a tensile test piece divided b! the original cross, sectional area of the test piece. 4ltrasonic Inspection A means of locating defects in steel. &hen acoustic energ! in the ultrasonic range is passed through steel, the sound "aves tend to travel in straight lines, rather than diffusing in all directions as the! do in the audible range. If there is a defect in the path of the beam it "ill cause a reflection of some of the energ!, depleting the energ! transmitted. his casts an acoustic shado" "hich can be monitored b! a detector placed opposite the transducer or energ! source. If the acoustic energ! is introduced as a ver! short burst, then the reflected energ! coming back to the originating transducer can also be used to sho" the si:e and depth of the defect. 5ltrasonic techniques can be used to detect deepl! located defects or those contained in the surface la!er. Skill and e$perience are required in interpreting the results portra!ed on the cathode ra! tube. 4nder$ill A cross section that has not filled up the roll pass, so that it is inaccurate in both shape and dimension. 4n*illed Steel Steel "hich has been insufficientl! deo$idised and evolves gas during solidification "ith the formation of blo",holes. 4psetting &orking a piece of steel so that its length is shortened and its cross,sectional area is increased. Its effect is to increase ductilit! in the radial and tangential directions. 4ranium A "hite malleable metal "hich is softer than steel. Its specific gravit! is 7<.H, it melts at a temperature of ;>88oC. 6 Chemical s!mbol for Ianadium. 6acuum Arc 1emelting A process used for producing advanced steels to the most demanding and critical specifications, particularl! in such areas as aerospace applications. he steel is first produced to a ver! close anal!sis and the resulting ingot is slo"l! remelted in a Iacuum Arc 0emelting furnace for up to 7> hours. Such steels are, b! necessit!, e$pensive to manufacture. 6acuum /egassing A ladle of molten metal is placed "ithin a chamber "hich is then evacuated. his reduces the gas content,

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particularl! h!drogen, as "ell as reducing non, metallic inclusions. 'odern secondar! steel making processes using Iacuum Arc @egassing units that include automated stirring and control of temperature and chemical anal!sis, ensure a consistent and high qualit! product. 6acuum /egassing An advanced steel refining facilit! that removes o$!gen, h!drogen and nitrogen under lo" pressures (in a vacuum) to produce ultra,lo",carbon steel for demanding electrical and automotive applications. +ormall! performed in the ladle, the removal of dissolved gases results in cleaner, higher,qualit!, more pure steel (see 3adle 'etallurg!). he amount of carbon in the steel is reduced b! e$posing liquid steel to a ver! lo" vacuum environment. Carbon combines in the process "ith o$!gen to form carbon mono$ide, "hich is removed in the process. he result is a steel that contains lo"er levels of carbon and thus, has higher formabili!. 6acuum +xygen /ecar)uri-ation "6+/# 2rocess for further refinement of stainless steel through reduction of carbon content. he amount of carbon in stainless steel must be lo"er than that in carbon steel or lo"er allo! steel (i.e., steel "ith allo!ing element content belo" 9?). &hile electric arc furnaces (/A-) are the conventional means of melting and refining stainless steel, IO@ is an economical supplement, as operating time is reduced and temperatures are lo"er than in /A- steelmaking. Additionall!, using IO@ for refining stainless steel increases the availabilit! of the /A- for melting purposes. 'olten, unrefined steel is transferred from the /A- into a separate vessel, "here it is heated and stirred b! an electrical current "hile o$!gen enters from the op of the vessel. Substantial quantities of undesirable gases escape from the steel and are dra"n off b! a vacuum pump. Allo!s and other additives are then mi$ed in to refine the molten steel further. 6anadium Steels containing vanadium have a much finer grain structure than steels of similar composition "ithout vanadium. It raises the temperature at "hich grain coarsening sets in and increases hardenabilit! "here it is in solution in the austenite prior to quenching. It also lessens softening on tempering and confers secondar! hardness on high speed steels. Ianadium is used in nitriding, heat resisting, tool and spring steels in con#unction "ith other allo!ing elements. 6ic*ers Hardness %est A method of determining the hardness of steel "hereb! a diamond p!ramid is pressed into the polished surface of the specimen and the diagonals of the impression are measured "ith a microscope fitted "ith a micrometer e!e piece. he rate of application and duration are automaticall! controlled and the load can be varied. 6+/ See "Iacuum O$!gen @ecarburi:ation" W W Chemical s!mbol for ungsten, from "olfram. Wal*ing Beam Furnace

