KARTIKA MOHAN

Defence Research and Development Organisation

Emblem of DRDO

DRDO Bhawan, New Delhi, The Headquarters of DRDO The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is an agenc of de!elo"ment of technolog for use b the militar , headquartered in New Delhi, #ndia$ #t was formed in %&'( b the merger of the Technical De!elo"ment Establishment and the Directorate of Technical De!elo"ment and )roduction with the Defence *cience Organisation$ #t has a networ+ of ', laboratories which are engaged in de!elo"ing defence technologies co!ering !arious fields, li+e aeronautics, armaments, electronic and com"uter sciences, human resource de!elo"ment, life sciences, materials, missiles, combat !ehicles de!elo"ment and na!al research and de!elo"ment$ The organi-ation

includes more than ',... scientists and about ,',... other scientific, technical and su""orting "ersonnel$

Histor

%.'mm light field gun "rotot "e

Defence Research and De!elo"ment Organisation (DRDO) was established in %&'( b amalgamating the Defence *cience Organisation and some of the technical de!elo"ment establishments$ / se"arate De"artment of Defence Research and De!elo"ment was formed in %&(. which later on administered DRDO and its '. laboratories0establishments$ 1ost of the time the Defence Research De!elo"ment Organisation was treated as if it was a !endor and the /rm Headquarters or the /ir Headquarters were the customers$ #f the could get a 1i2 ,% from the world mar+et, the wanted a 1i2 ,% from DRDO$345 DRDO started its first ma6or "ro6ect in surface7to7air missiles (*/1) +nown as )ro6ect #ndigo in %&8.s$ #ndigo was discontinued in later ears without achie!ing full success$ )ro6ect #ndigo led to )ro6ect De!il, along with )ro6ect 9aliant, to de!elo" short7 range */1 and #:B1 in the %&;.s$ )ro6ect De!il itself led to the later de!elo"ment of the )rith!i missile under the #ntegrated 2uided 1issile De!elo"ment )rogram (#21D)) in the %&(.s$ #21D) was an #ndian 1inistr of Defence "rogram between the earl %&(.s and ,..; for the de!elo"ment of a com"rehensi!e range of missiles, including the /gni missile, )rith!i ballistic missile, /+ash missile, Trishul missile and Nag 1issile$ #n ,.%., then defence minister /$<$ /nton ordered the restructing of the Defence Research and
3

De!elo"ment Organisation (DRDO) to gi!e =a ma6or boost to defence research in the countr and to ensure effecti!e "artici"ation of the "ri!ate sector in defence technolog =$ )ro6ects

Aeronautics The DRDO is res"onsible for the ongoing >ight :ombat /ircraft$ The >:/ is intended to "ro!ide the #ndian /ir ?orce with a modern, fl b wire, multi7role fighter, as well as de!elo" the a!iation industr in #ndia$ The >:/ "rogram has allowed DRDO to "rogress substantiall in the fields of a!ionics, flight control s stems, aircraft "ro"ulsion and com"osite structures, along with aircraft design and de!elo"ment$ The DRDO "ro!ided +e a!ionics for the *u+hoi *u74.1<# "rogram under the @9etri!el@ "rogram$ * stems de!elo"ed b DRDO include radar warning recei!ers, radar and dis"la com"uters$ DRDO=s radar com"uters, manufactured b H/> are also being fitted into 1ala sian *u74.s$ The DRDO is "art of the #ndian /ir ?orce=s u"grade "rograms for its 1i27,; and *e"ecat Aaguar combat aircraft, along with the manufacturer Hindustan /eronautics >imited$ DRDO contributed subs stems li+e the Tarang radar warning recei!er, Tem"est 6ammer, core a!ionics com"uters, bra+e "arachutes, coc+"it instrumentation and dis"la s$

Avionics

The DRDO=s a!ionics "rogram has been a success stor with its mission com"uters, radar warning recei!ers, high accurac direction finding "ods, airborne 6ammers and flight instrumentation in use across a wide !ariet of #ndian /ir ?orce aircraft$ The organi-ation began de!elo"ing these !arious items for its u"grades, and for the >:/ "ro6ect$ 9ariants were then de!elo"ed for other aircraft$ The lead designer in se!eral of these efforts has been D/RE, or the Defence /!ionics Research Establishment, DRDO=s designated mission a!ionics laborator $ Other laboratories ha!e also chi""ed in, from the radar s"ecialist >RDE, to electronic warfare focused DE/> to the /DE, which de!elo"s B/9s and flight control s stems$

>:/ uses DRDO7 de!elo"ed a!ionics

The DRDO is also co7de!elo"ing more ad!anced a!ionics for the >ight :ombat /ircraft and the #/?=s combat fleet$ These include a range of "owerful O"en /rchitecture com"uters, better defensi!e a!ionics including modern RCR=s, self7"rotection 6ammers, missile a""roach warning s stems and integrated defensi!e suites, o"tronics s stems and na!igational s stems such as Ring >aser 2 ro based #nertial na!igational s stems$ Unmanned aerial vehicles

The DRDO has also de!elo"ed two unmanned aerial !ehicles7 the Nishant (Midnight) tactical B/9 and the >a+sh a (Target) )ilotless Target /ircraft ()T/)$

The DRDO is also going ahead with its "lans to de!elo" a new class of B/9s$
5

Armaments DRDO often coo"erates with the state owned Ordnance ?actories Board for "roducing its items$ #t also hel"s #ndian /rmed forces b manufacturing *mall /rms, 1issile "ro6ects and tactical roc+et s stem$ ?or the #ndian /ir ?orce, DRDO has de!elo"ed Retarder Tail Bnits and fu-e s stems for the D'. +g bomb used b stri+e aircraft, 8( mm @/rrow@ roc+ets (HE, )ractice and HE/T) for roc+et "ods used in air to ground and e!en air to air (if need be), a D'. +g high s"eed low drag (H*>D) bomb and "ractice bombs ?or the #ndian /ir ?orce, DRDO has de!elo"ed Retarder Tail Bnits and fu-e s stems for the D'. +g bomb used b stri+e aircraft, 8( mm @/rrow@ roc+ets (HE, )ractice and HE/T) for roc+et "ods used in air to ground and e!en air to air (if need be), a D'. +g high s"eed low drag (H*>D) bomb and "ractice bombs$

