IG/02

For restricted Circulation Only

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY











Power Management Institute
Noida

CONTENTS

S. No. Subject Page Nos.
1. Accident Causes and Factors 1
2. Cost of Accident 8
3. Accident Prevention 11
4. Accident Investigation & Records 16
5. Techniques of Discovering Hazards 23
6. Investigation of Accidents 43
7. Procedure for Reporting of Accidents/ Dangerous
Occurrences
52
8. Guidelines on Constitution of Enquiry Committee 63
9. Safety Policy 69
10. Industrial Hazards 74
11. Protective Clothing & Equipment 82
12. Safety in Movement of Men & Material 88
13. Safety in Construction 100
14. Safe Working Practices in Thermal Power Station 108
15. Permit to Work System 115
16. An Executives Role in Safety 119

17. Factories Act - 1948 124
18.
Indian Electricity Act & Rules
132
19.
Gas Cylinder Rules - 1981
138
20.
Legal Aspects of Safety Under the Acts
152
21.
Health Hazards of Hazardous Chemicals
161
22.
Indian Boiler Act 1923
171
23.
Inspection of Steam Boilers
185
24.
House Keeping
192
25.
Fire Safety
197
26.
Portable Fire Extinguishers
204
27.
Fire Prevention and Protection System for Thermal Power
Station
234
28.
Introduction to First Aid
243
29.
First Aid to the injured
250

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1. 1. Accidents Accidents- - Causes & Factors Causes & Factors

INTRODUCTION

The ordinary meaning of the word Accident as derived from lexicons is an
unforeseen of an unexpected event. This definition covers a wide range of
phenomena including even natural catastrophes and cannot, therefore, subserve
the purpose of a scientific investigation. The term accident when used in
industry, while in essence retaining this popular connotation, refers to a district
class of the phenomena. The American National Safety Council has defined
accident as that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death or the property damage. Heinrich has, however, defined
accident as an unplanned and uncontrolled event in which the action or reaction
on an object, substance, person or radiation result in personal injury.
Basically accidents constitute a behavioral problem signifying a disintegration in
the equilibrium of the individual in relation to the work situation. The forces that
make for the disequilibrium are mainly drawn from the stress of the work situation
and the psycho- social character of the individual involved. As soon as this filed
is distributed due to the displacement of the relatively specific situation or the
appearance of new one the equilibrium is upset, causing an interruption or
disorganization in performance. By and large, therefore, accidents are defined as
unforeseen, sudden, unintended or unconscious deviations in work activity
tending to end to an injury.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
The causes may be human or mechanical failures .The two broad sources of the
accidents may be classified into:
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i) Unsafe conditions, and
ii) Unsafe acts
An unsafe condition may refer to the condition of the floor, of the ladder, of a
machine, of a stairway, of a tool, of a conveyor belt of anything else of physical,
environmental or mechanical character which could lead to an accident.
An unsafe act is something somebody does which may culminate in an
accident. The word may is used because it is not necessary that it should
always lead to an accident, but we can be sure that if such acts are persisted
they will result in avoidable injuries.
It is a matter of considerable debate whether out of unsafe condition and
unsafe act which is more important. The question is a difficult one. Both are
important. The significance of separating causes into two kinds is that it draws
attention to fact that the attack strategy should be two- pronged. We must
prevent unsafe acts, not one or the other. What then is the relationship between
the two?
The cause of nearly all accidents has relations to an unsafe condition. This
unsafe condition contains the POTENTIAL to injure someone (e.g., an
unguarded press, an unfenced floor opening. a piece of wood with a nail on the
floor, and so on.)
It is the unsafe act that leads to an accident. We may call it the triggering cause
because it releases the danger potential of unsafe condition somewhat as the
pressing of trigger of gun release the unsafe potential of the loaded bullet.
How do we tackle the problem?
-- The first attack has to be on the unsafe condition. Because it alone is
completely controllable
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-- The next important attack has to be on unsafe acts of the people. To
place this line to attack second does not mean that it is relatively
unimportant but only that it is harder to control less immediate in effect.
Even through, in the short run. More certain and quicker results can be
obtained by rectifying unsafe conditions in the long run the only way to
make places accident free is to teach the people to work safely and to see
they practice it.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ACCIDENTS
These are classified into four on the basis of the area of their origin, the person
or the environment and according to the basis of proximity to accident event:
-- Mechanical
-- Environment
-- Human
-- Human mechanical causes.
Mechanical causes
These relates to the defects and inadequate safeguards of machinery to unsafe
conditions of equipment
-- Inadequately guarded,
-- Unguarded
-- Unsafe design or construction,
-- Hazardous arrangement (pilling, Overloading, etc.)
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Environmental Causes
The environmental causes of accidents refer to inadequate physical and
atmospheric conditions of work. They are distinguished from mechanical causes
by the fact they do not cause the accident directly, but indirectly contribute to its
occurrence, by virtue of their adverse effects upon the individual. The
environmental causes are also, sometimes, designated as External to the
individual and general where all the workers are affected by them. Some of the
important environmental factor which contributes to accident causation are:
-- Elimination
-- Ventilation
-- Temperature
-- Speed of work
--- Hours of work
-- Spread over to work period
-- Workload
Human Causes
Human causes constitute by far the most important category to accident causes.
Accidents due to human failure a preponderate over other of accidents. The
various factors that constitute the human causes may be grouped as under:
Individual Factors Psychological Factors
a) Age a) Attitude towards job
b) Marriage b) Interest and Difficulties
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c) Education c) Machine habits
d) Health d) Attention
e) Length of service e) Fatigue
f) Work performance
Personality Factors Sociological Factors
a) Intellectual level a) Size of family
b) Emotional maturity b) Number of dependents
c) Adjustment c) Financial position
d) Anxiety level d) Social Status
e) Interpersonal relations
f) Home environment
Accidents have many ways of attending consummation. An accident may injure
the workman or damage the machine or tools or injure a person other then one
involved in the accident or may not attain consummation at all. Suppose a
weaver is performing the operation of shutting on his loom and the shuttle
frequency slips from his hand. Here, the fact of the shuttle slipping form the hand
constitutes the accident, and the events that occur after that represent the effects
of the accident.
Accidents and injuries, therefore, represent two distinct classes of phenomena of
different psychological importance. The antecedent circumstances in the
causation of an injury are easily observable, but the predisposing causes of an
accident often lie hidden in the inner strata of the organism of the individual, his
history and the social environment factors of the work situation.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS
Influencing Elements
An accident situation comprises three elements:
-- Work Deviation
-- Its causes and,
-- Its effects.
Accidents may, therefore, be classified on the basis of these three elements.
According to the nature of the work deviation, accidents are classified as:
-- Striking against
-- Struck by
-- Caught in or between
-- Fall on same level
-- Overexertion
-- Inhalation or absorption
- Contract with electrically charged objects.
Striking Against
This class refers to such incidents as the workers dashing against machines or
other objects or colliding with a fellow worker or some other or object, Such
accidents constitute an important class for psychological study due to the
predominantly human character of their causation.
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Struck By
These accidents are caused due to machine parts of broken belts or other falling,
flying, sliding or moving objects striking of rubbing the body of the worker. Such
accidents are generally due to defective equipment or unsafe working premises.
Caught in or between
These consist of accidents resulting in either fingers being caught in between the
gears or in between the pinion wheels or moving rollers or the hand getting
entangled in the meshes of belt & pulleys. Other parts of the body may as well
get similarly involved.
Falls, on same level
Accidents of this type are a common experience of everyday life. While falls refer
to a complete collapse of the individuals musculature on the ground, slips signify
only a temporary disturbance in muscular balance.
Exposure
These are categories of infrequent occurrences. They are exemplified by such
events as heat, exhaustion, Poisoning, Drowning and electrocution.
Another classification on the basis of the severity of injury and consequent
incapability for the work is commonly followed in accident analysis. Accordning to
this classification. accidents may be divided into five categories:
i) Fatal
ii) Serious
iii) Minor
iv) Trivial
v) No injury accidents.
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2. 2. Cost Of Accidents Cost Of Accidents

INTRODUCTION

Often the extent of the cost of accident is not evident and hence not appreciated.
Usually, only direct costs which represent compensation and medical expenses
to be borne by the management are taken into consideration when computing
costs due to accidents. The hidden or indirect costs to the management, the
injured and society at large ignored every often.
COST OF THE INJURED
The injured workers themselves are the very heavy losers. Their actual losses in
money may not be so great as employers but he can ill afford to withstand his
share of financial burden. Where he is not covered by any benefit schemes of the
management or any insurance, he will have to bear himself the loss of wages,
the cost of medical expenses and the loss due to the any permanent
disablement. Even when there are insurance of benefit scheme, the
compensation and medical benefits are rarely adequate. Further no costing can
be done to compensate for the suffering, pain, worry and effects due to
incapacitation.
COST OF MANAGEMEN
According to detailed study carried out by Heinrich the indirect costs which
present all the incidental costs due to an accent except those relating to medical
expenses and compensation, work out on an average to about four time the
direct costs. Some studies report indirect costs to be even six times the direct
costs. While these ratios indicate the average pattern, individual accidents could
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be very costly particularly when the accidents are serious or result in heavy
damage to equipment.
Direct Costs
The direct costs of accidents comprise of (a) the compensation paid to the
injured person; and (b) medical expenses on his treatment since both these are
generally covered under insurance, the cost of accident on these accounts are
also commonly as Insured Cost.
Indirect Costs
The following items contribute towards the indirect of uninsured costs of
accidents and can be calculated in terms of money unlike the other less tangible
losses such as the effect of accidents on morale etc:
--- Lost time of injured employees: These are the wages paid for the time lost
by the injured worker other than those paid under the workmans
compensation law.
--- Lost time of other employees: After an accident all employees of the
section stop to watch, assist or talk about it. Some time is also lost as
the equipment damages in accident is required or the output or aid of the
injured person is required.
--- Lost time of Foreman, Supervisors or other executives: Time spent on
activities such as investigating the accident, preparing reports, settling
claims arising from it, selecting training or booking in new worker etc.
--- Cost of time spent by the first aid attendant and hospital staff of factory.
--- Cost of damage to material or equipment. This should also include the
cost incurred in back in order the material or equipment which may be
thrown into a state of disorder.
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--- Incidental cost due to interference with production like loss of profit on
contracts cancelled or orders lost.
--- Costs under employee welfare and benefit systems: These will be other
than those paid as compensation.
--- Cost due to continuance of wages to injured persons in full: The output of
injured worker is below normal for some period after he rejoins work.
--- Cost due to loss of profit on the injured workers productivity and on idle
machines.
--- Over head cost over injured worker: These are expenses for the light,
heat, rent and other items with continue over while the injured worker is
away from work.
COST OF SOCIETY
Industrial accidents place a heavy burden on Society. It is ultimately the Society
suffers all losses. For example, taking economical considerations alone, the
financial losses of direct and indirect costs by the management will have to be
met consumers in terms of increased cost of products. Further, it is society,
which again, ultimately bears the financial burden of maintenance of all the
disabled employees and their dependents. Looking at it from this board
perspective, every citizen bears a proportion of the cost of accidents and
knowing heavy costs, every effort should be made prevent accidents.







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3. 3. Accident Prevention Accident Prevention

INTRODUCTION

An injury prevented is a benefaction, an injury compensated, an apology
Industrial accident prevention has come of age. The long struggle for its
recognition, for supporting interest and effective action, waged over a period of
years by Government, Industry, Labour and other organizations has borne fruits.
The need and value of Accident Prevention has not been well established and it
is realised that emphasis should be placed on the practical methods of
accomplishment.
Accident Prevention
Accident prevention is both Science and Art. It represents, above all other things,
Control Control of man performance, Machine performance and physical
environment The word control is used advisely because it connotes prevention
as well as correction of unsafe conditions and circumstances. It is a vital factor in
every industrial enterprise, one which, if ignored or practiced unskillfully leads to
needless human suffering and business bankruptcy.
Implication
The effect of accidents, besides the loss of life, property and money, is to restrict
seriously both employment and production of goods and sevices on which the
welfare of a nation depends. This prevention brings about spectacular
achievements in the saving of life and limb, compensation, continuity of service,
increased production, decreased labor turn-over and improved labour
management relations.

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CONTROLING ACCOUNTS
Where as three Es of Safety representing engineering, education and
enforcement are applied in the field of Industrial Safety, it seems much easier to
comprehended the fundamentals of Accident Prevention if the preventive
procedures are grouped in four general classifications which are a little more
selfdescriptive and which fit into the problem a little more closely than do three
Es These four classification may be :
-- Discover causes
-- Control environment causes
-- Control behaviorist causes
-- Supplementary activities
Discovering Accident Causes
Before any steps can be taken, it essential to find out:
-- The causes of pervious accidents, and
--- The existing of hazards that will cause accidents unless corrected
These activities are necessary not only before starting the actual procedure for
accident prevention but also afterwards, for they must given continuous never
ending attention. Otherwise the real effort of accident prevention will get out of
hand.
Controlling Environmental Causes
In this connection, it should be remembered that:
--- All the environment causes have something to do with machinery and
equipment -with things that one can see or feel.
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--- The Control procedures have relationship with engineering or with
application of engineering principles.
In some respects the control of environment causes (or hazards) is the most
essential factor in any accident prevention programme, since it proves to the
workers that management is sincere in its desire to prevent accidents and is
willing to do its part. In addition if there are two or more different ways to prevent
certain types to accidents, this is preferable.
For example. if there is hole in the floor and if any danger of workers falling it and
bearing injured, it is much wiser and cheaper in long run to eliminate and fill that
hole than to place a guard rail around it or to try teach workers to stay away.
Trying to teach men to avoid a hazard is a never ending job requiring constant
supervision and in some cases discipline, but the elimination of a hazard is an
immediate and permanent cure.
Controlling Behavioristic Causes
These can be controlled through the application of:
-- Job analysis
-- Job training
-- Supervision
-- Discipline
--- Personal Work
-- Physical examination
-- Proper placement of workers

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In general, it is much more difficult to control behavioristic causes than it is to
control environmental causes. Unlike environment, human behavior is without
substance, It can neither be seen or felt. It is the result of such complicated
factors as heredity, emotion, diet and habits etc, therefore; it is not surprising that
the method of control are somewhat complicated. They are exact sciences as are
various fundamentals of engineering such as mathematics, physics and
chemistry.
For example, a wrong attitude is an important behavioristic cause that is more
closely induced by worry. Many workers worry about current financial problem or
about the possibility of poverty in old age or the expense on medical care. In
many organizations personal activities have been instituted, such as pension
plans, group health and accident insurance, and employees credit unions, which
have helped to relieve thousands of workers from some of their worries and
problems, and thus helped in improving the companys accident record.
Supplementary Activities
These may be classified as under:
-- Posters
-- Booklets and other literature
-- Movies
-- Films strips
-- Contests
-- Meetings
-- Committees
-- Suggestion System
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-- Employee Magazines / Bulletins
-- Safety Handbooks.
These activities are of secondary importance when compared to others as they
do not aim directly at the discovery and elimination of accident causes, but they
are valuable in arising and maintaining interest in safety. It should be pointed out,
however, that is not advisable to undertake all of these supplementary activities
simultaneously. No attempt can be made to suggest their relative importance, for
this varies in different establishments, depending upon such factors as existing
conditions, personalities of executives, and needs of the moment.
















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4. 4. Accident Investigation & Records Accident Investigation & Records

PURPOSE OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

The purpose of Accident Investigation is to discover hazardous conditions and
practices so that accidents from similar causes may be prevented. This is
accomplished through:
FIRST : Detailed investigation of each individual accident to discover
the Causative factors involved
SECOND : An analysis of the factors found
THIRD : Recommendations for the corrective action, based on the
Investigation and finding.
The idea of seeking to fix blame should be definitely avoided, for where this is
allowed to enter, an attitude of covering up develops amongst the employees
which makes it difficult, and many times impossible, to get all the facts. Care
must be taken to make sure that every person involved the supervisor, the
foreman, the workman and the person conducting the investigation is aware that
the sole purpose is to be prevent future accidents and not to fix blame. If this is
done, there will be no incentive for anyone to withhold essential information and
the people conducting the investigation will also have full facts to aid them in
order to prevent further accidents. if a policy of thoroughly investigation each and
every accident is established, a wealth of information on preventive measures
will be gradually built up. It will also provide valuable finding from the
investigation on which inspection can carried out and the particular hazards
watched carefully. Proper investigations are part of the foundation on which
accident prevention is founded.
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PRINCIPLES OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Accident investigation is actually a simple procedure but certain principles must
be followed if maximum results are to be obtained.
FIRST : common sense and clear thinking are a must.
SECOND : The people conducting the investigation should be familiar
with the equipment, operation and the process so that they
have an understanding of possible hazards in any give
situation.
THIRD : The investigation should not be under the control of the
Foreman of the Supervisor of the department in which the
accident occurred, because if they are, it is difficult for them
to given unbiased
Opinion about the situation involved. There attitude should
be one of cooperation with foreman to discover and secure a
means of correcting or eliminating the hazards.
FOURTH : Each clue that is uncovered should be investigated
thoroughly because quite often a clue that may appear to
give a reasonable answer to a problem will give an entirely
different light if it is explored further.
FIFTH : Since physical hazards can be eliminated, appropriate
means of correction of the unsafe practices should be
sought.
SIXTH : No investigation should be considered completed until a
definite Recommendation for corrective action is made.

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SEVENTH : It is advisable to have more than one person to investigate
the accident due to the fact that the old saying that two
heads are better one still applies and better constructive
criticism can be obtained this way.
EIGHTH : Investigation should be carried out as soon as possible the
occurrence , so that the conditions do not change and
details get forgotten.
The above principles, if followed, will have a good effect on the other workman in
an area as they see the importance the management attaches to the matter of
safety if immediately investigated because we must remember that once an
accident occurs the seriousness of the accident is largely a matter of chance.
Usually, no one has any control on the severity of an injury once an accident has
occurred.
WHO SHOULD MAKE INVESTIGATION
Generally speaking, it makes little difference who investigates an accident if the
principals mentioned earlier are followed. Certainly the safety officer/supervisor
should be on the investigation along with the plant committee, but one of the
things that must be watched is that group investigating should not be too large
because of the time element involved. If the group feels that because of the large
number involved not too much time can be spent, then there is the possibility that
there will be a lack of lack of thoroughness in the investigation as there will be
tendency to hurry. A smaller group can often spend more time and come with
much better results. Actually every supervisor / foreman should be required to
personally investigate every accident of workman under his jurisdiction in order to
improve his own supervisory performance as well as to make sure that he is
thoroughly acquainted with accidents that occur in his department. Committees
of workers themselves can be especially valuable in bringing to light physical
hazards and hazardous practices, which are not readily discoverable by persons
who are not actually doing the various jobs.
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When an accident occurs, the first concern, naturally, is for the injured person,
but when his welfare has been provided for, investigation should be next thing.
Every person who might possibly has information bearing on accident being
investigated should be interviewed and a full record made. The use of signed
statements by the persons questioned is rarely advisable, since many workmen
are suspicious of any attempt to have them sign anything associated with an
accident with the idea of blame and punishment. Usually accurate reports and
statements can be obtained by careful investigation.
Thoroughness is something that is a must in an accident investigation as there is
a temptation to carry the investigation only so far as is necessary to discover the
means of prevention. But in the majority of accidents more than one hazardous
condition or practice is involved.
WHY RECORDS
Records are the foundations of a scientific approach to accident prevention. The
prime purpose of keeping records is to:
-- Furnish the information necessary for the compensation of injured persons
-- Serve as a guide to preventive effort.
Records provide the safety man with an objective evaluation of his safety
programme. They identify high accident rate department and provide the
information needed to remove accident causes and hazardous conditions.
More specifically, records may be used:
-- To create interest in among supervisors by furnishing them with
information about the accident experience in their own department.
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-- Determine the principle accident source so that efforts may be
concentrated where the greatest reduction in accidents can be brought
about.
-- Provide supervisors and the safety committee information about the most
frequent unsafe practices and unsafe conditions so that these persons can
utilize their time and efforts to the best advantage.
Judge the effectiveness of the safety programme by comparison with the past
experience and by making similar comparisons with companies in like
operations.
STEPS IN RECORD KEEPING
The following are the steps in record keeping
-- Obtain a report of every injury (This should include all first aids cases).
-- Classify and record each injury
-- Analysis the circumstance and causes of accidents.
-- Prepare a monthly summary report showing the number of accidents and
breakdown analysis showing the nature of injury along with preventive
steps taken or recommended.
-- Prepare a yearly report including all factors as to injury agency, medical
and compensation costs, time lost, etc, to provide an overall picture to
highlight accident trends.
BASIC RECORDS
The basic records, which should be kept, are:
-- First aid report to accident
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-- Supervisors report of accident
-- Monthly reports
-- Accident analysis forms accident analysis charts.
-- Departmental and safety committee report.
-- Details to provide information necessary for computing accident frequency
and accident severity rates
-- Yearly summary reports:
-- To show the trend of the safety performance during the year.
-- To show comparisons with experience of previous year.
ACCIDENTS REPORTS
Because Accident Report Forms are the basis for the all accident records,
essential to include the following information in the accident report. To be value,
they must be complete and factual.
WHO the injured person or persons were. Also note others involved.
WHEN the accident took place ; Date, Shift, Time.
WHAT Actually happened. Reconstruct as fully and accurately as possible
what happened just before, during and following the accident Be
careful to indicate the sources of information and any fact which
can only be assumed. If necessary, sketch a diagram to help to
explain all the events.
HOW The persons were injured. Describe the injury itself Indicate the part
of the member of the body injured (toe, finger, back, head, arm etc.)
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Also describe the nature of the injury (burn, sprain, fracture,
laceration, etc.)
Why the accident happened. Make a full analysis of the causes:
-- Study conditions at the scene of the accident. What hazards
were present? Did an unsafe condition cause the accident?
Did an unsafe act cause the accident?
-- Analysis contributing causes, (Slips, falls. drops, etc.)
-- Consider personal causes; Study the employees safety
record for indication of recurring accidents.
-- Include action necessary or already taken to prevent similar
accidents in future.
An accident report should not be considered another paper work practice it can
and should be of prime importance.
In may cases it has been found that the supervisor of foreman fill out an accident
report as briefly as possible. This should not permitted because no one is in a
better position to tell the story than the foreman and often one is in a better
position to advise a cure for a specific condition which exists, To be effective,
preventive measures based on complete unbiased knowledge of accident should
be made by the supervisor who is in charge of the department were the accident
occurred.
The monthly report should be complied from the first aid report and the
supervisor reports.
The Yearly report should be complied from the monthly reports and Medical Aid
and Compensation Cost statements sent by the firm to the statutory agencies.
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5. 5. Tech Techniques Of Discovering Hazards niques Of Discovering Hazards

To have a safe work place it is essential that apart from efforts towards accident
prevention, a comprehensive hazard programme should exist in an organization.
Hazard Control is that function which is oriented towards recognizing, evaluating
and working towards eliminating hazards and their destructive effects find the
work place.
HAZARD-A DEFINITION
Hazards Control Programmer
Hazards are causes of accidents, Defining it strictly, a hazard is any existing or
potent ional condition in the work place which by itself, or by interaction with
other factors result unwanted affects of injuries properly damage or other losses.
Hazard Identification
The essential components of hazards control programme are:
Here information regarding hazards is collective from various sources. Specific
jobs are subjected to analysis regarding their potentiality for hazards.
Ranking hazards by risk
Here the probability (Frequency) and consequences (severity) are analysed, and
prioritisation for control is done.
Establishing preventive and control measures
Here solutions to the control of hazards are identified, and these measures are
executed.
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Monitoring
Continuous follow- up on isolated procedures through various techniques like
periodic inspections, measurement and accident investigation.
Evaluating programme effectiveness and feedback
A periodic evaluation of the programme is essential and feedback for connective
actions should be given.
HAZRAD CONTROL RESPONSIBILITY
Hazard control is not just a distinct function carried out by specifically allocated
persons alone. Like all safely activities, it is a line responsibility; it is integral part
of each persons jobs.
It is a collaborative effort between departments, with each department sharing in
its responsibility. Planning departments prepares specification, which is free from
hazards, and comply statutory requirements. Design executes these
specifications keeping in mind operating conditions and job requirement; it
assists other departments in hazard analysis. Production ensures hazard control
by hazard analysis and continuous monitoring. Maintenance sticks to its
preventive maintenance schedules, ensure that its work maintains the designed
standards, and implements solutions to specific problems identified in hazard
analysis. Even Material purchase occupies a crucial position by providing
specification for bought out items, that conform to safety and health criteria, and
ensuring that no hazards arise during the transportation of such items,
especially chemicals. The specific team for hazard identification, evaluation, and
establishing controls, will normally consists of persons drawn from Safety,
Production , Maintenance, Casing and Planning.


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HAZARAD CONTROL WHEN
The activity of hazard control is a continue and ongoing one .it is performed
before the plant is constructed and before an operation is established: through
hazard analysis at the planning and design stage. It is performed in the
operational phase: by programmes of inspections and monitoring. It is also
performed when the system has broken down: after the event, so to speak
through accident investigation and analysis.
TECHNIQUES FOR HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
A number of techniques exist to discover hazards. Many of these are composite,
i.e. they individually cover hazards identification, evaluation and control. They are
-- Hazards Analysis
* Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
* Fault- Tree Analysis
- Job Safety Analysis
- Plant Safety Inspections
- Hazard Measurement and Testing
- Safety Surveys / Audits
- Actions Investigation and Analysis.
Each technique is subsequently discussed separately

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HAZARD ANALYSIS
These are formal analytical techniques, which are used to identify hazards and
acquire failure data regarding a system. These are of two types, the inductive,
and the deductive.
The inductive method uses observable data to predict what can happen, It
begins with the component parts of the systems, and evaluated what impact
these individual failures will have on operation of the system as a whole. An
example of this is Failure Mode and Effect Analysis.
The deductive method analysis how failures take place. It begins with the failure
of the system and then identifies how the components could contribute to the
failure Fault Tree Analysis is one of this type.
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
In FMEA, the failure or malfunction of each component is considered, including
the mode of failure. The consequences of the failure are traced thought the
system, and the ultimate impact on system functioning is evaluated: A
disadvantage of this method is that since only one failure is considered at a time,
interaction of two or more simultaneous failures is not considered, and therefore
certain synergistic possibilities are over- looked, This technique is widely used in
the space and Nuclear industry, and can also have wide application in the
chemical process industry. A form in FMEA is reproduced below: -
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Format for FMEA

Fault tree Analysis (FTA)
In FTA, the analysis begins with an undesired event, all possible happenings that
can contribute to this event are listed, and are put into a diagram in the from of a
tree. These happening are each component faults: Which can constitute either
sequences of event leading up to, or alternative modes of the selected system
fault, An example of a fault tree used in the case of shaping the wire rope of a
hoist is as shown below:-
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J ob Safety Analysis (J SA)
JSA is a procedure used to review job methods at the design stage itself to
ensure safe working. However, It may also be used successfully to uncover
hazards that may have developed after production started: or that resulted from
change in work procedures.
PRODCURE
The procedure of job safety analysis is simple and consists of 4 basic steps.
Selecting the job
Jobs with potential for more frequent accidents, severity of injury and new jobs in
PMI, NTPC 29
which the accident potential is unknown should be selected first.
Breaking the job down
The Job should be broken down to basic steps in the hazards in the jobs proper
sequence. Descriptions of each step should give the idea of what is being done.
A job safety breakdown sheet giving the following 4 heads is used for analyzing
the hazards in the jobs.
Step No. Operation Hazard Precautions
Identifying the Hazards
The person examines all possibilities of accidents in each step. He should note
down these hazards under the second column of break down sheet. For
identifying the hazards, he should watch the operations as many times as may
be required and also have discussions with the operators concerned and others
who have knowledge of the job.
Developing Solutions
The solutions to hazards in the job may be worked out by:
-- Finding a new method or procedure of doing the job.
-- Reducing the necessity or frequency of doing a job that is hazardous, and
-- Changing the physical conditions that create the hazards.
After the precautions to be taken in each step are developed, these safety
precautions are to be incorporated in the job or process sheets. Job safety
instruction sheets containing safe- guard and safe procedures to be adopted in
different jobs, particularly the hazardous ones could also be made out and is
issued to the supervisors and operators and necessary training imparted to them,
so that they could follow correctly the procedures of safe- guards laid down. If
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accidents are happening in spite of complying with procedures laid down based
on job safety analysis, the analysis, obviously would need further review.
EXAMPLES
The procedures of job safety analysis are illustrated by an example.
PROBLEM : In a foundry, ferrous casting weighing about 20 Ibs are
fettled by hand on pedestal grinder (12 wheel diameter).
The casting are stored on one side of the grinder from they
are picked up, fettled on the grinder and replace on the floor
on the other side of the machine. Analysis technique and
determine the hazards and the safety precautions to be
taken.










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PLANTS SAFTY INSPECTIONS
Inspections are that monitoring function conducted in the organization to locate
and report existing and potential hazards which have the capacity to cause
accidents in the work place. Inspections are not primarily aimed at unearthing
new types of hazards; though that may be achieved also; but rather at locating
and correcting known hazards.
TYPES OF INSPECTIONS
There are basically 2 types of inspections either continues or conducted at
intervals.
Continuous inspections are conduced by those employees like
maintenance technicians, production supervisors. Tools
inspectors, etc,; as part of their specific job responsibilities.
Any apparent or potential unsafe act or condition is corrected
immediately or reported for corrective action. The checking
of controls by a crane operator or the checking of machines
by the new operator in each shift, also fall into this category
of inspection.
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As against ongoing inspections, planned inspections are
conducted at intervals. These are of four types: periodic,
intermittent, general and special.
Periodic inspections are well planned and made at regular intervals,
the periodicity being decided according to the hazard
potential involved. Machinery, Material, Handling Equipment.
Fire Fighting Equipment,other equipment, tools, storage
methods should all be inspected regularly. In such cases, it
is useful to follow a checklist, A typical checklist which can
be used on construction sites is included at the end of this
handout, The checklist enables the inspector not to miss
points and readily detect deviations. Certain items like
pressure hoists, lifts etc are statutorily required to be
checked by competent Persons.
Intermittent inspections are unannounced inspections made at irregular
intervals. These may be made by safety personnel, safety
committee, supervisor and usually cover a particular
department of work area.
A general inspection is planned inspection of places, which do not
receive periodic inspections. It covers especially those areas
which as one ever visits since no one ever pets hurt This
may be outlying areas of the plant, storage areas, locations
at heights like roof, EOT Carnes & Walkways etc. It also
covers inspections or regular areas under abnormal
conditions like second shift, weekly off under artificial
lighting.
Special inspections are those made based on specific needs, i.e. of
those areas where particular type of hazards are suspected,
This include high accident frequency areas or construction
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sites of locations where new equipment is under installation,
Other examples are inspections during campaigns like fire
prevention week: or health surveys determine the existence
of an occupational illness.
Who conducts Inspections?
Inspections are the responsibility of various functions in the organization.
Continuous inspections are normally the responsibility of the line personnel,
including the first line supervisor and maintenance engineer. However, it is
important that these persons also conduct inspection according to a checklist at
some frequency.
Periodic inspections must be conducted by middle and senior management
from the line, The safety officer should be associated. Apart from the hazards
detected, the mere presence of a senior manager in the inspection team sends
the indirect message home of the top managements concern for safety.
As already pointed out, workers must be made to inspect the plant and
machinery under control in each shift, and given relevant feed back.
Inspection Procedures
The persons making inspections should be familiar with the equipment, tools, the
process and operations and should have adequate knowledge of hazards
associated with these They should also be a familiar with the company rules and
polices and also dealing with safety and health, The inspectors should be
equipped with data based on a detailed analysis of previous accidents in the
plant. An inspection Check List often proves to be very handy and will eliminate
the chances of overlooking some of the sources of accidents A specimen of
broad checklist is given in the annexure. Detailed checklist could be dawn up for
individual plants or sections.
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The inspection should be systematic, and thorough, The Inspector should not
depend on his memory and make complete notes of the unsafe conditions which
are discovered at the time of the inspection. This can be used at the time of
writing the inspection report.
The implementation of suggestions arising out of inspections is to be carried out
by the various departments concerned with production, engineering,
maintenance etc. and therefore it is important that the recommendations are
discussed, Wherever necessary, with the concerned persons.
Reporting and Follow- up
The inspection report should be clear and concise with enough explanation to
make it understandable. Copies of the recommendation should be sent to the
concerned persons for implementation. Progress should be reported to the
management at regular intervals. Periodic check should be made until they have
been completed.
HAZARAD MEASUREMENT AND TESTING
This technique is applied to the special case of hazards, which are present in the
work environment. These may be physical hazards like noise, heat stress,
inadequate illuminations. Radiation etc. or chemical hazards like airbome dusts,
gases or fumes. The degree to which the hazard is present is measured (e.g.)
noise level in decides or airbome concentration in pp, parts per million by
volume) The concentration of these hazards can be measured by personal
monitoring where the measurement device is placed as closed as possible to
the site at which the contaminant enters the human body or Environmental
monitoring where in the concentration if the work station is measured.
Two other techniques exist which use the change in the human body as a
measure of exposure to chemicals, biological monitoring measure changes in
composition of body fluid, tissues or expired air to detect the level of absorption,
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while Medal monitoring examines the workers to see their physiological and
psychological response to the contaminant.
SAFETY / AUDIT /SURVEY
A Safety Audit subjects each area of companys activities to the systematic,
critical examination with the object of minimizing loss. Every component of the
total system is included, e.g. management policy, attitudes, training, features of
the process and design, layout and construction of the plant; operating
procedures emergency plans: personal protection standards; accident records;
etc.
A safety survey on the other hand is a detailed examination of a narrower field of
activity, e.g. key areas revealed by the Safety Audit; individual plants:
Procedures or specific problems common to the works as a whole.
The audit is an evaluation of the companys organization and procedures, an
appraisal with a view to detection weak points and initiating corrective measure.
It should normally be conducted once a year; preferably by an outsider to the
organization or by another branch of the same organization.
The audit should be initiated by the top management, or with their full support.
The Audit team submits a written report. The report and its recommendations
should be discussed and a minute action plan for their implementation should be
drawn up. The top management should receive intimations of the
implementations of the Audit report periodically.
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS
Accident investigation and analysis are useful tools to reveal hazards.
Appropriate corrective action taken on this basis is a keystone to accident
prevention.
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A systematic and thorough investigation of each accident helps build up a fund of
information. The analysis of rates to indicate high frequency & severity locations,
as well as the identification of accident are useful pointers.
Accident investigation
The basic principles of good investigation are :-
It should be done on the spot, immediately after the accident by an
independent authority. The scene of the accident must not be disturbed
until after investigation is over.
The investigation should be fact-finding, and not fault finding.
Both types of causes; i.e. unsafe acts and hazard conditions must be
identified.
All accidents whether they result in injury or not must be investigated.
The same accident without injury today could lead to a serious injury
tomorrow.
The concerned workers, supervisors and departmental incharges must be
associated with the investigation.
A written report must be prepared which identified the preventive and
corrective measures required. This must be sent to the senior man, who
should issue instructions to implement the measures.
Accident Analysis
There are standard statistical to identify high risk areas based on the accident
data Two standard formulae are frequency Rate and severity rate:


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CALCULATION OF ACCIDENT RATES
TO compare the number of accidents in one factory with that in another in the
same branch of industry, it is necessary to take into account the differences,
which may result from differences in the numbers of workers, employed in the
two factories. This can be done calculating the accident frequency rate i.e. the
number of injuries for health for each million work- hours of exposure. This is
expressed by the following formula, in which F represents the frequency rate.

