Fermentation is made use of on a large scale in certain industries.

Mici o-organisms like the different strains of bacteria and yeat (fungus) are cultured in very large numbers and used for various purposes. 1. In bakeries - for preparing bread cakes and biscuits etc. . In bre!eries - for preparing !ine and other alcohols. ". In producing vinegar and in the tanning and curing of leather. In everyday life# fermentation is used !hile making $dosa$ and $bhatuia$ etc. %he kneaded flour or maida left for some hours in !arm environment becomes some!hat spongy (leavening). Fermentation products give a typical flavour and taste to these items. II. Aerobic Respiration &ll aerobic organisms obtain o'ygen from the atmosphere i.e. air and give out carbon dio'ide. %his e'change of gases is only the mechanical part of aerobic respiration. &fter the absorbed o'ygen is transported to all parts of the body it is used to bring about complete breakdo!n of food molecules kno!n as cellular respiration. (rganisms differ in their mode of e'change of gases but not in their mode of cellular respiration. %he overall e)uation for aerobic respiration can be !ritten as C6H12O6+6O2->6CO2+6H2O+38ATP

&naerobic respiration is process of incomplete o'idation and produces less &%* !hereas aerobic is a process of complete o'idation !ith the + production of more &%*. Fermentation (anaerobic respiration) has industrial applications.

,ellular respiration is the process by !hich the chemical energy of -food- molecules is released and partially captured in the form of &%*. ,arbohydrates# fats# and proteins can all be used as fuels in cellular respiration# but glucose is most commonly used as an e'ample to e'amine the reactions and path!ays involved. Cellular respiration describes the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to obtain biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells$ !aste products. .nergy is released by the o'idation of fuel molecules and is stored as -high-energy- carriers. %he reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions in metabolism. Fuel molecules commonly used by cells in respiration include glucose# amino acids and fatty acids# and a common o'idi/ing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular o'ygen (( ). %here are organisms# ho!ever# that can respire using other organic molecules as electron acceptors instead of o'ygen. (rganisms that use o'ygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic# !hile those that do not are referred to as anaerobic. %he energy released in respiration is used to synthesi/e molecules that act as a chemical storage of this energy. (ne of the most !idely used compounds in a cell is adenosine triphosphate (&%*) and its stored chemical energy can be used for many processes re)uiring energy# including biosynthesis# locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. 0ecause of its ubi)uitous nature# &%* is also kno!n as the -universal energy currency-# since the amount of it in a cell indicates ho! much energy is available for energy-consuming processes.

A enosine !"-trip#osp#ate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a -molecular currency- of intracellular energy transfer.112 In this role# &%* transports chemical energy !ithin cells for metabolism. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration and consumed by many en/ymes

and a multitude of cellular processes including biosynthetic reactions# motility and cell division. In signal transduction path!ays# &%* is used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids# as !ell as by adenylate cyclase# !hich uses &%* to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic &M*. %he structure of this molecule consists of a purine base (adenine) attached to the 1$ carbon atom of a pentose sugar (ribose). %hree phosphate groups are attached at the 3$ carbon atom of the pentose sugar. &%* is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of 45& replication and transcription. 6hen &%* is used in 45& synthesis# the ribose sugar is first converted to deo'yribose by ribonucleotide reductase. &%* !as discovered in 17 7 by 8arl 9ohmann#1 2 and !as proposed to be the main energy-transfer molecule in the cell by Frit/ &lbert 9ipmann in 17:1.1"2