DRDO Laboratories %$ /DE ,$ /DRDE 4$ :/B* D$ :E1#>/: '$ D/RE 8$ 2TRE %$ /RDE ,$ :?EE* 4$ HE1R> D$ )EE '$ TBR>

Aeronautics

Armaments Combat vehicles and engineering

%$ :9RDE ,$ #RDE 4$ RFDE D */*E '$ 9RDE

%$ DE*#DO: ,$ /NBR/2 4$ :/#R D$ DE/> '$ D>R> Electronics and computing 6. DTRL ;$ >/*TE: */2 %%$ **)> ($ >RDE &$ 1TRD: %.$

Life sciences

%$ D/R> ,$ DEBE> 4$ D?R> D$ D#)R '$ D#)/* 8$ DRDE ;$ DR> ($ ?R> &$ #N1/* %$ D>A ,$ D1R> 4$ D1*RDE %$ DRD> ,$ #**/ 4$ #TR D$ R:# %$ N)O> ,$ N*T> 4$ N1R>

aterials R!D issiles "aval R!D icro electronics and devices# ED$ Others

%$ DE*#DO: ,$ /NBR/2 4$ 1TRD: D$ **)>

%$ D#/T ,$ #T1

Defence Terrain Research Laborator%

Defence Terrain Research >aborator (DTR>) is a laboratot of the Defence Research and De!elo"ment Organisation (DRDO)$ #t was established in %&8D and is located in Delhi$ #ts "rimar function is research and de!lo"ement of techniques to e!aluate terrains and assess mobilit "otential of inaccessible areas$ The Defence Terrain Research >aborator focuses on "ro!iding state7of7the7art terrain intelligence to the armed forces$ &istor% The DTR>=s origin dates bac+ to %&8D when a Terrain E!aluation :ell (TE:) was set u" as a unit of the DRDO$ The cell=s ob6ecti!es were to de!elo" techniques needed for e!aluating terrain and assessing the mobilit "otential in inaccessible areas$ #t became a full7fledged laborator in %&(%, and was renamed the Defence Terrain Research >aborator

Charter of duties
%$ To de!elo" a reliable s stem for "rediction of terrain characteristics and deri!ation of militar "otential of !arious t "es of terrains based on modern techniques of terrain e!aluation$ ,$ To de!elo" infrastructure, com"etence and instrumentation in the latest techniques related to terrain research$ 4$ To e!ol!e terrain data storage and retrie!al s stem for use b Defence *er!ices$ D$ To interact with the *er!ices F other agencies including Bni!ersities for basic and a""lied as"ects of terrain research$ '$ To de!elo" methods for automatic feature eGtraction from remotel sensed data$
9

8$ To "ro"agate the techniques of terrain e!aluation in Defence *er!ices and conduct training in this field$

Vision
To become a technological leader in "roducing high resolution terrain intelligence "roducts for defence a""lications$

Mission
De!elo" eG"ertise and technologies for terrain database management$ :reate and u"date thematic ma"s and terrain intelligence re"orts for the users$

10

TRA''(CA)(L(T* ! CO +AR(,O" O'

(L(TAR* -E&(CLE,.

2enerall s"ea+ing, trafficabilit is the ca"acit of soils to su""ort militar !ehicles$ The following "oints are to be +e"t in mind while e!aluating the traffic abilit of militar !ehicles$ % , O"erating and maintaining the soil7trafficabilit test set$ 1easuring trafficabilit with the results of the tests "erformed b the cone "enetrometer and remolding equi"ment$ 4$ 1a+ing trafficabilit estimates from terrain data (to"ogra"h and soil data) and weather conditions$ Engineers must be cautious as the calculated results can !ar b ,.H or more from changes in tire "ressure and deflection$ The trafficabilit of fine7grained soils (silts and cla s) and sands that contain enough fine7grained material to beha!e li+e fine7grained soils when wet is more difficult to assess than trafficabilit in coarse7grained soils (clean sands)$ Relationshi"s that describe the soil7!ehicle interactions are based on soil shearing7resistance measurements made with the cone "enetrometer and corrected for soil remolding under !ehicle traffic b the remolding indeG (R#) "rocedures$ Toda most relations are used for one "ass and the combined effects on !ehicle "erformance of terrain features such as soil, !egetation, and slo"e can onl accuratel be determined through the use of the com"uteri-ed /rm mobilit "rediction s stem contained in the N/TO Reference 1obilit 1odel (NR11)$ The engineering relationshi"s which "roduce !ehicle s"eed "redictions or 2O0NO 2O "erformance based on measured terrain and !ehicle characteristics are contained in the NR11 )A,(C TRA''(CA)(L(T* 'ACTOR, The following factors im"act soil trafficabilit I ,O(L ,TRE".T& Bearing and traction ca"acities of soils are functions of their shearing resistance$ *hearing resistance is measured b the cone "enetrometer and is eG"ressed in terms of cone indeG (:#)$ Because the strength of fine7grained soils (silts and cla s) ma increase or decrease when loaded
11