Number of injuries X1,000,000
F = ------------------------------------------
Total work- hours of exposure.

Example: An undertaking with 500 workers, working 500 weeks of 48 hours
each, had 60 accidents causing injury one year. Owing to illnesses,
accidents and other reasons, the workers were absent during 5 per
cent of aggregate working time. Thus the total number of work
hours (500X50X48= 1,200,000) has to be reduced by 5 percent
(60,000) giving the real number of work hours of exposure as
1,140,000, This being so-
60 X 1,000,000
F = ------------------------ = 52.63
1.140,00
This frequency rate indicates that, in one year about 53 accidents causing injury
occurred per million work hours.
So far, only the number of accidents has been considered, and this is not a very
exact measure of the effect of accidents. To obtain a better idea of the situation,
the severity rate must also be calculated. The international resolution of the
method of compilation of severity rates, adopted in 1907 by the sixth International
Conference of Labour Statisticians, was not retained by the Tenth Conference in
1962. This was mainly because some countries calculate the severity rate on the
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basis of the total number of days per thousand work- hours of exposure, other
countries use the time expressed in days per million work hour of exposure and
yet other countries use as a denominator the average number of employees of
insured persons, or 300day work- years.
Example: If in the example given for the calculation of the frequency rate, the
number of days lost as result of 60 accidents was 1,200, the
severity rate(s) would be as follows:
1,200X 106
S = ----------------- = 1.053
1,140,000
This means that in a year about one day was lost per thousand work-hours of
exposure , or 1,053 days per million work hours of exposure, or on the basis of
2,400 hours per year, 24 days per worker.











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6. 6. Investigation Of Accidents Investigation Of Accidents

The purpose of an accident investigation is to find the causes of the accidents in
order that appropriate measure can be taken. The National Safety Council in
United States gives the reasons for accidents investigation as: -
-- To learn accident causes so that the similar accident can be prevented by
mechanical improvement, better supervision or employee training
-- To determine the change or deviation that produced an error that in
turn resulted in an accident (system safety analysis);
-- To publicize the particular hazard among employees and their
supervisors, and to direct attention to accident Prevention in general
-- To estimate extent of loss/ damage of manpower/man hours plant and
machinery, etc; and
-- To make suggestion for prevention of recurrences of similar of related
nature of accidents.
Basically whatever type of investigation is undertaken, it answer the following
questions: -
WHO was injured?
WHAT happened and WHAT were the contributing factors?
WHEN did the accident occur?
WHERE did the accident occur?
WHY did the accident occur?
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AND finally, and most importantly:
HOW can a similar accident be prevented from happening again?
There are several number of conducting an accident investigation which are
neither too complicated nor too time consuming. For minor accidents, good
results have been obtained by the following method, The victim goes to the first
aid room, after treatment, is given an accident investigation form to take to the
supervisor; the later fills it and sends it to the safety engineer who, according to
circumstance, may decide to make a more detailed investigation (or to take some
other action) or simply to file it for statistical purpose or for discussion in the
safety committee, This method has the advantage of stressing the responsibility
of the supervisor for safety in that particular department. However in many
cases, accident investigation forms may be filled in by the victim upon arrival at
the medical center for Treatment.
An accident investigation should always be made on the spot. It will be much
easier if the investigator finds the situation at the scence of the accident exactly
as it was when the accident took place. Consequently, after an accident, the site
should be left undistributed unless changes have to made to ensure the safety of
persons or to prevent further damage.
Whether the site has been distributed or not, it is desirable to try to reconstruct
the sequence of events before, and during, the accident, possibility with the
assistance of injured person and with the co- operation of witnesses, The
investigator should carefully inspect the site and then examine the witnesses. In
many cases the causes of the accident will be discovered in this way, but in
some cases e.g., where breakages of metal are involved it may be necessary
to seek technical assistance.
If a part of a piece of apparatus, such as a chain or a wire rope, breaks, it is
desirable to know the causes of the failure and for this reason, the material
should be examined and tested to discover whether it was unsuitable, had been
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maltreated or was just worn out. The necessary information may be provided by
a microscopic examination, by tests carried out on a sample of the material, or by
chemical analysis.
Example: A chain used in a hoisting apparatus with a maximum safe load of
500 kg. Broke when 700 kg. was lifted. The chain was overloaded,
but this circumstance in itself was not sufficient to explain why it
broke. Tensile tests on two links showed that they broke when the
load was about 2500- 2600 kg. Links tested by hammering their
narrow and unit the long side became the short side did not show
any defect. A microscopic examination, with magnification of 200
and 1,000 showed ageing phenomena i.e changes in the properties
of the material occurred with the passage of time. These aging
phenomena resulted in decreased resistance to shock, such as that
which occurs in working conditions, and this had caused the
accident.
Often accident investigation is concerned with both responsibility
and prevention, and this may seriously hamper discovery of the
cause. If the persons questioned feel that someone will be blamed
as a result of the investigation, those who consciences are not quite
at ease may give incorrect or incomplete information. It may then
be impossible to find the cause and consequently to devise means
of prevention. In accident investigations, it should always be borne
in mind that prevention of accidents is much more important than
the more apportioning of blame.




PMI, NTPC 46
INVESTIGATION PRODCURE
I. DUTIES
1. Was the person concerned carrying out a
Task that was part of his / her normal duties? Yes/No

2. What was abnormal or different?

3. Was the task within job specification /
description of the person concerned. Yes/No

4. If no,

(i) In what way was it outside job
Specification/ description?.. Yes/No

ii) Who should have carried the task?

(iii) Why should that person perform the task?

5. Was the person involved in activity associated Yes/No
with work but not directly related to task?

If yes,

The activity in which the person was
engaged

II. SUPERVISION

Was the persons immediate supervisor present in Yes/No
the area at the time of accident

If yes,

a) Location of supervisor at the time of
accident .

b) Any information given by the supervisor
prior to leaving the area..

c) Was the accident reported immediately
and to whom.

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If No,

a) Why was there a delay

b) How long was the delay..



III. INFORMATION

Was the person concerned specifically warned Yes/No
of the hazards of the task?

If NO,

a) Was the hazards known to all?..

b) Who know them?.


IV INSTRUCTION

1. Was the person concerned instructed to carry out
The particular task / job ? Yes / no


If No,

a) Why was the task undertaken?.

b) Was there a change in intention? If so, state reason of
change

c) Was task/ activity part of the total job?


2. Had the person concerned been given written or verbal instruction in the
general hazards associated with the task/ job? Yes/No

If Yes,

a) Method of instruction and when given..

b) Outline the instruction given..


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3. Was the work carried out according to instruction or normal practice?
If No,

a) In what way was the task carried out that was different to normal
practice?


V. TRAINING

1. Was task/ job within the capability Yes/No
of the person concerned


If No,

a) What additional training was required


2. Was the person concerned familiar with Yes /No
Type of plant/equipment,
Tools etc?

If No,

What knowledge/skill was lacking?.

3. Had the person concerned been trained to Yes /No.
carry out the task/job safety?


If Yes,

a) What training had been given?..

4. Was the job / task carried out by the prescribed method and the method
used

VI. PROTECTION

Was the personal protective equipment Yes /No
been worn?

a) Was it is supplied to him? Yes /No


b) Was it in good condition? Yes/No
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c) Was it practicable to wear? Yes/No

d) Was it adequate to deal with hazards? Yes /No
If No, Why?..

VII PLANT /EQUIPMENT/ PREMISES

1. Were Plant/ Equipment/ premises Yes/No
in normal condition?

If No, state

What modification or alternation
had been made?..

2. Were means for controlling emergency
or emergency stops. etc where located
near to hand? Yes /No/NA

If No,

Would such control have reduced that
consequences or eliminated the accident..


3. Were guards. Protective devices effective Yes/No/NA
And/ or secure?


a) In what cases why was the guarding of the machine
/ Plant insecure or ineffective..

4. Were warning notices displayed, Yes/No/NA
Warning persons of hazard or to
used protective equipment etc.


If Yes,

Type and content of notice.

If No,

Whether workers were warned of hazards and way of working
Yes/NO/ NA.

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What they were told about.


5. Were Operating controls, pipelines, Yes/NO/NA
tanks, etc. clearly marked?


If No,

a) Reasons why not clearly marked

b) What additional marketing, etc,
Could be made..

6. Was the approach to work place vice versa was safe

Yes/No/NA

If No,

What was unsafe?..

VIII. SYSTEMS

1. Are procedure / instructions laid Yes/NO/NA
down for the task/ job?

What procedure could be laid down?

2. Is there a system for a monitoring that procedure/ Yes/NO/NA
instruction are followed..?


What method of monitoring could be used to ensure that the procedures
are followed ?.

3. Are Permit to work normally issued Yes/No/NA
For the type work


If No,

Why are they to work issued?

Was a permit to work issued?

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If No


Why permit was not issued?..

IX. ENVIROMENT

Did any of the following natural conditions lead to accident?
(Tick mark)

Rain -- Typhoon -- No

X. If accident was caused due to following: -


Confined space

Condition of floor

Condition of scaffold/ platform

Condition of ladder

Illumination

Poor House- Keeping

Other (specify)












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7. 7. ProcedureFor Reporting Of Accidents/ ProcedureFor Reporting Of Accidents/
Drangerous Occurences Drangerous Occurences

OBJECTIVE
In order to make prompt report of accidents and dangerous OCCURENCES to
comply with requirements/ Obligation under different status; and to inform the
concerned authorities within the organization for keeping complete information of
accidents for the record, for analysis, which will be of help in taking remedial
measures for the accident prevention in future; it has been decided to introduce a
procedure for reporting of accidents / dangerous OCCURRENCES in NTPC.
PROCEDURE IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS CAUSING INJURIES/
FATALITIES
An office of the Section will immediately refer the injured to the corporations
Hospital / Dispensary/ First-aid unit with a preliminary report on From-1
(Annexure-1). In addition he will inform about the accident to Departmental Head,
Personnel head and Safety Office on telephone with full description of accident.
In case of study to contractors employees, the contractor will immediately inform
accident /dangerous occurrence to NTPC office Incharge and Safety Office
himself on telephone or through special messenger. Office In charge of NTPC,
will submit information of accident as above.
In case the injured has come / is taken directly to hospital/dispensary/ firstaid
unit in charge of unit will uniform about the injury to Departmental Head in
from II( Annexure-II) with a copy to plant Personnel Head and plant Safety
Officer. He will immediately inform of serious cases by telephone also to
Departmental head, personnel Head and Safety Officer.
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Subsequently the concerned department / section in charge will prepare a
detailed report of accident within 4 Hours of the accident in from III(Annexure
III) and will submit one copy each to the General Manager and Personal Head.
Third and fourth copy of the report will be sent to Safety Officer and he will retain
fifth copy for the departmental record.
The safety officer will intimate the accident to concerned Statutory Authorities as
per the provisions of relevant Act/Rules. However the State Rules concerned
should be referred to for additional provisions. If any.
The Safety Officer will also submit a copy of Form III along with his comments
to Corporate center safety Section within one week of occurrence of accident.
Safety Officer will send accident report of each calendar month to Corporate
Center Safety Section in FromV (AnnexureV) before fifth day of every
succeeding month. In case of no accident, a Nil report should be sent.
In case of fatal accident, information of the accident will be immediately intimated
to Corporate Center Personal by telegram / telex/ wireless.
PRODUCURE IN CASE OF DANGEROUS OCCURENCES
As Prescribed under the relevant rules made by the State Government with
reference to the provision of Section 88- A of the Factories Act, a schedule of
some common dangerous OCCURREANCES is given in Annexure - VI.
In case of dangerous occurrences, the same will be informed by Section In
charge to Safety Officer, Departmental Head and Personnel Head in From VII
(Annexure VII) Within 4 hours 4 .
The Safety Officer will intimate such dangerous OCCURRANCES to statuary
Authorities as indicated in the schedule at Annexure VI prescribed by the
concerned State Government

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ROLE OF CORPORATE CENTRE
Corporate Centre Safety Section shall put up monthly accident/ dangerous
occurrence report to GM (P&A) Director (P) for information.
Corporate Centre Safety section will issue guidelines to various units on
accident prevention activities from time to time, as may be deemed necessary.
















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ANNEXUR-1
FROM -I

National Thermal Power Corporation Limited

----------------------- Super Thermal Power Project /Station


To

In charge

------------------- Hospital / Dispensary/ First aid Unit

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Accident of Shri / Smt----------------------------------------------------

Shri / Smt.-------------------------------- is referred to your hospital for Treatment. The
Details of the injured and incident are as below:


1. Designation of Injured : -------------------------------------------

2. Employee No. : ------------------------------------------

3. Department : ------------------------------------------

4. Date & Time of Accident : ------------------------------------------

5. Details of Accident : ------------------------------------------

6. Case of the Accident : -------------------------------------------


Date:------------------------------------------ Signature ----------------------

Name----------------------------

Designation--------------------

Department--------------------
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FORM-II

National Thermal Power Corporation Limited

------------------Super Thermal Project / Station

Dated:------------------
No.
To

The Head of Safety,
--------------- Project.

Sub: Work Related injures.


Dear Sir,

Shri . S/0 Shri .. Age .. Years
employed by. Sub Contractor of. Dept. of NTPC has
reported for treatment of injury in his hospital. The details of injury are as below:

Nature of injury Part of the body injured
1. Laceration/Contusions 1. Head.
2. Bums 2. Eyes
3. Amputation 3. Face/neck
4. Fractures 4. Chest
5. Puncture wound 5. Abdomen
6. Multiple 6. Spinal column
7. Electric shock 7. Hands and shoulder
99. Not Known 8. Legs and perils
9. Multiple
10 Others
99 Not known

Fatal permanent temporary Expected

Disablement% Disablement.Days

This is for your information and necessary action.
Signature

Name of M.O..
PMI, NTPC 57













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ANNEXURE VI.
National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
---------------- Super Thermal Power Project/ Station
DRANGEROUS OCCURRENCES
i) Bursting of a boiler or vessel used for containing steam under pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure.
ii) Collapse of failure of a carne, derrick which hoist or other appliance used
in raising or lowering persons or goods, or any part thereof. Or the
overturning of a crane.
iii) Explosion of fire causing damage to any room or place in which persons
are employed.
iv) Explosion of a receiver or container used for the storage at pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure or any gas or gasses (including air) or
any liquid or solid resulting from the compression of gas.
v) Collapse or subsidence of any floor, gallery, roof, bridge, tunnel, chimney,
wall or building forming part of the factory with in the compound of factory.
vi) Leakage of any dangerous gas /chemical.
Note:
1. The above is only illustrative.
2. A list/ schedule of dangerous occurrences are prescribed in the
rules framed by the State Governments reference to Section 88-A
of the Factories Act, 1948, which should be referred to by the
project/ Establishment.
PMI, NTPC 62
ANNEXURE VII
National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
--------- Super Thermal Power Project / Station

DEPARTMENTAL REPORT OF DANGEROUS OCCURRENCE

1 Time of occurrence (a) Date --------------------------------- (b) Hours--------------
2. Nature of the dangerous occurrence
3. Equipment involved (a) Name------------------------------------
b) Manufacture----------------------------
c) Use---------------------------------------
d) Location in
Building----------------------------------
4. Approximate length of service of equipment ----------------------------------------
5. a) Parts damaged---------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Date when last tested------------------------------------------------------------
c) Nature and extent of damage -------------------------------------------------
6. Apparent reasons of the occurrences-------------------------------------------------
7. Was is due to willful negligence of anyone-------------------------------------------
8. Was there any infringements of rules or instructions? ----------------------------
9. Could this occurence be avoided ------------------------------------------------------
10. What action is being taken
to prevent reoccurrence -----------------------------------------------------------------
11. Additional remarks-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date--------------------------- Signature----------------------
Name---------------------------
Designation--------------------
Department--------------------
To
1. Personal Head
2. Plant Safety Officers
PMI, NTPC 63
8. 8. Guidelines On Contribution Of Guidelines On Contribution Of Enquiry Enquiry
Committee And Conduct Of Committee And Conduct Of Enquiry In Enquiry In
Case Of Accident/ Case Of Accident/ Dangerous Dangerous Occurrences Occurrences

OBJECTIVE
With a view to investigate all accidents in order to examine each to examine each
case in details and depth to find out the causes of accidents, the extent of
losses caused. The circumstance / individuals responsible and to obtain
considered recommendations for the prevention of recurrences in similar or
related nature of accidents, it is has been decided to prescribe a guidelines for
consulting committees for conducting enquires in case of various types of
accidents and dangerous occurrences.
APPLICABILITY
The procedure shall be applicable in case of all accidents, caused in respect of
its own employees or of contractors / associates of NTPC.
DEFINITIONS
Non reportable injury
Non reportable injury would mean an injury by reason of which injured is either
not prevented, or is prevented from working for a period less than 48 hours
immediately following the day of accident.
Disablement of Permanent Nature.
Provided under the workmens Compensation Act, 1923 and shall include partial
and total disablement of permanent nature.
PMI, NTPC 64
Dangerous Occurrence
As prescribed under the relevant rules made by State Govt, with reference to the
provisions of section 88-A of the Factories Act.
PROCUDRE
The Enquiry committee to the constituted for various types of the accident, the
authorities competent to appoint enquiry committee and the constitution of the
Enquiry Committees have been prescribed in Annexure-1,
As soon as the accident occurs. The Safety Officer Concerned in the project, will
immediately initiate in cases of A(i) and B(i) where he is to act an enquiry
committee.. Wherever the Enquiry Committee is to be appointed by the HOP
or GM, the Safety Officer will make a proposals as per guidelines , for approval
of the concerned competent authority and issue necessary office order for the
enquiry.
Wherever the authority competent to constitute an enquiry committee is ED and
above, the GM of project, shall immediately contact authority through quickest
means of communication and take approval for the constituting enquiry
committee, An office under for constituting enquiry committee in that case be
issued by GM of the project.
Wherever an Officer of an other Project/ Corporate Center has been prescribed
Annexure 1 to be a member of the committee , the GM of the project , shall
immediately contract the concerned controlling officer through the quickest
means of communication for obtaining a name including in the committee .
In case finalising the nomination of other project/ Corporate Center, may take
time the GM of the project Concerned can still issue the order constituting the
enquiry the committee indicating against the member: An Officer to be nominated
by Corporate Center / Project concerned, The enquiry committee shall start
PMI, NTPC 65
investigation immediately within the shortest possible time from the
communication of the order constituting enquiry.
Normally the enquiry report will be submitted within one month from the date of
notification of the committee. However, the competent authority feels it expedient
under certain circumstances he may require the report to be submitted even
earlier.
The terms of the reference from the Enquiry Committee should generally include.
a) Determination of circumstances and reasons of the accident.
b) Estimate of extent of loss/damage of manpower /man hours/ plant/
machinery etc.
c) To the extent possible fixation of responsibility.
d) Suggestion for the prevention of recurrence of similar or related mature of
accidents, and
e) Any other relevant aspect.
Occurrence of accidents involving loss/ damage of Rs.10 lacks or more and / or
death shall be intimated to Director (Personnel) and Executive Director
concerned by the quickest possible means to communication.
Report of an Enquiry Committee in cases at A(v) to (viii), B(iii) to (v) and C as in
Annexure- I will be sent to Director ( personnel ) Executive Director Incharge and
Corporate personal immediately for action. Corporate Personnel Division will,
on a regular basis analyse the reports, covering serious injuries and fatal
accidents for remedial action.
The authorities competent to constitute and order enquiry committee have been
indicated Annexure 1 However, if it is considered expedient the Chairman and
Managing Director, can appoint an Enquiry Committee constituted by the
PMI, NTPC 66
authority prescribed in the Annexure 1, shall become in operative, While
passing such order, the CMD can also include additional members in the
Committee or alter the level of committees as deemed necessary.


















PMI, NTPC 67
ANNUXURE-I
National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
GUIDLINE ON CONSTITUTION OF ENQUIRY COMMITTEE
SI
No
Type of Accident Enquiry
committee to be
appointed by
Enquiry
Committee to
be headed by
Other
members

A In case of Personal
injury

i) In case of non
reportable injury up to 2
persons
Safety officer of
the project

ii) Non reportable injury up
to 5 persons
HOD in whose
Deptt. Accident
has occurred
Not below the
rank of Mgr.(
not connected
with the
accident)
1. Safety officer
of the project
iii) Non reportable injury
to more than 5 persons
-do- Not below the
rank of Sr.
Mgr.( not
connected with
the accident)
1. d0-
iv) Reportable accident
causing minor/
temporary injuries
-do- Not below the
rank Mgr.(not
connected with
accident)
1. d0-
v) Reportable accident
causing major/ serious
injuries like amputation
of limbs/ other parts of
body and / or injuries
expected to result into
disablements of
permanent nature(
partial or total )
GM Not below the
rank of DGM/
Sr. Mgr/ Sr.
Supdt ( not
connected with
the accident )
One officer
at the Mgr./
Sr. Mgr.
From CC
or other
project.

vi)
Fatal accident of one
person
- do- -do- -do-
vii Accident causing fatal
injury to one person but
involving a number of
persons
ED Not below the
rank of DGM/
Sr. Mgr of
other project /
CC
1. An officer of
the rank of
Mgr./ Dy. Mgr.
Of the project (
not connected
with the
accident)
2. Safety
Officer of the
project.
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PMI, NTPC 69
9. 9. Safety Policy Safety Policy

INTRODUCTION
NTPC recognize and accept its responsibility of establishing and maintaining a
safe working environment for all its employees. This responsibility arises from.
-- Companys moral responsibilities to its employees. To provide the best
practicable conditions of work from the point of view of health and safety.
-- The obligation to consult with its staff and their representatives to
implement policies and procedures developed as a result of discussions.
-- Statutory responsibility in respect of health, safety and welfare of
employees emanating from relevant legislation such as the Factories Act.
The Indian Electricity. Act., The Explosive Act, the Boiler Act etc.
COMPANYS RESPONSIBILITY
The Company shall take all such steps , which are reasonably practicable to
ensure best possible conditions of work, and with this end in view the company
shall do the following:.
-- To allocate sufficient resources to provide and maintain safe and healthy
conditions of work.
-- To take steps to ensure that all known safety factors are taken into
account in the design. Construction, operation and maintenance of plants,
machinery and equipment.
_ To ensure that adequate safety instructions are given to all employees.

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-- To provide wherever necessary protective equipment, safety appliances
and clothing, and to ensure their proper use.
- To inform employees about materials, equipment or process used in their
work, which are known to be potentially hazardous to health or safety.
-- To keep all operations and method of work under regular review for
making necessary changes from the point of view of safety in the light of
experience and up to date knowledge.
-- To provide appropriate facilities for the first aid and prompt treatment of
injuries and illness at work.
-- To provide appropriate instruction, training, retraining and supervision in
health and safety and first aid and ensure that adequate publicity is given
to these matters.
-- To ensure proper implementation of fire prevention and the appropriate
fire fighting service, together with training facilities for personnel involved
in this service
-- To ensure that the professional advice is made available wherever
potentially hazardous situations exist or might arise.
-- To organize collection analysis and presentation of data on accident.
sickness and incident involving personal injury to health with a view to
taking corrective, remedial and preventive action.
-- To promote through the established machinery. Joint consultation in
health and safety matters to ensure effective participation by all
employees.
_ To publish /notify regulation. Instruction and notices in the common
language of employees
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-- To prepare separate safety rules for each type of occupation / process
involved in a project.
-- To ensure regular safety inspection by a component person at suitable
intervals of all buildings work places and operations.
-- To co ordinate the activities of the company and of it contractors working
in the companys premises for the implementation and maintenance of
safe system of work to comply with their legal obligations with regard to
health. safety and welfare of their employees.
THE RESPONSIBILITES OF THE EMPLOYEE
The establishment and maintenance of best possible conditions of work is no
doubt, the responsibility of Management. it is also necessary that each
employee follows prescribed methods of work . He should take reasonable care
for the health and safety of himself, of his fellow employees and of other
persons who may be affected by his actions at work. With this in mind.
employees should be health and safety conscious and:
Report Potential hazards.
Observe Safety rules, procedures and codes of practice.
Use With all reasonable care the tools, equipment, safety and
protective clothing provided by the company; these items
should be kept in good condition.
Participate In safety course when called upon to do so.
Make use Of safety suggestions scheme.
Take An Active and personal interest in promoting health and
safety at Work.

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RESPOSIBILITES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
-- The ultimate responsibilities for ensuring the implementation of the policy
on health and safety at work rests on the NTPC Management the
Corporate Personnel Division at the corporate level and the concerned
General Managers at the project/ station level. The officer in charge of
safety will be functionally responsible to the Corporate headquarter for
ensuring the policy is promulgated and carried out in the manner expected
-- Immediate responsibilities for the safety at work is that of the Managers/
Executives of each department / Section who are responsible to prevent
accidents involving members of their staff and other persons. it Is their
instructions, compliance with which will ensure safe working and to require
the effective use of approved equipment.
-- Accepted rules. Procedures and Codes of Practice which are formulated
with proper regard to health and safety consideration must be strictly
observed by all concerned Contracting agencies executing works should
be made responsibe, through various measures including appropriate
provisions in the contract, for discharging their safety obligations:
-- In designated areas of particular hazards the appropriate Executives and,
before to authorize, in writing, the commencement of any work and, before
doing so, personally to satisfy themselves that all necessary safe
precautions have been carried out. Such Executive must themselves be
Authorised, in writing as competent to perform these duties.
-- Safety Officers are appointed to advise on questions of safety all work
including advice on the application in particular local situations of the
systems of work implementation of Companys Rules and Relevant code
of practice in consulted in the interpretation of rules and codes being
formulated by the Corporate Management and shall advise management
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in investigation, analysis of accidents and circulation of appropriate
statistics.
Major Site Incidents
The General Manager at each project / station is required to ensure that plans
are devised for action in the event of fire, major site incident or necessity for
evacuation procedure. These plans must be communicated to all staff and
rehearsed from time to time
-- Fire fighting and the formation of fire fighting team on a voluntary basis
will be encouraged by the project/station Management.
-- All accidents and dangerous occurrences will be reported immediately to
the General Manager who will implement an established procedure to
ensure that an investigation takes places and recommendations are made
to prevent recurrence.








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10. 10. I I ndustrial Hazards ndustrial Hazards

INTRODUCTION
-- The fast development of industry and the extended use of power driven
machinery has accentuated the occurrence of injuries. Man has to
conform to the habit and pattern to work safely with the machines.
Technical factors such as design, construction, operation and
maintenance can greatly reduce unsafe conditions. Some of the hazards
which exercise a positive bearing on the scope of this study may be
classified as:
* Mechanical
* Electrical
* Chemical
MECHANICAL HAZARDS
-- One of the mighty creations of man are the machines. They serve him so
long as he exercise a positive control. The moment he forgets the
rambunctious of the machine, he suffers injury and even fatality.
-- Common sources of mechanical hazards are, unguarded shafting, shaft
ends, belt drives, gears pulleys. projections on rotating parts, chain and
sprocket drives, any exposed components parts of machine., or power
driven equipment which rotate rapidly or have considerably power and
may catch the worker( his clothing, fingers hairs, etc.) entangling him in
the machine before he can free himself; shear points where a part moving
in positions or a moving object would have a scissor like effect on anything
caught in between; any machine component which moves rapidly, which
PMI, NTPC 75
may strike, crush, or otherwise; injure a worker; the points of operation
where the machine performs its work; pressure vessel explosions; fly
wheel hazards, etc.
-- Important mechanical hazards relate to machines of all kinds, including
transmission machinery, hand tools, handling materials, lifting and other
appliances. It is true that every work place and every equipment has its
own problems but experience has shown that mechanical hazards are the
most spotted ones and responsible for the majority of accidents in work
situations. Some of the hazards conditions of mechanical operations may
be characterized as follows:
a) Inadequately Guarded
b) Defective.
c) Hazardous arrangement, procedure etc.;
d) Improper Lighting
e) Improper Ventilation
f) Unsafe dress or Apparel;
g) Hand Tools;
Lifting Equipment
The use of mechanical lifting devices are becoming increasingly important in
many types of operations to maintain the safety of such equipment and to avoid
accidents, mechanical requirements are quite detailed and technical, and non
compliance therefore leads to hazards Cranes. Derricks and hoists may be
cause of accidents due to mechanical failure or unsafe operating practice.
Frequent periodic inspection and maintenance of such parts as chain, wire ropes,
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gears, clutches, brakes, bearings, and other fundamental elements may
constitute a vital part of efficient performance.
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
-- Today almost every industry is power driven. It constituents the prime
source of running of an industry. It is a servant of man, when kept under
control, but it is a destroyer of life and property if not utilized properly.
-- In India, the normal lighting or house circuit operators on 20 volts supply.
Industrial Voltage frequently extend from 440 volts to the transmission
voltages .For purposes of safety precautions, these voltages may be
considered high voltages although up to 440 volts are considered to be
intermediate.
-- The effect or the severity of electric shock depends upon the rate of
current flow (amperes) and the duration of the flow current. It has been
found that the most serious pathway is that which crosses in the direction
of the upper part of the body, such as arm to arm or arm to foot.. The
amount of current through and body depends on the voltages to which the
person is exposed and also the resistance of the person. The resistance
changes under varying conditions, The Voltage is usually the only known
criterion. As little as 0.05 ampere may cause a fatal shock, Dry skin offers
a certain amount of protection since it has a resistance of from 100,000 to
600,000 ohms. Wet skin is however, less resistance to the flow electricity,
having a resistance of approximately 1.000 ohms
To Cause an electric shock, the current must flow like water, it must have
a place to enter the body and a place to leave; the ground is commonly
one of these two places There are so many grounded objects in our plants
that it is fair to assume that most There are so many grounded objects in
our plants that is fair to assume that most employees are liable to be
contacting a ground object for a large part of their working day.
PMI, NTPC 77
A handle on a machine
A metal-framed stool standing standing on a concrete floor.
The floor itself- shoes are not capable of insulating
Our feet from the concrete unless they were special shoes.
-- All that is needed then is an exposed live conductor or a faulty piece of
equipments and these are the ingredients for a fatality. Of course, it is
possible to get a shock by connecting two life conductors at different
voltages or two pieces of faulty equipment, but by far the most common
cause of electric shock is through a ground connection.
-- This insistence on grounding non current carrying metals parts is
necessary because occasionally the insulation on a wire or a piece of
equipment can faill, if this allows the wire to touch a piece of metal
assumes the same voltage as the wire and can cause a shock. However,
if the piece of metal is grounded, the current from the damaged wire flows
away to ground and the human body, which is likely to be grounded, does
not receive a shock as there is no voltage difference between the body
and the metal.
-- This is all well and good for wires, which are protected by metallic sheaths
but many cases, still exists where live conductors are exposed. Overhead
power lines. Electric crane rails. Open- faced substation switchboards are
all assumed to be safe because they are out of the reach of the workman.
This is not completely true.
For example
i) A mobile crane with a long boom can accidentally contact a power lines or
other overhead live conductor.
PMI, NTPC 78
ii) A man carrying or climbing an aluminum ladder can come in contact with
overhead conductors.
iii) A maintenance man working upon the roof of a plant can contact frame of
the building and an overhead conductor.
iv) Metal bars stored vertically in racks may accidentally touch overhead
crane wires and electricute a man.
Voltage
Its seriousness: Usually, When we think of lineman, we picture a man who is paid
to do extremely hazardous job of climbing poles and cutting and splicing high
voltage. Whether the weather is good or bad. This work, even though
dangerous, can be performed safely and efficiently. if precautions and the
necessary safety equipment are adhered. We all realize that these high
voltages are dangerous, but the tragic part is that there are so many peoples who
do not realise how dangerous the 220 V that we use everyday in our lives can
be, if it is not treated respectfully. We read in the newspaper almost every week
several cases where someone has been killed or seriously injured through
handling faulty hooked up equipment or equipment that has been allowed to run
disrepair, This is where the real danger of electricity lies .not the high voltaged
that we know are dangerous but the lower voltage which we come into contact
everyday and which many people regard as harmless. The way men are injured
are:
* Using portable electric grinders
* Using skill saws
* Operating vibrating screens
* Using electric drills while installing ovens.
* Pipe filter repairing, spot welder
PMI, NTPC 79
* Steel erector working on crane pulled cable, which contact 3300 V wires.
Seriousness of Electrical Shocks
The effect of severity of electrical accidents depends upon the pathway, the
amount of current and duration of the flow of current, there are three effects of
this passage of current :
* Burn
* Asphyxiation
* Heart
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
The chemical industry today is gaining phenomenal importance. The usage of
chemicals with the resultant hazards gases. Vapors and fumes, is one of the
most dangerous industries and one in which it is most difficult to protect workers.
The list of toxic gases. vapors and fumes is exhaustive. In view of zealous search
for compounds for industrial use the number of consequently increasing.
The effect of noxious gases are widely different:
* Simple asphyxiates, e.g. N2, Ch4, Co2 (Nitrogen gas, Methane gas
Carbon dioxide)
* Chemical asphyxiant, e.g., Co, H2S, HCN(Carbon monoxide, Hydrozen
sulphide, Hydro cynanic acid.
* Irritatnt gases, e.g., No2 F, HF, SO2, NH3 (Nitrogen dioxide or peroxide,
fluorine, Hydrogen Flouride, Sulphur dioxide, Ammonia)
* Organic metallic gases, e,g, ASH3 ( Arsenic hydride)
* Inorganic metallic gases.
PMI, NTPC 80
-- Gases of irritant ground are potent poison; however workman exposed to
them are able to avoid fatalities. Unfortunately, with gases such as carbon
monoxide and arseniureted hydrogen, we feel non irritant, colorless and
tasteless. Here the victim may be overcome without even suspecting the
danger, It is however, important to realize that though one gaseous poison
may be more toxic than another, a great rate of volatility may the less
poisonous more dangerous.
-- Several toxic chemicals and fluids are found in industries using sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, soda, chloride of lime. Chloride of phosphorous, sulphur
chloride phospene, chloride of Zinc, chlorophorm, Carbon tetrachloride,
nitrous chloride, nitroglycerine, iodine, bromide, artificial fertilizers, rubber,
celluloid, coal, petroleum, distillates,. Tar and gas and coke- oven
industries. Each of these and numerous others utilize poisons in the
manufacturing process, with poisons as chief products and poisonous by-
products middle products and impurities.
-- A Simple classification of hazardous chemicals may be made as follows:
* Metallic dusts and fumes
* Mineral dusts
* Volatile liquids and solids
* Gases
* Others.
Hidden Hazards
One is confronted with the question What are hidden hazards? or What
hazards are hidden? It seems that the answer to this question upon each mans
knowledge. What may be hidden to one may be quite obvious to the other. Some
PMI, NTPC 81
hazards remain hidden even to the most expert, until a tragedy occurs. Even
when prolonged and intensive investigation may be needed to reveal the cause.
HARMFUL CONDITIONS
-- To have a better classification of occupational diseases, a simple
classification of harmful conditions may be made as follows
* Abnormalities of air pressure.
* Abnormalities of temperature and humidity.
* Dampness
* Defective illumination
* Excessive noise
* Radiant energy:
-- X rays Gamma Rays.
-- Radioactive substance
- Ultraviolet rays
- Infrared rays
- Ultra high frequency radiations
* Repeated motion and pressure: Vibration.



