Robert Fludd Last of the Alchemists, First of the Chemists? By R.W. Fra. Harold W.

Hampton 8 Delivered to Charles Darwin College No. 73 25th February 2012

Robert Fludds reputation, outside the field of alchemy and mysticism, is not as prominent as his achievements warrant. He was born in 1574, well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, towards the end of the Tudor period, and died in London on 8th September 1637 at the age of 63 during the reign of King Charles I, the second monarch of the Stuart dynasty. He came of a privileged background; his father being Thomas Fludd who was treasurer of war to the Queen, in France and the Low Countries. Robert studied at St. Johns college Oxford but left before obtaining a degree. He then spent six years travelling in Europe. During this period he studied the writings of Paracelsus which stimulated his interest in alchemy and the occult. On his return to England he went up to Christ Church college Oxford where he gained a degree in medicine. He built up a medical practice in London and ultimately became a fellow of the College ( later the Royal College ) of Physicians. 1 Although his practice was, by all accounts, successful, he was criticised for his methods. He was said to employ faith healing, using astrology and numerology, in addition to regular medical practices. No doubt his earlier study of Paracelsus was still an influence. This criticism prompted him to write his Declaratio Brevis addressed to his patron King James I. I shall return to this later. Fludd was born during the age of philosophical reasoning and mysticism, and died at the commencement of the birth of analytical science. His work and his writings typify this period of transition, which I shall refer to as the Scientific Awakening. He was much influenced by the early philosophers and the occult. He also felt constrained to write a defence of the Rosicrucian fraternity with a tract entitled : A Brief Apology, washing away and cleansing the stain of suspicion and infamy applied to the Fraternity of the Rosy Cross with, as it were, a Fludd of truth. 2 ( Flood here being spelt as in his surname) There seems to me to be a dichotomy of thought in Fludds Apologia. Whilst he is attempting to justify the principles propounded in the Society of the Rosy Cross he denounces the old teachings by stating there is a very great defect in all the arts which have until now flourished in the schools. He goes on to cite what he calls the physical arts of alchemy and mathematics as being the subject of defects.3 Nevertheless some of his writings indicate that he applied the degree of analytical thought which spawned the Scientific Awakening. As Freemasons we are familiar with the Seven Liberal Arts and Sciences. We may be apt to think that they are a peculiarly Masonic concept. However these studies are of much earlier date being taught in monasteries and universities from the 12th century onwards. Indeed very fine frescoes dating from the mid-sixteenth century depicting these seven sciences are to be found on the ceiling of the library at the Escorial Palace, Madrid. Three of the seven, Grammar, Rhetoric and Music, fall into the category of the Arts. Of the four sciences Astronomy, Arithmetic, Geometry and Logic - all are of very early date. Astronomy was employed in antiquity for the purpose of measuring time and the formulation of the calendar. The ancient Egyptians are known to have observed the heavens and this knowledge was passed to the Greeks. The first scientific calendar must. however, be credited to the Romans who adopted a calendar of twelve months each of thirty days. This soon moved out of synchronization with the seasons and it was later in 45 BC that the Julian Calendar was introduced with 365 days and a leap year every fourth year. This was so accurately calculated that it lasted for over 1600 years. By 1582 the error amounted to ten days and a further revision was instituted by Pope Gregory XIII when the present Gregorian calendar was created. This was immediately adopted by the Roman Catholic countries of Europe, but was initially rejected by the Protestant nations. The Gregorian calendar was not adopted in England until 1752.