or disturbed, remolding tests are necessar to measure an loss of soil strength eG"ected after traffic$ The fine7grained soil :# multi"lied b the R# "roduces the rating cone indeG (R:#) used to denote soil strength corrected for remolding$ / com"arison of the R:# with the !ehicle cone indeG (9:#) indicates whether the !ehicle can negotiate the gi!en soil condition for a gi!en number of "asses$ ?or eGam"le, if a soil has a :# of %,. and an R# of .$8. in its critical la er, the soil strength ma be eG"ected to fall to %,. times .$8., or an R:# of ;,, under traffic$ Therefore, such soil is not trafficable for !ehicles with 9:# % is greater than ;, ,T(C/("E,, *tic+iness ma seriousl ham"er !ehicles o"erating in wet, fine7grained soil$ Bnder eGtreme conditions, stic+ soil can accumulate in a !ehicle=s running gears, ma+ing tra!el and steering difficult$ ,L(++ER("E,, EGcess water or a la er of soft, "lastic soil of low >> o!erl ing a firm la er of soil can "roduce a sli""er surface$ *uch a condition ma ma+e steering difficult or ma immobili-e rubber7tired !ehicles$ 9egetation, es"eciall when wet and on a slo"e, ma cause immobili-ation of rubber7 tired !ehicles$ -AR(AT(O" O' TRA''(CA)(L(T* 0(T& 0EAT&ER Ceather changes "roduce changes in soil trafficabilit $ ?ine7grained soils increase in moisture during rain "eriods$ This results in sli""eriness, stic+iness, and decreased strength$ Dr "eriods "roduce the o""osite effects$ >oose sands im"ro!e trafficabilit through an increase in cohesion during rain "eriods and return to the loose, less trafficable state during dr "eriods$ The absence of snow allows frost to "enetrate more dee"l into the soil$ Techniques ha!e been de!elo"ed for "redicting the effects of weather on soil trafficabilit $ These techniques are "art of the com"rehensi!e NR11 and are not included in this "ublication$ CR(T(CAL LA*ER The critical la er is the la er in the soil that su""orts the weight of the !ehicle in question$ The critical la er=s de"th !aries with the soil t "e, the soil=s strength "rofile, the !ehicle t "e and weight, and the number of
12

"asses required$ Table ;7% summari-es these !ariations for common militar !ehicles$

(",TRU E"T, A"D TE,T, 'OR TRA''(CA)(L(T* Trafficabilit measurements are made with the soil7trafficabilit test set$ This set consists of one can!as carr ing case, one cone "enetrometer with 40(7inch steel and '0(7inch aluminum shafts and a .$'7square7inch cone, one soil sam"ler, remolding equi"ment (which includes a 40(7inch steel shaft and a .$,7square7inch cone, a '0(7inch steel shaft with foot and handle, a , J7"ound hammer, a c linder and base with "in), and a bag of hand tools$ The items are shown in ?igure ;7% in their "ro"er "laces in the carr ing case$ The set is carried on the bac+ as shown in ?igure ;7,$ The com"lete set weighs %& "ounds$

13

The "rimar instrument of the soil7trafficabilit test set is the cone "enetrometer$ #t is shown in ?igures ;74 and ;7D and ?igure ;7'$ #t is used to determine the shearing strength of low7strength soils$ There is also a d namic cone "enetrometer, but this instrument is used to determine shear strength of high7strength soils such as those found in the base courses of roads and airfields$

14

The amount of force required to mo!e the cone slowl through a gi!en "lane is indicated on the dial inside the ring$ This force is an indeG of the soil=s shearing resistance and is called the soil=s :# in that "lane$ The dial=s range is . to 4.. "ounds "er square inch EA,UR(". TRA''(CA)(L(T* Chene!er reconnaissance "arties ha!e time to ta+e trafficabilit measurements, the should obtain data to determine the number and t "e of !ehicles that can cross the area and the slo"es the can climb$ RA".E O' CO"E ("DE1E, / :# ranging between %. and 4.. in the critical la er is required to su""ort most militar !ehicles$ EGce"t for a few !ehicles, a :# below %. is considered to be a nontrafficable area and a :# abo!e 4.. is considered trafficable to all but a few !ehicles for '. "asses$ These limits usuall ma+e it "ossible, while gathering data for trafficabilit e!aluation, to
15

classif large areas as abo!e or below the critical range without eGtensi!e testing$ "U )ER O' EA,URE E"T,

The number of measurements ta+en is determined b the time a!ailable, the 6udgment of the range of soil strengths, and the general uniformit of the area$ Trafficabilit 7measuring instruments are designed for ra"id obser!ations$ The accurac of the a!erage of an series of readings increases with the number ta+en$ 9ariations in soft soils require that at least %' readings be ta+en to establish a true a!erage :# at an s"ot at a gi!en de"th$ The %' readings should be distributed throughout a uniform area$

16

The numbers in the numerator are the indi!idual readings$ The number in the denominator re"resents the number of tests conducted$ The resulting quotient is the a!erage :# for that de"th$ /fter all indi!idual readings are added together, the are a!eraged with the reading abo!e and below to obtain the a!erage :# for that la er$ #n the case of the .7 to 87inch la er, the 88 and ;% are added and then a!eraged (8()$ The 8( is the :# for the .7 to 87inch la er$ Readings are then a!eraged for the 87 to %,7inch la er and so on$

,TRE".T& +RO'(LE
"ormal ,trength +rofile in 'ine2.rained soils and Remouldable ,ands

#n a soil with a normal strength "rofile, the :# readings either increase or remain constant with each increment of de"th$ :#s should be measured at 87inch increments down to %( inches in the earl stages of area reconnaissance$ #f these measurements consistentl re!eal that the "rofile is normal, onl readings in the critical la er need to be recorded$ ?or a trac+ed !ehicle weighing less than %..$... "ounds, such as the 1%%4/4 armored "ersonnel carrier (/):), readings are recorded for the 87 and %,7inch de"ths$
Abnormal ,trength +rofile in 'ine2.rained ,oils and Remoldable ,ands