PMI, NTPC 82
11. 11. ProtectiveClothing & Equipment ProtectiveClothing & Equipment

HEAD PRODUCTION
-- The priorities in selection should be the ability to give the best protection
as far as possible by using a standard type, than appearance (if men look
silly in helmets. They are reluctant to wear them) and comfort. Heavy and
badly balanced helmets, which tilt backwards and forwards should be
avoided. The impact protection is provided in part by the material of which
the shell is made but mainly by the harness, which maintains a space
between the crown of wearers head and the shell so that a considerable
amount of shock can be absorbed. Periodic inspection of helmets is
important to see that hardness is not slack and sloppy and can still do its
jobs effectively, and that there are no cracks in the shell or other signs of
damage. Chinstraps are desirable for outside work, or where climbing is
necessary. Periodic cleaning and disinfections are desirable and lengthen
wear life.
EYE PROTECTION
- For general all- round protection, wearer acceptability, optical correctness,
good visibility, relative freedom from misting up, long life and ease of
dealing with the prescription lens problems spectacle type eye protection,
properly fitted so that the lens remains close to the eye, and having side
shields is supreme. Steel frames are sturdier and to be preferred, but in
practice the more closely protection spectacles approximate to those
provided by the optician. The readier people arer to wear them.
PMI, NTPC 83
EAR PROTECTION
- Where the noise level is on the region of 90 to 120 decibes, then plugs or
valves will be satisfactory. Plugs may be of soft rubber or plastic,
sometimes even of wax-impregnated cotton or paper. To give adequate
protection, they really need to be individually fitted. and tend to lose their
effectiveness unless the wearer remakes the plug when it loses
effectiveness because of movement in the ear canal which happens every
time the jaw moves, Ear valves are inserted in the ear canal and will
reduce the general noise level while still allowing the wearer to hear
human speech, It is generally considered that a reduction of 20/30 decibes
can be achieved by properly fitted or valves,
- Circumaural ear defenders, earmuffs or ear pads (they are roses under
other names) can reduce the penetrative noise level by a maximum of
about 50 decibes. The material of which they are made is important,
because washability and disinfection are necessary, Two cup shaped
devices fit over the whole of the ears, including the lobes and are pressed
gently inwards by a spring loaded suspension band or clip joins the two
together, They do not require individual fitting, but tend to be
uncomfortable is hot locations.
BODY PROTECTION
There are a number of board classification into the which body protection falls.
Here they are:
* Protection against heat.
* Protection where flammables are present.
* Impervious and chemical protection clothing.
* Radiation protection.
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* High Visibility clothing.
* Protection against cold.
* General protection.
- Fussy garments, with flaps on pockets and prominent buttons, should be
avoided. Simple garments need not be ugly (Consider the popular all
purpose. Plain white saree which is an important component of most
womens Wardrobe) and a belt.,securely stitched to the back of garment,
is excusable where there is no moving machinery, and thus gain greater
protection.
-- Fly fronts, which merely means covering buttons by a continuous strip of
material. Zips or adhesive on - contact fastenings are preferable to
exposed buttons, and garments should be fully cut. Its not recommended
idea to give men boiler suits, for example, which are so skimped for
material that the action of bending over almost splits the wearer in two.
Ease of washability and even sterilization may be important factors, as
also in nonmetallic or protected metallic, fasteners on garments, leggings
etc. to be worn in very hot locations, Theres not much point in protecting a
man from the effect of heat during his working time, then burning his
fingers when he takes off his garments at the end of a shift. There should
be adequate, but safe, asses to clothing worm beneath protective
garments.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
-- There are three classification of such protection. They are: -
* Self Contained breathing apparatus used where there is an oxygen
deficient atmosphere and / or known or suspected high concentration of
contaminant.
PMI, NTPC 85
* Canister respirators, for use where there is not an oxygen deficiency but a
known low concentration of contaminant.

* Dust respirators when the contaminant is restricted to particles of dust or
some particulate smokes.
HAND PROTECTION
Here is a run down on the most commonly used types of glove:
Canvas
Not as commonly used in India as in some other countries, but its use likely to
increase. Light in weight. Protect against minor cuts, abrasions, dirt and, if
canvas is doubled in thickness in required area, heat in the lower temperature
ranges( not above about 200F)
Terrycloth
Becoming more popular, perhaps because the loop and pile construction give
some slight resistance to impact. Rarely for protection against cuts and
abrasions. Good wear comfort.
PVC
Very widely used, Often in applications for which it was not originally intended.
Good Chemical resistance. As the polyvinyl chloride is supplied to a fabric lining.
The kind of liner is important . \Synthetic fibre liners such as Terylene give added
resistance to cuts and snags, but are less comfortable in wear. A soft pliable
knitted cotton is comfortable and helps combat hand fatigue.
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Rubber
Unsupported have some uses in delicate handling operations, and with a fabric
liner give some resistance to chemicals. Can by suitable surface treatment; be
made to give very good gripping qualities.
Neoprene
Very good where oils are handled, and low temperature.
Polythene
Excellent where exceptional manual dexterity is needed; and where a high
standard of hygiene must be maintained.
Leather
Gives some impact protection, good cut and abrasion resistance and when
reinforced protection against heavy materials with sharp edges. Suitably treated
(thermo- leather) has high heat resistance, Good for welders, burners and
material handlers subjecting gloves to rough usage.
Asbestos
Wont burn and gives some protection against heat when lined. Coated with
aluminum, reflects high levels of radiant heat,
Nitrile
Users like them because of their flexibility. Particularly good against hydro-
carbons, they also have useful resistance to some acids cuts ad abrasion.
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FOOT PROTECTION
-- If floors are wet not because of the nature of the work carried on. A
reasonably non slip sole should be sought.
-- Where there is an electrical risk. Ideally, footwear used should be sewn, or
bonded with adhesive, free from nails and use non- conductive materials
.On the other hand, there may be a static hazards so that conductivity is
needed to allow static to leak to earth.
PMI, NTPC 88
12. 12. Safety In TheMovement Of Men And Safety In TheMovement Of Men And
Materials Materials

The following paragraph gives the Means of access and method of lifting: -
-- Ladders
* They must in a safe condition.
* They must be either secured or footed.
* They must be on firm base
* They must be at the proper slope 1 ft out for every 4 ft. up.
-- Scaffolds
** Fixed Staging
Proper base
Uprights Vertical
Rigid cross-braced
Putlogs- Maximum 5 ft. apart (1.5 20m)
** Mobile Staging
Height not to exceed 3.5 X shortest base
Wheels locked or chocked.

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** Working Platform
Boarded 1.5 in (40mm) boards supported every 5 ft.(1.520m)
No Overhang
Handrails
Toe boards
** Means Of Access
Ladder extends 3 ft. 6 in. (1.070 m) above working platform.
Manual Lifting
** Handling
Adopt the proper stance
Keep the chin in
Keep the back straight
Take the correct grip
Keep the arms into the body
Adopt correct foot positions
Make proper use of the body weight.
** Facts of Lift
Am I sure that it needs moving?
DO I Know where to move it?
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Do I Know the weight
Do I Know how the weight is distributed?
Do I need assistance
Do I needed special equipment (cradle)
Do I Know how to grip it?
Lifting Attachments:
** Slings
Checks S.W.L. is greater than load to be lifted
Select correct type and termination.
Protect sling from sharp edges
Check angle between slings do not exceed 90 C
Never shorten sling by Knotting.
** Shackles
Select correct type.
Check S.W.L.
Use matching pin.
** Eye Bolts
Select correct type
Check S.W.L.
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Fit correctly collar mating with boss
Remember vertical lift only for Dynamo type.
** Hooks
Check for distortion
Use safety catche or mouse hook.
Check S.W.L.
Ensure that rings or sling rides freely hook.
Lifting Machines:
** Lifting Tackle
Secure block properly
Use block to suit size and type or rope.
Remember load on beam is weight being lifted plus effort.
Do not touch return o rope near blocks when in motion.
** J acks
Ensure sound level footing.
Pack under as load is raised.
When more than one jack is used ensure that the load is taken on
both jacks by raising them simultaneously.
** Winches
Check the brake
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Make sure that the winch is in the correct gear. if in doubt use slow
speed gear.
Make sure that the locking device provided to keep the pinion in
position is properly applied
Make sure that the handles are fully engaged and properly secured.
Make sure when hoisting or hauling that the pawl is engaged with
the rachet wheel.
** Mobile Carnes
The state of the ground or floor
i) Slope
ii) Load bearing capacity.
Correct type pressure
Use of outriggers- Packing?
Locking of springs or axles
Appropriate loads radius indicator
Correct setting of automatic load indicator
Adequate clearance for the lifting and slewing.
Ensure smooth movements.
Check position of slinger.
** For Lift Trucks
The state of the floor or ground
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i) Slope.
ii) Load bearing capacity.
iii) Evenness
Tyre pressure
Spread the forks to suit the load
Tilt the mast back when travelling
Keep the forks lowered when travelling.
Do not raise or lower the forks whilst travelling
No passengers to be carried.
Always park with the forks lowered.
PLANNING THE MOVEMENT OF PLANT.
-- Preparing
* Ascertain the weight of the load and its route.
* Remember to include the weight of
** The load
** The tackle
** The pull
When selecting lifting beam or anchorage.
* Select and inspect the appropriate lifting tackle
PMI, NTPC 94
* Use only shackles for securing and joining (NEVER) lashing or nuts
and bolts)
* See that rings, Eyes, Shackles are free to ride on the hook and on
each other.
Lifting
* Take the weight of the load and halt- Check tackle and stability of
load then lift.
* Never ride on the load.
* Walk in ahead of load, when practicable, Clear the route of people
and check for obstruction.
* Lifting machinery and lifting tackle should never be left untended
when the load is suspended.
Arriving
* Select and prepare reception area, stillage, Platform, truck, etc, in
advance
* Where practicable lower directly on to reception place. Move crane
or reception place to suit.
* Do not crush slings- lower load on to wooden packings not bricks
Check stability of load before slacking off, check again before
removing lifting tackle.
Noting
Return all lifting gear to stores- avoid dragging through dirt, dust,
oil, water etc.
PMI, NTPC 95

* Clean lifting tackle and grease if necessary.
LIFTING AND HANDLING
-- Lifting realize to a great extent on the skillful use of the right muscles, and
not on brute force, Study the average worker who with the best of
intentions is eager to get a case on to a lorry. First he tests the weight,
then he puts the strain on his arms. If this doesnt immediately do the trick
and he considers heavy lifting to be a trick he will then throw his
shoulder muscles into the effort. If still unable to lift the case, he will put
his back chest and abdominal muscles into action, at the same time
bracing the muscles of this thighs and legs .All this steady addition of
accessory muscle action will be an unconscious act which if performed a
number of times in succession, may gratify his strong man opinion of
himself, but will certainly bring on fatigue, strain and perhaps injury.
-- The principle of lifting having been explained to him, he realises that the
leg and thigh are stronger than the back or abnormal ones and he makes
these to the lifting instead, keeping the back erect, and the arms straight
.He places the feet moderately wide apart to give good balance so that the
body is not leaning to one side or the other, One foot is leading towards
the direction to be taken and the body in facing square to the, load. With it
held close to the body he straightens his legs and comes up gradually like
a human elevator or lift.
-- Size up the job First, if its Too Big, Get Help. When a packing case or
similar load has to the manhandled by at least two people, the help of a
workmate of similar height and physique makes all the difference in
reducing strain.

PMI, NTPC 96
-- An excessive load may seriously strain even the trained and experienced
person, if it approaches or exceeds fifty percent of the individuals body
weight; the risk of injury from possible losses of balance is a real one.
Accidents caused by the dropping of a load on the feet eight because of
loss of balance or insecure grip are frequent. It is a good policy to take a
look first at the lifting area- clean up slippery or oily parts of the floor and
remove anything likely to cause obstruction and subsequent disturbance
of natural balance.
-- Work Together
Rhythmic action eliminates tension in limbs and back muscles. When two
persons are carrying a load over an appreciable distance, and one of them
is forced to relax or change grip, he should give ample warning to the
other, Lifting, Carrying. Lowering--- in unison. prevents strain and any
tendency for either person to overbalance.
-- Organize the work
Proper organization can reduce the amount of lifting necessary and, in
particular reduce the need to lift loads from the floor. Where severe strain
can occur. Loads should be deposited (from lorries. Carnes, fork lift
trucks, etc) on to suitable platform at about waist height, from which they
can be lifted with the least effort.
-- J acking and Shoving
Twisting the body or to be more accurate abusing and straining arm,
shoulder and back muscles will get that case where its wanted But it
may be the last a worker will move for a long time, perhaps for ten weeks
or so, That s how long a worker injured in weight lifting is often laid up.

PMI, NTPC 97
Get help whenever necessary and push forward with the arms steadily
and smoothly, back erect.
-- Its Tough At The Top
Stacking or piling at too high a level causes fatigue and serious strain.
Don t wait until the stack is so high that the load has to be jerked up and
forward above head level. Get a pallet platform to stand on or something
similarly firm and giving a comparable standing area an essential for
maintaining perfect balance - and stack only chest high with your elbows
kept in to your sides. If the shape of the load makes it impossible to keep
your elbows well in, then do not stack more than waist high.
-- Keep The Hands From Being Injured
Splinters, nails jagged edges, all are hazards frequently and easily
overlooked. When putting down the load, make sure the hands and
fingers are free before dropping it ; above all, before attempting to a carry
anything rough or jagged remember. Gloves in use are worth any amount
in store.
-- See that Protection Clothing in Worn When Needed
Ensure that protective gloves, safety boots are always available and used
when the loads to be carried need them safety boots to prevent
dropped loads crushing the toes, protective clothing for the carrying of
corrosive chemical containers, hot materials, etc.
-- Use Mechanical Means
It is impossible to specify the maximum loads which can be safely lifted by
the persons generally. Discretion is often the better part of valour and the
packing case opposite is certainly one that should not even be shifted, let
along lilted, by hand, A hoist, portable crane, fork lift truck.. the choice
PMI, NTPC 98
of mechanical lifts is a wide one. Weight is not the only deciding factor.
A load may be comparatively light and yet be so unwidely or irregular in
shape that a secure hand grip is difficult to maintain . Hand hooks or
similar aids can often be used on many loads.
-- Never Allow Anyone To Carry blindly Or Too Much
High standards of supervision are important in all aspects of accident
prevention. Charge hands and foremen should be safety minded and
be able to recognize potential hazards. Inexperienced workers and young
people cannot be assumed to know how to lift of handle loads safely and
without strain, Train them in the right method, Where a person has to be
persuaded to discontinue a practice to which he has become accustomed,
explain the reason to him, Discourage misplace zeal, as well as the
occasional exhibitionist who always wants to carry a bigger load then the
next fellow.
Lifting Ability
Lifting ability in an individual depends upon many factorsKnow- how is
the main one. Others Include tone, susceptibility to strain and general
physical characteristics
A small wiry person can for example sometimes lift and carry with greater
ease than a big one. The heaviness of a load is a relative term
dependent upon the individuals skill and condition.
-- Some Other Points To Remember
* Do not persist in attempting to lift a load, which causes a feeling of
strain.

PMI, NTPC 99
* Do not stand holding a heavy weight; If delay is inevitable, put it
down a bench or platform of suitable henight.
* Do not change grip while carrying, rest the load on a ledge or other
firm support then change.
* Carrying a load under one arm and supported by the hip causes
local strain.
* A load can be carried on one shoulder, but remember, if its heavy
get someone to put it there,
* Slippery floors and obstruction in the lifting area are dangerous.

























PMI, NTPC 100
13. 13. Safety In Construction Safety In Construction

The construction industry has just about the worst accident record in any country.
For instance in U.K. and average of 250 workers are killed each year and 46000
accidents are reported. According to the Federation of Civil Engineering
Contractors one in every 50 workers who comes into the industry on leaving
school will be killed at work before reaching retirement age. A similar trend is
observed in the Indian Construction Industry as well. The majority of all accidents
are due to the human failings and despite the terrific increase of machi nes over
the past twenty years, there has been no corresponding increase in the
percentage of machine accidents. Due to these accidents, a lot of useful time is
lost at the work site resulting in lower productivity. This paper deals with various
safety measures to be observed in order to attain higher productivity in the
construction Industry.
Table given below gives the various reasons for accidents are construction site
and their shares in the total number of accident expressed in percentage.
Causes Shares in Percentage
1. Falling persons 45%
2. Falling Materials 14%
3. Transport 14%
4. Lifting Equipment 7%
5. Excavation 7%
6. Electricity 6%
7 Others 7%
PMI, NTPC 101
The following paragraphs illustrate a few safety measures to the undertaken in
order to attain higher productivity.
Scaffolding
-- A scaffold for the purpose of the Regulations means any temporarily
provided structures on or from which persons perform work in connection
with operations or works or means of access or agree for persons or
materials to places where work is being performed.
The materials used on all scaffolds should be in sound condition suitable
for the purpose and free from patent defect. They should be created by a
competent workman who is experienced in such work. All scaffolds should
be inspected after erection before being used and also after they have
been substantially altered, they must also be inspected at least once a
week while they are in use.
Timber used for scaffolding should be stripped of bark and not painted so
that the defects are not hidden If a scaffold is left in an unsafe or
incomplete condition so as to be dangerous, then a warning notice should
be fixed from where it can be readily seen. Before erection the ground
should be levelled and made compact so as to be firm enough to carry
any load that will be imposed. Suitable sole plates should be provided
preferably heavy bulk timber, railway sleepers are ideal.
Standards should be upright and for ordinary purposes spaced at no
greater distance than 6 or 7 feet i.e, about 2 meters apart, All joints of
standards must be staggered if heavy loading is to be imposed, then it is
advisable to have the scaffolding designed by an engineer who is
experienced in such design works. Ledgers should be fixed to standards
used only for the load bearing couplers and should be in level and all
joints should be staggered. The height between ledgers should not be
greater than 6 to 7 feet i.e. about 2 meters.
PMI, NTPC 102
Transoms should be fixed to the ledgers and maximum span of the board
must not exceed 5 feet i.e 1.525 meters in the case of 1.5X 9 38mm X
228 mm scaffold boards. It may well be better to reduce this span
according to the loading. Scaffold boards must not overhang their bears
by more than 4 times the thickness of the board. Guard rails and toe
boards must be fixed to working platforms, The minimum height of a guard
rail is 3 feet i.e 6.15mm and maximum should not exceed 3 feet 9 Inches
i.e 1.14 Meters. The minimum width of a toe board should be 6 i.e. 152
mm The distance between toe board and guard rail should not exceed
2. 6 i.e. 762 mm
All scaffolds should be properly braced and tied to the building- it is
essential the building is strong enough for this purpose. Scaffolding
material when not in use should be kept under good conditions . A
proper means of access should be provided to all working places. Pole
ladder is commonly used of this purpose. The grain of timber ladders
should be straightr and free from shakes and knots. The angle of the
ladder should be1 in 4. One foot out to four feet up. They should be so
fixed so as to prevent movement from top and bottom points of rest and
extend at last 3.6 i.e 1.07 meter above their appoint of rest. The fixing
should be done in such a manner that it does not cause trip hazard .
There should be a good hold on every rung and special care should be
taken with the rung near to the ledger at the stepping of appoint. Under no
circumstances should the lashing be around the rung. It should be around
each of the stiles and carried from stile to stile so as to leave the rung
completely unimpaired.
- Cantilever or job scaffolds etc, are the work of experts and great care
should be taken, both in the design of these and also in choosing
workman who are thoroughly trained and competent to erect this type of
scaffolding.
PMI, NTPC 103
One of the most common types of scaffolds is a mobile scaffold. Too any
accidents are reported in using such scaffolds. Their height should not be
more than three times their narrowest width at the base unless suitable
means, such as outriggers or weights at the base, are provided. Wheels
should be fixed in such a manner so as to prevent accidental
displacement. Right angle couplers should be used for fixing uprighjts to
ledgers. The only non- load bearing couplers should be those which help
in fixing the bearers of the scaffold boards when put log flips are used.
The same general principles with regard to guard rails, toe boards, width
and span of boards etc. should be applied in the case of independent tide
scaffolds. Mobile scaffolds should only be moved from the bottom and
never whilst workers are on them.
Excavation
Although in total not so many accidents occur in or around excavations as
on scaffolds. When they do occur, they are usually quite serious. Infact
approximately one in ten accidents in excavations are fatal. The depth of
the trench is not necessarily the deciding factor with regards to the
seriousness of the injury. A yard of earth weighs approximately one ton
and falls of this size are all to often fatal to workers involved. Excavations
should be properly shored or the sites should be battered to a safe angle if
men are to work in them.
Following are the common causes of collapse.
* Simple mechanical failure of the soil because it cannot support its
own weight.
* Breakdown of the strength of the soil by moisture usually caused
by heavy rain or frost.
* Failure caused by vibration from the movement of vehicles nearby.
PMI, NTPC 104
* Failure due to the weight of loads placed near the edge of
excavation,
* Failure due to the variation in the nature of the soil, such as pockets
of sand
* Failure due to excavating on or near the side of previous
excavation.
* Failure due to the sides of excavations being struck by heavy loads
such as pipes, when they are lowered into it.
Proper precautions such as shoring or cutting the ground back to its
natural angle of repose, i.e. battering is necessary. Bearing and other
supports should be created and dismantle under the direct supervision of
a competent person. All struts and braces should be secured so as to
prevent accidental displacement. Any excavation deeper than 46 i.e
1.37 meters should be inspected atleast once a day, when men are
employed there.; if the excavation is deeper than 6.6 i.e. 2 meters , the
exacavation should be inspected at the beginning of each shift, if
explosives are used then no one should work until a thorough
examination by a competent person has been done.
-- Proper precautions should be taken to prevent people from falling into the
excavations. Barriers of sufficient height should be fixed to prevent this
type of accident. Life - rope and spigots are to be driven into the
ground far away from the edge so as to have no adverse effect on the
side of the trench. Care should be taken to prevent loose material such as
rock or stone, etc, from falling into a trench on to the workers . If the
excavation is likely to cause damage or collapse of nearby building then
such building should be properly shored to prevent such damage. Proper
precautions should be taken to prevent vehicles from over running or
over turning into the trenches This is usually done by fixing a proper
PMI, NTPC 105
sign board. Proper bridges should be provided to enable workers to cross
excavations safely but if the fall is greater than 66 i.e. .2 meters height
then guard rail and toe boards should be provided . All excavations and
the approaches should be well lit. Care should be taken to ensure than
dangerous gases, dust and fumes are not allowed to collect in excavations
LIFTING
-- Gin Wheels
This is the simplest and the oldest appliance for the lifting operation. Safe
working land must be clearly marked. It must be securely fixed and the
pole to which it is fixed should be strong enough to carry the load in a
fixed position so that it may not move .It should be remembered that the
load imposed on the fixture is double that is plus a little to allow for
fraction of the actual load being lifted.
-- Hoists
Hoists are defined as lifting machines with a carriage, platform or cage the
movement of which is restricted by a guide or guides. All points of a hoist
way from which anyone can be struck weather by platform or counter
weights must be property enclosed, The winches or other moving parts
likely to cause injury should be guarded. Gates should be provided at
every landing place and they should be kept closed except for the purpose
of loading or unloading. Arrestor gear should be provided to prevent the
cage or platfrom falling if there is a failure of the hoist, ropes or driving
gear and these should be strong enough to hold when loaded. Over run
steps should also be provided to prevent the platform or cage riding over
the top of the runway mast.
The control of hoist should be from one position at a time only, This
applies weather controlled by rope, switch or a lever, if the driver of a hoist
PMI, NTPC 106
cannot clearly see cage and platform at all points then proper
arrangements should be for clear signals to be given to him whether
visual or audible.
In case of hoists carrying persons, the cage should have gates and
should be made so as to prevent people from falling out or being trapped
whilst hoist is in motion. They must also be made so as to prevent
passengers from being struck by objects faling down the hoist way, An
inter lock should be fitted so as to prevent hoist way gates from being
opened gates unless the cage is at a handing and to prevent the cage
from moving if all gates are not securely closed.
Cranes
- All cranes and their working gear and anchorages and fixing devices
should be of good construction, of sound material of adequate strength
and free from patent defect Cranes should be used only on firm and level
ground , The safe working load should be shown at the varying radio
Chains and ropes should be properly secured to their control lavers
should to remain in very operating position control levers should turns to
remain in very devices and should be clearly marked according to the re
erection of crane and should be done by a component person and boot
the driver All loads should be properly supported to prevent accidental
displacement All loads should be properly to prevent slipping or accidental
displacement. All loads should be vertically lifted and drag loading should
never be used under any circumstances.
Cranes
- All cranes and their working gear and anchorages and fixing devices
should be of good construction, of sound material, of adequate strength
and free from patent defect. Cranes should be used only on firm and level
ground. The safe working load should be shown at the varying radio-
PMI, NTPC 107
chains and ropes should be properly secured to their drums at least two
turns to remain in every operating position. As far as possible all control
levers should have locking devices and should be clearly marked
according to their purpose. The automatic safe leading indicators should
be tested after erection and re-erection of a crane and should be done by
a competent person and not by the driver. All loads should be properly
supported to prevent slipping or accidental displacement. All loads should
be vertically lifted and drag loading should never be used under any
circumstances.
All lifting gear should be of adequate strength , in sound condition and of
good construction. Wire ropes used for lifting and lowering should not be
used in visible broken wires exceed five percent of total. Lifting hooks
should have a chip or other means to prevent displacement of load, unless
a specially designed to prevent accidental displacement. Rot iron chains
and slings should be regularly annulled every six months when ie
13mm or less in diameter and once in fourteen months if the diameter is
more.
Use of Electricity
- All electric circuits should be installed and maintained only by component
electricians. Proper earthing should be provided. In view of the nature of
the work, the installations and switchgear need to be frequently inspected
by a competent person. All transformers should be as close as possible to
the incoming source of supply. All leads should properly insulated. The
apparatus should be connected to the system by proper connections;
under no circumstance should loose wires be pushed into sockets or held
in position by matches. Hand Lamps should be so as to prevent from them
becoming live and the bulbs should be protected so that they are not
easily damaged or become a source of danger if they are broken.

PMI, NTPC 108
14. SafeWorking Practices In SafeWorking Practices In Thermal Power Thermal Power
Stations Stations

GENERAL SAFETY RULES
-- Before working on any machinery or equipment you should know about
the following.
* Where are its starting and stopping controls?
* How to operate?
* What are the precautions for the safe operation?
* What personal protective equipment is to be used while working on this
machine.
-- When you are issued personal protective equipment for the use in the
particular working conditions, you must use them e.g. goggles for eye
protection, helmet for head protection. Gloves for hand protection, Apron
for body protection etc.
-- You should keep your work area clean. Do not spill oil on floor.
-- There should be no horseplay on shop floor. You should not tease others
or distract the attention of fellow workers.
-- When you have completed a job, never leave your tools lying about. You
should keep your in their proper place, otherwise they may cause injury to
your fellow employees.
-- Give your suggestions for accident prevention and contract Industrial
Safety Officer for safety problems.
PMI, NTPC 109
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS DURING MAINTENANCE
-- When you go for the any repairs to some action, you must know the
hazards in that sections required protective equipment for the wearing in
these conditions.
-- You should take required safety precautions while working in that section.
-- Never start work on any pipeline or electric line till a permit has been
issued, line has been isolated and tag has been placed at control switch
showing that it is under permit Not to be operated.
-- You should always wear head protection while going for maintenance
jobs.
-- You should carry all the required tolls for the job in bag and after
completion, do not leave any tools lying around.
-- You should never start machinery or equipment without proper guard.
Never consider a job completed till you have fitted the required guard.
-- Never leave a machine running without guard even while checking.
-- If you have removed any floor plated or pit covers fro repairs to machinery,
you must replace back after completion of work is in progress, you must
put up some barrier etc. so that others con not reach up to hazard.
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS IN USE OF ELECTRICITY
-- Whenever you go to attend electric defects, you must have a permit to
work on line and see that line isolated. Use a main switch lock out device.
-- Every machine or electrical equipment must be properly earthed.
-- Use fuse wires of proper amperage according to load on the line.
PMI, NTPC 110
-- Do not make temporary connections with lose wire-hanging wires around;
if at all it has to be made, see that the wire is not lying on floor or is
causing a tripping hazard.
-- Do not make loose connections. Do not insert naked wires into sockets.
You must use a proper plug for each equipment with earth connections.
-- While working with portable tools, check for the worn out wires, loose
connections or broken plug and if there is any defect get it rectified. Do not
try to rectify electrical defects yourself, get the help of an electrician.
-- Never use metallic ladders in electric work or near the electrical
equipment.
-- Do not leave broken plugs, sockets, and switches and worn out cables as
it is; get them changed.
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS IN OPERATIONS
-- You should clearly understand and follow the instructions from U.C.B.
-- In case of an emergency do not panic, keep your mind cool and do the job
safely.
-- If you any abnormality in functioning of equipment, inform U.C.B.
immediately.
-- For operating hot valves, handling and cleaning of oil guns, you must use
asbestos hand gloves.
-- You should not check burner flame with bare eyes, always view it through
a glass preferably oiler mans glasses.
PMI, NTPC 111
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS DURING CRANE OPERATION & RIGGING
-- When lifting any load you must the safe working load of the crane. Never
lift excessive load than the marked SWL capacity.
-- The loading hook should be in the center of the load lifted. Never drag the
load with crane to bring it under the loading hook.
-- When a load is being lifted only one man should give signals, which
should be followed by crane operator attentively.
-- Before lifting a load make sure that there are no kinks in chain or in wire of
the crane or the signals being used, never lift the load with a sudden jerk.
-- When lifting a load with a chain pulley block you should also see that the
anchor can stand the load being lifted. There are chances that anchorage
may not be strong enough to stand the load up to lifting capacity of the
chain pulley block.
-- The Crane Operators should:
* Never use a crane which is under repair.
* Check all the control before starting the work.
* Never use more than two controls at a time.
* Check before moving that the slinging is alright by lifting the load
about a foot from ground.
* Never leave any work piece or tool laying on the crane or trolley
while moving load from one place to another.
* Never stand under the load being lifted.
PMI, NTPC 112
SAFETY INSRUCTIONS FOR WELDING
-- Always close the cylinder valve while carrying from the one place to
another.
-- In case of leakage from gas cylinder immediately inform the foreman and
use a mask while handling a leaking cylinder.
-- Keep the cylinder away from the naked flame and never lubricate its valve
or other fittings.
-- For lighting the welding torch flame do not use a matchstick, always light
with a friction lighter.
-- While welding you must use goggles, hand shield, head protection, body
and feet protection against sparks etc.
-- As far as possible use a side screen for the welding so that the eyes of
other people are not affected, welders helpers should also use the same
protective equipment as being used by the welder.
-- The electric welders should not make loose connections for the supply to
transformers. Electrical supply line must be connected by the electrician
only at the work place.
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR MANUAL LIFTING, STACKING &
CARRYING
-- Never lift load beyond capacity, ask for the help.
-- When lifting pointed articles always wear gloves.
-- Before lifting a load, see for surroundingsthat there are no obstacles in
way by which you have to carry the load.
PMI, NTPC 113
-- Never bend your back while lifting a load and keep the load closer to your
body. When lifting the load, place your right foot forward by the load to be
lifted, bend your legs at knees, keep the back straight, chin up and lift with
the muscles of your arms and legs with a firm grip. Never put strain on
your back by bending.
-- While carrying a long rod or ladder etc, you should always keep the farther
end of the rod up so that it may not hit some other workers.
-- While carrying load in a trolley:
* Never over load the trolley.
* Never load it so high that you cannot see the pathway for obstacles
or where you are carrying it.
* Always push the trolley instead of pulling.
* On a slope, take the help from some one if you cannot control its
speed.
-- Always place the load on a level ground and in the required location.
-- If the ground is not level place the load on wooden planks etc, and check
that the stack will not fall down.
-- While stacking, stack up to safe height so that it does not fall. Break the
lines i n the stacking similar shaped articles as done in case of making
walls with bricks.
-- When stacking round objects, always place stoppers at ends in lowest
rung so that these cannot move outwards.
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE HAND TOLLS
-- Always use the correct tool required for the each job.
PMI, NTPC 114
-- Do not use a hammer, file screwdriver etc, with a broken slippery or loose
handle; replace such handles and then only use.
-- Tools with broken or mesh roomed heads should not be used. These
should be dressed or if cannot be rectified should be discarded.
-- Worn out or opened out spanners may slip, never use them. Spanners of
proper size should be used for each job. Never use a spanner with
packing or a leverage.
-- While using wrenches, apply pulling effort, never push it.
-- Never adopt wrong uses of hand tools e.g.
* Using a spanner in place of hammer.
* Using pliers in place of a hammer.
* Using a chisel in place of a screwdriver.
* Using a screwdriver for the opening boxes.
* Such practices damage tools and also cause accidents.
While using portable power tools, check for broken plugs, worn out or
loose cords, earthing connections etc. if defective get it rectified and then
only use it.