Although the ancient astronomers calculated the celestial movements so accurately and were aware of the planets, or wandering stars, the real nature of the universe was rooted in religious dogma. To the Church the Earth was unquestionably the centre of the universe and all the heavenly bodies rotated about it. Although the Polish astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus, propounded the heliocentric theory of the solar system in a paper published in 1543, its veracity was not immediately accepted. Even when Galileo Galilei, the Italian astronomer, confirmed the Copernican theory by his telescopic discoveries in the middle of the 17th century he was compelled by the Roman Catholic Church to abjure his beliefs. This alas is only one of many instances when religious bigotry has hindered the spread of scientific knowledge. The three other sciences - arithmetic, geometry and logic - are also of early date. These three sciences are closely connected and, together, are encompassed in what we now term mathematics. The development of modern mathematics was in large measure due to the invention of the decimal system and the concept of zero, which we owe to the Arabic world. This system of numeration became current in Europe about 1000 AD and replaced the cumbersome numeral system used by the Sumerians. Likewise the later Roman system of numeration did not lend itself to easy calculation. Mathematics, and its related science, Geometry, developed through the process of logical thought and the formulation of axioms and propositions. Euclid, who lived c300 BC may be regarded as the father of mathematics. He, and his predecessor Pythagoras, derived their theories more from philosophical thought rather than rigorous application. 4 The processes of pure logic instituted by the early Greek philosophers was unable to explain the modern concept of irrational numbers and the infinite. This philosophical approach to mathematics, astronomy and other sciences inhibited their development until the dawn of, what I termed above, the Scientific Awakening. This is the era of scientific discovery to which Robert Fludd, in some measure, contributed. The period of Fludds life was a creative period in the arts as well as a period of d iscovery in the sciences. Direct contemporaries of Fludd were the great literary figures of Sir Francis Bacon, Ben Johnson, William Shakespeare, Edmund Spencer and Miguel de Cervantes. John Donne, one of the great metaphysical poets and Thomas Hobbes, the social philosopher who also dabbled in mathematics and mechanics were also his contemporaries. 5 The discipline of mathematics played an important part in the development of the other sciences. Sir Isaac Newtons mathematical training was the basis of his later discoveries. Johannes Kepler, the German astronomer became professor of mathematics at Gratz in 1593. Galileo Galilei, the Italian astronomer, was professor of mathematics at Padua. Both of these astronomers were able to apply their knowledge of mathematics to their study of astronomy. Mathematical theory took a great step forward when the Scot, John Napier, discovered logarithms in 1614. 6 Modern methods of scientific analysis were starting to take shape at the beginning of the seventeenth century. William Harvey the English physician conducted serious studies in anatomy and predicated the circulation of the blood. Johannes Kepler the German astronomer developed the concept of planetary motion and formulated the three laws of planetary motion. However Kepler retained his belief in astrology and maintained his discoveries to be celestial harmonies reflecting Gods design. Even Robert Boyle, who flourished later in the seventeenth century and who many consider to be the father of chemistry, considered himself to be as much a theologian as a scientist. He is quoted as stating that In the Bible the ignorant may learn all re quisite knowledge and the most knowing may learn to discern their ignorance. Some of Floods concepts, although drawn from Rosicrucian ideas are strangely reminiscent of modern scientific thinking. Writing of the distinction between the Macrocosm and the Microcosm he talks of the different parts of the cosmos and says 7 The highest of these parts is that expanse of the universe where the fiery spirit was, and .... is so fine and pure that it is totally imperceptible and cannot be seen by us. This surel y describes very well the modern scientific notion of dark matter . In talking of the creation he relies on Biblical text saying 8 The Lord said let there be light , but continues the highest heaven, overflowing with light, was created on the first day. So ... this hitherto shapeless and obscured region was driven down from above in a spiral turn. He says of the primordial matter, that the creation 9 causes its substance to expand, as is seen in the art of Chemistry, where, if some gross matter, shut up in a fairly large, hermetically sealed flask, is made by a strong heat, its rarefied portions naturally want a bigger space, so the glass breaks, so that the rarefied vapours may find more room. In the same way, the transparent matter of this heaven, rarefied by its friendly warmth,