/n abnormal strength "rofile has at least one :# reading that is lower than the reading immediatel "receding it Chen an abnormal strength "rofile eGists, :# readings should be made and recorded at 87inch increments from the to" of the normal critical la er (87inch de"th for the 1%%4/4 /):) to 8 inches below the bottom of the normal critical la er (%( inches for the 1%%4/4 /):)$
,trength +rofile in Coarse2.rained ,oils

The critical la er for most !ehicles in coarse7grained soils is the .7 to 87 inch la er$ 1ost coarse7grained soils ha!e a normal strength "rofile with
17

a large increase in strength with de"th when com"ared to fine7grained soils$ ?or this reason, :# measurements should be ta+en at 47inch increments to %( inches or until the maGimum ca"acit (4.. :#) of the "enetrometer has been reached$
RAT(". CO"E ("DE1

The R:# is the :# that will result under traffic$ This !alue is com"ared to the 9:# to determine the trafficabilit of the area for a s"ecific !ehicle$ To estimate how man !ehicles will cross an area when the R:# is less than the 9:#'. or to see what the 9:# for less than '. !ehicles will be, use the following formulaI 9:#'. 7 9:#% K 9:# will gi!e an increment for one !ehicle that, when added to the will gi!e the 9:# for an amount of !ehicles u" to '.$
OT&ER TRA''(CA)(L(T* E-ALUAT(O" 'ACTOR,

#n addition to the :# of an area, consider the factors that follow when e!aluating trafficabilit $ ,lope The stee"est slo"e, or ruling grade, that must be negotiated should be determined b stud ing a contour ma"$ ?or tra!el o!er slo"es, the :# requirements must be increased o!er those required for le!el terrain$ ,tic3iness *tic+iness occurs in all fine7grained soils when the are wet$ The greater the "lasticit of the soil, the more se!ere the effects of stic+iness$ *tic+iness ad!ersel affects the s"eed and control of all !ehicles but will not cause immobili-ation eGce"t for the smallest trac+ed !ehicles$ ,lipperiness >i+e stic+iness, the effects of sli""eriness cannot be measured$ *oils that are co!ered with water or a la er of soft, "lastic soil usuall are sli""er and often cause steering difficult , es"eciall in rubber7tired !ehicles$
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#mmobili-ation can occur when sli""eriness is associated with low7 bearing ca"acit $

-egetation The effects of !egetation on trafficabilit are not within the sco"e of this manual, but some "oints are worth of mention$ Dense grass, es"eciall if wet, ma "ro!ide sli""er conditions$ Organic2,oil Areas 1uch of the terrain in northern latitudes is blan+eted with a la er of organic material com"osed of roots, mosses, and other !egetation in !arious stages of decom"osition$ >imited testing with militar !ehicles re!eals that low7ground7"ressure, trac+ed !ehicles, such as the 1&;4 small7unit su""ort !ehicle (*B*9), can tra!el '. "asses o!er organic mats that are more than 8 inches thic+$ Other Obstacles / com"lete assessment of the traffic abilit of a gi!en area must include an e!aluation of obstacles such as forests, ri!ers, boulder fields, ditches, and hedgerows$ EGact effects of such obstacles on the "erformance of !ehicles are determined b the com"rehensi!e NR11 but are not within the sco"e of this manual$
,EL'2+RO+ELLED4 TRAC/ED -E&(CLE, A"D ALL20&EEL2DR(-E -E&(CLE, "E.OT(AT(". ,LO+E,

The maGimum slo"e negotiable and the maGimum towing force or gross !ehicle weight for the R:# are essentiall equal$ Therefore, when the R:# is +nown, the maGimum slo"e negotiable b a gi!en !ehicle for '. "asses (or b '. similar !ehicles in straight7line formation) can be estimated from ?igure ;7;$

19

Bsing ?igure ;7;, the maGimum slo"e equals '. "ercent$ The maGimum slo"e the 1%/% can negotiate under the gi!en conditions is '. "ercent$
,elf2+ropelled4 Trac3ed -ehicles and All20heel2Drive -ehicles Up ,lopes

The maGimum slo"e negotiable and the maGimum towing force (as a "ercentage of gross !ehicle weight) for the same R:# G are essentiall equal$ Therefore, when the R:# is +nown, the maGimum slo"e negotiable b a gi!en !ehicle for one "ass in a straight line u" a slo"e can be determined b using the information in ?igure ;7($

20

Bsing ?igure ;7(, at R:#G K 8., the maGimum slo"e K 84 "ercent$ Bnder the stated conditions, the maGimum slo"e the 1%/l tan+ can negotiate is 84 "ercent$ #n ?igure ;7(, at R:#G K ;, the maGimum slo"e K ,% "ercent$ Bnder the stated conditions, the 1&,4 truc+ can climb a slo"e less than or equal to ,% "ercent$ +ER'OR A"CE CATE.OR(E, 1ilitar !ehicles can be di!ided into se!en arbitrar categories according to the minimum :# requirements (9:# % and 9:#'.)$ The range of 9:#%s and 9:#'.s for each categor (eGce"tions are numerous) are shown in Table ;74$

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TRAC/ED -E&(CLE, O" LE-EL TERRA("

/s a general rule, trac+ed !ehicles are able to tra!el on all le!el, coarse7 grained soils regardless of soil strength$ )erformance "redictions in the NR11 are made for two categories of trac+ed !ehiclesL fleGible, found on most militar !ehicles, or girderi-ed, found on most bulldo-er7t "e !ehicles$ CALCULAT(O", O' -E&(CLE CO"E ("DE1 :alculation of a coarse7grained 9:# for a !ehicle configuration is considered be ond the sco"e of this manual$ These "redictions are made using the com"rehensi!e NR11$ #n general, wheeled !ehicles o"erating in sands should use the lowest tire "ressures "ossible and all7wheel7dri!e for maGimum off7road "erformance$ TRA''(CA)(L(T* DATA The ob6ecti!e of ma""ing trafficabilit data is to "ro!ide commanding officers with an estimate of an area=s trafficabilit "rior to actual o"eration$ The estimate consists of "lacing s mbols that describe the trafficabilit of
22

a small area at strategic "oints on eGisting ma"s as shown in ?igure ;7%,$ The ma"s "roduced b the techniques described in the following "aragra"hs are elementar com"ared with the com"licated and com"rehensi!e ma"s now in "roduction for use with the NR11$