PMI, NTPC 115
15. 15. Permit To Work System Permit To Work System

A permit to work is printed from and issued to employees before they may work
on specified items of plant. The objective of this practice is to make it safe for the
employees to work and the permit in his guarantee of safety.
However the following must be made clear time and again to the person
obtaining permits.
* For his own safety be must ensure that he does not work on equipment for
which a permit is necessary until it has been issued.
* If he is drawing permit he should read carefully to make sure that he
knows just which plant is declared safe. If he has any doubts he must to
the engineer issuing the permit.
* Sometimes he will be expected to work with a number of other people on
an item of plant. In such case, one person will draw the permit for the
whole job. The permit to work will be kept available for the inspection in
workshop as long as it remains in force. He must read the permit before
starting the work and if it is a long job taking more than one day or shift, he
must check it at start of each succeeding day or shift.
* All copies of a permit to work (PTW) must be singed when they are issued
or cancelled.
* PTW must not be singed expect in the presence of the engineer issuing or
canceling it.
* On PTW, recipient will be required to sign a statement that he has
completed the work before PTW is cancelled.
PMI, NTPC 116
* PTW must be cleared by the person singing for receipt. Only in case of
mechanical permits to work, It is permissible for a person to clear permit,
Other than the person who received the permit; but in this case the person
singing for the clearance must at least to the a supervisor.
* All competent persons (notified as such) give their to the clearance in a
very important statement returning the PTW. This is statement certifies
the completion of work and that the work area has been cleared of tools /
tackles and men and all safety guards replaced. These persons will then
be responsible for any lapses in this regard.
STEPS / ARRANGEMENTS WHILE ISSUING PTW
* Expect in case of emergency, permits to work should be issued only
against the presentation of an isolation request, describing the isolation
required, from maintenance department. Person presenting themselves to
collect PTW, should be fully familiar with the job and details of works to be
done so that isolation request and permits can be matched.
* All copies of PTW must be singed both at receipt and at clearance
* Receipt and clearance signatures must be made only presence of S.C.C./
Unit in charge.
* Permits to work should be issued between specified hours for overnight
request and at 2 hrs notice should be given at all other times. For
convenience PTWs an engineer should be available in the permit office
during later part of the day.
* PTWs should be signed for clearance by the person who signed for
receipt. Where this is not possible and in case of mechanical permits only,
person singing for clearance must at least be a supervisor.
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* Whenever a job is permanently transferred from to one person to another,
the permit should be cancelled and reissued, the amendment of a PTW is
prohibited.
* When changed in isolation becomes necessary, the permit shall be
cancelled and reissued. Work on medium/low voltage equipments should
be done when they are dead. At least two isolations should be in service
in case of electrical permit.
* In case of emergency, when Shift Charge Engineer initiates the action, an
emergency job card should be made available from within the operation
department giving details of the work to be done to avoid breaking down
of record system.
* Do not operate - Caution boards should be put on items under PTW.
RECEIPT OF PERMIT TO WORK
* It is the responsibility of all persons on site to ensure that they do not start
work on equipments for which a PTW is necessary until the PTW has
been issued. While drawing the PTW, the recipient should read the PTW
carefully and make sure that he knows just what plant is declared safe. If
in doubt it should be clarified. All employees to work on job must check
that a permit to work is in force before commencing work on any job for
which permit is necessary. This check must be made at the start of each
day or shift and before starting of any new job,
* As far as possible, an individual will draw the PTW for specific jobs to
which they have been allocated. It is the responsibility of Shift Charge
Engineer issuing the PTW to ensure that the person is familiar with the
nature and extent of the work to be done.
* When it is unavoidable, a person of higher rank can also draw the permit;
but it will be the responsibility of this person to ensure that the men under
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his charge are acquainted with the plant to be worked on, the work to be
done and limitations imposed by safety requirements.
* When a person is required to work along with a number of other
individuals, the PTW for the whole job should be read personally by
everyone before they start the work.
* In case of electrical permits, it is not permissible for supervisors to draw
permits unless they perform the work themselves or supervise it
continuously and directly.














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16. 16. An Executives RoleIn Safety An Executives RoleIn Safety

INRODUCTION
-- Of all the responsibilities of an Executive, it is said, number one is that the
he is responsible for the getting out production. Since he is responsible for
getting out production from to his employees, anything which interfaces
with the expected production has to be his immediate concern.
-- Production does not always means the actual making of some article. It
may mean handling of material or the delivery of finished to the consumer.
It may mean the maintenance of building or equipment, operation of
boilers, engine etc, What ever the job may be, it is an essential part of the
business and any interference with its functioning is considered as an
interference with production .To prevent any such interference is
therefore, a part of the executives responsibility.
-- The loss of employees time because of illness is one source if
interference with production. Many an illness, however may be the result
of unsafe practices eg. wearing improper or insufficient clothes or footwear
or working in areas not properly protected. But the greatest interference is
almost always the result of accidents. They may result in injury to persons
or damage to machines or equipment and sometimes may mean even
both. Obviously, it is executives responsibility to stop source interference
with his production.
-- One might have come across the question: I know what my men should
do to avoid accidents, but how do I guide them to do it? I have told them
to do it what more do you expect of me? When and executive talks this
way, he very likely does associate accident prevention with the prevention
of production errors.
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-- Whereas the same Executive may have the answer for the production
troubles, e.g., if he wants some planks board out and workman says, I will
drill them out, planks get board out. If he wants a packing case
assembled with screws and the workman says I will use nails the case is
assembled. Why there never seems any doubt in an executives mind as
to how to act in cases of this kind, because he recognizes the fact that the
production might suffer and it is his responsibility to get production.
Nevertheless it is also his responsibility to get out production without
accidents or injuries. It is true of course, that an accident and an injury do
not happen every time something is done in an improper manner, But it is
also true that if improper methods are permitted to continue, accidents will
happen and both injuries and production losses might result.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION AND EFFICIENCY
-- The causes of production troubles are the same as the causes of
accidents; Time is lost because material is not piled properly. Time is lost
because areas are blocked with boxes or material that should not be
there. Time is lost because the wrong kind of a wrench or other tool is
used. And only sometimes these improper actions cause injuries. But
every time they do occur, operating efficiency suffers and there is an
interference with the job of getting out production. Obviously, therefore, an
executives concern is not only the elimination of accidents that result in
personal injury, but accidents that result in loss of time, damage to
equipment or products and interference with planned procedures. Nobody
ever saw a work schedule or a blue line print that said Stop time for an
Accident. There is always a right way of doing a job. If jobs are properly
planned and are done as they are supposed to be done, we will not have
accidents. That in short, is all that is required of executive in the
prevention of the accidents and to get people to do their jobs in the way
they should be done.
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-- As the executive controls the working personnel, he has the responsibility
of telling his men how the job should be done safely and why the short
cuts should be avoided since employees do not remember everything
that they are told, the second step is to follow up instructions by
observations to see that they are complied with. If this is supplemented by
devoting a few minutes each day to search out unsafe practices and
caution the employees, the mistakes will be avoided as soon as they are
observed. This is the most important step to accident prevention.
WHY INVESTIGATE THOROUGHLY
When an accident has happened, the executive usually investigates only such
causes that require medical attendance. Many a time the cause of an accident is
given as carelessness. This is a meaningless expression, unless an executive
is able to determine at what step the individual concerned was careless. It
should be ensured that investigation should be made as soon as possible after
the accidents. Delay always causes the details to be forgotten. If possible, the
employees involved should be interviewed. The impression should not be give
that the executive is trying to fix the blame. In interviewing employees, facts and
not opinions as to the cause should be sought. In determining the facts the
executive should himself ask what he would have the same circumstances. What
did the employees do that was unusual? Or was there any unsafe condition? The
final question after the thorough investigation should be, why did the employee
do what he did?
Discovering unsafe practice and learning why of action will help in discovering
similar traits in other workers, The whitewash in reviewing accidents cause
employees to expect protection, slows analysis, hides contributing factors and
prevents supervisory action that prevents accidents.
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CORRECTIVE ACTION
- This is the most important step of an executives responsibilities. It is the
process of getting things done and the process remains the same whether
we are talking about the production troubles or the prevention of
accidents. Generally speaking, there are four methods available for
applying corrective measure:
* We can correct a hazard by mechanical means, can eliminate the
conditions or change the operation that creates the hazards. We
can repair the broken defective part or we can put a guard on the
dangerous machine part.
* We can eliminate the cause by assigning people to other kinds of
work. This applies more in relations to accident prone workers. It
has been found that probability of an accident can be reduced by a
change in the environment
* The corrective action can be applied through disciplinary
measures. This method of approach may be tried only when other
methods have failed.
* We can prevent accidents through the method of instruction and
appeal, which is the most effective way to get results.
-- If an executive finds that the employee is not doing what he told him to do,
he should try find out the reason why? It may be that in some instance it is
because of absentmindedness, nerve recklessness or a willful disregard of
instructions. Yet in other cases, the executive, may find that the employee
has failed to understand the instructions or he is not convinced that the
method he is using is not safe. It may also be that the physical deficiency
of an individual prevents him from following the instructions. If he is able
to find out the reason why, he has a clue as to what he must do to
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overcome the non-compliance. Many a time the fault rests entirely with the
executive himself. If instructions are not being followed are, he can ask
himself:
* Have I exhibited an active interest in accident prevention?
* Have I given safety instructions with the same degree of
enthusiasm and determination as production instructions?
* Have I pointed out to the men the importance of their job to the
finished product and how improper methods can seriously interfere
with the completion of a project?
* Have I previously ignored violation of the same instructions that I
am now trying to enforce?
* Have I been guilty to do the same thing that I am now trying to
correct others from doing?
* Have I given others an opportunity to express themselves?
* Have I been impartial?
* Am I fair in what I am asking?






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17. 17. Factories Act 1948 Factories Act 1948

Factories Act, 1948 was implemented by the Government of India to consolidate
and amend the Law regulating labour in factories. Basically, it is a socio
economic law enacted for ensuring safety, health and welfare of the employees
working in the factories. The summary of this Law is given here. For details, the
provisions of Factories Act 1948 should be seen. Following safety provisions are
the major provisions of this law: -
General Duties Employer (Sec.7A)
The Employer must ensure as far as reasonably practical safety, health and
welfare of the workers. It includes sharing of information, training and
supervision.
General Duties of Manufactures /Designer / Imported Supplier
(Sec.7B)
The manufactures / Designer / imported Supplier must ensure safety in design
/construction and supply of adequate information on safety. They should follow
the standard of the country from where being imported , if they are superior to
India. Otherwise follow the Indian Standard.
Fencing of Machinery (Sec. 21)
This is to provide fencing of all moving and dangerous parts shall be provided
and kept in position.
Work on or near machinery in motion (Sec.22)
This is to ensure that the only specially trained adult male workers wearing tight
fitting clothing are permitted. A Register of such persons should be maintained.
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Employment of Young persons on dangerous machine (Sec. 23)
Only those young persons who had received sufficient training in if such work
should be kept under adequate supervision are allowed to work under this
Section.
Striking gear and devices for cutting of Power (Sec-24)
The provisions related to mechanical and electrical isolation should be provided,
maintained and used for cutting of power in emergencies.
Self acting machines (Sec- 25)
Traversing part of a self acting machines are not to be allowed to reach 45 cm,
from any fixed structure to prevent any possible injury.
Casing of any new machinery (Sec. 26)
Set screws, bolt or key, gears, which does not require frequent adjustment,
should be completely encased. No one sell or let on hire or procure the machine
without above said encasing.
Prohibition of employment of women or children near cotton
openers (Sec. 27)
Women and children are prohibited to work on or near the cotton openings.
Hoists and lifts (Sec 28)
It should have safe construction, safety maintained and examined by a
competent person at east once every six months. Safe working load (SWL) shall
be marked and overloading not allowed, hoist or lift used for the carrying persons
shall be fitted with a gate for the access, which should not open except at the
races.
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Lifting machines, chains, ropes and lifting tackles (Sec, 29)
Safe construction, safe maintenance, examination once in 12 months, safe
working load to be marked and not to be over loaded are the main characters of
this Section. Safe passage should be provided for employees to work on or near
the wheel tracks.
Revolving machinery (Sec . 30)
Measures should be undertaken to prevent over- speeding.
Pressure plant (Sec 31)
In the pressure vessels, pressure should not be exceeded to the safe working
pressure. The pressure vessels should be examined regularly as per State
Factory Rules.
Floors, Stairs and means of access ( Sec 32)
All floors, stairs and means of access should be free from all obstructions. They
should be fully safe.
Pits, Sumps, Opening in floor, etc (Sec-33)
Pits, Sumps, Openings in floor, etc should be either covered or fenced.
Excessive weights (Sec. 34)
The employees should not be allowed to carry excessive weight to their
capacities.
Protection of eyes (Sec. 35)
Effective means like screens or suitable goggles should be provided to prevent
risk to eyes from particles/ excessive light.
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Precautions against dangerous fumes, gases, etc. (Sec 36)
No person should to be allowed in confined space having risk till the dangerous
vapor / gas / dust has been removed within permissible limit and tested by a
competent person. Proper protective equipments should be provided for the
employees going inside such space.
Precautions regarding the use of portable electric light (Sec 36A)
No light / electrical appliance beyond 24 volts should be used in confined space
unless adequate safety provisions are provided. For inflammable equipments,
flameproof equipment should be used.
Explosive or inflammable dust, gas, etc. (Sec. 37)
Explosive or inflammable dust or gas plant should be effectively enclosed.
Measures should to taken to prevent ignition.
Precautions in case of Fire (Sec 38)
Safe means of escape, its familiarization to the workers and necessary fire
fighting facilities should be ensured.
Power to require specifications of detective parts or tests of
stability (Sec39)
Government empowers itself to ask drawing specification of defective parts, etc.
Safety of building and machines ( Sec. 40 & 40 A)
Under the provisions of this section, all the building and equipments, should be
safe and should be maintained safe.

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Appointment of Safety Officer (Sec 40B)
Every factory appointing more than 1,000 workers should employ at least one
safety officer. The number of safety officers, their qualification and conditions of
service, should be as described in State Factory Rules.
Power to make Rules to supplement this Chapter (Sec. 41)
This provides special power to State Government for making other Safety Rules.
In May 1987, the President of India gave his assent to the amendments to the
Factories Act which provides for stringent measures for ensuring industrial
safety, especially in hazardous industries. The amendments seek to enlarge the
scope and applicability of the Act to matters relating to the protection of the
environment on the premise that the activity carried on inside the factory would
have a potential to adversely affect the surrounding environment .We take a look
at the following important provisions which have been inserted through the
amendments: -
Safety Policy (Sec. 7A /41 B)
The new sections require declaration of a safety policy by the factory, which
should be communicated to the workers. It should be a written statement with
respect to the health and safety of workers, and the State Governments have
been advised to notify all promises engaged in chemical processes as factories
even though they may be employing only a couple of persons for the purpose of
having a safety policy.
Site Appraisal Committee (Sec. 41A)
A hazardous process has been defined, and 29 industries have been specified
which involved hazardous processes. These industries before they are located in
any particular area require appraisal of the conditions from the point of the view
raw materials used, Intermediate or finished products, by products, wastes and
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effluents produced by the manufacturing process. The amendment provides for
the establishment of a Site Appraisal Committee by the State Government which
will examine an application for the establishment of factory involving hazardous
processes and make its recommendations.
Disclosure of Information (Sec. 41B)
A factory carrying on hazardous process will have to disclose information on
health hazards, and measures to overcome such hazards arising out of harmful
exposure in the operations. Not only the workers employed in the factories are
required to be informed, but also the local authority within whose jurisdiction the
factory is situated, the general public in the vicinity of the factory and the Chief
Inspector of Factories are also required to be informed of the hazards.
Medical Examination (Sec. 41C)
Since exposure to dangerous substances can cause occupational diseases, the
workers employed in hazardous process should be subjected to medical
examination before they are employed in the process. They should also be
examined periodically to detect any deterioration in health. The Act requires the
occupier to maintain accurate and up to date health records of workers
employed in such hazardous processes. Further, such records should be made
available to the workers, through some reasonable conditions may be prescribed.
The first schedule has listed 29 industries in which hazards processes are carried
out. For each type of process, there will be different medical testes and
examinations involved and these are to the be prescribed in the Rules.
Hazardous industries are required to appoint persons with desired qualifications
and experience in handling hazardous substances who are competent to
supervise, such operations in the factories. Such a person will be responsible for
guiding workers and ensuring safe working conditions in the plant. He will be
expected to know about the hazardous properties of the materials being used or
produced.
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Government Inquiry (Sec. 41D)
The Central Government may, in the event of the occurrence of an extraordinary
situation involving a factory engaged in a hazardous process, appoint an Inquiry
Committee to ensure into the standards of health and safety observed in the
factory with a view to finding out the causes of any failure to neglect in the
adoption of any measure or standards prescribed for the health and safety of the
workers employed in the factory or the general public affected or likely to be
affected, due to such failure or neglect for the prevention and recurrence of such
extraordinary situations in future.
Where the Central Government is satisfied that no standards of safety have been
prescribed in respect of hazardous process or class of hazardous processes or
where the standards prescribed are inadequate, it may direct the Director
General of Factory Advise Service and Labour Institute, or any institution
specialized in matters relating to standards of safety in hazardous process to lay
down emergency standards for enforcement of suitable standards in respect of
such hazardous processes.
Safety Committee (Sec .41G)
In every factory carrying out a hazardous process, workers participation in safety
management will be ensured by setting up a Safety Committee which will be
required to promote co-operations between workers and managements for the
safety and health conditions at work and also to review periodically the measures
taken.
Right of Workers to warn about imminent danger (Sec. 41H)
Workers can tell the management through the Safety Committee Members and
also Inspector in case of imminent dangers. In such case, the Occupier shall take
immediate remedial action.
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Prohibit Work (Sec. 87A)
If conditions in factory pose serious hazards by way of injury or death to the
workers or the general public in the vicinity, the Occupier may be prohibited from
employing any person in the factories till the hazards is removed. It shall be
entitled to wages of stoppage of work. It shall be the duty of the Occupier to
provide alternative employment, and the worker shall be entitled of stoppage of
work.
Implementation of Factories Act
The provisions of this Act are to be implemented by Inspectorate of Factories.
They have power to investigate / enter any factory, ask for the registers, seize or
take any copes of any document. Direct occupier to leave any thing / place
undisturbed, take photos, record statements, etc.
The prosecutions are to be filed by the Inspectorate of Factories only.
Punishments
With the amendments in Factories Act, Punishment are very much enhanced.
For general violations, provision of imprisonment of two years and / or penalty of
Rs. 1 Lakh is there .For repeat violation, in some cases, imprisonment of three
years / or penalty of Rs 2 Lakh can be there. However, for death, minimum fine
shall be Rs. 25000/- and for severe injury, it shall be not less than Rs. 5,000. For
repeat cases for death, it shall be Rs. 35,000/ - and severe injuries, it shall be
Rs. 10,000/-
For violation of Sections 41B, 41 C & 41 H relating to compulsory disclosure of
information, health records and imminent dangers- the punishment can be 7
years imprisonment and or fine of Rs 2 lakhs, while for its repetition, it can be up
to 10 years imprisonment.
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18. 18. Indian Electricity Act & Rules Indian Electricity Act & Rules

The Indian Electricity Act of 1910 and Rules there under are as old as about
eighty years. The Act was first framed in a most crude form called as Hawra
Bridge Electricity Act 1902 at Calcutta. The same form was adopted and
generalised then as Indian Electricity Act 1910 for uniformity all over Indian
States and for control of electricity being the matter of high technology, and of
paramount importance. The electricity was considered as commodity which
required control from generation point to the utilisation point. The Indian
Electricity Rules 1956 were framed later after same years.
The Indian Electricity Act 1910 is devided into four parts, and the sections of
which deal with following matters broadly.

Preliminary


Licenses


Works

Supply

Supply
Licenses (

Protective Clauses

Administration and Rules

Criminal offences and
procedure

Supplementary

Schedules
Title, extent and commencement,
definition of terms. (Section 1 & 2)

Issue of licenses for supply of
electricity in area of supply. (Section 3
to 11)

Sections 12 to 19.

Sections 19A to 27.



Sections 31 to 34

Section 35 to 38.

Section 39 to 50.

Section 51 to 58.

I to XVII
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Some of the relevant sections are

Section 33 & 36

Appointments of Electrical Inspectors under Inspectorate wing of I.E. & L. Deptt.
to carry inspections under I.E. Rules 1956 of all Electric Installations and
investigate the causes of electric accidents, inquire into and report to
Government.

Section 36A & 37

Appointment of Central Electricity Board for framing and or amendment of I.E.
Rules under I.E. Act 1910.

Section 38

Appointment of members of Central Electricity Board, and further provisions.

Indian Electricity Act 1910 and Rules thereunder are therefore very much
necessary for uniformity of working practices in standardisation of electric supply
lines, appliances and in control of electricity as commodity.

The Electricity being the commodity and generated, transformer distributed and
utilized, either through licensees or Electricity Boards other than Government,
requires to be controlled for which I.E. Rules 1956 are framed. The non
uniformity in control of electric commodity would cause chaos in consumers and
supplies due to preferential treatments, standardisations of voltages and thereby
appliances, apparatus.

The Electricity is also dangerous to human beings and proper if not used with
proper safety measures or precautions hence I.E. Rules 1956 are framed under
I.E. Act 1910, which are therefore to be followed scrupulously.
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The Electrical Inspectorate under I.E. & L. Deptt. of Govt. of Maharashtra is
responsible for application of I.E. Rules 1956 and the Safety is implemented by :
Regular Periodical Inspection of Electrical Installation as required under rules 46
of I.E. Rules 1956, The recommendations are issued on consumers licensees,
officers of electricity boards, to comply with I.E. Rules 1956. On severe Breach of
I.E. Rules 1956, 5(4) orders : Means compulsory compliance of
recommendations given by the officers of Gazetted rank within stipulated period,
to be complied else prosecution may be launched and default punished in court
of Law.

Investigation, of Non Fatal/Fatal electrical accidents carried out by an officer not
below the rank of Gazette rank. The causes are found out ?or avoiding the
mistakes in future. The defaulters are also prosecuted in court of Law.
Repeitative causes when noticed are communicated to concerned
Licensee/electricity board officials so as to take precautions to improve the
electrical installations or change method of construction accordingly.

It would be of great interest to know how and what were causes and remidies for
the causes of electrical accidents on safety point of view, so as to take
precautions in future.

The causes mainly devided into following reasons :

Non use of Standard Materials

The accidents have occurred to many industries due to use of deteriorated or
cheap use of PVC Wires, apparatus, E.G.Cables, P.V.C. Wires used for
Grinders, Blowers, defective Grinders, blowers etc.

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* Ignorance

If knowledge of electricity is not properly received by Wireman, Layman,
the wrong connections e.q. green wire connected to phase causes fatal
accidents
Examples - 1. Fatal accidents to Carpenter at Malad.
2. Fatal accidents to unknown at Nanda Dhup Indus. G.I
Bare wire for neutral if connected to wrong polarity will charge all metallic
parts connected to it and cause fatal accidents.

* Overconfidence

If proper precaution while working on the dead lines are not taken to earth
the same and if the overconfident person works on live portion which were
supposed dead by him but are live receives electric shock.
Examples are - Testing of G.O.D. also testing of 440 volt terminals
with 250 volt test lamps may lead to an accident.

* Maintainence

Many a times preventive maintenance schedules are not followed. The
Electric Installation became defective and old electric installation requires
renovation.

* Supervision

Most of the industries run on electrical powers however the work of
electrical nature are not supervised by a competent person or authorised
person and thus workers meet with an electrical accident. Even if the
supervisors competent authorised persons are available they lack in
supervision due to negligence.
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By looking at some of the above reasons cited above it would be almost
necessary that above reasons could have been avoid had there :

A proper use of standard materials.

Working of electric lines/apparatus is carried through Licensed Electric
contractors

Working on live lines is avoided.
Proper preventative maintenance is carried.

All electrical work is supervised by authorised person.

However the fatal electrical accidents could be avoided generally by taking
following precautions.

Proper sizes of fuses if used or the circuit breakers of proper setting to
breaker the circuit currents are used case of leakages.

Proper use of earthing.

Use of earth leakage circuit
breakers.

The procedure adopted for prosecution for breach of I.E. Rule 1956 under I.E.
Act 1910 is as follows :

The intimation of the Fatal Accident is to be given to the Electrical Inspector
within 24 hour s. of its occurrence and report in form of Annexure XIII submitted
within 48 hours him as required under Rule 44A of I.E.Rules 1956. The accident
is investigated immediately and causes found out. If found necessary leakage is
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decided by taking megger tests. The statement of Eye witnesses collected. 5(4)
orders and Show causes notices under I.E. Rules 1956 served on to the
defaulters and case is consulted with Public Prosecutor for filing in Court of Law.
The result of the court is binding on defaulter.

Electrical Inspectorate thus observes safety of working of Electrical apparatus
and equipments by carrying out Electrical inspections as per I.E. Rules 1956
under I.E. Act 1910, and finding out causes leading to fatal, non fatal electric
accidents and advising Govt. on the same. The Inspectorate also deals in
investigation of complaints, of various nature in electricity and giving proper
advise to the concerned and deriding disputes between consumers and electric
suppliers.


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19. 19. Gas Cylinder Rules 1981 And S Gas Cylinder Rules 1981 And Static & tatic &
MobilePressureVessels (Unfired) Rules MobilePressureVessels (Unfired) Rules
1981 1981

The Indian Explosives Act, 1984 is an Act to regulate the manufacture,
possession, use, sale, transport and importation of explosives. Four important
Rules framed under this Act are the following:

The Explosives Rules, 1983.
The Gas Cylinder Rules, 1981.
The Static & Mobile Pressure Vessels (Unfired) Rules, 19
Carbide of Calcium Rules, 1937.

This talk is being restricted to Rules mentioned at item number 2 & 3 above.
Whereas Gas Cylinder Rules, 1981 came into effect 24-2-1981 and superseded
the earlier Gas Cylinder Rules, 1940. Static & Mobile Pressure Vessels (Unfired)
Rules, 1981 were entire a new legislation and came into effect throughout the
country 4-2-1981.

The object of both these Rules is to provide a comprehensive for regulating
through-out the country :

- Possession, delivery, dispatch, handling, examination a testing of gas
cylinders and

- Construction fitment, storage, loading, transport, licensing and inspections
etc. of pressure vessels for composed and liquefied gases.
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These Rules impose certain restrictions relating to the above items. The main
objective, however, is to protect the public against their dangerous nature by
regulating all dealings connected therewith.

THE GAS CYLINDER RULES, 1981

This is quite a comprehensive enactment. However, only some more important
provisions are discussed below. The handling of compressed gas cylinders is
relatively safe today, because of engineering improvement and standardization of
cylinders and components. It may be helpful to remember that compressed gas
cylinders are not designed for temperatures exceeding 130F. Gas cylinders
designed and approved for filling with a particular gas shall not be used for filling
with any other gas, unless specific approval) is obtained from the Chief Controller
of Explosives. Any cylinder which fails to pass periodic examination or test, or
which loses in its tare weight by over 5% or which for any other defect is found to
be unsafe for use shall be destroyed in a manner whereby the pieces cannot
again be joined together by welding or otherwise to form a cylinder.

Some Important Definitions

These are Compressed Gas, Dissolved Gas, Liquefiable Gas, Flammable Gas,
Permanent Gas, High Pressure liquefiable Gas, Critical Temperature, Filling
Temperature & Filling Ratio. A gas cylinder or cylinder means any closed metal
container intended for the storage and transport of compressed gas, designed
not to be fitted to a but not exceeding 1000 litres. All these definitions are given
under Rule 2 of these Rules, which should be studied to understand these Rules
fully.

All cylinders and valves are to be constructed in accordance with approved
design and specifications. Manufacturers of the cylinders have to obtain test and
inspection certificates from the inspecting authority prior 10 their use. All gas
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cylinders have to undergo various tests after manufacture, according to their
working, make and design. Some of the tests are Heat treatment. Hydraulic test,
Leakage test and Pursting test.

Valves fitted to gas cylinders have to comply with various ISI specifications,
depending upon whether these are used for industrial gases, medical gases,
used for breathing apparatuses or for tilling liquefied petroleum gas.

Safety relief devices for cylinders manufactured in India must conform to ISI
specifications. In respect of cylinders containing obnoxious or poisonous gases,
safety relief devices are not to be provided.

The material, design and construction of safety devices shall be such that there
will be no significant change in the functioning of these devices and no
deterioration occurs due to service conditions.

Every gas cylinder and valve should be clearly and permanent marked by
stamping, engraving or similar process. The information provided by the
markings include the specifications to which the cylinder is made, its working and
test pressure, tare weight and water capacity. Such markings stamped should
not be tampered with.

The name of the gas and that of the filling party shall form the label on every
cylinder together with a warning as prescribed in Rule.

Repairing, painting or altering the colour of the cylinders at the consumers' and
are strictly prohibited.

Persons under 18 years of the age or in a state of intoxic should not be employed
for loading, unloading or transport of any compressed gas cylinders.

PMI, NTPC 141
Handling & Transporting Cylinders

Adequate care should be taken in their handling viz

They should not be dropped or allowed to fall upon one another.

LPG Cylinders and cylinders containing liquefiable gas shall always be
kept in an upright position and shall so placed that they cannot be
knocked over.

Cylinders which are used in horizontal position shall so secured that they
cannot roll.

Trolleys and cradles of adequate strength shall be used whilst moving
cylinders.

Cylinders with any compressed gas shall not be transported by a bicycle
or any other two-wheeled mechanically propelled vehicle.

Whilst transporting them, they shall be adequately secured to prevent their
falling off the vehicles and being subjected to rough handling.

Cylinders of compressed gases shall not be transported along with any
other article of a highly inflammable or corrosive nature.

Cylinders containing flammable gases shall not be transported along with
cylinders containing any other type of compressed gas.

Cylinders containing toxic or corrosive gases shall not be transported
along with foodstuffs.

PMI, NTPC 142
Lifting magnets cannot be employed for loading, unloading of compressed
gas cylinders. Where such operations are carried out by means of a crane
or a fork lift truck, a proper cradle with chains or wire rope slings shall be
employed.

No person shall deliver or despatch any cylinder filled with compressed gas to
any other person who is no the holder of a license to possess such cylinders,
unless he is exempted from obtaining a license under the Rules.

Protection Of Valves During Transport

Every cylinder containing compressed gas shall have its valve securely closed
and protected against damages and leakages. Valves fitted to the cylinders
containing LPG and highly toxic gases such as Phosgene, HCN, Carbon
Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Chlorine, Fluorine, Sulphur Dioxide etc. shall be
provided with a security nut or gas-tight metal caps or covers on the outlet, to act
as a secondary means of safeguard and against gas leaks.

Storage of Cylinders

Cylinders shall be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated placed under cover, away
from boilers, open flames, steam pipes or any other potential source of heat. The
place of storage shall be easily accessible. The storage room or shed shall be of
fire resistant construction. For sheds storing non-flammable gases, beams,
rafters, columns, windows and doors may be of wood. Cylinders containing
flammable gases shall be kept separated from each other and Rom cylinders
containing other types of gases by an adequate distance (greater than 1m) or by
a suitable perdition wall. Empty Cylinders shall be segregated from filled ones
and care shall be taken that all valves are tightly shut. The storage shed shall be
adequately ventilated near the ground level and near or in the roof. In case the
storage shed is used for storing LPG cylinders, the ventilators shall be provided
PMI, NTPC 143
with two thickness of copper or other non-corroding metal wire gauze of mesh
not less than 11 to the linear centimeter. Distances between 0 metres to 15
metres shall be kept clear at all times between any building, public place, public
road or any adjoining property which may be built upon and the storage shed
used for the storage of LPG cylinders of upto 100 kg. to over 30,000 kg. Such a
storage shed shall not be situated under any staircase or near other-entrances to
or exits from the rest of the building or other buildings. A shed used for storage of
LPG Cylinders shall be surrounded by a suitable fence to prevent unauthorized
persons from having access to the shed. A minimum of two portable foam
type/chemical type fire extinguishers of 9 kg. each shall be kept at a convenient
location for immediate use in the event of any fire. In premises for filling and
storing flammable gases in cylinders, all electric meters distribution boards, fuses
lamps etc. shall be of flameproof construction conforming IS:2148. The storage
shed shall be in the charge of a competent person.