Aerobic respiration re)uires o'ygen in order to generate energy (&%*). It is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdo!n from glycolysis and re)uires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion to be fully o'idi/ed by the 8rebs cycle. %he product of this process is energy in the form of &%* (&denosine %riphosphate)# by substrate-level phosphorylation# 5&4; and F&4; . $i%pli&ie Reaction' ,<;1 (< (a)) = <( (g) > <,( (g) = <; ( (l) ?;c - @@A kB %he reducing potential of 5&4; and F&4; is converted to more &%* through an electron transport chain !ith o'ygen as the -terminal electron acceptor-. Most of the &%* produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by o'idative phosphorylation. %his !orks by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. %his potential is then used to drive &%* synthase and produce &%* from &4*. 0iology te'tbooks often state that bet!een "<-"@ &%* molecules can be made per o'idised glucose molecule during cellular respiration ( from glycolysis# from the 8rebs cycle# and about " -": from the electron transport system). Cenerally# "@ &%* molecules are formed from aerobic respiration. ;o!ever# this ma'imum yield is never )uite reached due to losses (leaky membranes) as !ell as the cost of moving pyruvate and &4* into the mitochondrial matri'. &erobic metabolism is 17 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (!hich yields mol &%* per 1 mol glucose). %hey share the initial path!ay of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues !ith the 8rebs cycle and o'idative phosphorylation. %he post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells# and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis) refers to the o'idation of molecules in the absence of o'ygen to produce energy# in opposition to aerobic respiration !hich does use o'ygen. &naerobic respiration processes re)uire another electron acceptor to replace o'ygen. &naerobic respiration is often used interchangeably !ith fermentation# especially !hen the glycolytic path!ay is used for energy production in the cell. %hey are not synonymous terms# ho!ever# since certain anaerobic prokaryotes can generate all of their &%* using an electron transport system and &%* synthase. 4efinition of anaerobic respirationD the breakdo!n of food substances in the absence of o'ygen !ith a small amount of energy. Ceneral !ord and symbol e)uations for the anaerobic respiration of glucose can be sho!n as glucose lactic acid + energy (ATP); C6H12O6 2C H6O + 2 ATP. %he energy released is about 1 A kB per molecule of glucose.

&naerobic respiration is less efficient at using the energy from glucose since &%* are produced during anaerobic respiration per glucose# compared to the "A &%* per glucose produced by aerobic respiration. %his is because the !aste products of anaerobic respiration still contain plenty of energy.

()ternal respiration refers to the e'change of gases bet!een the atmosphere and the pulmonary loop of circulation including the lungs. ('ygen is dra!n in through the respiratory tract# (nasal passages# into the pharyn'# to the trachea# the bronchial tubes to the alveoli sacs) and is then delivered to the blood !hich transports o'ygen throughout the body. From the lungs# o'ygen is transported across the thin membranes of the alveoli and the border of the capillary and attracted to the hemoglobin molecule !ithin the red blood cell. .'ternal respiration is a passive process in that energy (&%*) is not e'pended by cells of the body as o'ygen passes from the air outside the nostrils to the red blood cell. 4iffusion is the process utili/ed !hich means that the partial pressure of o'ygen in the atmosphere helps provide the energy needed for diffusion to occur. .'ternal respiration also transports carbon dio'ide from the blood in the capillaries of the respiratory membrane through the capillary !all# through the alveoli !all# to the respiratory tract# and out into the surrounding air.

&%* is a chemical cataboli/ed (i.e.# broken do!n) from glucose and stored as energy in the mitochondria of cells throughout the body. It is the necessary fuel for all body cellsE !ithout it# cells# and therefore the body# cannot operate. %he three main functions of &%* in cellular function areD 1. %ransporting organic substancesFsuch as sodium# calcium# potassiumFthrough the cell membrane. . Gynthesi/ing chemical compounds# such as protein and cholesterol. ". Gupplying energy for mechanical !ork# such as muscle contraction.