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E,T( AT(". Trafficabilit can be estimated if weather conditions, soils, and area to"ogra"h are generall +nown$ Ceather and climatic information usuall are a!ailable, e!en for remote areas, from meteorological records, climatolog teGtboo+s, or "ersonnel interrogation 0eather Conditions ?or estimating trafficabilit , consider onl two conditions77the @dr season@ and the @wet season$@
Dr% ,eason$ / dr

general

weather

season is defined as a time when climatic and !egetation factors combine to "roduce, in general, low soil moistures$ During the dr season, fine7grained soils and remoldable sands of an t "e usuall are trafficable and, in general, are of higher trafficabilit than dr , coarse7grained soils
0et ,eason$ / wet season is defined as a time in which weather

conditions combine to "roduce high soil moistures$ /dding moisture to a soil affects the strength of that soilL the effect differs with soil t "es$ TRA''(CA)(L(T* A+,

/ wide !ariet of mobilit 7related "roducts can be obtained from com"uteri-ed mobilit models such as the NR11 or :/11*$ #n"ut terrain data includes land useI terrain slo"eL obstaclesL soil t "esL !egetation t "e, densit , and s"acingL surface geometr L linear and h drologic feature dataL and road and trail data$ This data is used b the models with in"ut !ehicle data to ma+e s"eed or 2O0NO 2O "redictions for each indi!idual terrain unit (on a quad sheet) formed b the com"leG inter"la of the in"ut !ariables$

24

25

26

?igure ;7%D is a dis"la of "otential landing -ones from :/11* for the same areas as in ?igure ;7%4$ The "otential landing7-one ma" indicates "rimaril unfa!orable landing7-one sites, with fa!orable sites located in the northwest third and southeast corner of the quad$ This dis"la hel"s guide the user to the most suitable sites for landing7-one construction$ ?igure ;7%', is a dis"la of B*:* soil7t "e descri"tions from :/11* for the same area as in ?igures ;7%4 and ;7%D$ This dis"la indicates the localit of soil t "es that ma be useful in scouting for construction materials or sites more suitable for road and airfield construction$ A"UALL* A++(". ,O(L CO"D(T(O", A"D TRA''(CA)(L(T*

/lthough ma""ing soil conditions and trafficabilit through manual means is rarel done since the de!elo"ment of com"uteri-ed mobilit models, it is im"ortant that the "rocedure be "resented should the need e!er arise$

27

The tan+s can negotiate the 4.7"ercent slo"e in single file (a!ailable R:# of (. is greater than the required R:# of 84)$ /ll truc+s cannot negotiate the slo"e in single file (a!ailable R:# of (. is less than the required R:# of ((), but the can fan out and negotiate the slo"e on a one7"ass basis (a!ailable R:# of (. is greater than the required R:# of D%)$ The conclusion is that all !ehicles could tra!el from E to M through areas %, ', and 8, res"ecti!el , "ro!ided caution is used with the truc+s$ This route is shown as a dashed line$ This eGam"le indicates the usefulness of ma""ed trafficabilit "lanning o"erational eGercises$ ,O(L2TRA''(CA)(L(T* CLA,,('(CAT(O" *oil classification of a s"ecific area can be accom"lished ra"idl for seasonal (high7moisture) conditions when the soil has been classified in terms of the B*:*, the to"ogra"h (high or low) has been identified, and the 9:# for !ehicle categor has been determined $ '("E2.RA("ED ,O(L, The trafficabilit classification of fine7grained soils is shown in Table ;7($ data in

28

9ehicles with a 9:#'. or 9:#% equal to or greater than (D will ha!e a less than '. "ercent "robabilit of tra!ersing the area$ 9ehicles with a 9:#'. or 9:#% equal to or greater than '8, but less than (D, will ha!e a "robabilit equal to or greater than '. "ercent, but less than ' "ercent, of tra!ersing the area$

29

9ehicles with a 9:#'. or 9:#% equal to or greater than %(, but less than '8, will ha!e a "robabilit equal to or greater than ;' "ercent, but less than &. "ercent, of tra!ersing the area$ 9ehicles with a or 9:#'. or 9:#% less than %( will ha!e a "robabilit equal to or greater than &. "ercent, but no more than %.. "ercent, of tra!ersing the area$

COAR,E2.RA("ED ,O(L, The trafficabilit classification of coarse7grained soils can be obtained from ?igure ;7%8$ The classification inter"retation is the same as for the trafficabilit of fine7grained soils from Table ;7($ To use ?igure ;7%8, identif onl the coarse7grained soils (location and origin) and determine the 9:#s from the equation "resented earlier in this cha"ter$ ?igure ;7%8 a""lies to wheeled !ehicles onl $ The effect of the strength of coarse7 grained soils on trac+ed7!ehicle "erformance is negligible$