General Precautions

Gas cylinders should not be placed where they might become parts of an electric
current circuit. Where cylinders are used near to or in conjunction with electric
welding, precautions should be taken against accidental grounding of
compressed gas cylinders and allowing them to be burnt by electric welding etc.
Cylinders shall not be used as rollers supports or any purpose other than for
which they are intent. In moving cylinders, it is important that they should not be
subjected upto abnormal mechanical shocks, which might damage the cylinders
and the valves. Care should be taken to ensure that cylinders are not dropped or
allowed to strike against each other violently. Valve protection caps shall never
be used for lifting cylinders from one position to another. Before raising a cylinder
provided with cap from horizontal to vertical position., it should be ensured that
the cap is properly placed hard and tight and the cylinder raised by grasping the
cap.

PMI, NTPC 144
Testing Of Cylinders

All cylinders have to be tested at periodic intervals. Any cylinder which fails to
pass such tests or which loses its tare weight by over 5% or which for any other
reason is found to be unsafe shall be destroyed after defacing all the markings.

Filling & Possession

The Rules provide for obtaining licenses for filling and possession of gas
cylinders. There are certain restrictions on filling of cylinders. Prior approval of
the Chief Controller of Explosives has to be obtained of specifications and plans
of premises proposed to be licensed. Rule 52 prescribes the limits in capacities
or numbers of cylinders of different types of gases such as LPG, flammable but
non-toxic, non-flammable non-toxic, toxic and acetylene gas, beyond which it
would be necessary to take out a license to possess such cylinders. License fees
vary from Rs.100 to Rs.300 per year for storing different type of gas cylinders
beyond the capacities given in Rule 52 as well as for their import and filling. The
working pressure in any cylinder filled with a permanent gas shall not exceed
two-thirds of its test pressure. Cylinders filled with liquefiable gases shall not be
filled in excess of filling ratios specified in IS:3710.

Accidents & Inquiries

Rules provide for notices of accidents to be given to the Chief Controller of
Explosives, Nagpur by an express telegram to be followed within 24 hours by a
letter giving full particulars of the occurrence and to the Officer-in-charge of the
nearest Police Station by the quickest route. If inquiries into the accident are to
be conducted by a magistrate, these shall be in the presence of the Chief
Controller or one of his nominated officers.


PMI, NTPC 145
THE STATIC & MOBILE PRESSURE VESSELS (UNFIRED)
RULES, 1981

This is another comprehensive piece of safety legislation. Only a very few very
important provisions, however, are dealt with below, since it is not possible to
cover the entire Rules, in a talk of this nature.

GENERAL

Some Important Definitions

These are given in Rule 2 of these Rules. A pressure vessel for the purpose of
these Rules is defined as any closed metal container of whatever shape,
intended for storage and transport of any compressed gas which is subjected to
internal pressure and of which water capacity exceeds one thousand litres etc.
This does not include containers wherein steam or other vapour is, or intended to
be, heated by the application of fire or the products of combustion or by electrical
means. The definition also excludes heat exchangers, (evaporators, air
receivers, steam type digesters,) steam type sterilizers, autoclaves, (reactors,
caloritiers and pressure piping components,) such as separators or strainers. Any
such vessel, which form a part of a processing plant is also excluded, other than
the storage vessel connected with the plant. Rule 2 may be referred to definitions
of competent persons, design pressure, water capacity, flammable gas, corrosion
etc.

Certain restrictions have been imposed by these Rules on the fillings,
manufacture, delivery and despatch of compressed gassed in a vessel. No
person can fill any compressed gas in a vessel or transport a vessel filled with
compressed gas unless it has been manufactured in accordance with certain
does approved by the Chief Controller. No person can deliver or despatch any
PMI, NTPC 146
compressed gas in a vessel to any person other than the holder of a storage
license.

These is prohibition on carrying out repairs to a vessel unless these are
approved by the Chief Controller.

Before using any new vessel or before re-filling any vessel which has been made
gas free, air contained in the vessel should be purged with an inert gas. In both
these cases, the purged gas should be vented off only after taking adequate
precautions to prevent its ignition

Persons under the age of 18 years or in a state of intoxicate should not be
employed for the loading, unloading or transport of any such vessel containing
compressed gases.

Persons should not smoke and matches, fires and such materials capable of
causing ignition are not allowed near any place where compressed gas is stored,
handled or transported in a vessel.

No person on enter a vessel used for the storage of a toxic or corrosive gas,
unless he is adequately protected by suitable clothing, gas masks etc.

CONSTRUCTION & FITMENT OF PRESSURE VESSELS

Design Code

Vessels should be designed for the most severe combinations of operating
conditions, which may be experienced jn normal operations, where vessels are
subject to alternate heating and cooling, provision should be made in the design
to permit expansion or contraction to avoid excessive thermal stresses.
PMI, NTPC 147
Vessels should be designed, constructed and tested in accordance with IS 2825
or a code/ standard approved by the Chief Controller.

Vessels subject to corrosion should have a corrosion allowance to cover the total
deterioration expected during the life of the equipment.

Design Pressure

The design pressure of a vessel should not be less than:

The vapour pressure of the gas in the vessel at 55C for liquefiable gases,
it trip vessel is insulated, the vapour pressure of the gas corresponding to
the maximum temperature. that the gas is likely to attain shall be used.

The developed pressure of the gas in the vessel at 55C for permanent
gases

Materials used for insulating vessels shall be approved by the Chief Controller.
The insulation shall be covered with a metal jacket of minimum 3 mm thickness,
which is weather tight.

Filling Capacity And Filling Pressure

No vessel shall be filled with any permanent gas in excess of its design
pressure
In case of liquefiable gases, the maximum amount shall be limbed to the
filling density of the gas, and also dependent upon whether the vessel is
insulated or uninsulated.
PMI, NTPC 148
Markings

Every vessel shall have a name plate giving details regarding the manufacturers
name construction code. Official stamp of the Inspector, design pressure,
hydrostatic test pressure water capacity etc.

Painting

Vessels should be painted externally to prevent corrosion and should have a
reflecting surface.

Fittings

Each vessel shall be provided with the following fittings:

Pressure relief valves connected to vapour space, emergency shut-off valves
liquid level gauging device, Temperature indicator. Drains and at least one
pressure gauge connected to vapour space.

Pressure Relief Valves

Every vessel should have two or more pressure relieving devices, with a
shut-off valve between each device and the vessel. The arrangement of
the shut-off valve shall be such as to afford full required capacity flow
through at least one of the safety relief valves. Safety relief valves shall
have direct communication with the vapour space of the vessel.

The relief valves should be spring-loaded set to start discharging at a
pressure not exceeding 110% of the design pressure and should have a
relievi ng capacity such that the maximum pressure in the vessel does not
exceed 120% of the design pressure.
PMI, NTPC 149
Relief valves should be tested not less than once ,,a year and a record of
such tests maintained.

* Emergency shut-off valves

All liquid and vapour connections on vessels except those for relief valves,
should have an emergency shut off valves, such an excess flow valve, an
automatically operated valve or remotely controlled valve. This shall be of a
type, which shall not fail.

* Liquid level gauging device

Every vessel should be equipped with a liquid level gauging device. In
addition, it should be equipped with a fixed maximum level indicating
device.

All vessels shall be hydraulically tested by a competent person at the test
pressure valve at intervals of not more than 5 years; for corrosive or toxic gases
this test shall be done at an interval of two years. The competent person carrying
out this test shall issue a certificate of test.

STORAGE

* All vessels shall be installed entirely above ground, in the open.

* Vessels shall not be installed one above the other.

* The number of storage vessels in on installation shall not exceed six.
These shall be located such that their longitudnal axes are parallel to each
other. The top surface of the vessels in the installation shall be on the
same plane.
PMI, NTPC 150
* Vessels installed with their dished ends facing each other shall have
screen walls between them.

* No vessel shall be located within the dyked are of petroleum or other
flammable liquid storages.

LOCATION OF VESSELS

Minimum safety distances between vessels and built up area for
flammable, corrosive and toxic gases are given in one table, whereas the
second table gives the minimum safety distances for non-toxic gases. The
minimum distances between the vessels are also prescribed. Refer Rule
22 for this purpose. These distances vary from 5 m to 30 m between
vessels and buildings etc. and between 1 m and the diameter of the larger
vessel as the minimum distances between vessels.

Every vessel shall be supported on well designed foundations.

The storage area consisting of vessels, loading and unloading facilities
etc. shall be enclosed by an industrial type of fence, at least 2 m high with
at least two exits, the gates of such exits shall open outwards and shall
not be self-locking.

An area of 3 m around the vessel shall be kept free from ignitable
materials such as weeds and long dry grass.

These Rules further prescribe arrangements for fire protection, loading
and unloading facilities, transfer operations, Electrical apparatuses and
installations, lighting of storage and operating areas, display of a
permanent notice, regarding prohibiting smoking and use of naked lights,
earthing provisions etc.
PMI, NTPC 151
A certificate of safety in the proforma given in these Rules and signed by a
competent person shall be furnished to the licensing authority before any
vessel is used for storage or whenever any addition or alteration to the
installation or vessel foundation is carried out.

LICENSING

A license has to be obtained for storage of any compressed gas in any vessel.
Prior approval of the Chief Controller of specifications and plans of the vessels
and premises proposed to be licensed is necessary. The license is liable to be
suspended or cancelled if at any time the continuance of the license fee for
storing compresses gases in an installations varies from Rs. 1,000/- to Rs.
10,000/- per year. The license fee for transporting compressed gas by a vehicle
is Rs. 1,000/- per year.

ACCIDENTS & INQUIRIES

Notice of an accident has to be given to the Chief Controller by means of an
express telegram, followed by a detailed letter within 24 hours of the occurrence.
Inquiries into accidents shall be conducted by a magistrate in the presence the
Chief Controller or one of his nominated officers. Inquires into accidents shall be
normally held in the open court but it may be held in camera if the Central
Government so directs,
PMI, NTPC 152
20. 20. Legal Aspects Of Safety Under Other Acts Legal Aspects Of Safety Under Other Acts

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT, 1923

Definition of Disablement

"Partial disablement" (Sec. 2g) means, where the disablement is of a
temporary nature, such disablement as reduces the earning capacity of a
workman in any employment in which he was engaged at the time of
accident resulting in the disablement, and, where the disablement is of a
permanent nature, such disablement as reduces his earning capacity in
every employment which he was capable of undertaking at that time;
provided that every injury specified (in part II of schedule I) shall be
deemed to result in permanent partial disablement;

"Total disablement" (Sec. 2.1) means such disablement, whether of a
temporary or permanent nature, as incapacitates a workman for all work
which he was capable of performing at the time of the accident resulting in
such disablement: (provided that permanent total disablement shall be
deemed to result from every injury specified in Part I of schedule I or from
any combination of injuries specified in Part II thereof where the aggregate
percentage of the loss of earning capacity, as specified in the said Part II
against those injuries, amounts to one hundred per cent or more).

Employer's Liability for Compensation (Sec. 3) : If personal injury is caused to a
workman by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, his
employer shall be liable to pay compensation is in accordance with the provisions
of this Chapter : Provided that the employer shall not be so liable ;

in respect of any injury which does not result in the total or partial
PMI, NTPC 153
disablement of the workman for a period exceeding (three) days ;
in respect of any (injury, not resulting in death caused by) an accident
which is directly attributable to;

the workman having been at the time thereof under the Influence of
drink of drugs, or

the willful removal or disregard by the workman to an order
expressly given, or to a rule expressly framed, for the purpose of
securing the safety of workmen, or

- The willful removal or disregard by the workman of any safety guard or
other device which he knew to have been provided for the purpose of
securing the safety of workmen.

Amount of compensation (Sec. 4): Subject to the provisions of this Act, the
amount of compensation shall be as namely :

Where death results from the injury and the deceased workman has been
in receipt of monthly wages falling within limits shown in the first column of
Schedule IV- the amount shown against such limits in the second column
thereof ;

Where permanent total disablement results from the injury and the injured
workman has been in receipt of monthly wages falling within limits shown
in the first column of Schedule IV -the amount shown against such limits in
the third column thereof).

Where permanent partial disablement results form the injury ;

PMI, NTPC 154
a) in the case of an injury specified in (Part II of Schedule I) such
percentage of the compensation which would have been payable in
the case of permanent total disablement as is specified therein as
being the percentage of the loss of earning capacity caused by that
injury, and

b) in the case of an injury not specified in Schedule I, such percentage
of the compensation payable in the case of permanent total
disablement as is proportionate to the loss of earning capacity
permanently caused by the injury;

c) Explanation : Where more injuries than one are caused by the
same accident, the amount of compensation payable under this
head shall be aggregated but not so in any case as to exceed the
amount which would have been payable if permanent total
disablement had resulted from the injuries ;

Where temporary disablement, whether total or partial results from the
injury and the injured workman has been in receipt of monthly wages falling
within limits shown in the first column of Schedule IV-a half monthly
payment of the sum shown against such limits in the fourth column thereof,
payable on the sixteenth day ;

* from the date of the disablement, where such disablement, lasts for
a period of twenty-eight days or more, or

* after the expiry of a waiting period of three days from the date of
the disablement, where such disablement lasts for a period of less
than twenty-eight days.

PMI, NTPC 155
and, thereafter, half-monthly 'during the disablement or during a period of
five years, whichever period is shorter:

PMI, NTPC 156
Provided that :

a) There shall be deducted from any lump sum or half-monthly payments to
which the workman is entitled the amount of any payment or allowance
which the workman has received from the employer by way of
compensation during the period of disablement prior to the receipt of such
lump sum or of the first half-monthly payment, as the case may be; and

b) No half-monthly payments shall be any case exceed the amount, if any, by
which half the amount of the monthly wages of the workman before the
accident exceeds half the amount of such wages which he is earning after
the accident.

Explanation

Any payment or allowance which the workman has received from the employer
towards his medical treatment shall not be deemed to be a payment or allowance
received by him by way of compensation within the meaning of clause (a) of the
provision.

On the ceasing of the disablement before the date on which any half-monthly
payment falls due, there shall be payable in respect of that half-monthly a sum
proportionate to the duration of the disablement in that half-month.

Wages and Related Matters

Compensation is to be awarded under the Workmen's Compensation Act on the
basis of "wages' of the injured employee. When the question is what
compensation is to be awarded to an employee who has been injured, the term
'wages' is to be interpreted in the light of the definition given in Section 2(n) of the
Workmen's Compensation Act, and not in the light of the definition given in the
PMI, NTPC 157
payment of wages act. The words privilege or benefit, in the definition of wages,
in the Workmen's Compensation Act includes the benefit of free accommodation.
It is, therefore, clear that the monetary value of such accommodation, since free
accommodation is capable of being estimated in money, when provided free to
an applicant falls within the term 'wages' for the purpose of assessing the amount
of compensation (B.M. & G. Engineering Factory V, Bahadur Singh, AIR 1955
ALL 182 (DB).,

Compensation to be Paid When Due and Penalty for Default :

Compensation under Section 4 shall be paid as soon as it falls due.

In cases where the employer does not accept the liability for
compensation to the extent claimed, he shall be bound to make
provisional payment based on the extent of liability which he accepts, and
such payment shall be deposited with the Commissioner or made to the
workman, as the case may be, without prejudice to the right of the
workman to make any further claim.

Where any employer is in default in paying the Compensation due under
this Act within one month from the date it fell due, the Commissioner may
direct that in addition to the amount of the arrears, simple interest at the
rate of six per cent per annum on the amount due together with, if in the
opinion of the Commissioner there is no justification for the delay, a further
sum not exceeding fifty per cent of such amount shall be recovered from
the employer by way of penalty.

EMPLOYEE'S STATE INSURANCE ACT, 1948

Definitions

PMI, NTPC 158
- "Employment injury" means a personal injury to an employee caused by
accident or an occupational disease a ring out of and in the course of his
employment in a factory or establishment to which this Act applies, which
injury or occupational disease would entitle such employee to
compensation under the Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923, if he were a
workmen within the meaning of the said act.

"Employee" means any person employed for wages in or in connection
with the work of a factory or establishment to which this act applies and -

* who is directly employed by the principal employer on any work,
incidental or preliminary to or connected with the work of the factory
or establishment, whether such work is done by the employee in the
factory or establishment or elsewhere ; or

* who is employed by or through an immediate employer on the
premises of the factory or establishment or under the supervision of
the principal employer or his agent on work which is ordinarily part
of the work of the factory or establishment or which .is preliminary to
the work carried out in or incidental to the purpose of the factory or
establishment; or

* whose services are temporarily lent or let on hire to the principal
employer by the person with whom the person whose services are
so lent or let on hire has entered in to a contract of service ;

but does not include -

* any member of the Indian Naval, Military or Air Force ; or

PMI, NTPC 159
* any person employed on a remuneration which in the aggregate
exceeds four hundred rupees a month.


Disablement benefit (Sec. 51)
Subject to the provisions of this Act and the regulations, if any :

* a person who sustains temporary disablement for not less than three days
(excluding the day of accident), shall be entitled to periodical payment for
the period of such disablement in accordance with the provisions of the
First Schedule ;

* a person who sustains permanent disablement, whether total or partial,
shall be entitled to periodical payment for such disablement in accordance
with the provisions of the First Schedule

* Provided that where permanent disablement, whether total or partial, has
been assessed provisionally for a limited period or finally, the benefit
provided under this clause shall be payable for that limited period or, as
the case may be, for life.

Who will be the beneficiary (Sec. 52)

* Subject to the provisions of this act, and the regulations, if any,
disablement benefit shall be payable;

** to a person who sustains temporary disablement, during the period
of such disablement ;

** to a person who sustains permanent partial disablement, during his
life;
PMI, NTPC 160

** to a person who sustains permanent total disablement, during his
life; and

** to a person in all cases of disablement not falling, under sub-
clauses a, b, or c of this sub-section, as may be provided in the
regulation.

Disablement benefit shall be paid on the scale and subject to the condition
specified in this behalf in the Second Schedule.






PMI, NTPC 161
21. 21. Health Hazards Of Hazardous Chemicals Health Hazards Of Hazardous Chemicals

INTRODUCTION

Every progressive employer must have a policy for Health and Safety at work
which states that, "the Company will do all that is reasonably practicable to
establish and maintain a healthy and safe workplace for all its employees and to
conduct its activities in an environmentally responsible manner to ensure the
Health and Safety of people in the vicinity of its operations"

This aims to provide guidance on the identification of potential health hazards
associated with the use of chemicals either raw materials or other substances
used in processes.

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
HANDLING AND USE OF RAW MATERIALS

This is concerned specifically with the identification of potential hazards
associated with the handling and use of chemicals used as either raw materials
or for some other purpose in concern operations.

The hazards discussed relate principally to health and safety issues but
consideration is given to the environmental aspects associated with the handling
and disposal of spillages of such materials. The latter will obviously be directly
related to the potential hazards associated with the substances concerned and
handling and disposal of materials into the environment will need to be done in
the light of these properties and the need to comply with local legislation.

PMI, NTPC 162
The hazards associated with the handling and use of chemical substances used
as raw materials can be considered under four major categories ;
Hazards to health
Fire/Explosion hazards
Reactivity hazards
Environmental hazards

Potentially hazardous substances can be encountered in many physical forms,
which in themselves can have a major impact on the types of health and/or
safety hazards associated with the materials. The major physical forms are:-
solids, liquids, gases, dusts, fumes, mists and vapours.

HAZARDS TO HEALTH

- Definitions of Health Hazards

Health effects can be LOCAL (e.g. acid burns to skin) or SYSTEMIC (e.g.
when a chemical is absorbed and transported through the body to a target
organ). These can be further separated into ACUTE and CHRONIC
effects.

A convenient way to categories HEALTH EFFECTS caused by exposure to
chemicals is as follows:

* NUISANCE a nuisance effect can arise for example from a
dust which though it poses no immediate risk
to health but can result in unpleasant and
stressful working conditions.

PMI, NTPC 163
* IRRITANT a non corrosive substance which through
immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with
skin can cause inflammation.
* ALLERGEN a substance to which some individuals can
become censitised. When the allergy is
established, minute quantities of the substance
can precipitate an attack involving for example
skin, eyes or nasal/respiratory system,

* CORROSIVE a substance (usually an acid or alkali) which
destroys living tissues on contact.

* TOXIC there are many definitions of toxicity. For
example, the U.K. packaging and Labelling
Regulations use two levels - TOXIC and VERY
TOXIC. These are defined as substance which
if they are inhaled, ingested, or penetrate the
skin may involve respectively serious or
extremely serious acute or chronic effects and
even death. Such a definition could include
CARCINOGENS or TERATOGENS.

* Types of Exposure

Exposure to chemicals can be considered as BRIEF or PROLONGED defined as
follows :

BRIEF EXPOSURE short duration exposure (from seconds to
hours in total) if the chemical is exposed to skin
or by inhalation. For ingestion acute exposure
implies a single dose.
PMI, NTPC 164

PROLONGED EXPOSURE for inhalation or skin exposure prolonged
exposure covers continuous or repeated
exposures of days, months, or years. For
ingestion it can mean repeated doses of
chemical for days, months or years.

* Routes of Entry/Exposure

The principal routes of entry/exposure encountered in industrial processes are :-

* Inhalation
* Skin or Eye Contact
* Mucous Membrane Contact
* Ingestion

Of these inhalation and skin contact are far and away the most important in
industry.

* Individual Susceptibility

In some circumstances (particularly related to toxic effects associated with
chemicals) it is important to identify employees that might be particularly
susceptible to a specific chemical hazard. Apart from the obvious cases of
allergy/ hypersensitivity to a chemical, due regard should be paid to others
factors such as

Age
Sex
PMI, NTPC 165
Pregnancy
Smoking
Alcohol intake
General state of health.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

Though this is principally concerned with health and safety aspects associated
with the use of hazardous chemicals, it is important to consider the effects of
materials when they are discharged from the factory site either via sewers, as
solid wastes or as gaseous emissions When discharges occur either as a result
of processing or from spillages etc., the ultimate effects of the materials on the
environment (whether it be sewage treatment processes, or general ecological
effects) need to be considered and the discharges of such materials should
conform to any pertinent local legislation which prevails.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDS

Intrinsic in the process of identification of hazards associated with the use of
chemicals is an appreciation of the potential ways in which workers could be
exposed to the chemicals in question. In general, exposure of workers to
chemicals can occur during any of the following operations :

Storage
Handling
Processing/Packaging

PMI, NTPC 166
A hazard identification system must therefore consider each of these operations
as a potential source of exposure to chemicals. In addition any potential
environmental problems associated with the disposal from site of these
chemicals should be considered.

- Fundamental Information needed for Hazard Identification

A prerequisite for the recognition of potential hazards associated with the
use of chemicals on a particular site requires that there should be a
complete record of all materials present on site. This should include raw
materials, intermediates, by-products, waste materials, significant
contaminants, and finished products. Such a record must be kept
accurately and updated on a regular basis.

Having established an inventory of the materials used on site, the next
step is to obtain fundamental information about each, essential to the
evaluation of its potential hazards. The information required can be
considered to fall into the following categories :

Details of its composition and physical properties.
Health hazards
Fire/Explosion Hazards
Environmental Hazards.
Any specific reactions which may lead to any of the above hazards
Legislative information
Process date
Safe handling procedures
Emergency procedures.
PMI, NTPC 167

Health Hazards

Information should be obtained on the potential hazards and toxicology
associated with each chemical. Where appropriate this should include
information on principal target body sites such as skin, eyes, respiratory system
or mouth/ digestive system and the effects of acute and prolonged exposure
should be defined along with levels of exposure at which these effects will occur.
Systematic effects should define the route(s) of exposure at which effects may
occur.
Such information will then permit a general health hazard statement about the
chemical to be made in terms of whether it is nuisance, instant, corrosive,
allergenic or toxic. This should normally be available from the manufacturer or
supplier of the literature but if not then work may need to be conducted to obtain
in the necessary basic information.

Environmental Hazards

The fundamental information required to assess the environmental hazards of
releasing a chemical to the environment includes :

is the material biodegradable
is the material toxic in the environment
will the material cruse problems in sewers (e.g. solvents) or at sewage
treatment works (e.g. acids or biocides)
as a consequence of the above hazards it may be necessary to dispose of
the material as a toxic/hazardous waste.
what limits have been set for exhaust air and, waste water discharges.
PMI, NTPC 168
Any Specific Reactions Which May Lead To Hazards

As explained earlier it is difficult to cover comprehensively all reactions which
may lead to hazards. There are however two major categories of reaction which
should always be considered :

Heat generating or explosive reactions involving oxidising or reducing
agents.

Production of toxic materials/gases.

Legislative Information

It is essential that any current local legislative information relating to compounds
or groups of compounds is known. This should include employee exposure
legislation (e.g. control limits, MAK's TLV's etc. as appropriate) or legislation
relating to the disposal of the material.

In addition, many countries have employee exposure levels which are
recommended but not legally binding. These, however, should always be
observed. Much of the relevant employee exposure legislation is summarised in
Occupational Exposure Limits for Airborne Toxic Substances by the -
International Labour Organisation (ILO) Where no legislation exists in a country it
may be prudent to use that operating i n other countries (e.g. ACGIH in USA).

Process Data

Exposure to a substance can result from any of three major sources of exposure:

escapes/problems during storage
handling of raw materials.
PMI, NTPC 169
escapes of material during processing and/or packaging.

It is therefore essential to examine each of these particular facts of production in
order to establish whether there is potential for exposure to a raw material.
Potential hazards will depend greatly on the physical form of the raw material
(e.g. solids giving rise to dust exposure or dust explosion problems, gases being
present at unacceptably high levels in workroom air, or liquids evaporating to
give unacceptable levels of substance in workroom air).

One particularly useful method of collating information on the hazards associated
with using chemicals is to produce it in standardised format on Data Sheets.
Ideally, all chemicals used should have information set out in this way and a
centralised store of such Data Sheets should be readily accessible to all
company operations. Hazard Date Sheets specimen are given in Appendix.

Suggested Procedures for Hazard Identification

Having collated all the necessary information relating to the potential hazards
associated with using a particular substance the next step is to apply this to the
particular situation prevailing at a factory operation. This is best done by doing an
initial assessment of potential hazards associated with the material in question,
and linking this to a Raw Material and Process Audit.

The Occupational Health Raw material and Process Audit (A) asks questions
relating to the hazards to health associated with the material in question. If no
hazards are identified then it is concluded that the material is acceptable from a
health point of vie'./ and no problems should ensue. If however, potential
problems occur then it asks whether or not there are points of release during
normal or abnormal processing and whether employee exposure is possible. If
these are negative, then again it is concluded that the material is acceptable. If
they are affirmative and exposure could be replaced by a safer one. Then this
PMI, NTPC 170
case arises the new material must then be reconsidered. It there is no acceptable
substitute, then GD must be consulted for assessment and control of the health
hazards associated with using the material.

RESUME OF TOTAL HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

The identification of potential problems associated with the use of chemicals in
any process can readily be broken down into 5 main stages as follows :

Collection and collation of data relating to the health and safety aspects of
the chemical in question.

Performance of initial assessment of the hazards associated with the
process(es) in .question.

Where required, a Raw Material and Process Audit for both Occupational
Health and Safety, should be done.

Where potential hazards have been identified) and chemicals cannot be
replaced by potentially safer materials reference should &e made to Data
Sheets for advice.

Assessment and Control of Employee Exposure and Prevention of Fires and
Explosions Associated with Hazardous Substances.

Finally And Most Importantly

Periodic re-assessment based on the above scheme should take place to ensure
that no changes in processes or raw materials unwittingly introduce a potentially
hazardous situation; or that new toxicological data alters the regulatory view of
the material leading to reassessment of risk associated with its use.
PMI, NTPC 171
22. 22. TheIndian Boilers Act 1923 And Rules TheIndian Boilers Act 1923 And Rules

HISTORY OF BOILERS

History of steam boilers is very old and of ancient time. As far as the early history
of boiler goes, it is stated that the one boiler was recovered from the ruins of
pompoli, which was of bronze metal. In 1030, B.C. Horo's engine was first
recorded as doing the work. In 1720, the boilers were manufactured from copper
plates and rivets and the pressure was (maximum 30 Ibs. PSI. In the middle of
18th Century, boilers) were manufactured from steel plate. In 1840, the well-
known Lanchashire boiler as manufactured and still in our Country, the
Lanchashire boilers are largely used. In U.K. 18 million Lanchashire boilers are in
use.

THE BOILER ACT IN ENGLAND

Till the nineteenth Century, there was no inspection technique, and hence there
used to be lot of accidents in U.K. and as a result of large number of accidents, a
select committee was appointed by the Majesty Queen Victoria to suggest ways
and means to avoid explosion. However, this committee could not be
implemented anything in absence legislation. In 1850 in Manchester, an
association was formed, in 1854, 10 persons died due to one serious explosion
in the boiler. Therefore a vigorous complain was started by the Parliamentarians
and public to avoid such mishaps. Therefore for the first time in the world in
1859, the insurance company was started to examine the boiler periodically.

PMI, NTPC 172
THE LEGISLATION

In 1860, 13 persons lost their lives in West Bengal and hence in 1863, the rules
were framed. In 1869, in Bombay Similar rules were introduced and since then,
the boilers are inspected by the Government Agency to inspect the boilers every
years. After that the rules were framed in other provinces of India. However, as
the rules were not uniform in all provinces Central Government appointed a
Special Committee to draft one Central Act and in 1923, The Indian Boiler Act
came into being.

CASE HISTORY

In 1966, in one of the oil mill in Marathwada, the owner was found illegally using
the so called by boiler. He was therefore served with a notice-and was informed
to stop the boiler. Tie owner however took no notice and the so called baby boiler
which made like a vertical cross tube boiler approx. 5' long x 3 ft, dia exploded
like an atom bomb. The fireman who was attending the boiler was torn into
pieces. His head was found 80 ft. away from the North side of the boiler and his
body and two hands were found 110 ft. away from the boiler in the opposite
direction. The boiler was exploded and destroyed the building to rubbles and was
found from the neighbors filed in the south direction at 102 ft. away from its
original place.

EXPLOSIVE POWER OF STEAM BOILER

Explosion hazard of a steam boiler could be estimated from a fact that one cubic
foot or 0.28 M
3
of water in a boiler at a pressure of only 60 (P.S.I.) 4.2 kg/cm
2

and corresponding saturation temp. of (297F) 147C has an explosive power of
(one pound) 6.45 kgs. of gun powder Hence you can imagine the number of
bombs stored in a Lancashire boiler having 150 Ibs. PSI. working pressure. It
must be imagined that water escaping from a damaged boiler will expand 1600
PMI, NTPC 173
times. This means that every litre of water escaping from the damaged boiler will
be 1600 litres. Due to the above, a boiler weighing (3900 Ibs.) 17,690 kg will
rocket in the air two miles. Hence the destruction force in a boiler is directly
proportional the amount of water in it.

SAFETY ASPECTS

Accident in the boiler just do not happen but they are caused due to ignorance or
negligence on the part of engineers and boiler attendant. The persons in charge
of boilers should realise that they are the custodians of so may atom bombs
stored inside the boiler and hence they should exercise vigilance so that no
damage can occur to the boiler and while operating they should follow the
instructions which are given separately on the attached sheet.

DESIGN OF STEAM BOILER

The boilers are designed in our country mainly as per the Indian Boiler
Regulations. 1950. However lately I.S.O. (International Organization for
Standardization) R 831 is also used. There are other codes e.g. the B.S.S Code,
A.S.M.E. Code, J.I.S. Code and T.E.M.A. Code use in other countries.

Now, all boilers which are designed as per the above codes are more or less of
similar nature and no boiler will be manufactured and accepted at the users sand
unless the same is inspected at every stage of construction by the Inspecting
Authority, approved by the code.

MATERIALS

All materials e.g. plates rivets, bars, tubes, welding electrodes are required to be
tested before use and should confirm boilers, steam pipes, economisers, and
super heaters must possess the certificate called "Class A Welder's Certificate".
PMI, NTPC 174
This certificate is issued by the Chief Inspector after taking the different kinds of
tests of the welders.

DESIGN

A drawing to a scale not less than 3/4" to a foot in case of large boiler or 1.5" to a
foot in case of small boiler should be submitted to the Chief Inspector before
fabricating any boiler and his approval should be obtained prior to the fabrication.
All principal dimensions, longitudinal sections and end view of the boiler should
be shown. The other details, (e.g. pitch of rivets. longitudinal and circumferential
seam details, welding details radial of curvature of dish and plate,) fillets, flanges,
corners of bend plates, gusset stays, the number of rivets, diameter of rivets etc.
should be clearly shown in the drawing.

CONSTRUCTION

Boilers are mainly constructed either by riveting or by welding. However, in each
case the boilers is inspected by the inspecting authority at every stage of
construction, according to Indian Boiler Regulation or I.S.O. Code

THE STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION FOR SHELL TYPE BOILERS

Inspection of plate with the plate certificated from the steel makers. The
plates are accepted if they are manufactured by the "Well-known Steel
Makers" listed under Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950.

After rolling the plate, the plate should be checked for its circularity and
weld preparation.

After welding longitudinal seams, final circularity should be checked before
other assembly.
PMI, NTPC 175
The longitudinal seam must be X-rayed and should be free from any
welding defects

Other belts of shell or furnaces (if any) to be attached and alignment and
weld preparation should be checked.

Drilling of tube plates and its weld preparation should be checked before
fitting for true circularity and ligaments of the holes.

Set up of all stand pipes or pads and compensating rings for manhole,
mudholes etc. Assembly of furnace, tube plate or Reversing chambers.

Boiler should be inspected thoroughly before stress reliving, along with
Manhole Mudhole covers, test plates, and all other welding e.g. lifting lugs
or angle iron for brickwork and Smoke Box,

Boiler to be inspected after stress reliving along with its test plates, before
hydraulic test.

If it is all welded boiler, the specimen of the test places are tested for the
following tests.

(a) Tensile, (b) Izod impact, (c) Ultrasonic, (d) Dye penetration, (e) X-ray,
(f) Micro-macro.