spreads itself out widely. Clearly Fludd is applying observations from his own chemical experiments to the wider concept of the universe. His comments above are uncannily like the 20 th century big bang theory and the discovery of the expanding universe. The discovery of the spiral nature of galaxies was only possible when the largest astronomical telescopes were built in the middle of the 20th century, but this spiral form was clearly referred to in the quotations of Fludd above. These concepts advanced by Fludd raised critical comment, particularly from Kepler. His motives for writing them were questioned and it was suggested that he was committing religious innovation or even heresy. Evidently Fludd was forced to justify his assertions about the Macrocosm and Microcosm contained in his Apologia. This he did in a published tract, addressed to King James, and entitled Declaratio Brevis. 10 In this he states I will clearly show it here in such a way that Your Majesty will not have any further doubts about my faithfulness towards God and Your Majesty and to the fatherland. We are able to show certain modest truths, ... and these truths are not to be divulged in a common manner which is uncertain and inconsistent, but in a new way, unknown to the world, which is most certain and infallible. 11 Clearly Fludd was at great pains to justify his assertions and, although the Declaratio is referred to as Brevis, it nevertheless runs to twelve pages in his biography! It is not clear to me what criticism Fludd was attempting to refute. It is clear that he had a running battle with Kepler over the nature of the universe. Kepler felt that Fludds ideas lacked a rigorous scientific approach. On the other hand Fludds attempt to refute the suggestion that he had committed religious innovation suggests that his ideas were too progressive for the Creationists. In his tract A Nosce te ipsum he writes although men and all things else divide and branch themselves into different persons and shapes ... 12 Is he here giving us a foretaste of the Darwinian theory of evolution which, of course, raised such religious opposition on its promulgation. Although his studies of Paracelsus no doubt influenced him throughout his life nevertheless we see in the work of Fludd that he did apply analytical method in much of his work. This is illustrated, when writing his Philosophical Key about his researches he says To confirm therefore by an evident declaration that my Philosophy hath flowed only from mine own invention ... 13 This ( I say ) is the very cause that I content myself with speculation of mine own experimental conclusion .... Notwithstanding his attachment to the Rosicrucian traditions and his own mystical ideas, he did nevertheless conduct genuine scientific research. Up to the time of the Scientific Awakening the phenomenon of fire was covered by the phlogiston theory formulated early in the 17th century.14 This theory held that a substance, phlogiston, was a material substance having weight, and, sometimes, negative weight, and was involved in all cases of combustion. Fludd had a well equipped laboratory which he may have employed in his medical profession. He certainly used it for scientific research and conducted an experiment on combustion in a closed container in which he established that a quantity of air had been used up in the process of combustion. This led to the scientist, Robert Hooke, to suggest that air had a component that, on heating, combined with combustible substances to produce fire. It was not for another one hundred years that the gas oxygen was isolated. On a more utilitarian level he developed a more efficient process in the smelting of iron. In 1620 the King charged the Privy Council to consider Fludds application for a patent method to make steel. 15 The dichotomy between Fludds traditional ideas and progressive thinking is perhaps summed up in the Conclusion of the Mosaical Philosophy translated from the Latin and published in 1659 - it is not my intention to express my more bold and settled opinions touching the true Philosophy and his appendixes in a larger English phrase, considering the roughness and harshness of my pen, by reason of my defect, and in the insufficiency in the poloshed nature thereof ... and therefore I will say as the Prophet David did, I will sing the truth under the shadow of thy wings, O Lord, in thee do I put my trust; keep and preserve me from mine enemies, for thy mercy sake AMEN. 16 Just two years before Fludds death, the mathematician, Mersennes was instrumental in founding the Academie Parisien which later became the French Academy of Sciences and at the same period, followers of Francis Bacon formed the Royal Society which was later granted its Royal Charter in 1662. From this point in history the modern era of scientific discovery commenced. Whilst the title of this paper is intended to be tongue in cheek Fludd was certainly not the last of the Alchemists, neither was he the first chemist I hope that I have illustrated that he lived at the cusp of the Scientific Awakening and played no insignificant part in its birth.

References contained in the Paper

Page 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2. Robert Fludd
3. do.

C.D. Edition The Aquarian Press

Do.

2004 1992

Under Fludd 1
54

Wm. H. Huffman
Do.