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A t!pe of continuous reheat furnace in "hich the billet or slab moves through distinct heating :ones "ithin the furnace* 1! controlling the speed through the :ones, steelmakers can achieve precise rolling temperatures and consume less fuel during operation. Wal*ing )eam A means of conve!ing steel bars, billets, slabs, etc., across a cooling bed or through a furnace. he material to be conve!ed rests on a metal grid and a second grid is arranged to lift up and move for"ard bet"een the stationar! grid, thus lifting the material and ""alking" it for"ard, before returning to make another stroke. WA% 1 ,4 3CH (In steel heat treatment.) Cooling steel from its quenching temperature "ith "ater. W+1! HA1/3 SS %ardness resulting from mechanical "orking. Weat %est A test for determining the resistance of a sample to abrasion under given conditions, such as loading, lubrication, speed etc. Welding he process of #oining together t"o pieces of metal so that bonding accompanied b! appreciable interatomic penetration takes place at their original boundar! surfaces. he boundaries more or less disappear at the "eld, and integrating cr!stals develop across them. &elding is carried out b! the use of heat or pressure or both and "ith or "ithout added metal. here are man! t!pes of "elding including 'etal Arc, Atomic %!drogen, Submerged Arc, 0esistance 1utt, -lash, Spot, Stitch, Stud and 2ro#ection. Whis*ers hin hair,like gro"ths on metal that are barel! visible to the naked e!e, the! are stronger than the metals from "hich the! are formed, probabl! because the! are free from defects. White Annealing A heat treatment process carried out on pickled steel "ith the ob#ective of eliminating the h!drogen that has entered the steel during the pickling operation and thus removing an! tendenc! to h!drogen embrittlement. Wide-Flange Beam A structural steel section on "hich the flanges are not tapered, but have equal thickness from the tip to the "eb and are at right angles to the "eb. &ide,flange beams are differentiated b! the "idth of the "eb, "hich can range from F inches to more than >8 inches, and b! the "eight of the beam, measured in pounds per foot. Widmanstatten Structure A microstructure resulting "hen steels are cooled at a critical rate from e$tremel! high temperatures. It consists of ferrite and pearlite and has a cross,hatched appearance due to the ferrite having formed along certain cr!stallographic planes. Widths he lateral dimension of rolled steel, as opposed to the length or the gauge (thickness). If "idth of the steel strip is not controlled during rolling, the edges must be trimmed. Wire 1ods

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-inished product of solid section "hich is basicall! round in cross section and supplied in coils or in straight lengths. Wol$ram he alternative name for tungsten. Woody Fracture A fracture that is fibrous or "ood! in appearance due to the elongation of the individual grains. his ma! be accentuated b! the presence of slag or b! a banded structure. It is gre! and dull and is characteristic of ductile but non,homogeneous material such as "rought iron. Wor* Hardening he increase in hardness and strength produced b! cold plastic deformation or mechanical "orking. Wor* 1ules he division of #obs into separate crafts and specific guidelines for "ork in the labor contract. hese provisions define the duties of a specific #ob, and management must negotiate "ith the labor representative to make an! changes. Wrought Iron A commercial iron that has little use toda! and has been replaced b! mild steel. It "as commonl! produced b! the puddling process. he temperatures emplo!ed in its production are too lo" to render it fluid, it is heated until it forms a past! mass then it is squee:ed or forged. he process does not lend itself to removal of impurities so it contains an appreciable quantit! of slag. It "ill not respond to an! heat treatment designed to increase the hardness or strength. 8 8-1ay Crystallography D,ra! photographs of metals are a means of providing information "hich in man! cases cannot be obtained b! microscopic methods. he lines produced b! each element, or phase are characteristic, and their general pattern enables the cr!stalline structure to be identified. he scale of the pattern can be used to determine accuratel! the si:e of the unit cell and, therefore, the distance apart of the individual atoms. -rom the relative intensit! of the lines it is possible to deduce the distribution throughout the unit cell, the various t!pes of atoms in an allo! or the degree of preferred orientation in the material. 5 5ield he ratio of the quantit! of finished shipments to the total ra" steel produced, ad#usted for changes in inventor! and an! slabs that are purchased from outside. Lield has significantl! improved during the past decade, primaril! as the result of the industr!.s conversion to continuall! cast steel, "hose !ield is superior to that of traditional ingot teeming. 5ield Point Can be defined as the point "here a tensile test piece begins to e$tend permanentl!. If the load is reduced to :ero, the test piece "ill not return to its original length.

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5ield Strength he stress at "hich general plastic elongation of the test piece takes place. his point is "ell defined in hardened and tempered or annealed structures but can be ill defined in "as dra"n" structures. 5oung;s &odulus &ithin the limits of elasticit!, the ratio of the linear stress to the linear strain is termed the modulus of elasticit! or Loung.s 'odulus and ma! be "ritten Loung.s 'odulus, or / B(Stress=Strain) It is this propert! that determines ho" much a bar "ill sag under its o"n "eight or under a loading "hen used as a beam "ithin its limit of proportionalit!. -or steel, Loung.s 'odulus is of the order of ;89888 +=mm;. 5I 0/ P+I3% he load per unit of original cross,section area at "hich a marked increase in the deformation of the specimen occurs "ithout increase in load. 5suall! calulated from the load detemined b! the drop of the beam of the testing machine or b! use of dividers. 2 2inc Ninc is a metallic chemical element, it has a "hite colour "ith a bluish tinge. It has a high resistance to atmospheric corrosion and a ma#or use is as a protective coating for iron and steel sheet and "ire. Galvanised sheets are a prime e$ample. he melting point of :inc is >76oC. 2irconium Acts as a deo$idising element in steel and combines "ith sulphur. 2n Chemical s!mbol for Ninc. 2r Chemical s!mbol for Nirconium. 2-mill (See Send:imir 'ill). 2-mill Common name for a Sen:imir multiple,backup cluster mill used for cold,rolling stainless and carbon steel sheet or strip to ver! precise dimensions and fine finishes.

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