If the specimens are found satisfactory in the above stages the boiler is
hydraulically tested to 1/3 times plus 50 pounds at the manufacturer's
place and will be stamped by the Inspecting Offices as follows:
PMI, NTPC 176
________________________________________________________________
Maker's name
.......................................................................................................
Workers number
.......................................................................................................
Tested to
....................................................................................................
Working pressure
................................................................................................................................
Inspecting Officer or Inspecting Authority Stamp.

OPERATION OF BOILER

The boiler after leaving the manufacturer's place, when comes to the user's place
it is required to be registered under section 7 of the Indian Boiler Act, 1923. The
owner of the boiler must apply to Chief Inspector of Steam Boiler for the
registration along with all drawings maker's papers and requisite amount for
inspection fee. The Chief Inspector or Inspector in turn will give the notice to the
owner of boiler to prepare the boiler for registration inspection.

On the date fixed by the Chief Inspector, the Inspector shall proceed to measure
and examine the boiler and to determine in the prescribed manner the maximum
pressure, if any, at which such boiler may be used, and shall report the result of
the examination to the Chief Inspector in the prescribed from. The Chief
Inspector on the receipt of the report will either refuse registration of boiler or will
accept the boiler. In case he refuse to register the boiler, he will give reason for
doing so and if he will accept the boiler, he will forward the registry number to
engrave on the boiler.

Following precautions should be taken by the boiler operators or engineers
before firing the boiler.
PMI, NTPC 177
see that there is sufficient water in the boiler, and that the gauge cocks are
working freely,

ease safety valves, or open cock on top of boiler to allow air to escape,

see that the blow off cock is fully closed and tight,

see that the safety valves and feed check valve are free and workable,

note if the pressure gauge pointer is at zero,

see that the feed pump is in working order.

He must not relay on the supposition that the water he has previously put in it still
in the boiler, as it may have run out without the knowledge through a leak or
open cock, nor can be sure that the gauge glass shows the true water level until
he has tested it. This is done in the following manner shut off the lower gauge
cock and empty the glass by the drain cock, then shut the drain cock and open
the gauge cock, if everything is in order, the water will then rise in the glass to the
same height as before.

Raising Steam

In getting up steam in all types of boiler the operation should be as gradual as
circumstances will allow. Nothing turns a new boiler into an old one sooner than
getting up steam too quickly. Forcing the fires when starting work is liable to
cause starting of the steams and tubes of the boiler. In the case of large boilers
generally steam should not be got up in less than six hours.

Before getting up steam, the water level should be observed, to ensure that
water is at the proper heights in the glass the pressure gauge noted and the
PMI, NTPC 178
safety valves tried to see they are free. The blow-off cock should be examined to
see that it is completely shut and tight.

Pressure Gauge

The pressure or steam gauge should be kept in order and be in such a position
as to be easily seen by the boiler attendant. There should be a plain mark on it
showing the highest pressure allowed for the boiler and the dial should be kept
clean so that the figures may easily be read.

Steam Pressure

Ordinarily, the safety valve will prevent the steam from rising much above the
working pressure as to indicate danger of exceeding the highest limit, water
should be immediately fed into the boiler and the dampers partially closed in
order to diminish the effect of the fire. If however, the water has fallen so low that
there is danger of an accident from this cause the fires should be withdrawn
before feeding in water. The safety valves eased, and if the engine is at rest it
should be started so as to reduce the pressure.

The safety valves are provided to guard against over-pressure.

The should be moved by hand every day so as to prevent them from sticking, if
necessary occasionally, they are liable to leak.

The valve can be tested by slowly raising it a little, and when let down, it should
close perfectly tight. It should never be opened by a sudden knock or pull. If it
does not close tight turn it on it seat until it fits, or when its construction does not
permit this, raise it slowly a few times and let it down again, but on no account
must the valve be screwed down further or loaded more than what has been
allowed by the Inspector,
PMI, NTPC 179
Safety valves must never be over-loaded, and spring valves should have ferrules
or other provisions against the valves being screwed down too far. In case of an
accident resulting, from overloading, the culprit might be held criminal
responsible at the official inquiry or inquest

Low Water Safety Valves

If there is low water safety valve test it occasionally by lowering the water level to
see that valve, begins to blow at the right point. It should give warning "before"
the water level has sunk too low and before damage can be done-when the
boiler is open, examine the floats and lever and see that they are free and that
they give the valve the full rise. With the ordinary type of high steam and low
water safety valve the float should be down at its lowest position and the valve
full open when the boiler is empty.

The Water Gauge

These will be kept in best order by frequently blowing through. The cocks are
thus kept in good working condition without leaking. Blow through the drain cock
at the bottom of the gauge, and shut and open the steam and water cocks every
few hour. These cocks should be blown through more frequently when the water
is dirty. Should either of the passage become checked, or whoever the water in
the gauge glass moves sluggishly the passage must be cleaned. This is best
done with a wire. The gauge glass is so arranged that its top cock connects with
the steam space and its bottom cock is below the water line. The water line will
ordinary be near the middle of the glass tube. Always test and at the
commencement of every shift. This is done by first opening drain cock and then
shutting the upper cock which should give water, the upper cock should then be
opened and the bottom cock closed which should give steam during this test the
drain cock should be kept open.
PMI, NTPC 180
If water and steam do not appear in proper order the cocks are choked and the
passage should be cleaned. The lesson the risk of breaking the gauge glass the
water cock should always be reopened after the steam cock.

Gauge glasses with a narrow white stripe running the whole length of the glass
on the side next the boiler are recommended as they show the water line more
clearly especially when the water is dim.

The boiler regulations framed by the Board require every water gauge glass to be
fitted with a guard to prevent injury to the attendants. See that it is always in
place, and clear when them steam in the boiler.

Special Note

It does not follow that there is plenty of water in the boiler because there is plenty
of water in the gauge glass. The passages may be chocked and empty gauge
glasses are sometimes mistaken for full ones, and explosions have resulted
therefrom. Hence the importance of keeping the gauge cocks perfectly tight and
clean and of blowing through the test cocks frequently.

A large number of accidents have been due to in-operative water gauges and to
negligence of the attendant in not carefully reading the water level.

The Blow-Off Cock

The blow-off should be used daily if the water is at all dirty or sedimentary,
especially with Locomotive type end Vertical Boilers, as their narrow water
spaces are liable to get choked with mud, which soon hardness into a solid
mass. The amount water to be blown out depends on the size of the boiler and
can be determined only from experience. When blowing out, the best result is
obtained if the water has been at rest for some time (say before the engine is
PMI, NTPC 181
started) thus giving the sediment time to settle, if the feed water is cleaned,
merely turn the cock round.

The Scum Cock

When scum cocks are fitted, if the feed water is dirty, a little should blown off
daily, it the water is clean merely turn the cock round. Before opening the scum
cock, see that the water is at the height indicated by the water level pointer,
otherwise the scumming will be ineffective. Water should be blown from the
surface through the scum cock when steam is being drawn i.e., when the engine
or other machinery is working.

Manhole And Other Door J oints

When making such joints the Jointing materials should never be of round
sectioned packing. Care must be taken that the spigot of the door is centrally
placed in the hole. as many accidents have resulted from packing being blown
cut between the spigot and side of hole, even when the clearance was only 3
mm. The nuts must be carefully and evenly tightened. Further tightening should
be made during the process of heating up the boiler when raising steam.

Steam Pipes

When properly arranged should give no trouble. Frequently, however, they are so
designed as to contain pockets, if which, while out of use, condensed steam
accumulates, Such water is exceedingly dangerous and great care should be
taken to see that the pipes are properly drained before the stop valve is opened
otherwise "Water hammer" will take place even with best designed steam pipes,
and disastrous explosions, causing loss of life and property may occur.

PMI, NTPC 182
Scale and Grease

Roughly speaking, scale offers a hundred times as much resistance to the
passage of heat y as does a similar thickness of the steel or iron. A 12.7 mm
furnace plate covered with 2.5 mm scale is as efficient a heat retarder as steel
furnace 254 mm thick. Grease is (about ten times worse than scale. In a boiler at
work the temperature of a clean furnace plate is only slightly in excess of that of
the water in the boiler, but is scale or grease is) interposed between the water
and the plate, the latter acquires a temperature more nearly approximately that of
the flame with which it is in contact. If the fire is artificial draught the furnace tube
may grow so hot that it elongates considerably. If additional air is a omitted
during each firing, a concerting actioning of the furnace takes place, which is one
of the worst cause of boiler wear and tear.

Wear and Tear can be reduced and the life of a boiler prolong if scale and grease
are prevented from accumulating in a boiler. The combined effects of scale or
grease (and artificial draught are disastrous. Scale of grease also causes waste
of fuel.

Grease

A mixture of sedimentary water, soda and grease produces an adhesive scum.
Where this is suspected, the water level should never to lowered below the
furnace) top unless the boiler is after wards entered and this sum cleaned off the
furnace plate before the firing again.

Sca/e Removal

The customary method is not a satisfactory or the boiler is emptied and then
rolled down by opening all the manhole and the result is that the scale which
PMI, NTPC 183
would otherwise be soft, hardens through contact with the air and acquires
laborious chipper off.

A very effective, but slower method is to retain the water in the boiler until cool,
and not to run it out until the man are ready to enter the boiler with water house
brushes and scrapers. The scale will then the soft and removable.

If time is a consideration, the cooling can be accelerated by add cold feed to the
hot water in the boiler and slowly running off the cold water. Another method is to
blow off the boiler with the lowest possible pressure (not more than 1.4 kilogram
per sq.cm.) and to keep it closed until cold. The scale, will then be easily
removed.

Treatment of Feed Water

Many feed waters require soda or other chemicals to arrest corrosion or to
change the nature of the scale.

There is no harmless chemical which will remove scale or sediment when it has
once got into the boiler and the only effective process is to purify the feed water
before it enters the boiler. By this means the sediment, and generally, too, the
added chemical can be deposited in tanks or in filters, and therefore never goes
into the boiler. Excepting when the water obtainable is very good, water purifying
apparatus ought to pay and boiler owner, particularly at those works where three
or more boilers aid in constant work. Boiler owners wishing to have definite
advice as to the best treatment of their feed water should have it analysed at
some chemical laboratory and ascertain the best treatment in the particular
circumstances.

Special attention is drawn to the net infrequent but very bad practice of allowing
the waste steam from the Engine Cylinders or pumps to be drained into the
PMI, NTPC 184
Boiler Feed Water Tanks. The waste steam from cylinders is always mixed with a
certain amount of oily matter which will be deposited in the feed water tanks and
ultimately be pumped into the boiler, with possibly disastrous results, as it will be
obvious to every careful boiler attendant that should the oil be deposited on the
furnace crowns, they may become overheated and collapse.

It should be the first care of the Boiler Owner, and the Boiler Attendant to see
that the feed water is kept as pure as possible. Impure feed water means
additional expense in the unkeep of the Boiler.

Preservation Of Boilers When Not In Use

Steam boilers when not in use are liable to deterioration from corrosion and
unless will cared for and made rust-proof, they may depreciate more rapidly than
when the use. They should be thoroughly drained and thoroughly dried and all
valves, cocks, and openings closed so as to exclude moisture. Another plan is to
fill the boiler with water to which about 1/100 per cent caustic soda has been
added.

PMI, NTPC 185
23. 23. Inspection Of SteamBoilers Under "The Inspection Of SteamBoilers Under "The
Indian Boilers" Act 1923 Indian Boilers" Act 1923

DEFINITION OF 'BOILER'

'Boiler' means any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 litres in capacity which is used
expressly for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or
other fitting attached to such vessel which is wholly or partly under pressure
when steam is shut off.

Any steam generator falling under the above definition is required to be
registered when installed for use for the first time and inspected within a period of
not exceeding twelve months for rent of certificate as required under section 8 of
Indian Boilers Act 1923.

The certificate authorising the use of a boiler shall cease to be in force.

On expiry of the certificate for which it was granted, When any accident
occurs to the boiler, or

When the boiler is moved, the boiler not being a vertical Boiler the heating
surface of which is less than (18.58) sq.meters or a portable or a vehicular
boiler, or

When any structural alternation, addition or renewal is made in or to the
boiler of

if the Chief Inspector in any particular case so direct when any structural
alternation, addition or renewal is made in or to any steam pipe attached
PMI, NTPC 186
to the boiler, or

on the communication to the owner of a boiler of an order of the Chief
Inspector or Inspector prohibiting its use on the ground that it or any steam
pipe attached there to it is in a dangerous condition.

APPLICATION FOR INSPECTION

When a certificate ceases to be in force, the owner of the boiler has to apply to
the Inspector for its renewal as required under Section 8(3) of Indian Boilers Act,
1923. The application is to accompanied by prescribed inspection fee which is
based on the heating surface of the boiler. The boiler Inspector then shall fix a
date the examination of the boiler and shall inform the owner accordingly.

On the date fixed the Inspector shall examine the boiler in the prescribed
manner, and if he is satisfied that the boiler and the steam pipe or pipes attached
thereto are in good condition shall issue a renewed certificate authorising the use
of the boiler for such period not exceeding such maximum pressure as he thinks
fit and as in accordance with the Regulations made under the Indian Boiler Act,
1923.

A renewed certificate in case of an Economiser it to be issued for a maximum
period of twenty four months if the same is found to be satisfactory after
inspection and for a working pressure.

INSPECTION PROCEDURE

Normally if all the Pressure parts of the boiler was accessible to thorough
examination, certificate is issued after examination, as in the case of a
Lancashire boiler, however, if construction of a boiler has to be , followed by a
hydraulic test.
PMI, NTPC 187
Hydraulic test however has to be carried out if the boiler is shifted from its
location or if the same has been repaired.

PREPARATION OF A BOILER FOR INSPECTION

At every examination of a boiler for the grant or renewal of a certificate the boiler
shall be empty and thoroughly clean in all its parts. All doors of manholes,
handholes and thorough sight holes and cleaning plugs and all caps in the
headers and mud drums of water tube boilers all fire bars, bearers, front plates;
bridge plates, fire bridges, brick arches, oil fuel burners and mechanical stoker
fittings shall be removed. All valves and cooks comprising the boiler mountings
shall be opened up and taken apart and the valves cocks ground, when
necessary before the Inspector's visit.

Provision shall if required by the Inspector, be made for renewal of lagging or
brickwork or other concealing part and for the drilling of plates and for verifying
the pressure gauge and safety valve dimensions and weights. All smoke tubes,
exterior of water tubes, smoke boxes and external fluces shall be swept clean.

Provision shall be made for the effective disconnection with any other boiler
under steam. This shall be effected either by the removal of a length of pipe from
the steam and feed piping or by the inspection of substantial blank flanges.
Where blank flanges are employes they shall be inserted between the flange of
the chest and the pipe attached to it. No blank flange shall be inserted between a
safety valve chest and the boiler.

In case of forced flow and forced circulation type of boilers, provision shall be
made for checking that proper circulation is maintained through all sections of the
circuit by the flow of water.

PMI, NTPC 188
No person shall be permitted to go inside the boiler unless it is effectively
disconnected as stated above.

PREPARATION FOR HYDRAULIC TEST

The chests for all mountings subject to steam pressure shall be in place and shut
tight or blank flanged. The safety valves shall either be jammed down or removed
and the chest opening blank flanged. The attachment for the Inspector's pressure
gauge and nipple for connecting the Inspector's test pump hose shall be in order.
All doors shall be property jointed and tightened up. The boiler shall completely
filled with water care being taken to all air to escape and if possible, a preliminary
test not exceed the working pressure of the boiler be taken before the Inspection
visit to test the tightness of the joints. When a boiler is hydraulically tested for the
first time, it shall be entirely cleaned lagging or brickwork. At subsequent tests
the lagging or brickwork or portions there of, shall be removed if required by the
Inspection.

The above procedure is applicable to economisers also.

DEFECTS AND REPAIRS OF BOILERS

The various defects that can develop in a boiler during operation can be
summarised as under:

Internal and external pittings and wastings.

Internal and external grooving.

Bulging due to overheating.

Cracks
PMI, NTPC 189
Distoration due to overheating (due to fall to water level and scale).

Leakages through various rivetted seams.

REPAIRS TO BOILERS

Internal pittings and internal and external local wastages can be welded
and dressed smooth. General wastages should not be permitted to be
welded. In case of general wastage, either the working pressure of the
boiler should be refixed considering the thickness of the generally wasted
portion or a flush welded patch or a rivetted patch should be fitted after
cutting the defective generally wasted portion. Such defects in the boiler
should not be hidden by seal welding a patch over the wasted portion.

Internal and external groovings and cracks can be veed out and welded
and dressed mooth. However, if the plates get grooved cracked very
frequently, it indicates that the plate is fatigued and is useless for further
service.

In such cases, the defective portion should be replaced by a flush welded
or rivetted patch.

Bulges in boilers, except these in tubes, may be permitted ccmbt pressed
back if the minimum thickness at the bulged portion is sufficient for a
working pressure of the boiler. Otherwise, the defective portion has to be
replaced by a flush welded or rivetted patch. Similarly, distorted parts
except those of tubes can be pressed back to original shape.

Distorted and bulged tubes have to be renewed enternally or defective
portion may be replaced by butt welding new tube in position.
PMI, NTPC 190
Leaky rivetted seams may be caulked. Leaky rivets may be caulked if the
leakage is minor, otherwise the same have to be renewed by boiler quality
rivet.

All the plates used in repairing a boiler of during manufacture must be
boiler quality plates. These plates must be offered for inspection alongwith
the relevant steel makers certificate to the Inspector before using the
same.

The boiler quality plates should have following properties.

Chemical Composition
Sulphur Max. 0.05%
Phosphorus Max. 0.05%
Carbon Max. 0.26% and special precaution should be
taken when carbon percentage exceeds
0.26%.

When steels are intended for service temperatures over 700F the silicon
content shall be not less than 0.10% or alternatively, the material shall
pass the proof test for creep quality of carbon steel plates of boiler quality.

If the steel is made by oxygen process, the nitrogen should not be more
than 0.006%.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Plates for shell, but straps, gussets and stays should a tensive strength between
26 T/p.s.i. to 36 T/p.s.i. and elongation 20 to 23% min. depending on tensile
strength.

PMI, NTPC 191
Plates for flanging and furnaces:

Tensile strength : 24-30 T/p.s.i. steel
28-30 T/p.s.i. steel

Elongation : Min. 23 for 24-30 T/p.s.i. steel
Min. 20 for 28-32 T/p.s.i. steel

Plates for forge welding:

Tensile strength : 24 to 30 T/p.s.i.
Elongation : 21%

The repairs to boilers should be entrusted to a repairer who can satisfy the Chief
Inspector regarding the quality of welding and other repair done by his
organisation, with regard to equipment and tools and employment of trained and
experience work men etc.
PMI, NTPC 192
24. 24. Housekeeping Housekeeping

INTRODUCTION

There is perhaps no phase of industrial accident prevention which has suffered
more from lack of understanding of its importance than Plant Housekeeping. To a
supervisor the responsibility of good housekeeping may have less glamour, but
he cannot be indifferent to the fact that the workforce of his department is his
most valuable asset and they be helped to avoid injury through maintaining an
orderly department. In any case, the term 'housekeeping' in industry can no
longer be mistaken for merely floor cleanliness or broomstick operations'.
Housekeeping implies an orderly arrangement of operations, tools, equipment,
storage facilities and supplies. It is a practical method of getting high production
and improvement in employees' morale and personnel relations.

WHY GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

The problem of Housekeeping affects every phase of productive effort. If
affects the man, his tools, his job, his fellow workers, his health and
welfare. If an analysis were made of the causes of accidents caused by
improper or wrong handling of materials, a good percentage of it could be
attributed to poor housekeeping.

- Good Housekeeping involves two aspects :

* That a supervisor must be convinced about the necessity of a clean,
orderly, well-maintained workshop.

* That he should be able to sell his concept to his men.

PMI, NTPC 193
As a matter of fact, the concept of "Good Housekeeping" takes into
account the fact that poorly maintained projects or plants and persons not
conscious of it are a potential cause of accidents. The following simple
facts should establish the worth and validity of this premise :

* Whatever the tools and equipment, keeping them 'clean and handy'
makes the job easier, more pleasant, and more satisfying.

* If tools are well-placed and easy to find, the job runs much more
smoothly and produces better results.

* Machines work better when 'they are clean'. It is not so much the
polish as the pride of workmenship which keeps production rolling.

* The finest equipment must not run "out of control': Constant
checking and good maintenance will keep it properly moving,
yielding better and greater production

RESULTS OF GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

The advantages immediately realised from keeping operations orderly go beyond
those already mentioned. Records of individual companies definitely establish
that the following results may be expected from a well-planned, and well-
administered Housekeeping programme

It costs less to operate a clean plant. Once a plant is clean, and a system
has been established, less time and effort is required to keep the plant
clean.

Production increases because once obstacles to production are removed,
orderly and business-like methods can function without undue interference
PMI, NTPC 194
or delay.

Control of production becomes easier because materials and parts do not
get lost or mixed, and because it is easier to check operations and to
secure data for records.

Less scrap and fewer rejects result in the conservation of materials and
processed parts. Unused materials, including spoilage and scrap, are
easily and quickly removed to the proper place.

Little or no production time is lost through the need to search for tools or to
clean up a space in which to work.

Much improperly-used floor space is released for production, maintenance
and repair work are facilitated because repairmen have easy access to
machines and equipment and do not have to scrape off accumulated dirt
and grease.

Aisle traffic is accelerated, with fewer truck collisions and less ramming
into machines or stored materials.

POLICIES AND PRACTICES

Here is a list of some policies and practices a supervisor case set up for himself
in order to secure greater cooperation and attain the maximum degree of orderly
housekeeping:

Set a good example in his own office or work area. Do not hesitate to pick
up unused odds and ends or litter from the floor and put it in the waste bin.
His concern about these will impress the people who work for him.

PMI, NTPC 195
Appeal to employees' pride. Point out how attractive neat work areas look.
Show how each employee can benefit by keeping his work space free
from dirt and congestion. Make this programme as interesting as possible
to the individual employee by giving him a chance to participate, by
recognising his efforts and by conducting the whole programme on a basis
he can understand.

Explain the specific responsibilities each employee has and explain why such
assignments are necessary if a really clean department is to be maintained. Also
explain how each employee can and should carry out his responsibilities.

Make sure that instructions and directions to employees are complete and are
understood. Do not leave any chance for the excuse, "I did not know you meant
that".

Develop a definite schedule and procedure for making department inspections
and stick to the schedule. That way alone the employees will realise that you
mean business.

Keep a close check on general working conditions. It is the first piece of trash on
a window sill or under a bench that invites employees to add to it. Take
immediate action when necessary to keep lighting, ventilation and sanitation
satisfactory.

Maintain areas should be clear and clean. Establish procedures, whereby if the
storage area is full, truckers bringing in materials will check with the foreman
before unloading. Never let truckers leave a load in an aisle.

Encourage employees, by making it easy for them, to keep trash off the floor.
Provide containers, plainly labelled, in strategic locations, and see that such
containers are emptied when full.
PMI, NTPC 196
Do not permit anything to be stored even temporarily on window edges or hung
from walls.

Provide sitting accommodation for employees where needed. Discourage their
sitting on boxes.

Eliminate the practice of keeping excess materials at workplaces. This is one of
the most prevalent poor work habits.

Check equipment using coolants, to see that oil, coolant, and water are not
allowed to leak directly on to the floor. See that absorbents are "handy for
soaking up liquids spilled.

Be sure that inflammable solvents are kept in approved containers and used
sparingly. Do not permit more supply than needed to be stored in the department
at any time.

Encourage employees to report conditions which contribute to disorder or
hazards.

Co-operate with materials handling crew by ensuring that temporary storage
areas are identified and easy to use.
PMI, NTPC 197
25. 25. Fire Safety Fire Safety

NECESSITY OF FIRE PREVENTION

Increasing industrial fire losses are causing industrialists to concern
themselves with the possible effects of a fire to their premises; effects,
which in addition to the direct fire losses, result in loss of production,
records, valuable documents, goodwill and skilled labour.

It, is, therefore, essential that the fire problems needs to be tackled as a
whole, making use of every known means of reducing the risk or the
effects of fire to the minimum.

Adequate means of warning and means of escape are no less important
than ever before and it is now recognised by everybody concerned that if
fires can be prevented or extinguished in their very early stages, all the
desirable object of saving the industrial concerns from total destruction
would be achieved, Hence, the initial need of fire prevention-than fire
extinction.

FIRE AND ITS CONTROL

- The aim and object here is to make the reader fire conscious; thereby
enabling him to protect human life and property which can be minimised if
we are fire conscious and observe simple fire precautions in our day to
day life.

"A little fire is quickly trodden out; which, being suffered, river can't
quench". -: Shakespeare :-
PMI, NTPC 198
Essential Elements For Combustion :

Combustion is a chemical reaction with evolution of heat and light, which is
known as fire. Essential elements for combustion are :

Fuel - Presence of combustible material.

Heat or ignition - Attainment or maintenance of temperature
certain minimum temperature.

Oxygen (usually from air) or "the supporter of combustion. (It is convenient to
represent the three factors in form of triangle).

Elimination factors (extinction method) : The three main methods are

Starvation or removal of fuel
Smothering or exclusion of oxygen.
Cooling or reduction of temperature.


Starvation

This method is applied in three ways.

PMI, NTPC 199
* By removing combustible materials from neighborhood of the fire.
Examples of this are : the drainage of burning oil tankers, the demolition of
the building to create a fire gap, the cutting of trenches and counter
burning in forest fires etc.

* By removing the fire from the neighborhood of the combustible material,
as far instance, pulling apart a burning stack or a thatched roof etc.

* By sub dividing the burning material when the smaller fires produced may
be left to bum out or to be extinguished easily by other means.

Smothering

Under this heading, we need to consider only the reduction of oxygen contents.
The general procedure in this method is to prevent or impede the access of fresh
air (oxygen) to the seat of fire and allow the combustion to reduce the oxygen
contents in the confined atmosphere, until it extinguishes itself. Some of the
methods employed are:

* If a person's clothings are on fie-, it can be extinguished with blanket.

* Small fires can be put out by throwing sand.

* Foam is used to smother fires in inflammable liquids.

* An inert gas or vapour discharges in the vicinity of fire, may so reduce the
oxygen contents of the atmosphere for the time being that the combustion
can't be maintained viz. Carbon-di-oxide, CTC, BCF vapours etc.

PMI, NTPC 200
Cooling

This methods embodies the principle of removing heat from fire at a rate faster
than at which it is produce. Water is the best available media for this method. On
application it observes the heat from combustible material and reduces the
minimum required temperature to cause a fire

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE

For all practical purposes, fire may be classified under the following
heads.

C/ass 'A' fires : Fires in ordinary combustible materials, such as wood,
paper, textiles etc. where the cooling effect of water is essential for the
extinction of fire.

C/ass 'B' fires : Fires in flammable liquids like oils, solvents, petroleum
products, varnishes, paints etc. where a blanketing effect is essential.

C/ass 'C' fires : Fires involving gaseous substances under pressure
where it is necessary to dilute the burning gas at very fast rate with-an
inert gas or powder.

C/ass 'D' fires : Fires involving metals like aluminium magnesium etc.
where the burning metal is reactive to the water and which required
special extinction media or technique

C/ass 'E fires: Fires involving electrical equipment where the electrical
nonconductivity of the extinguishing media is of first importance.
PMI, NTPC 201
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION

"Fire prevention" aims to eliminate fire or the causes of fire. The basis for
any fire prevention scheme to be effective, it has to be built-in at the
design stage, so that the physical arrangement of buildings and plant can
be laid out accordingly. The maximum care and caution must be observed
when operating plant and equipment to prevent fires and explosions from
occurring.

"Fire protection" is the combating of fires after the start or, and during, a
fire. So that power station sites have adequate fire protection there should
be, in addition to an ample water supply, some consideration of adequate
road access and exists, the availability of local fire brigades and a mains
water supply.

As many of you will be employed in or around power station and you
should be. concerned to :

Minimize the chances of a fire breaking out. Ensure that if a fire
does break out it is prevented from spreading rapidly.

Ensure that an outbreak of fire is detected in its early stages and
that the brigade is called at once.

Ensure that appropriate fire extinguishing system or other fire
fighting arrangements come into operation at once, without waiting
for the brigade to' arrive.

Ensure that no one in the power station is in danger at any time, of
death or injury from the fire and that all personnel are trained in
their emergency duties.
PMI, NTPC 202
Avoid indiscriminate storages of inflammable materials in and
around the plant premises.

Ensure careful handling of in flammable materials. Ensure proper
functioning of fire alarm system.

Ensure that personnel are well-trained in handling fire equipments.

Avoid in-discriminate smoking.

FIRE PRECAUTIONS

The old maximum 'good housekeeping is good fire prevention' is still true,
and the art of preventing fires lies in well maintained machinery and clean
and tidy factories. To achieve these aims, the daily routing must include
the inspection of plant, the reporting of defects and the removal of the
common sources of fire. At a power station these include accumulations of
waste materials, oil leaks, badly adjusted drive belts, self-heating of
pulverized fuel dust and defective or faulty apparatus. Regular patrolling of
unmanned plant is important, especially during the night hours, if fires are
to be caught and dealt with in their incipient stages.

The need for regular vigilance can be demonstrated by the conveyor
systems which supply coal to the bunkers. If hot coal from the stocking
grounds or friction on rollers or any other source of ignition causes them to
ignite, the rubber belts can bum so fiercely that the rollers and the
conveyor structures are distorted. The conveyor system is of major
importance because it is the umbilical cord of a power station, which
cannot function for more than a few hours without it. If it is damaged the
consequent cost of lost production will usually exceed the cost due directly
to fire loss.
PMI, NTPC 203
Particular care must be taken when tackling fires in contractor's huts or
storage places, which often contain pressurised gas cylinders or
flammable liquids - even although contractors are advised on the correct
storage of these. Contractor's accommodation, being of temporary nature,
is often constructed of timber and may contain many sources of ignition.

The correct procedure for reporting a fire must be understood by all
employees. This information must be given to them on their day of
employment in a power station and^ in addition, notices giving details of
the procedures must be displayed in a prominent position.

STANDING FIRE ORDERS

Any fire, either minor or major, creates a fear psychosis in the minds of
these present at the scene. This leads to a general feeling of panic
followed by confusion and chaos. In order to avoid the possibility of such a
situation, it is necessary that Standing Fire Orders should be laid down for
different buildings, plants etc. in the factory premises, these orders should
precisely specify the duties, functions and responsibilities of the members
of staff so that a proper systematic and coordinated action is taken in case
of a fire. It is the responsibility of all concerned to explain and impress
upon all the staff of importance of such Orders. They should also see that
such orders are properly implemented.
PMI, NTPC 204
26. 26. PortableFireExtinguishers PortableFireExtinguishers
HOW TO CHOOSE

Portable extinguishers are first-aid devices provided for immediate use on fires in
their incipiency and are effective only at that stage. They are the first line of
defence and it is of great importance that they be immediately accessible and
promptly used.

The Indian Standards Institution has classified fires according to the nature of
materials on fire (IS: 2190 - 1979) the type of extinguisher to be used has been
accordingly listed and this is shown in the table overleaf.

Other considerations in the selection of an extinguisher are

EASE IN HANDLING

Where elderly or otherwise physically weaker persons are involved, smaller sized
and lighted extinguishers should be installed.

METHOD OF OPERATION

All extinguishers installed in one premise should preferably operate by the same
method. For example, an "upright" extinguisher should not be installed near a
"turnover" extinguisher as it can lead to confusion.

OPERATING ANGLE OF JET

Extinguishers may be required to fight fires in places which cannot be easily
reached such as under floor-boards, into fume hoods, etc. In such instances,
PMI, NTPC 205
extinguishers fitted with hose are required.

EFFECTIVE RANGE

Where approach to a fire may be restricted as in an overhead fire in a high-
ceilinged room extinguishers of the appropriate range must be chosen.

SHAPE OF JET

A spray rather than a jet is more suited to cover a fairly large area and where the
penetration of a solid jet is not needed, surface fires in ordinary combustibles are
dealt with more effectively by a spray.

TYPE OF EXTINGUISHERS

In many industries the hazards of various types of materials catching fire may be
present. In such places, it is advisable to have CO
2
or dry chemical powder
extinguishers which can safely be used on all classes of fire.









PMI, NTPC 206
PMI, NTPC 207


HOW TO USE PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable fire extinguishers form the first line of defence and are useful only in the
initial stages of a fire.

It is important that all personnel know how to operate fire extinguishers provided
in their area of work. Management should get personnel trained in the use of fire
extinguishers. The time of recharging extinguishers is an opportunity to train
people.

Where more than one type of extinguisher is provided, specific instructions must
be given and exhibited for the correct choice and proper method of operation.

To fight a fire, take up a position where access to the fire is unrestricted but
where a quick and safe retreat is possible. In an indoor fire, stay close to the
door; outdoors, stay on the upwind side of the fire. A crouching posture will
minimise the effects of smoke and heat. It will also help to approach the fire.
PMI, NTPC 208
Care should be taken to ensure that a fire is completely extinguished and that it
is not left smouldering.

The fire brigade must be called at the earliest and the alarm raised. Attempt to
use a fire extinguisher should be made only if it is safe to do so; if the fire shows
signs of going out of control, it is best not to try to use an extinguisher.

WATER EXTINGUISHERS

Direct the jet at the base of the fire and sweep it across the area of fire. Attack a
vertically spreading fire at its lowest point and follow it up. Search out hot spots at
the end and extinguish them.

FOAM EXTINGUISHERS

Where a liquid in a container is on fire, direct the jet at the far inside edge of the
container, as shown, or at an adjoining vertical surface above the level of the
burning liquid. This breaks the jet and allows the foam to build up and flow across
the surface of the liquid.

Where this is not possible, stand well back, direct the jet as illustrated, and with a
gentle sweeping movement allow the foam to drop down and lie on the surface of
the liquid. The jet from a foam extinguisher should have a length of at least a
meters.

Do not direct the jet directly into the liquid because this will drive the foam
beneath the surface and render it ineffective in addition it may splash the fire on
to the surroundings.