(nly a small amount of &%*Fabout " ouncesFis stored in the muscle cells at any given time. %his is enough energy to support only a fe! seconds of muscle contraction during intense activity. &s a result# &%* stores need to be constantly replenished in order to keep the muscle cells fueled. (ne of the !ays this occurs is by transforming &4* back into &%* in the muscle fiber. &s &%* is used up and &4* stores accumulate# the bonds of another phosphate molecule# creatine phosphate (,*)# break. %his releases energy that is used to rebond &4* and * to form &%*. ;o!ever# there is very little ,* in muscle cells. %herefore# the &4*H,* reaction supplies only enough energy to support an additional " or : seconds of intense activity. 4uring periods of high intensity e'ercise# such as sprinting and !eight lifting# !hen short bursts of ma'imum output are called for# the total energy released from the anaerobic &%*F&4*F,*F&%* cycle is only capable of sustaining the cellsI energy needs for about @ seconds.. 0eyond that# the body turns to other methods of generating &%* to keep the muscle fibers fueled. 4uring e'ercise periods lasting longer than < to @ seconds# muscle fibers cataboli/e stored glucoseFkno!n as glycogenFinto &%* for fueling contractions. %his is done via t!o processesD Clycolysis# an anaerobic process# and o'idation# an aerobic process.

&denosine triphosphate (&%*) is often described as the body$s -energy currency-Fenergy-producing metabolic A*P is &or%e urin+ cellular respiration ,it# ener+- release b- t#e brea. o,n o& +lucose %olecules. Illustration by ;ans + ,assidy. ,ourtesy of Cale Croup. reactions store their ener+- in the form of &%*# !hich can then drive energy-re)uiring syntheses and other reactions any!here in the cell. Gtructurally &%* consists of the purine base adenine (a comple'# double-ring %olecule containing five nitro+en ato%s) attached to the five-carbon sugar riboseE this combination is kno!n as adenosine. &ttaching a string of three connected phosphate groups to the ribose produces &%*. Gchematically# one may depict the structure of &%* as &d*h-*h-*h# !here &d is adenosine and P# is a phosphate group. If only t!o phosphate groups are attached# the resulting compound is a enosine ip#osp#ate (&4*). %he final step in almost all the body$s energy-producing mechanisms is attachment of the third phosphate group to &4*. %his ne! phosphate-phosphate bond# kno!n as a high-energy bond# effectively stores the energy that has been produced. %he &%* then diffuses throughout the cell# eventually reaching sites !here energy is needed for such

processes as protein synthesis or muscle cell contraction. &t these sites# en/-%e mechanisms couple the energyre)uiring processes to the breakdo!n of &%*$s high-energy bond. %his regenerates &4* and free phosphate# both of !hich diffuse back to the cell$s energy-producing sites and serve as ra! materials for production of more &%*.

%he &%*-&4* couple is thus analogous to a rechargeable storage batter-# !ith energy production sites representing the battery charger. &%* is the fully charged battery that can supply energy to a flashlight or transistor radio. &4* is the used battery that is returned for charging. &4* is not a fully drained battery# ho!ever. It still possesses one high-energy phosphate-phosphate bond. 6hen energy is short and &%* is scarce# the second phosphate can be transferred from one &4* to another. %his creates a ne! &%* molecule# along !ith one of adenosine monophosphate (&M*). Gince the -fully drained- &M* !ill probably be broken do!n and disposed of# ho!ever# this mechanism represents an emergency response that is inhibited !hen &%* is plentiful. &%* is also a building block in *0A s-nt#esis# !ith the adenosine and one phosphate being incorporated into the gro!ing heli'. (%he -&- in &%* is the same as in the &-,-C-% -alphabet- of DNA.) %his process differs from most other &%*-using reactions# since it releases t!o phosphate groupsFinitially still Joined# but soon separated. 6ith very little pyrophosphate (*h-*h) available in the cell# the chance that it !ill break the 45& chain and again formFthough all en/yme reactions are theoretically reversibleFis effectively infinitesimal. Gince breaking the 45& chain !ould probably kill the cell# !hat at first might appear to be energy !astage turns out to be )uite !orth!hile. %he cell also converts &%* to &M* and pyrophosphate in a fe! other cases !here the reaction must al!ays go only in a single direction. Gee also Metabolism.