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31

T&EOR* O' .ROU"D -E&(CLE, echanics of -ehicle 5 Terrain interaction Terramechanics (ntroduction 6
Chile trans"orting "assengers and goods b !ehicles on "a!ed roads constitutes a significant "art of the o!erall trans"ortation acti!ities in a modem societ , a wide range of human endea!ors in such fields as agriculture, logging, construction, mining, eG"loration, recreation, and militar o"erations still in!ol!es locomotion o!er un"re"ared terrain using s"eciali-ed off7road !ehicles$ * stematic studies of the "rinci"les underl ing the rational de!elo"ment and design of off7road !ehicles, therefore, ha!e attracted considerable interest, "articularl since Corld Car ##$ %$ The stud of the "erformance of an off7road !ehicle in relation to its o"erating en!ironment (the terrain) has now become +nown as @terramechanics@ ,$ #n off7road o"erations, !arious t "es of terrain with differing beha!ior, ranging from desert sand through soft mud to fresh snow, ma be encountered$ The "ro"erties of the terrain quite often im"ose se!ere limitations to the mobilit of off7road !ehicles$ /n adequate +nowledge of the mechanical "ro"erties of the terrain and its res"onse to !ehicular loading7terramechanicsis, therefore, essential to the "ro"er de!elo"ment and design of off7road !ehicles for a gi!en mission and en!ironment$ 4$ On a gi!en terrain, the "erformance of an off7road !ehicle is, to a great eGtent, de"endent u"on the manner in which the !ehicle interacts with the terrain$ :onsequentl , an understanding of the mechanics of !ehicle7terrain interaction is of im"ortance to the "ro"er selection of !ehicle configuration and design "arameters to meet s"ecific o"erational requirements$ / central issue in terramechanics is
32

to establish a quantitati!e relationshi" between the "erformance and design of an off7road !ehicle for a gi!en o"erating en!ironment$ O!er the ears, a !ariet of methods, ranging from em"irical to theoretical, for "redicting the "erformance of trac+ed and wheeled !ehicles o!er un"re"ared terrain ha!e been de!elo"ed or "ro"osed$ D(,TR()UT(O" O' ,TRE,,E, (" T&E TERRA(" U"DER -E&(CULAR LOAD, :ertain t "es of terrain, such as saturated cla and com"act sand, which co!er "art of the trafficable earth surface, ma be com"ared to an ideal elasto"lastic material with the stress7strain relationshi" shown in I

or

Chen the stress le!el in the terrain does not eGceed a certain limit, such as that denoted b "a", the terrain ma eGhibit elastic beha!ior$ The ideali-ation of the terrain as an elastic medium has found a""lications in the "rediction of stress distribution in the soil, in connection with the stud of soil com"action due to !ehicular loads The "rediction of stress distribution in an elastic medium sub6ect to an s"ecific load ma be based on the anal sis of the distribution of stresses under a "oint load$ The method for calculating the stress distribution in a semi7infinite, homogeneous, isotro"ic, elastic medium sub6ect to a !ertical
33

"oint load a""lied on the surface was first de!elo"ed b Boussinesq$ His solutions gi!e the following eG"ressions for the !ertical stress uz at a "oint in the elastic medium defined b the coordinates shown in ?ig$ ,$,I

Chen "olar coordinates are used, the radial stress a4 (?ig$ ,$,) is gi!en b

#t is interesting to note that the stresses are inde"endent of the modulus of elasticit of the material, and that the are onl functions of the load a""lied and the distance from the "oint of a""lication of the load$

/nother case of interest from the !ehicle !iew"oint is the distribution of stresses in the elastic medium under the action of a stri" load (?ig$ 2.4). *uch a stri" load ma be considered as an ideali-ation of that a""lied b a trac+ed !ehicle$ #t can be shown that the stresses in an elastic medium due to a uniform "ressure p, a""lied o!er a stri" of infinite length and of constant width b (?ig$ ,$') can be com"uted b the following equations$
34

The "oints in the medium that eG"erience the same le!el of stress form a famil of isostress surfaces commonl +nown as "ressure bulbs$ The generalcharacteristics of the bulbs of !ertical "ressure under a uniform stri" load are illustrated$

Fig. 2.4 Distribution of vertical stresses in a semi-infinite elastic medium under a tracked

vehicle

There is a tendenc for the com"ressi!e stress in the soil to concentrate around the loading aGis$ This tendenc becomes greater when the soil becomes more "lastic due to increased moisture content or when the soil is less cohesi!e, such as sand$ #n !iew of this, !arious semi7em"irical equations ha!e been de!elo"ed to account for the different beha!ior of !arious t "es of soil$ ?rohlich introduced a concentration factor v to Boussinesq=s equations$

35

The factor ! reflects the beha!ior of !arious t "es of soil in different conditions$ #ntroducing the concentration factor, the eG"ressions for the !ertical and radial stress in the soil sub6ect to a "oint load on the surface ta+e the following formsI

The !alue of the concentration factor de"ends on the t "e of soil and its moisture content / tire transfers its load to the soil surface usuall not at one "oint, but through a finite area of contact$ To determine the stress distribution in the soil due to tire loading, the actual si-e of the contact area and the "ressure distribution o!er the contact "atch must be +nown$ ?igure ,$; shows the measured contact areas of a tire under different soil conditions [2.5]. The rut becomes dee"er with increasing "orosit and moisture content of the soil$ /n a""roGimatel uniform "ressure o!er the entire contact area ma be assumed for tires without lugs in hard, dr soil$ #n soft soils, the "ressure o!er the contact area !aries with the de"th of the rut$ Bsuall , the contact "ressure decreases towards the outside of the contact area, and is more concentrated towards the center of the loading area$ Re"resentati!e "ressure distributions o!er the contact area in hard, dr soil, in fairl moist, relati!el dense soil, and in wet soil are shown in ?ig$ ,$((a), (b), and (c), res"ecti!el

36

<nowing the sha"e of the contact area and "ressure distribution o!er the contact "atch, it is "ossible to "redict the distribution of stresses in a soil b em"lo ing Eq$ ,$( or ,$&, as "ro"osed b ?rohlich

?igure ,$& shows the distributions of the ma6or "rinci"al stress in a soil ha!ing normal field densit and moisture under tires of different si-es and carr ing different normal loads, but with the same inflation "ressure 3,$'5$ #n the calculations, it is assumed that the concentration factor v is ', and that the "ressure distribution o!er the contact area is similar to that shown in ?ig$ ,$((b)$ #t shows that for the same inflation "ressure, the stress can "enetrate much tlae"er with larger tires carr ing higher loads$ This is because the larger tire has a larger contact area$ /s a result, the stress at the same de"th beneath the center of the contact "atch increases as indicated b Eq$ ,$D, although the "ressure a""lied on the soil surface