PMI, NTPC 209
DRY POWDER AND CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHERS

On fires involving either liquids in containers or spilled liquids, direct the jet or
discharge horn towards the near edge of the fire and with a rapid sweeping
motion, drive the fire towards the far edge until all the flames are extinguished.
On fires in rating liquids direct the Jet or horn at the base of the flames and
sweep upwards.

On fires in electrical equipment, the first requirement is to cut off the circuit. Then
direct the Jet or horn straight at the fire Where the equipment is enclosed, direct
the jet or horn into any opening with the object of penetrating the interior.

WATER TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Introduction

Water expelling fire extinguishers have water as on extinguishing agent which is
released in the form of a Jet by means of gas pressure in the upper part of the
container. The gas pressure may be induced by chemical reaction or by
mechanical means.

Water expelling fire extinguishers are used mainly in class A fires (IS 2190-1979)
involving ordinary combustible materials like wood, paper, textiles, etc. which are
put out by the cooling action of water Besides, water when applied to burning
material is converted to steam which reduces the percentage or available
oxygen.

Water expelling type extinguishers should not be used on fires involving electrical
equipment without de-energising them.

PMI, NTPC 210
The various types of water expelling extinguishers are

Soda acid type IS: 934-1976

Gas Pressure actuated type IS:940-1976 and

Constant Air Pressure type IS: 6234-1971

The soda acid type is the most commonly used. We shall discuss about it in
detail and briefly touch upon the constructional and operational part of the other
two types.

SODA ACID TYPE EXTINGUISHER

Construction

The various parts and contents of a soda acid extinguisher are shown in the
figure.

The total liquid capacity of the body (or the solution containers) when filled to the
specified level, should be 9 litres.

During manufacture, the body is required to be tested to an internal hydraulic
pressure of 25 kgf/cm
2
for 5 minutes.

Method Of Operation

Before actuating the extinguisher the operational instructions given on the body
of the extinguisher should be read carefully. At this stage, it would be advisable
to know whether soda acid extinguishers are of up-right type or turnover type
PMI, NTPC 211
depending on their method of working. One must know the type of the
extinguisher provided at a given place.


To operate the extinguisher, remove the guard cap and strike the plunger against
a hard surface like the floor. Direct the jet emerging from the nozzle on the base
of fire.

Principle Of Barking

When the plunger is stuck, it breaks the acid phial (bottle). The sulphuric acid
and sodium bicarbonate solution react together to release carbondioxide (CO
2
).

The CO
2
generated creates pressure which forces the water out of the
extinguisher.
PMI, NTPC 212
Note : The CO
2
, acts only as a propellant and the water extinguishes the fire by
cooling effect.

Care and Maintenance

For efficient performance of the extinguisher the following maintenance schedule
should be adhered to:

* At least once a week, polish the painted portions with a little colourless
wax polish and the brass/chromium parts with brass/silver polish. Check
the nuzzle outlet and vent holes on the threaded portions of the cap for
clogging. Check that the plunger is in the fully extended position and that it
is clean and free

* Once a quarter, dismantle the components, check for any damage, clean
and grease them as required, stir the solution in the extinguisher body and
top up with water if the level has gone below the solution level mark. Polish
all parts.

* Annually, operate 50% of the extinguishers and observe their
performance. There must be a jet of at least 6 m for a minimum 60
seconds. Clean thoroughly and subject rusty or corroded extinguishers to
a pressure test.

* Recharge the extinguisher. Tests should be arranged in such a manner
that each extinguisher is discharged once in 2 years.

* Carry out pressure tests once every 2 years on each extinguisher by
means of a hydraulic test pump. The test pressure is 17.5 kgf/cm
2
and is
applied for 2 1/2 minutes.

PMI, NTPC 213
GAS PRESSURE TYPE

The gas-pressure type essentially has an outer container similar to that of the
soda acid type. There is a gas cartridge filled with CO^ under pressure which
forms the inner compartment. When the cartridge is pierced open, CO
2
under
pressure is released into the body of extinguisher driving water out through the
discharge tube.

CONSTANT AIR PRESSURE TYPE

The constant air-pressure extinguisher is filled with water and dry air is
introduced through air lines till the desired pressure is built up. When air lines are
removed, the container is hermetically sealed While actuating safety pin is
withdrawn and valve lever is depressed resulting in a jet of water through the
hose.

FOAM TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable extinguishers expelling foam are best suited to put out class B fires
involving flammable liquids like oils, solvents, petroleum products, varnishes,
paints, etc. The foam expelled by actuating the extinguisher forms a blanket over
the surface of the liquid on fire and cuts out the contact of the burning liquid with
air thus extinguishing the fire.

The most common type of the portable foam extinguisher covered by the Indian
Standard IS : 933-1976 is discussed here.

Construction

The extinguisher shown in figure 1 alongside consists essentials of two
containers the inner and the outer.
PMI, NTPC 214
These containers when filled to the specific level contain 9 litres liquid.

The outer container holds a solution of Sodium bicarbonate to which a foam
stabilizer is added. The inner container (a long brass/plastic tube) contains
solution of aluminium sulphate. When operated, the solution intermixes
producing foam that is expelled from the extinguisher.

Method Of Operation

Remove the extinguisher from the socket

Pull the plunger rest it on notch and turn the extinguisher over shaking well, to
ensure the mixing of the two liquids.



Where a liquid on fire is in a container direct the jet at the far inside edge of the
container as shown in (Fig. 2) or at an adjoining vertical surface above the level
PMI, NTPC 215
of the burning liquid. This breaks the jet and allows the foam to build up and flow
across the surface of the liquid.

Where this is not possible, stand well back, direct the jet as illustrated (Fig. 3)
and with a gentle sweeping movement allow the foam to drop down and lie on
the surface of the liquid. The jet from a foam extinguisher should have a length of
at least 6 metres.

Do not direct the jet directly into the liquid because this will drive the foam
beneath the surface and render it ineffective. In addition it may splash burning
liquid on to the surroundings and spread the fire.

Foam solution electrically conductive and there are not recommended for use on
electrical fires. If foam is USED as a spray it is less conductive than a straight
stream However, because foam is cohesive and contains materials that allow
water to conduct electricity, a spray foam stream is more conductive than a water
for.

Care And Maintenance

At least once a week, polish the painted portions with a little colourless wax
polish and the brass/chromium parts with brass/silver polish. Check the nozzle
outlet and vent holes on the threaded portions of the cap for clogging. Check that
the plunger can be raised to the fully extended position and that it is clean.
Return it to its normal position.

Once in a quarter dismantle the components, check for any damage clean
solution in the inner and outer containers with separate clean and dry sticks.
Top up with clean and fresh water as necessary Do not use the same stick fur
purring both solutions and do not pour the solutions into any receptacle for
starting.
PMI, NTPC 216
Annually, operate 50o of the extinguishers and check that it projects a jet to a
distance of not less than 6 metres for a minimum period of Seconds. Clean
extinguishers thoroughly and examine their inside for rust and cohesion Subject
rusty or corroded extinguishers to pressure test even if they are not due for it and
their performance is otherwise satisfactory. Recharge the tested extinguishers.

Carry out pressure tests once every 2 years on each extinguisher by means of a
hydraulic test pump. The test pressure is 17.5 kgf/cm
2
and is applied for 2 1/2
minutes.

DRY POWDER TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Introduction

Dry powder type fire extinguishers are suitable for tackling petroleum fires, gas
fires, fires in electrical equipment and for controlling surface fires in textile fibres.
These extinguishers are noted for the speed with which they put out fires.

The chemical powders employed are usually sodium based and when applied to
a fire, undergo chemical reaction. The free radicals which are responsible for
sustaining any fire are put out of action be the dry chemical powders and
because of this, the fire dies out very fast.

PMI, NTPC 217

Special dry powders containing mixtures of sodium, potassium and barrium
compounds have been found useful in extinguishing fires in metals such as
sodium and magnesium. The dry powders used should conform to 18:4308-1982
specifications.

GAS CARTRIDGE TYPE

There are two types of ordinary dry powder extinguishers available viz. (1) Gas
Cartridge type and (2) Stored Pressure type. The first type being the most
PMI, NTPC 218
common will be discussed here. These extinguishers are available in 1, 2, 5 and
10 kg capacities.

Construction

The construction of this type of fire extinguisher is shown in the figure. The
chemical powder is contained in the main shell of the extinguisher and CO;, gas
is held under high pressure in a sealed cartridge. When the extinguisher is
operated, the cartridge is broken allowing the CCX, gas to escape to the main
shell and push put the powder in the form of fog.

Method Of Operation

Carry the extinguisher to the place of fire and keep it upright. Remove the safety
dip and strike the knob located in the cap to actuate the piercing mechanism
which in turn breaks the sealing disc of the cartridge. Direct the stream of
escaping powder at the base or the flame. For effective result stand about 5 to 8
feet away and direct the stream hear the seat of the fire Progress forward,
moving the nozzle rapidly with a side to side sweeping motion.

When using on outdoor, fires always operate the extinguisher from the upwind
side of the fire to extend the effective range of the spray.

Care And Maintenance

Following maintenance schedules are recommended for effective performance of
the extinguisher.

* Once a week -

Clean the exterior of the extinguishers, polish the painted portion
PMI, NTPC 219
with a little colourless wax polish, polish the brass and chromium
plated parts.

Check the nozzle outlet and vent holes in the threaded portion of
the cap for clogging.

Check that the plunger is clean and is in fully extended position.

* Once in a quarter -

Withdraw the gas cartridge and check if the sealing disc is intact.
Weigh the cartridge and compare its weight with that stamped on
its body. If a loss of 10% or more of the contents is noted, replace it
with a fully charged one.

Check the piercing mechanism for its proper functioning.

Remove the inner shell and clean port holes if necessary. Also
check the port holes in the cartridge holder and clean them if
necessary

Check the powder for granulation and caking. If caking/granulation
is observed remove and replace with fresh charge.

* Once in a year -

One third of the total number of extinguishers of this type should be put
into operation for evaluating their satisfactory performance. In the event of
poor performance of any one of them, the balance will also have to be
tested.

PMI, NTPC 220
* Once in 3 years -

Every extinguisher should be discharged at least once in 3 years. It should
be hydraulically pressure tested at 17.5 kgf/cm
2
. However, if there is any
indication of mechanical damage or corrosion to the extinguisher shell it
should be pressure tested immediately. Before recharging the extinguisher
should be bone dry.

CARBON DIOXIDE TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Introduction

Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is effective as an extinguishing agent primarily because it
reduces the oxygen content of air to a point where combustion cannot continue.
CO
2
is non combustible and does not react with most substances. Being a gas it
can penetrate and spread to all areas affected by fire.

Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are used for putting out fires in oils, petroleum
products gaseous solutions under pressure, and also on sophisticated electrical
and electronic apparatus.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers are not to be used in

Fires involving chemicals that contain their own oxygen supply (such as
cellulose nitrate)

Fires involving reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and
magnesium.

The common type of portable carbon dioxide extinguisher covered by IS 2878-
1976 is discussed here.
PMI, NTPC 221
Construction

The principal parts of the extinguisher are as shown in the figure above. Carbon
dioxide is retained in the cylinder as liquid under pressure. The cylinder is filled
with the charge to about two thirds by weight of its total water capacity.

Method Of Operation

Carry the extinguisher to the place of fire. Remove the safety pin and operate the
discharge device or unscrew the valve depending on the design. Carbon dioxide
is delivered by means of discharge horn through a high pressure flexible hose.

Direct the jet at the base of the fire, starting at one edge and sweeping across
the surface of the burning material. When used in open air. the operator should
stand on the up-wind side of the fire and should apply the gas in a downwind
direction as close as possible to the fire. On fires in electrical equipment first
switch off the current. Then direct the jet or horn straight at the fire.

The gas at the time of discharge makes considerable noise. The user should
therefore be well conversant with its operation to prevent the jet from being
misdirected during the first few vital seconds.

How Does Carbon Dioxide Extinguish Fire

When the extinguisher is actuated carbon dioxide from the cylinder comes out at
a considerable velocity into the atmosphere and forms a layer of gas which is
about one and half times heavier than air. The vapour blanket puts out fire by
displacing the air around the fire and reducing the oxygen supply needed to
continue combustion.

PMI, NTPC 222
Care And Maintenance

At least once a week, polish the painted portion with a little colourless wax polish.
The brass/ chromium parts are to be polished with brass/silver polish. Check that
the nozzle outlet is free from clogging.

Once a month weigh the extinguisher and if a weight difference of 10% or more
(of that of a fully charged extinguisher) is observed it should be sent out for
recharging. Every time the extinguisher is sent for recharging the cylinder should
be pressure tested at 210 kgf/cm
2
before recharging.




HALON TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Halon 1211 (Bromo chloro difluoro methane. CBrCLF
2
, also known as BCF), and
Halon 1301 (Bromo trifluoro methane. CBrF
3
, also known as BTM) are gases
which can be used as an effective medium for extinguishing fires. They are
PMI, NTPC 223
colourless and electrically non-conductive. Halon 1211 is faintly sweet-smelling
whereas Halon 1301 is odourless. Compared to CO
2
on a weight-of-agent basis.
Halons are at least twice as effective. When discharged, the agent is in the
combined form of vapour and mist with about twice the range of carbon dioxide.
To some extent, windy conditions may make extinguishment difficult by causing
the rapid dispersal of the agent.

Halon type fire extinguishers can be used as replacement for exiting carbon
tetrachloride type fire extinguishers, the use of which has been prohibited. They
are suitable for fire fighting in confined spaces for all types of Class 'B' and 'C'
fires. Halon 1211 as well as Halon 1301 being non-conductive, can also be used
safely on electrical fires and is a suitable alternative to CO;, or dry powder
extinguishers. In using extinguishers of this type in poorly ventilated places, such
as small rooms, closets or confined spares, occupants should avoid breathing
gases produced by thermal decomposition.

Some of the more important types of hazards and equipment that Halon 1211
may satisfactorily protect include ;

* Gaseous and liquid flammable materials.

* Electrical hazards such as transformers, oil switches and circuit breakers
and rotating equipment.

* Engines utilising gasoline and other flammable fuels.

* Ordinary combustible such as paper wood and
textiles.

* Hazardous solids.
PMI, NTPC 224
In addition to the above, Halon 1301 can also satisfactorily protect electronic data
processing equipment, control room instruments and computer installations.

Both Halon 1211 and Halon 1301 have not been found to be effective on the
following:

Certain chemicals or mixtures of chemicals such as cellulose nitrate and
gun powder which are capable of rapid oxidation even in the absence of
air.

Reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and magnesium.

Metal hydrides.

Chemicals capable of undergoing auto thermal decomposition such as
certain peroxides and hydrazine.

The common type of portable fire extinguisher of Halon 1211 type covered by
IS:11108 -1984 is discussed here.

Types

There are basically two types of extinguishers of the Halon 1211 type :

Upright type with squeeze grip valve and

Inverted type having piercing type of valve (only those of 1.25 kg
capacity)

The Upright type with squeeze grip valve is the most common type and is usually
available in 2.5, 4, 5 and 6.5 kg capacities.
PMI, NTPC 225
Construction

Some of the salient features of the common types of Halon 1211 extinguishers
are :

The cylinder construction should conform to the specifications as detailed in
IS:1110- 1984, made out of high quality steel treated against corrosion and
having squeeze grip valves fitted with pressure indicating gauge.

* In case of squeeze grip valve assembly, a spring-loaded, pressure sealed
sliding spindle in provided in such a way that it is operated by manual
depression by means of a cantilever hinged grip lever. The spindle is so
designed, that the extinguisher can be regulated by means of pressing and
releasing the squeeze grip handle. A safety pin is provided for prevention
of accidental operation and is fitted on cantilever hinged grip lever through
valve body.

* The discharge fittings include a nozzle which is used in conjunction with a
delivery hose or fitted as an integral part of the valve body.

A siphon tube is fitted to the bottom end of the valve for 'Upright type'
extinguisher.

* A hose shall be required for 4.5, 6.5 kg. capacity and is either rubber of
braided hose having a bursting pressure limit of not less than 50 kg/m
2
.

* A pressure gauge is fitted to the extinguisher to indicate its internal
pressure. The gauge is usually marked suitably with normal pressure at
which the extinguisher is charged and also indicates when it is wholly or
partially released.
PMI, NTPC 226
* The extinguishers are pressurised using dry nitrogen to ensure proper
operation (although the agent is usually retained in a liquid state under its
vapour pressure and is self-expelling).

Method Of Operation

For Upright type fitted with squeeze grip valves :

* Carry the extinguisher to the place of fire,

* Hold the extinguisher upright.

* Remove the safety pin from the valve handle.

* Press down the spring-loaded spindle by pressing downwards the
operation handle thereby controlling the discharge of the contents.

Note :- On flammable liquid fires, best results are obtained when the
discharge from the extinguisher is employed to sweep the flame off
the burning surface, by applying the discharge first at the near edge
of the fire and gradually progressing towards the back of the fire by
moving the discharge with a side-to-side sweeping motion.

Extinguisher should be discharged initially from a distance not closer than 2.5
metres to prevent splashing when applied to depths of flammable liquid.

Principle of working Upon actuation, the vapour pressure causes the agent to
expand so that the discharge stream consists of a mixture of vapour and liquid
droplets.
PMI, NTPC 227
Method of extinguishment According to present knowledge, Halon 1211 and
Halon 1301 extinguish fires by inhibiting interaction of fuel vapour and oxygen.
The extinguishing effect due in cooling is minor.

Care And Maintenance

The following maintenance schedules are recommended for effective
performance of the extinguisher.

Once a week. clean the exterior of the extinguishers, and polish the brass
and chromium plated parts. Check that the nozzle outlet is free from
clogging.

Once a month, weight the extinguisher to check the total weight of the
extinguisher and if weight difference of 10% or more (of that of the fully
charged extinguisher) is observed it should be sent for recharging.

Check the pressure indicating gauge regularly. If loss of pressure exceeds
10% as shown on indicating gauge, the extinguisher should be sent for
recharging.

Every six years, stored pressured extinguishers are to be emptied and
subjected to internal examination.

Once in 12 years, these extinguishers are to be subjected to hydrostatic
test as a test pressure not exceeding two times the service pressure.

PMI, NTPC 228
FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS

Hydrant Systems and Associated Equipment

Hydrant systems for the protection of buildings and plant involve the provision not
only of adequate water supplies but also of the piping, control valves, hydrants,
standpipes, couplings, adaptors, hose, breachings, branches and nozzles, which
are used to bring the water from the source of supply to that part of a building
where it may be required for fire fighting. Hydrant systems should be quite
separate from, and independent of, any sprinkler or drencher system and from
the general water supply. They should normally be kept charged with water, but
in certain circumstances hydrants may be attached to a dry riser.

Station Internal Hydrant System

Water is supplied by an electrically driven pump normally started from the control
room; there is a diesel driven pump as an automatic standby. The pumps supply
a large number of hydrants around the power station and the system reaches all
major fire risk areas. The internal ring main supplies hydrants in the turbine and
boiler-house basements and on the operating floors, and the hose reels at the
bunker floor. It also supplied dry rises to the boiler and bunker house roofs, and
the hose reels on coal conveyors. From the Internal ring main there are also
couplings on each boiler for economiser washing and connection to the air heater
washing ring main.

Station External Hydrant System

Hydrants served by a ring main should be positioned about the power station site
and should be sufficient in number and so located that all buildings and risks on
site can be readily protected by the.

PMI, NTPC 229
Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Since a most important principle of successful fire extinction is to tackle a fire in
its early stages you can appreciate that any device which can detect fire, proceed
to extinguish it and transmit an alarm will be valuable. A sprinkler installation
consists essentially of a system of pipework erected at par near the ceiling of
each floor of a building to be protected and connected through controlling valves
to one or more water supplies. At intervals in the pipe work are sealed outlets
called sprinklers (sprinkler heads). These contain a device which, at a
predetermined rise in temperature, causes the sprinkler to open and water to be
discharged in the form of a spray over an area of the floor below the sprinkler.
The sprinklers are spaced so that, if two or more heads operate simultaneously,
the areas spread by each sprinkler overlap so that no part of the floor is
unprotected.

Water Spray Projector Systems

Water spray projector systems, as opposed to sprinkler or drencher systems, are
used almost entirely for the protection of equipment against all fires. The principle
involved is to apply the water in such a manner that the flammable liquid is
changed temporarily into one, which is incapable of burning, by forming an oil-i n-
water emulsion at the surface. An additional and important advantage of
emulsifying the surface zone of the burning liquid is that breaking up of the oil
into small globules dispersed in water, give rapid cooling. Vapour is no longer
produced and given off and the development of an explosive atmosphere, after
the fire is extinguished, is avoided.

Controls and Alarms

The multiple jet type of layout is used in power stations where the risk can be
effectively subdivided. A water spray projectors system is usually automatic in
PMI, NTPC 230
operation, but for certain special installations manual control is employed instead
of, or in addition to, automatic control. Manual control is used to protect the
lubricating oil systems of turbo-generators because of the possibility of leakage
from nearby high temperature steam pipes; the leaking steam could cause
quartzoid bulb detectors of an automatic system to burst and so open the
system. Manually operated valves are placed in convenient positions outside the
probable zone of fire, but in situations from which a fire could be observed,
preferably on the turbine operating floor and not in the basement. Electrically
operated valves with remote control from unit or central control rooms are also in
use.

Water Supplies

Water spray projector systems must have a reliable and adequate supply of
water at the required pressure. This should be enough to be able to supply all the
projectors likely to be brought into operation for a period of five minutes. When all
the projectors that are to be brought into operation at one time are discharging
water, the minimum running pressure at the projectors should be not less than
3.5 bar (50 Ibf/in
2
). In power stations, the quantity of water required means that
storage tanks or reservoirs and pumping sets have to be arrangement to start
automatically & immediately the operation of the system causes a demand for
water.

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Fire grow to disastrous proportions either because their discovery is delayed or
because they cannot be successfully fought in time with the means available.
The very essence of successful fire protection is to ensure that fires can be
detected and fought within a few minutes of their breaking out. Fire detection
systems are devices designed to give a warning of an outbreak of fire or of
conditions likely to result in such an outbreak; these devices also transmit that
PMI, NTPC 231
warning to a place where a appropriate action will be taken or receipt of the
warning. We can say, therefore, that detection systems have two distinct
functions :

* To detect a fire.

* To transmit a warning.

Classification

Broadly, there are two classes of fire detection systems: those with detectors
which respond to heat and those with detectors which respond to smoke. Both
classes are invariably electrically operated, and we shall describe both in the
next subsections. In some cases the alarm is given by the completion of a circuit
when a detector operates (open circuit), while in others a small current flows
continuously and the alarm is given when the circuit is broken by the operation of
a detector (close circuit). The essential components of automatic fire detection
systems, in addition to the wiring, are the detectors, visual indicating panels,
audible warning devices, equipment for calling fire brigades, and power supplies.
The systems usually operate on batteries which are trickle-charged from the
mains supply.

Heat Detectors

There are two types, of heat detectors. The more common type is the point
detector, which is relatively small, and the other type is the line detector break-
link cable, which has a long continuous sensitive element extending over a large
area of a ceiling. Sensing elements used in heat detectors include :

* Metal strips, rods, wires or coils which expand when heated.

PMI, NTPC 232
* Fusible alloys.

* Conductors whose electrical existence is altered by heating.

* Hollow tubes containing a fluid which expands on heating and applies
pressure to a diaphragm.

* Thermocouples.

Smoke Detectors

Smoke detectors pond to the smoke or other products of combustion evolved
from a fire. There are two main types; one utilizes the effect of the products of
combustion on the current flowing across an open ionization chamber and the
other operates on the photo-electric principle. In the case of the latter, smoke
entering the detector diffuses internal lamp lights around an opaque barrier to
reach the photoelectric cell, which actuates the alarm system. Smoke detectors
can be designed to be extremely sensitive, and in certain circumstances may
detect fires before heat detectors, but they have limitations to their general use in
industry.

Laser Beam Fire Detector

Experiments have been carried out using a laser beam impinging on a photo-
electric cell, either directly or by reflecting the beam by a corner reflector, so that
the effect of building movements are minimised. A rising plume of hot gases from
a fire is turbulent, and this causes the refractive index of the air to change so that
the position of the laser beam varies randomly and the laser spot falling on the
photoelectric cell becomes perturbed. After the fire has been burning for a minute
or so, the beam as a whole is deflected, as a temperature gradient becomes
established near the ceiling, and the spot moves away from the photoelectric cell.
PMI, NTPC 233
The first indication of a fire is, therefore, the agitated movements of the spot;
these give a variable output from the cell and this is closely followed by a fall in
the mean output.










PMI, NTPC 234
27. 27. FirePrevention And Protection System FirePrevention And Protection System
For Thermal Power Stations For Thermal Power Stations

INTRODUCTION

- The circumstances under which a Thermal Power Station has to operate
with coal. different kinds of oils, hydrogen, variety of rotating electrical and
mechanical equipment, cables, pipelines carrying steam etc. make the
plant to face always the threat of fire hazard. It is, therefore, essential for
engineers to install an efficient fire prevention and fire fighting system as
integral part of every Thermal Power Station.

SCOPE OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

- The Fire Protection System consists of Fire Hydrant, High Velocity (H.V.)
sprinkler system and portable chemical extinguishers alongwith smoke
detection system for cable vaults and UCB's.

- A brief scope of fire protection system which should be provided in the
station is given below :-

- Automatic hydrant system consisting of fire water pumps, jockey pump
alongwith hydropneumatic pressurizing system, piping (both indoor and
outdoor) located throughout the entire power station at strategic locations
within power house and other buildings. hose pipes, nozzles etc.
Following areas are normally protected by Hydrant System.

Power house and boiler area

PMI, NTPC 235
Intake & service water pump house

Clarified water pump house & raw water pump house

Ash water and slurry pump house

Water treatment plant area

Compressor house

Administrative Building

Outdoor yard

Fuel oil pump house & storage area

Transformer yard

Fire Station

Start-up boiler

Hydrogen generating plant

Coal handling plant including crusher house Service building Petrol
pump & autobase workshop

Canteen, training institute, simulator building, wagon repair shop.

PMI, NTPC 236
- Automatic High Velocity (H.V.) sprinkler protection consisting of deluge
valves, heat detectors, projectors, piping, valves, fittings etc. for the
following :

Generator transformers

Unit auxiliary transformers

Station transformers

Tie transformers

Centralised turbine oil purification system.

- Smoke detection (Fire Alarm) system for

Electrical cable spreader room

Cable vaults

Unit control & equipment room

MCC rooms

- Portable and mobile (wheel mounted type chemical the extinguishers of
soda acid, carbon dioxide, foam type, dry chemical powder type.

FIRE PREVENTIVE MEASURES

- The importance of fire preventive measures needs no over-emphasis as
this goes a long way in preventing the occurrence of fires. Though
PMI, NTPC 237
normally all safety and preventive measures as enforced by site
authorities are to be strictly followed, it is suggested that following
preventive measures should be strictly followed at project sites:

The 'house-keeping' of plant should be of highest order. Waste
cotton wool, oil spillage etc. should not be allowed in the plant
areas, especially cable trenches, cable galleries/vaults areas.
These should be checked regularly and any foreign/ waste material
found should be immediately removed.

All combustible materials lying in the vicinity of welding and cutting
operations (carried out on a very large scale during erection) must
be removed or covered as welding spark can travel upto 10 meters
and cause size able fires. Such operations should be supervised by
the fire fighting squad and adequate number of portable
extinguishers must be kept in readiness. In fact, welding/ cutting
work should be allowed only with permission of competent authority
after ensuring that all necessary fire prevention rules.

In power plant coal dust settlement on various floor levels, cable
trays etc. can happen which if allowed will lead to be a potential
source of fire. This should be eliminated and cleaning if required
with the help of pressurised water spray system and/or vacuum
cleaners should be carried out as a routine.

Emergency exit from various locations (with arrow 'Exit' marking),
should be provided throughout the plant.

All fire fighting equipment & apparatus should be maintained
properly and regular drill of fire protection as advised by project
authorities should be conducted and records maintained. This will
PMI, NTPC 238
ensure regular check on working of all fire fighting equipment and
accessories.

Additional fire protection Measures

Following features should be adopted as additional fire protection measures.

Cable Galleries/Value, Cable Trenches etc.

* All cable risers/shaft at various floor levels originating from cable galleries
should be effectively sealed to avoid draught effect and consequently
spreading of fire.

* Similarly cable trenches bifurcating from cable galleries should be
effecti vely sealed to prevent entry of water, dirt, snakes, rats etc. entering
the zub-zero cable galleries, which would result in good up keeping and
clean environment inside the gallery.

* Cable galleries of power house should be partitioned with fire barriers wall
unit wise with self closing fire resistant door and an automatic detection
and automatic fire sprinkler system should be provided. However, it is to
be ensured that adequate capacity sump pumps and drainage
arrangement for water is to be provided in these galleries.

* All outdoor cable trenches should be periodically inspected for cleanliness
and wherever possible these trenches may be filled with sand.

Switchgear Rooms, MCC Rooms etc

Switchgear rooms & MCC rooms should be provided with fire alarm system using
ionisation type detectors for early warning in case of fire.
PMI, NTPC 239
Unit Control Rooms, Unit Control Equipment Rooms and Inverter Rooms

Ionisation type Smoke detectors should be installed in units control and
equipment rooms & inverter room. For protection it is recommended to provide
Halon 1301 gas flooding in case of fire, to avoid a possible damage to these
areas in the event of fire. Use of Halon-1301 gas in place of CO;, has achieved
considerably momentum. This is one of the best suited medium for fire protection
in view of the following advantage:

It is a very fast extinguishing medium (any fire can be extinguished in 10-
15 seconds) and have no harmful effect on any equipment.

It can be released in any human occupied areas without any ill effect on
human being unlike CO
2
flooding which call evacuation of personnel
through a pre-alarm warning before flooding the CO
2
gas.

Unlike CO^ as extinguishing medium which requires complete removal of
CO
2
gas after fire extinguishment before any personnel can occupy that
area, Halon 1301 does not call for this requirement as concentration of
Halon gas required for fire extinguishing is 5-7% (against CO
2
40-50%)
and this concentration has not ill effect on human life.

Presently Halon-1301 gas is imported and only filling is being done in India. In
the past we have not considered this for life protection in TPS. However, today
for defence establishment, power stations and other projects use of Halon-1301
gas for fire protection, especially for control rooms etc. has emerged as the best
technical solution.

PMI, NTPC 240
PROTECTION FOR TURBINE OIL TANKS AND ACCESSORIES

Following equipments should be protected by Automatic/manual H.V. sprinkler
system.

a) Turbine oil main storage

b) Unit Turbine oil tanks

c) Lube oil pipes (zones)

d) Oil coolers

e) Seal oil system

For fuel oil handling storage areas, at present only fire hydrant system is
provided. It is proposed to augment the fire protection for this area as outlined
below :

It is envisaged to install foam tanks in the fuel oil facilities areas and inject
the foam through nozzles mounted inside the top of fuel oil tanks manually
in case of fire. Water for this shall be tapped from sprinkler header running
for C.H.P., cable gallery protection etc.

Apart from foam injection system to be provided as discussed above, a
medium velocity spray system shall also be provided outside the tank to
provide cooling effect to the tank which will ensure that in case of fire other
tanks are protected from the possibility of fire.

PMI, NTPC 241
Coal Handling Storage Areas, Coal Handling Plant Protection

For coal stock piles, at present it is protected by hydrant is envisaged. However,
to avoid spontaneous combustion in piles due to air pockets, it is suggested that
compaction of coal piles thru bull-dozer should be done as much as possible. For
coal handling plant, all underground tunnel including track hopper and
overground covered conveyors upto the bunker floor, it is recommended to install
a system having automatic detection cum-sprinkler system.

Coal Bunkers Protection

Fire in coal bunkers is due to spontaneous combustion of coal due to its storage
for a long time and its is smouldering in nature. However it is not possible to
install any system which can extinguish the same. Only fire on surface can be
extinguished by flooding CO
2
in the bunkers, but this would have no effect on
deep seated fires in bunkers. Hence it is not possible to provide any automatic
detection' and suppression of fire which will be quite
4
effective. The only solution
is to provide a battery of carbon-dioxide cylinder with piped gas connections in
the bunkers and in case of fire CO
2
would be replaced in the particular bunker
manually. Since, as explained above, this would be effective only on surface fire
and smouldering would start again once the gas is finished. Moreover keeping in
view the large size of bunkers and their numbers, the system would require a
large number of cylinders and refilling. It is concluded that CO
2
injection system
for bunkers would neither be effective nor economically viable. Hence minor
bunker fires should be fought by portable/mobile C0
2
extinguishers. However, in
case of major fire in the bunker, it is required to empty the bunker coal by first
closing the inlet gate to coal feeder, than empty it through a bypass pipe. During
the coal emptying operation, the bunker top should be blanketed by CO
2

flooding.

PMI, NTPC 242
OTHER PREVENTIVE MEASURES

- Adequate quantity of portable/mobile CO
2


Foam, Dry Chemical type extinguishers should be maintained at site and
located in all places especially in switchgear rooms, MCC rooms,
laboratory etc.

- Suitable interlocking should be provided in the system so that in the event
of fire:

* Ventilation system, if any, provided in the cable & conveyor galleries
is switched off automatically.

* Air conditioning system in control room shall be switched off
automatically.

- Following additional annunciation should be provided:

* Low pressure fire water alarm in central fire station and fire panel
located in UCB.

* Low fire water pressure alarm in central fire station & control room
which cannot be acknowledged and would be off only when the
pressure in the fire water header is restored.

- The system should designed in such a way that there are atleast two
number diesel engine driven pumps available as standby for
hydrant/mulsifire/sprinklers.
PMI, NTPC 243
28. 28. Introduction To First Aid Introduction To First Aid

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF FIRST AID

- First Aid is the skilled application of accepted principles of treatment on
the occurrence of an accident or in the case of sudden illness, using
facilities or materials available at the time. It is the approved method of
treating a casualty until he is placed, if necessary, in the care of a doctor
or removed to hospital. Because of the increasing number and serious
nature of accidents of all kinds, the responsibility of the First Aider has
become greater.