4. Encyclopaedia Britannica 5. Appendix 1 6. Appendix 2 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Robert Fludd do. do. do. do. do. do.

ibid.

Under Maths

ibid.

72 74 75 84 85 109 105

14. Encyclopaedia Britannica 15. Robert Fludd 16. do.

ibid
ibid.

Under Combustion 41 251

Appendix 2

Astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus 19.2.1473 to 24.5.1543. Polish. Propounded heliocentric theory of the solar system - c1508-1514; not published until 1543. Tycho Brahe. Swedish. 1546 to 1601. He rejected Copernican theory but, nevertheless carried out accurate astronomical measurements. Galileo Galilei 15.2.1564 to 8.1.1642. Italian. His discoveries with telescope confirmed Copernican theory. His studies moved thinking from natural philosophy to quantitative mathematical experimentation. Medical student in 1581 then professor of mathematics at Padua. Johannes Kepler 27.12.1571 to 15.11.1630. German. Developed the concept of planetary motion and formulated the three major laws of planetary motion. These were not regarded by Kepler as laws but celestial harmonies reflecting Gods design. It was not until Newton that these were regarded as physical principals. Kepler retained the belief in astrology but restricted the domain in which its predictions could be regarded as reliable. Became professor of mathematics at Gratz in 1593. In 1628 became astrologer to Duke of Wallenstein - commander of forces in 30 years war. Chemistry Robert Boyle. Irish. 1626 to 1691. The father of chemistry. Although a practical chemist he considered himself as much a theologian as a scientist. In the Bible the ignorant may learn all requisite knowledge and the most knowing may learn to discern their ignorance. Johanne Bernouille. Swiss. 1677 to 1748. Mathematician and chemist. Joseph Priestly. English. 1733 to 1804. Discoverer of Oxygen. Antoine Lavoisier. French. 1743 to 1794. Set modern chemistry on its path. Formulated the theory of Chemical Elements. Disposed of the notion of Phlogiston. Mathematics Rene Descartes. 1596 to 1650. French Philosopher and mathematician. Co-ordinate geometry. John Napier. Scottish. 1550 to 1617. Invented logarithms 1614. Omar Khayyam. c1123. Poet and mathematician. Advanced maths thinking. Medicine Hippocrates. Greek. c460 to 377 BC. Regarded as the Father of Medicine. William Harvey. English 1578 to 1657. Physician who predicated the circulation of the blood. Sir William Jenner. English. 1815 to 1898. Physics Blaise Pascal. French. 1623 to 1662. Also a mathematician and moralist. Robert Hooke. English. 1635 to 1703. Theory of elasticity - vide Hookes Law. Also conducted experiments on fire. Isaac Newton. English. 1642 to 1727. Benjamin Franklin American. 1706 to 1790. A polymath. Scientist, inventor and philosopher. Leonhard Euler. Swiss. 1707 to 1783. Mathematician. Michael Faraday. English. 1791 to 1867. Electromagnetism and Electrolysis.

Appendix 1
Fludd ( 1574-1637) Contemporaries Edmund Spencer. 1552 to 1599. English writer and poet. Sir Francis Bacon. English writer and philosopher. 1561 to 1626. Went up to Cambridge and Grays Inn. His book The Advancement of Learning gave impetus to inductive methods. William Shakespeare. 1564 to 1616. Miguel de Cervantes. Spanish c1547 to 1616. Don Quixote said to be the first modern novel. Ben Johnson. c1573 to 1637. Poet laureate 1616. Galileo. see Appendix 2. Johannes Kepler. see Appendix 2. John Donne. English. 1572 to 1631. One of the greatest metaphysical poets. Educated at Oxford and Cambridge and studied law at London. Thomas Hobbes. English. 1588 to 1679. Social philosopher. Interest in mathematics and mechanics. Met with Bacon, Galileo and Descartes. Rene Descartes. French. 1596 to 1650. Mathematician and philosopher. Founded Co-ordinate geometry.