37

remains the same$ This indicates that the stress distribution in a soil is a function of not onl contact "ressure, but ,also contact area$

A++L(CAT(O", O' T&E T&EOR* O' +LA,T(C E7U(L()R(U EC&A"(C, O' -E&(CLE2TERRA(" ("TERACT(O"

TO T&E

Chen the !ehicular load a""lied to the terrain surface eGceeds a certain limit, the stress le!el within a certain boundar of the terrain ma reach that denoted b @a@ on the ideali-ed stress7strain cur!e shown in ?ig$ ,$%$ /n infinitel small increase of stress be ond "oint @a;= "roduces a ra"id increase of strain, which constitutes "lastic flow$ The state that "recedes "lastic flow is usuall referred to as "lastic equilibrium$ The transition from the state of "lastic equilibrium to that of "lastic flow re"resents the failure of the mass$ There are a number of criteria "ro"osed for the failure of soils and other similar materials$ One of the widel used and the sim"lest criterion is that due to 1ohr7:oulomb$ #t "ostulates that the material at a "oint will fail if the shear stress at that "oint in the medium satisfies the following conditionI

where r is the shear strength of the material, c is the a""arent cohesion of the material, a is the normal stress on the sheared surface, and C8 is the angle of internal shearing resistance of the material$ :ohesion of the material is the bond that cements "articles together irres"ecti!e of the normal "ressure eGerted b one "article u"on the other$ On the other hand, "articles of frictional masses can be held together onl when a normal "ressure eGists between them$ Thus, theoreticall , the shear strength of saturated cla and the li+e does not de"end on the

38

normal load, whereas the shear strength of dr sand increases with an increase of the normal load$ ?or dr sand, therefore, the shear strength ma be eG"ressed b

and for saturated cla and the li+e, it ma ta+e the form

2ranular masses that co!er most of the trafficable earth surface, howe!er, usuall ha!e both cohesi!e and frictional "ro"erties$ The meaning of the 1ohr7:oulomb criterion ma be illustrated with the aid of the 1ohr circle of stress$ #f s"ecimens of a soil are sub6ect to different states of stress, for each mode of failure a 1ohr circle can be constructed#f a straight line en!elo"e is drawn to the set of 1ohr circles so obtained, it will be of the form of Eq$ ,$%., with the cohesion of the soil being determined b the interce"t of the en!elo"e with the shear stress aGis, and the angle of internal shearing resistance being re"resented b its slo"e$ The 1ohr7 :oulomb criterion is sim"l that if a 1ohr circle re"resenting the state of stress at a "oint in the soil touches the en!elo"e, failure will ta+e "lace at that "oint$ E +(R(CAL ET&OD, 'OR +RED(CT(". O''2ROAD -E&(CLE +ER'OR A"CE The general a""roach to the de!elo"ment of em"irical methods for "redicting off7road !ehicle "erformance is to conduct tests of a select grou" of !ehicles considered to be re"resentati!e o!er a range of terrains of interest$ The terrain is identified (or classified) b sim"le measurements or field obser!ations$ The results of !ehicle "erformance testing and the terrain characteristics identified are then em"iricall correlated$ This can lead to the de!elo"ment of em"irical relationshi"s for e!aluating terrain trafficabilit on the one hand, and !ehicle mobilit on the other$

39

Empirical

ethods )ased on the Cone (nde9 6

These methods were originall de!elo"ed during Corld Car #% b the B$*$ /rm Caterwa s EG"eriment *tation (CE*) to "ro!ide militar intelligence and reconnaissance "ersonnel with a sim"le means to assess !ehicle mobilit on a @golno go@ basis in fine7 and coarse7grained soils$ ?ine7 grained soils are silt or cla e soils for which '.H or more b weight of the grains being smaller than .$.;D mm in diameter (or "assing through a No$ ,.. sie!e)$ :oarse7grained soils are beach and desert soils, usuall containing less than ;H of the grains smaller than .$.;D mm in diameter, or soils containing ;H or more of the grains smaller than .$.;D mm in diameter but not in a wet condition, that is, the are nonremoldable$ The form the basis for the subsequent de!elo"ments of the N/TO Reference 1obilit 1odel (NR11)$

The basic com"onent of a cone "enetrometer

Cith recent ad!ances in electronics and com"uter technolog , a !ariet of cone "enetrometers using electronic (or electrical) sensors for monitoring the force and "enetration de"th, as well as com"uter technolog for storing and "rocessing measured data, ha!e been de!elo"ed$ Empirical Method for Predicting Tracked Vehicle Performance: #n the method de!elo"ed b CE* for "redicting trac+ed !ehicle "erformance, an em"irical equation is first used to calculate the mobilit indeG (1#) of a gi!en !ehicle$ Based on the mobilit indeG (1#), a "arameter called the !ehicle cone indeG (9:#) is calculated$ The 9:# re"resents the minimum strength of a
40

soil in the critical la er that "ermits a gi!en !ehicle to successfull ma+e a s"ecific number of "asses, usuall one "ass or '. "asses$

/fter the 9:# and soil strength ha!e been determined, the !alues of the "erformance "arameters of a trac+ed !ehicle, such as the net maGimum drawbar "ull coefficient (the ratio of drawbar "ull to !ehicle weight), maGimum slo"e negotiable, and towed motion resistance coefficient (the ratio of towed motion resistance to !ehicle weight), are then em"iricall determined as functions of !ehicle t "e, number of "asses to be com"leted, and the eGcess of R:# o!er 9:# (i$e$, R:#79:#) for fine7grained soils or :# for coarse7grained soils$ Empirical Methods for Predicting Wheeled Vehicle Performance I *imilar to the em"irical method for "redicting trac+ed !ehicle "erformance described abo!e, in this method de!elo"ed b CE*, an em"irical equation is used to calculate the mobilit indeG of an off7road wheeled !ehicle$ The em"irical relations for "redicting tire "erformance based on soil7tire numerics, "articularl the sand7tire numeric, ha!e undergone a number of re!isions since the were first "ro"osed as new eG"erimental data emerged