- First Aid is treatment given to a casualty -

* to sustain life.

* to prevent his condition for becoming worse.

* to promote his recovery.

RESPONSIBILITY OF A FIRST AIDER IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
A CASUALTY

- To assess the situation :

- To arrive at a diagnosis for each casualty;

PMI, NTPC 244
- To give immediate and adequate treatment, bearing in mind that a
casualty may have more than one injur y and that some casualties will
require more urgent attention than others;

- To arrange without delay for the disposal of a casualty according to the
seriousness of his condition.

ASSESSMENT AND INITIAL ACTION

- Be calm, take charge.

- Give confidence to the conscious casualty.

- Talk to him, listen to him and reassure him.

- Check

* Safety of casualties and of yourself;

* the breathing, for bleeding and whether conscious.

- Get others to help.

- Tell them what they should do.

- If necessary, send for ambulance, police, fire service, or other help.

PMI, NTPC 245
DIAGNOSIS

- The history of the incident must be taken into consideration and an
examination made to determine the signs and symptoms and level of
consciousness.

- History
The story of how the accident happened or the illness began obtained
from

The casualty : 'I slipped and fell down'.
Witness ; 'I saw the old man fall and his head strike the wall'.

- Signs
Variation from normal, ascertained by the First Aider - pailor ; blueness
(cyanosis) of face, lips inner sides of eyelids, or of nail beds of fingers and
toes. There may be evidence o\ poisoning.

- Symptoms
Sensations described by the casualty -
'I feel pain'
'I am cold'
My arm is numb'.

LEVEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Any change of level is important.
Full consciousness
Able to speak and answer questions normally.
Drowsiness.
PMI, NTPC 246
Easily roused, but lapses into unconsciousness.

Stupor
Can be roused with difficulty. The casualty is aware of painful stimuli, e.g.
pin prick, but not of other external events, e.g. being spoken to.

Coma
Cannot be roused by any stimuli.

ACTION

- If the cause of the condition is still active, remove it -

* a log of wood on the casualty's leg,

* contaminated clothing

* or remove the casualty from the cause - from traffic, fire, water,
poisonous fumes etc.

TREATMENT

Give the treatment you consider essential.

Sustain life.

Emergency resuscitation.

Control bleeding and shock.

PMI, NTPC 247
- Prevent the condition from becoming worse

Cover wounds

Immobilise fractures, large wounds and any injured part. Place the
casualty in a correct and comfortable position.

- Promote recovery

Reassure

Give any other treatment needed.

Relieve pain.

Handle gently and carefully at all times.

Move as little as possible.

Protect from cold.

DISPOSAL

- The First Aider will ensure that the casualty is conveyed without delay to
his home, a suitable shelter or an appropriate hospital. In serious cases it
may be necessary to summon a doctor.

- A brief written should accompany the casualty. A tactful message should
also be sent, if necessary, to the casualty's home stating what has
happened and where he has been taken, unless this has been done by
the police or other authority.
PMI, NTPC 248
SUMMARY OF ESSENTIALS OF FIRST AID

- Act quickly, quietly and methodically, giving priority to the most urgent
conditions. Ensure that there is no further danger to the casualty or to
yourself.

- If breathing has stopped or is failing, clear the airway and, if necessary,
start emergency resuscitation Control bleeding.

Determine the level of consciousness. Consider the possibility of
poisoning. Give reassurance as necessary to the casualty and to those
around and so help to lessen anxiety. Guard against shock. Position the
casualty correctly. Before moving the casualty, immobilise fractures and
large wounds. Arrange without delay for the careful conveyance of the
casualty, if necessary, to the care of his doctor or to a hospital.

Watch and record any changes in the conditions of the casualty. Do not
attempt too much; Do not allow people to crowd around: this hinders first
aid and may cause the casualty anxiety or embarrassment; Do not give
anything by mouth to a casualty who is unconscious, who has suspected
internal injury, or who may shortly need an anesthetic.

Definitions
- Medical aid indicates treatment by a doctor.

- First Aider

The term First Aider was devised to designate any person who had
received a certificate from an authorised Association that he or she is
qualified to render First Aid. It was first used in this way in 1894 by the
Voluntary First Aid Organisation.
PMI, NTPC 249
- Such certificates issued by St. John Ambulance, St. Andrew's Ambulance
Association and British Red Cross Society are awarded to candidates who
have attended a course of theoretical and practical work, and who have
passed an examination conducted by a specially appointed doctor.

- The certificate awarded has a limited validity to three years thus ensuring
that First Aiders are

* Highly trained;

* regularly examined;

* kept up-to-date in knowledge and skill.
PMI, NTPC 250
29. 29. First Aid To TheInjured First Aid To TheInjured

DRESSING AND BANDAGES DRESSINGS

A dressing is a covering applied to a wound or to an injured part and may be
used:-

To assist in controlling bleeding (hemorrhage)

To protect a wound from further injury

To prevent or lessen infection

Prepared Sterile Dressing

The ideal dressing for all wounds consists of a sterilised (germ-free) piece of
gauze or lint to which is sometimes stitched a pad and a roller bandage. This
dressing is enclosed and sealed in a protective covering. To use a prepared
sterile dressing :-

If possible, wash the hands thoroughly, with soap and running water; they must
not, however, be regarded as sterile, Loosen the protective covering and remove
the dressing. Expose the dressing as little as possible to the air. Do not breathe
or cough over it. Avoid fingering the dressing which is to be applied to the wound.
Do not handle anything else which is not clean.

Gauze or Lint

PMI, NTPC 251
If a prepared sterile dressing is to available, cover the wound with a piece of
clean gauze or lint (smooth side towards the wound).
To use gauze or lint, loosen the covering and with clean scissors cut a piece to
the 'size required to cover the wound adequately; take care not to touch the side
which is to be applied to the wound.

Place the unused portion of the gauze or lint in a clean container.

Emergency Dressings

If a prepared sterile dressing or gauze or lint is not immediately available, the
inside fold of a clean handkerchief or freshly laundered towel, a piece of linen or
clean paper tissue may be used but their use is only temporary until a prepared
sterile dressing or gauze lint is available. The greatest care must he taken in
handling and applying dressings to avoid touching with the naked fingers any
part of the wound or any part of the dressing which will be in contact with the
wound. The object is to prevent further contamination by germs. Dressings must
be covered with an adequate pad of cotton wool which must extend well beyond
the dressing and be kept in place with a bandage. Clean linen or any other soft
bulky material may be used as a pad if cotton wool is not available.

"A Cold Compress (wet dressing) may help to limit swelling and bleeding under
the skin. To make a cold compress; take a thin towel, piece of lint, flannel, cotton
wool or handkerchief and soak it in cold water*" Squeeze out the water to that the
material does not drip but do not wring it dry. Keep the compress moist by
dripping on more water from time to time or by replacing it by another freshly
prepared. The addition of a little methylated spirit may help evaporation and so
increase the effect of the compress. Do not cover the compress but if it is
necessary to secure it in position use the minimum of bandaging and use upon
wove material if available. Do not apply a wet dressing where there is an open
wound or use methylated spirit near the eyes.
PMI, NTPC 252
WOUNDS AND HAEMORRHAGE

What is a Wound ?

A wound is a break in the continuity of the tissues of the body which thus permits
the escape of blood and the entrance of disease-producing germs or other
injurious agents.

Wounds may be classified as follows :-

Incised Wounds, which are caused by a sharp instrument such as a razor,
and bleed freely because the blood-vessels are "clean cut".

Lacerated Wounds, which have torn and irregular edges. They are caused
by such things as machinery, a piece of shell or the claws of an animal. As
the blood-vessels are torn through, lacerated wounds bleed less freely
than incised wounds.

Contused Wounds, which are accompanied by bruising of the tissues, and
are caused by a direct blow by some blunt instrument or by crushing.

Punctured Wounds, which have comparatively small openings, but may be
very deep and are caused by a slab from any sharp-pointed instrument,
such as a needle, knife or bayonet. Gun-shot wounds come under one or
more of the above headings.

Hemorrhage

Or bleeding may vary in intensity from severe to slight. Severe hemorrhage
comes from a torn artery or torn vein or both combined. Many large arteries and
veins lie close together and are frequently injured together. Blood from an artery
PMI, NTPC 253
in the systemic circulation is bright red. If the injured artery is near the skin, the
blood is seen to spurt out in jets corresponding with the pulsations of the heart.
Blood from a vein is dark red. It flows in a brisk continuous stream Arterial and
venous hemorrhage combined usually gushes out from the depth of the wound.

- "Infection (sepsis)" is an abnormal state of the injured tissues resulting
from the invasion of disease-producing germs. Germs are invisible to the
naked eye and can be seen only with II'' aid of a microscope. They exist in
soil, dust water, air and in may other places including the skin and
intestinal tract of both man and animals.

- Germs are living organisms and need moisture, suitable food and
favourable temperature in order to live and multiply. Disease-producing
germs find ideal conditions in the tissues of the human body and, when
they enter a wound, multiply rapidly and attack the tissue cells with which
they come in contact producing local redness, heat and swelling, the
characteristic appearance of an infected wound. The pus of an infected
wound consists of a combination of dead or damaged tissue cells, white
corpuscles and germs.

Cleanliness is essential in the prevention of infection and everything thick
comes in contract with the wound (hands and dressings) must be
scrupulously clean. The hands are best cleaned by thorough scrubbing
with soap, water (running if possible) and a nail brush, special attention
being paid to the nails. Water may be rendered completely sterile only by
boiling for 20 minutes.

Antiseptics are chemical preparations which have the power of restraining
the growth of germs. They are commonly used in water soluble bases as
antiseptic creams or in suitable solution as antiseptic lotions. Under the
conditions in which first aid is given, the use of antiseptics is necessarily
PMI, NTPC 254
limited. When however, medical aid is not readily available they may be
used to cleans the skin round the wound.

General Rules for Treatment of Wounds Accompanied by Hemorrhage :

* Place the casualty in a suitable position, bearing in mind that blood
escapes with less force when the patient sits and still less when the
patient lies down.

* Elevate the bleeding part, except in the case of a fractured limb.
Expose the wound, removing as little, clothing as possible

* Do not disturb an blood clot already formed

* Remove any foreign bodies which are visible and can be easily
picked out or wiped off with a piece of clean dressing.

* Apply and maintain pressure
a) direct

b) indirect

* Apply a dressing, pad and bandage

* Immobilise the injured part. When the wound is near a joint
immobilise the joint using splints if necessary, e.g., the knee.

INTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE

Hemorrhage from an internal organ may result from injury, such as a crush, blow,
fracture of a rib, of the pelvis or of the skull, or may be caused by a stab or bullet;
PMI, NTPC 255
or it may be due to disease, in which case no external cause is apparent, internal
hemorrhage may be

Visible

Concealed.

Hemorrhage from an internal organ becomes visible in the following cases :-

Form the lungs - blood is coughed up. It is bright red and frothy.

From the stomach - blood is vomited. It sometimes has the appearance of
coffee grounds.

From the upper bowel- blood is mixed with the motions and gives them a
black tarry appearance.

From the lower bowel - blood in the motions is normal in appearance.

From the Kidneys - blood escapes with the urine which may be smoky or
red in appearance. They may be-pain over the kidney areas.

From the bladder - blood is present in the urine which is often passed with
difficulty.

Hemorrhage from an internal organ remains concealed in the following cases:-

Bleeding into the tissues associated with fractures.

Bleeding from the liver, spleen or pancreas takes place into the abdominal
cavity and does not appear outside the body. This type of bleeding may be
PMI, NTPC 256
very dangerous .and should be suspected where the signs and symptoms
of hemorrhage are present following a crash or blow in the region of the
liver, spleen or pancreas.

Signs and Symptoms

Giddiness and faintness, especially when the upright position is assumed.
Pallor of the face and lips. Cold clammy skin.

Thirst which may be severe.

Restlessness, the casualty may be excitable and talkative.

The pulse becomes progressively weaker and more rapid and may not be
felt at the wrist.

The breathing may be hurried and laboured and accompanied by yawning
and sighing.

Air hunger, i.e., distressed efforts to breathe; the casualty may throw his
arms about, tug at his clothing and call for air.

Unconsciousness,

These signs and symptoms are, of course, present when the bleeding can be
seen but with an external wound or visible internal hemorrhage there may be no
need to note them in order to make a diagnosis. They may all be present in
cases of established shock but air hunger, severe thirst and restlessness are
indications the concealed bleeding is continuing. The condition is extremely
dangerous and must receive priority.

PMI, NTPC 257
Treatment

Remove the casualty to hospital at the earliest possible moment. A note
should be attached to the casualty that internal hemorrhage is suspected.

Do not give anything by mouth.

ASPHYXIA

What is Asphyxia?

When the lungs do not get a sufficient supply of fresh air vital organs and the
important nerve centers in the brain which regulate their activity are deprived of
oxygen and this causes a dangerous condition called Asphyxia. Unless the
cause is speedily removed and the supply oxygen restored to the blood
circulating through the lungs, loss of consciousness, cessation of breathing,
failure of the circulation and death will occur.

Causes of Asphyxia

Causes affecting the Respiratory Tract.

Fluid in the air passages as in drowning.

Harmful gases or fumes in the air passages, e.g., coal gas, motor exhaust
fumes, after-dump, smoke, sewer gas, ammonia.

Note : Some gases affect the respiratory centres in addition.

Foreign bodies in the air passages causing choking, e.g., portions of food,
artificial teeth, vomited matter in the case of an unconscious person
PMI, NTPC 258
(owing to failure of the action of the epiglottis), tongue falling back in the
case of an unconscious person, blood collecting from a fractured jaw.

Compression of the windpipe, e.g., hanging, strangulation or throttling.

Smothering, e.g., overlaying an infant, an unconscious person laying face
downwards on a pillow.

Swelling of the tissues within the throat as a result of burns, scalds,
corrosives, stings (wasp or bee), or from some diseases affecting the
throat.

Causes affecting the Respiratory Mechanism :

Pressure on or crushing of the chest resulting from accidents in mines,
quarries, sand pits or demolitions, or from pressure in a crowd.

Spasm of respiratory muscles in the case of certain poisons, e.g.,
Strychnine, or diseases, e.g., Tetanus (lockjaw).

Nervous diseases causing paralysis of the muscles of the chest wall or the
diaphragm, e.g., Poliomyelitis.

Electric shock.

Causes affecting the Respiratory Centres.

Electric shock

Stroke by lightening

PMI, NTPC 259
Poisons such as prussic acid and Morphine

Some gases.

Sings and Symptoms of Asphyxia : Early stages :-

Dizziness and weakness Shortness of breath Rapid pulse

Partial loss of consciousness

Swelling of the veins of the neck Congestion of the face with blueness of
cheeks and lips.

These signs and symptoms may vary with the degree of asphyxia present.

The lips, nose, ears, fingers and toes are bluish grey.

Breathing intermittent or absent Pulse slow and irregular

Complete loss of consciousness

General Rules for Treatment of Asphyxia :

Remove the cause if possible or the casualty from the cause.

Ensure that there is a free passage for air. In an unconscious person the
tongue may fall back and obstruct the air passages. This possibility should
be kept constantly in mind if the casualty is lying on his back.

Apply artificial respiration immediately. Every second counts.
PMI, NTPC 260
Artificial respiration must be continued until natural breathing is restored, if
necessary for a long time unless a Doctor decides that further efforts will
be of no avail.

Utilise any help available to :-

o Provide warmth, e.g. blankets

o Provide shelter from the elements.

ELECTRICAL INJURIES

Severe injury may be caused by the passage through the body of an electric
current. This may be due to contact with a live and naked wire, cable or rail or
from a stroke of lightening. The immediate effect is shock which may be relatively
mild or so severe as to cause death (electrocution) depending on the strength of
the current and on the path it takes in passing to earth through the body. Another
result is burning and the burns may be severe and deep, especially with higher
voltages.

Electrical injuries may occur :-

In houses and offices, from domestic apparatus with voltages up to 450
(alternating current).

In factories from equipment with voltage as high as 1,100 (alternating
current).

Contact with a live rail - voltage in the region of 1,000 (direct current).

PMI, NTPC 261
From overhead lines with high voltages of well over 100,000 (alternating
current).

From lightening where the strength of the current is immeasurable and the
voltage may be many millions e.g., standing under trees or in contact with
metal railings or golf clubs.

Alternating currents are more dangerous than direct currents as the muscles are
thrown into spasm causing the casualty to remain fixed in contact with the
current. Moisture is a powerful conductor of electricity and when present, will
facilitate the passage of the current. If the skin at the point of contact of earth is
wet even the lower voltages may be dangerous. More important than the actual
strength of the current is the path it takes through the body in finding its way to
earth. Thus a very strong current passing to earth through the lower limb might
be less dangerous than much weaker current crossing the chest, as
unfortunately it is likely to do if it enters through 4he hand and arm. In these
cases there may be immediate fatal paralysis of the heart and circulation escape,
the heart may continue to function even though the breathing has stopped. It is
for this reason that in electrical injuries the face is blue asphyxia) rather than
white and that artificial respiration may have to be carried on for a very long time.
As long as the heart beats life may be saved.

Treatment

Electric injury is an emergency calling for prompt and intelligent action - prompt
action if the casualty's life is to be saved; intelligent action if two casualties
instead of one are to be avoided.

Switch off the current. If the switch cannot be found immediately and the supply
is through a flexible cable the current may be cut off by removing the plug or
PMI, NTPC 262
even breaking the cable or wrenching it free. Do not attempt to cut cable with a
knife a scissors.

If it is impossible to switch off or break the current remove the casualty from
contact with the current. The greatest care is necessary; insulating materials
must be used and they must be dry. With ordinary domestic apparatus rubber
gloves are good and dry cap, coat or other garment or a folded newspaper gives
fair protection. If possible the rescuer should stand on some insulating material
such as rubber-sole shoes or boots or piles of newspapers.

With very high voltages, e.g., overhead lines, danger may exist even if the
casualty is not actually in contact because the current may jump the gap (arcing).
In these cases the rescue should, if possible, be left to a properly trained
electrical man although there is no danger if the current is switched off. If expert
help is not available, approach with great caution and keep as far away from any
part of the electrical equipment as possible. Drag the casualty away with some
no-conducting implement such as a dry walking stick, a dry board or a dry rope.

Unless the casualty is breathing normal - give artificial respiration, for some
hours if necessary.

Treat for shock.

Treat any bums.

Transfer to hospital or seek medical aid.

Even after apparent recovery the casualty should be seen by a doctor to ensure
that all is well as casualties suffering from electrical injuries are liable to relapse
even when the effects have seemed to be mild.

PMI, NTPC 263
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION ("HOLGER NIELSEN" METHOD)

"Whenever Artificial Respiration is indicated, lose no time - every second counts."

Turning

If the casualty is lying on his back turn him to the prone position (face
downwards) as follows. Cross his far leg over the near leg.

Go down on the left knee opposite the casualty's head, placing the right
foot on the ground out to the side.

Place the casualty's arms carefully above his head, and keep them there
during the turn.

Grasp his right upper arm and turn him over, protecting his face with the
other hand. Adjust the position of the casualty's hands as instructed
below.

The above instructions can be reversed if necessary.

Position of the Casualty

Lay the casualty in the prone position on a flat surface.

Place the casualty's hands one over the other, under his forehead. The
head must be turned slightly to one side. The nose and mouth must be
unobstructed.



PMI, NTPC 264
Position of the Operation
Place one knee with the inner side in line with the casualty's cheek six to
twelve inches from the top of his head.

Place the other foot with the heel in line with the casualty's elbow.

Place the hands on the casualty's back with the heel of the hands on the
lower part of the shoulder-blades, the thumbs alongside the spine, and the
fingers pointing to the casualty's feet. (Fig. 6).

Movement (1)

Keeping the arms straight rock gently forward until the arms are vertical or almost
vertical depending on the build of the casualty or that of the operator, using no
special force. The movement takes 2 seconds counting "one, two". This pressure
causes expiration. (Ref. Fig. 7).
PMI, NTPC 265
Movement (2)

The operator now rocks back counting "three" for one second and slides his hand
past the casualty's shoulders until they can grip his upper arms near the elbows.
(Ref. Fig. 8) He raises and pulls on the arms until tension is felt 'for a period of 2
seconds counting "four, five". He should take care not to raise the chest from the
ground.


This movement causes inspiration. The operator's arms should remain straight
for the whole period. (Ref. Fig. 9).


PMI, NTPC 266
Counting "six" for one second the operator lowers the casualty's arms to the
ground and replaces his hands in the original position. The whole operation
occupying 6 seconds (that is ten times a minute) should be rhythmic in character
and be continued until breathing recommences. When the casualty begins to
show signs of breathing the operator should continue with movement 2 only,
raising and lowering the arms alternatively counting 1,2 (2 seconds) for
Inspiration and 3,4 (2 seconds) for Expiration.

Summary of Counting Timing

The counting and timing are as follows:

One - Two (2 seconds) - back pressure.

Three - (1 second) - sliding hands to arms.

Four - Five (2 seconds) - raising arms.

Six - (1 second) sliding hands to back.

The total count occupies six seconds which is ten times a minute. Opinions vary
regarding methods of counting and timing.

It is, however, considered easier for the student to keep to a regular rhythm
based on "the second" and for this reason the above method has been adopted
in this manual.

INJURIES TO BONES AND JOINTS (FRACTURES)

"Fracture is the term. used to indicate that a bone is broken or cracked."

PMI, NTPC 267
Causes of Fractures

Fractures may result from a variety of causes of which the most common is some
form of force or violence.

From direct force, when the bone breaks at the spot where the force is
applied, e.g., from a severe blow, impact of bullet, crush by a wheel, result
of a fall.

From indirect force when a bone breaks at some distance from the spot
where the force is applied. In such cases force is transmitted along the
intervening bones which may themselves escape injury, e.g., fracture of
the collarbone may result from a fall on to the outstretched hand.

From the force due to muscular action, e.g., the knee cap is occasionally
broken by a sudden violent contraction of the muscles attached to it.

Fractures are occasionally caused by a combination of direct and indirect
force, e.g., fracture of the ankle as a result of a twist.

Types of Fracture

Fracture may be classified as:

Simple or Closed - when there is no wound leading down to the broken
bone. (Fig. 10)

Compound or Open - when there is a wound leading down to the broken
bone or when the fractured ends protrude through the skin, thus allowing
germs to obtain access to the site of the fracture. (Ret. Fig. 11)
PMI, NTPC 268

Complicated - when there is associated injury to some important internal
structure such as brain, spinalcord, nerve, lungs, liver spleen, kidney,
major bloodvessel, or when a fracture at a joint is associated with a
dislocation. A complicated fracture may be either simple or compound.

There are other varieties of fracture-hich cannot normally be diagnosed by the
First Aider. These include :-

* Comminuted When the bone is broken into several parts.

* Impacted When the broken ends are driven into one another.

* Greenstick In the case of children the bone may be cracked and
bent without breaking comoletely across.
PMI, NTPC 269
* Depressed When, in the case of a fracture of the upper part or
sides of the skull, the broken part of the bone is driven
inwards.

General Signs and Symptoms of Fracture :

Pain at or near the seat of fracture. Tenderness of discomfort on gentle
pressure over the affected area.

Swelling about the seat of fracture. Swelling frequently renders it difficult
to perceive other signs of fracture and care must be taken therefore not to
treat the condition as a less serious injury.

Deformity of the limb; the limb may assume an unnatural position and be
misshapen, The contracting muscles may cause the broken ends of the
bone to override, thereby producing shortening of the limb.

Irregularity of the bone. If the fracture is near the skin the irregularity of the
bone may be felt.

Crepitus (bony grating) may be heard or felt.

Unnatural movement at the seat of the fracture.

The last two signs should never be sought deliberately, but they may be noted
during examination.

Any or all of these signs and symptoms may not be present: those which are may
vary in degree.

Comparison with the uninjured side will assist in the diagnosis.
PMI, NTPC 270
In addition to these signs and symptoms, marks on the clothing or skin may
serve to locate the fracture. The snap of the bone may have been heard or felt.

General Rules for Treatment of Fractures

Treat The Fracture On The Spot

No attempt must be made to move the casualty until the injured part had been
immobitised unless life -is in immediate danger from some other cause. If
however, circumstances are such that final immobilisation cannot be completed
on the spot, sufficient temporary fixation should be carried out to enable the
casualty to be moved for a short distance to more suitable and safer
surroundings. Hemorrhage and severe wounds must be dealt with before
continuing with the treatment of fractures with due regard to the requirements of
both types of injury.

Steady and support the injured parts at once, so that movement is impossible.
This prevents further injury and any increase in the bleeding which always taken
place at the site of the fracture. It also prevents the broken ends of the bones
from damaging blood-vessels, nerves or muscles or piercing the skin.

Immobilise The Fracture

By the use of handages and/or

By the use of splints.

The application of bandages, using the casualty's body as a means of support,
will prove adequate for normal purposes. The additional support of splints may
be required when there is the possibility of long or difficult transport before
medical aid is available. Splints will also be required in those cases in which the
PMI, NTPC 271
casualty's body cannot be used as a "natural splint," e.g., when both lower limbs
are fractured.

If there is any doubt treat as a fracture and bear in mind that there may be more
than one bone broken.

FRACTURE OF THE SPINE

The spine may be broken either by direct or indirect force. Examples of direct
violence are the fall of a heavy weight across the back, or falling from a height on
the back across a bar, Causing fracture at the side of the impact. Examples of
indirect force are a broken neck which may result from a fall on the head, and
fracture in the lumbar region due to sudden over-flexion or jerking of the spine. A
grave complication of fracture of the spine is injury to the spinal cord or to the
nerves issuing from it. Such injury is caused by pressure from displaced body
fragment or dislocation of vertebrae and results in complete or partial loss of
power (paralysis) and/or sensation in all parts of the body below the side of the
injury.

Fracture of the spine should be suspected in all cases in which there is a history
of accident or injury to the vertebral column with pain and shock, even if there are
no indications of paralysis. All cases of fracture of the spine must be regarded as
serious emergencies and all doubtful cases must be treated as fractures.

Treatment of Cases of Spinal Injury :

Immediately warn the casualty to lie still.

If the casualty is unconscious, ensure that breathing does not become
obstructed by the tongue.

PMI, NTPC 272
If medical aid is readily available :-

- Do not move the casualty, but cover him with a blanket to ensure
warmth and comfort.

- Keep him under careful observation pending the arrival of medical
aid.

If medical aid is not readily available :-

- Place pads between the casualty's ankles, knees and thighs.

- Apply a figure of eight bandage round his ankles and feet, the knot
being tied under the soles of the feet.

- Apply broad bandages round his knees and thighs over the
intervening pads.

- Make preparations for removal to shelter.

In all cases the casualty should be transported in the face upwards (supine),
position. In certain circumstances, e.g. in coal mines, the face downwards
(prone) position may be unavoidable but must not be used in fractures of the
neck. It will assist the First Aider if he appreciates that the dangers resulting from
moving the casualty are reduced to a minimum if the neck and/or trunk are not
bent forwards (flexed), this being the movement which is most likely to damage
the spinal cord.

PMI, NTPC 273
DISLOCATIONS

A "Dislocations" is the displacement of one or more bones at a joint. The joints
most frequently dislocated are those of the shoulder, elbow, thumb, fingers and
lower jaw, the last named resulting sometimes from yawning or a blow on the
chin.

Signs and Symptoms

Pain of a severe sickening character at or near the joint.

Fixity of the joint. The casualty cannot move the joint normally.

Deformity: The limb assumes an unnatural position and appears
mishappen at the joint.

Swelling at the joint may occur.

In many cases it will prove difficulty or even impossible for a First Aider to
distinguish between a dislocation and a fracture. Both may occur at the
same time (Ref. Fig. 12).

PMI, NTPC 274
In certain people, particularly epileptics, recurrent dislocations are common.
These are practically painless, and so are frequently unrecognised. Careful
enquiry into the previous history will assist in making a diagnosis in doubtful
cases.

Treatment
Do not attempt to reduce a dislocation. Obtain medical aid at once.

In the case of limb

- When the accident occurs out of doors, steady and support the limb
and secure it in the most comfortable position using padding in
order to lessen the effects of jolting during transport.

- When the casualty is indoors, place the casualty on a couch or bed
in the most comfortable position. Support the limb with pillows,
cushions, etc.

In the case of the lower jaw

- Remove any dentures. Support the lower jaw by a bandage tied
over the top of the head.

- The necessity for strict immobilisation in treating dislocations
cannot be-4oo strongly stressed.

BURNS AND SCALDS

A Bum is an injury caused by :-

Dry heat, such as fire, a piece of hot metal or the sun.
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Contract with any object charged with a high tension electric current; or by
lighting.

Friction, for example, by contact with a revolving wheel (brush bum) or
fast-moving rope or wire.

Corrosive chemicals :-

* Acids, such a sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric.

* Alkalis, such as caustic soda, caustic potash, strong ammonia or
quicklime.

A "Scald " is an injury caused by moist heat, such a boiling water steam,
improperly applied poultice, hot oil or tar.

Effects

The effects of bum or scald are the same. There may be reddening of the
skin or blister formation or destruction of the skin or destruction of the
deeper tissues.

Pain is very severe.

There is immediate danger from shock which may be severe and made
worse by the intense pain any by loss of plasma into the burnt area, Later
there is danger from septic infection.

The areas of most bums and scalds, including the clothing involved, are to
all intents and proposes sterile for a short period and every effort should
be made to deep them so until medical aid is available. Prepared dry
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sterile dressings should always be used if possible and great care must be
taken in handling and applying them.

The dangers of a bum increase with its surface area (even if it is only
superficial) and if one-third or more of the skin area is involved, the patient
may become dangerously ill. In small children and especially in infants
even small burns should be regarded as serious injuries and medical aid
sought without delay.

When a person's clothing catches fire, approach him holding a rug, blanket, coat
or table cover in front of yourself for protection, wrap it round him, lay him flat and
smother the flames. If a person's clothing catches fire when along, he should roll!
on the floor, smothering the flames with the nearest available wrap and call for
assistance; on no account should be rush into the open air. The use of fire-
guards will prevent many calamities in the home.

General Rules for the Treatment of Bums and Acalds :

Avoid handling the affected are more than is necessary. See that your
hands are as clean as possible by washing them.

Do not apply lotions of any kind. Do not remove burned clothing and do
not break blisters.

Cover the area (including burned clothing) with a prepared dry sterile
dressing if possible, otherwise clean lint, freshly laundered linen or some
similar material may be used.

Bandage firmly except when blisters are present or suspected, in which
case bandage lightly.

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Immobilise the affected area by suitable means.

Treat for Shock.

In a major, case, remove the patient to hospital as quickly as possible.
The casualty will probably require an anaesthetic, so that orally nothing
should be given by the mouth. If medical aid is delayed for at least four
hours, give drinks of water to which salt has been added in the proportion
of half a teaspoon to two tumblers, with the addition of approximately half
a teaspoon of bicarbonate of soda (if available).

In a minor case, give large quantities of warm fluids preferably weak tea
sweetened with sugar.

When the face is burnt.

- Cut from a piece of clean lint, a dressing in the shape of a mask,
with a hole for breathing.

- Maintain in position by a bandage as for fractured jaw

Treatment of Burns Caused by Corrosive Chemicals :

In all cases speed is essential to prevent further damage.

When the corrosive is an acid :-

The roughly flood the part with water.

Bathe the part freely with an alkaline solution, such as two teaspoons (one
dessertspoon) of baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) or washing soda
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(carbonate of soda) in one pint of warm water.

Apply the general rules for the treatment of burns but remove
contaminated clothing as quickly as possible to prevent further injury.
Take reasonable precautions against burning yourself with contaminated
clothing.

When the corrosive is an alkali :-
If the bum is caused by quicklime, brush off any that remains on the part.
Thoroughly flood the part with water.

bath the part freely with a weak acid solution, such as vinegar or lemon
juice diluted with an equal quantity of warm water.

Apply the general rules for the treatment of burns, but remove any
contaminated clothing immediately taking reasonable precautions.

UNCONSCIOUSNESS

Common Causes of Unconsciousness

Shock

Asphyxia

Poisoning

Head injury associated with injury to the brain causing concussion or
compression.

Apoplexy
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Epilepsy

Hysteria

Infantile convulsions

Effects of excessive heat

Diabetes, and Insulin overdose.

Fainting

Heart attacks

Less Common Causes of Unconsciousness

These include a large number of Medical and Surgical diseases such as
inflammation of the brain, etc. The diagnosis of these is beyond the scope
of the First Aider but intelligent application of the "General Rules for the
Treatment of an unconscious person" will enable him to render first aid in
all cases.

In some causes of unconsciousness convulsions are present. These are
spasmodic and involuntary contractions of the muscles of the body and
limbs. They may be general, affecting the whole of the body or they may
be limited to the limbs or one side of the body a convulsion is commonly
known as fit.

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General Rules for Treatment of an Unconscious Person :

Ensure an abundant supply of fresh air and that the air passages are not
obstructed.

Remove from harmful gases or impure atmosphere. Open windows
and doors.

Keep back crowds.

Remove false teeth.

If breathing has stopped or appears to be failing turn the casualty in the
prone position and commence artificial respiration.

If breathing is not noisy lay the casualty on his back with the head and
shoulders slightly raised and supported, and turn the head to one side. Be
prepared to modify the position if breathing becomes difficult or
obstructed.

If breathing is noisy (bubbling through secretions) turn the casualty into
the three-quarter prone position.

Support him in this position with a pad in front of the chest or draw
up the upper knee.

If the casualty is on a stretcher, raise the foot of the stretcher to
help to drain secretions from the lungs.

Undo all tight clothing about the neck, chest and waist.
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Apply the special treatment for the condition that has caused the
unconsciousness.
Wrap in a blanket but do not apply heat.
Do not leave the casualty until he has been placed in the charge of a
responsible person. Keep a continuous and careful watch for any change
in his condition.
Do not attempt to give food or fluids, while the casualty is unconscious.
Remove him to shelter - as a stretcher case as soon as possible.
When the returns to consciousness moisten the lips with water. Unless an
abdominal injury is suspected, sips of water may be given if he complains
of thirst.