41

Empirical

ethods )ased on the

ean

a9imum +ressure 6

/nother em"irical method for e!aluating the mobilit of off7road !ehicles is based on the conce"t of mean maGimum "ressure (11)) "ro"osed b Rowland, which is defined as the mean !alue of the maGima occurring under all of the roadwheel stations$ Em"irical equations for "redicting the !alues of 11) of trac+ s stems with different design features are gi!en below$ EA,URE E"T A"D C&ARACTER(:AT(O" O' TERRA(" RE,+O",E Owing to the limitations of the theories of elasticit and "lastic equilibrium, as well as the em"irical methods described abo!e, methods for "arametric anal sis of off7road !ehicle "erformance based on the measurement of terrain res"onse under loading conditions similar to those eGerted b an off7road !ehicle and on a detailed anal sis of the mechanics of !ehicle7 terrain interaction ha!e been de!elo"ed$ One of the well7+nown techniques for measuring the res"onse of terrain to loading "ertinent to !ehicle mobilit studies is that "ro"osed b Be++er$ This technique has now become +nown as the be!ameter technique$ #t com"rises two basic sets of testsI one is a set of "late "enetration tests, and the other is a set of shear tests$ #n the "enetration test, a "late of

42

suitable si-e is used to simulate the contact area of the !ehicle running gear, and the "ressure7sin+age relationshi" of the terrain is measured

A sim"lified model for "redicting trac+ed !ehicle "erformance

The basic features of a be!ameter designed to carr out the tests described abo!e are illustrated$ / h draulic ram is usuall used to a""l normal load to the sin+age "late in the "ressure7sin+age test$ )lates of circular sha"e are commonl used$ The a""lied "ressure and the resulting sin+age of the "late are recorded as shown$ #n shear tests, a shear ring is usuall em"lo ed to a""l shear loading to the terrain surface under !arious normal "ressures$ The torque a""lied and the resulting angular dis"lacement of the shear ring are recorded, as shown, from which the shear stress7shear dis"lacement relationshi" and the shear strength "arameters of the terrain can be deri!ed$ To "redict the traction de!elo"ed b a rubber tire or b a rubber trac+, the characteristics of rubber7terrain shearing should be measured$ These can be obtained using a shear ring co!ered with a la er of rubber of the same com"osition as that for the tire tread or the trac+$

*chematic !iew of a be!ameter for measuring terrain "ro"erties$

43

/ !ehicle7mounted$ be!ameter in field o"eration

Organic Terrain (Muskeg ?or a commonl encountered organic terrain (mus+eg), there is a mat of li!ing !egetation on the surface with a la er of saturated "eat beneath it$ / re"resentati!e "ressure7sin+age cur!e for the organic terrain obtained in the field is shown$

)ressure7sin+age relationshi" for an organic terrain (mus+eg)$

#t can be seen that, initiall , the "ressure increases with an increasein sin+age$ Howe!er, when the a""lied "ressure (or load) reaches a certain
44

le!el, the surface mat is bro+en$ *ince the saturated "eat beneath the mat is often wea+er than the mat and offers lower resistance, the "ressure decreases with an increase of sin+age after the surface mat is bro+en, as shown$ Based on eG"erimental obser!ations, a mathematical model for the failure of the surface mat has been de!elo"ed$ #n formulating the model, it is assumed that the organic terrain consists of two la ersI one is the surface mat, and the other is the "eat$ The surface mat is ideali-ed as a membrane7li+e structure, which means that it can onl sustain a force of tension directed along the tangent to the surface and cannot offer an resistance to bending$ !no" #overs "ith $ce %a&ers: #n the northern tem"erate -one, the snow on the ground is often sub6ect to the @melt7free-e@ c cle during the winter season$ :onsequentl , crusts (ice la ers) of significant strength form at the surface of snow co!ers in o"en areas$ Cith subsequent snow fall on to" of the crusts, snow co!ers containing ice la ers are formed$ Conclusion 6 #n conclusion it is good to em"hasi-e the im"ortance of +nowledge the trafficablilit of terrain$ There are two s"heres of utili-ation N militar and ci!il$ #n the militar s"here the !er quic+ negotiation of the terrain during militar actions is necessar $ #f it is not "ossible to use the original route the troo"s tent to choose the shortest wa through the terrain$ #n the ci!il sector we use this method for 6udging trafficabilit of terrain when the normal roads or bridges are damaged due to some natural influences$ Then there is need to get to these weatherworn areas to ensure food, material, econnaissance of harms$ /nd we must not forget one of the most im"ortant things, such as the trans"ort of ambulances and other hel"$ #f we are able to 6udge the trafficabilit of terrain quic+l and reliabl , we can hel" in all these cases mentioned abo!e$ There are a lot of "ossibilities how to determine the trafficabilit $ Here are mentioned two "ossible s stems of methods how to determine it$ The first one corres"onds with the field manual @1ilitar Roads and Ca s@$ Here we measure with the telesco"ic
45

"enetrometer$ /fter that we can find out how man !ehicles can negotiate this terrain$ *o we measure onl the @soil factor@$ On the other hand there is a method described in the field manual @)lanning and Design of Roads, /irfields, and Heli"orts in the Theater of O"erations N Road Design@, where it is +nown the number of !ehicles and it is wanted to learn if the can go through the area or not$ *o in this s stem we ta+e with account two factors 7 @soil factor@ and @!ehicle factor$

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