TIBTEC-1046; No.

of Pages 4

Forum: Science & Society

Biotechnology policy series Special Issue: Celebrating 30 years of biotechnology

Policy to support marine biotechnology-based solutions to global challenges

Rachael J. Ritchie*, Ken Guy, and Jim C. Philp
Science and Technology Policy Division, Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry, OECD, 2 rue Andre -Pascal, Paris 75775, France

Recent advances in science and technology are igniting new interest in marine biotechnology. Governments are recognizing the potential of marine biotechnology to provide solutions to grand global challenges of population health, food, and energy security and sustainable industry. This paper examines some of the challenges to and policy options for the development of marine biotechnology.

Drivers for marine biotechnology Marine biotechnology refers to the use of marine bioresources as the target or source of biotechnology. The eld is not new, but is now receiving renewed interest for a number of reasons. Perhaps the primary driver for marine biotechnology today is the advances in science and technology that are improving access to and study of marine bioresources. Advances such as whole genome sequencing and metagenomics are revealing great biodiversity in the marine environment, diversity that remains largely untapped [1]. This biodiversity, a result of a long evolutionary history and extreme environmental conditions of pressure, light, oxygen, and temperature, has given rise to organisms with unique features, from which new bioactive compounds can be isolated, modeled, or created. A number of secondary, industry specic-drivers such as the need for novel molecular entities for drug development and the need for environmentally sustainable sources of food, fuel, and industrial chemicals are also driving development of the eld. These drivers combine to make great demands on ocean resources and on marine biotechnology. Sustainability: shaping the policy response The worlds oceans provide important ecosystem goods and services, such as oxygen production from plankton, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and pollutant ltration, that are critical to the functioning of the planets ecosystems [2]. Climate change, the majority of it related to increases in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is negatively impacting the marine environment, contributing to
Corresponding author: Ritchie, R.J. (rritchie@genomebc.ca) Current address: Genome British Columbia, 500-555 West 8th Ave, Vancouver BC, Canada.
*

ocean acidication, species loss, phytoplankton depletion, and rising sea temperatures and levels, which threaten provision of these ecosystem services [3]. Exploitation of marine bioresources from within a vast and interconnected system of oceans must thus be conducted in a manner that will maximize the integrity and sustainability of marine ecosystems for future generations (http://www.oecd.org/sti/ biotechnologypolicies/oecdglobalforumonbiotechnologymarinebiotechnologyenablingsolutionsforoceanproductivityandsustainabilityvancouvercanada30-31may2012.htm, and associated publication: OECD, Forthcoming 2013). Biodiscovery of marine natural products Newly accessible marine bioresources are being hailed as a new input to a global pharmaceutical pipeline that is suffering declining productivity and, more worryingly, is producing fewer novel compounds [4]. The discovery of marine natural products, primarily from invertebrates, which make up 60% of marine animal diversity, has increased steadily over the last two decades (Figure 1) with almost 10 000 new molecular entities were identied between 1990 and 2009 [5]. However, to date, just seven marine-derived drugs have been developed [6]. The big data challenge Two main challenges face biodiscovery generally, and more specically the discovery and development of pharmacologically active compounds: (i) the challenge found in characterizing new compounds, and (ii) the management and analysis of vast quantities of data being generated by new genomic tools. These challenges are largely independent of the sector of application (e.g., health, industry, etc.). Characterization of compounds and annotation of genomic data rely in large part on comparison to information from well-characterized compounds and genes in known species archived in databases. Taxonomists decipher these data in the context of our knowledge of model organisms, phylogenetics, and evolutionary pathways to infer function. Yet the volume and novelty of data being generated is confounding these efforts. There is a need for new model organisms of all types to assign functions to the wave of novel genes and compounds being discovered, and new ways of inferring function (e.g., in silico modeling) [7]. There is also a need for bioinformatics and associated graphical
1

TIBTEC-1046; No. of Pages 4

Forum: Science & Society

12000 Average annual growth (%)
60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1990-1999 2000-2009 1990-2009

Trends in Biotechnology xxx xxxx, Vol. xxx, No. x

Key:

Other Chordata Cnidaria

Mollusca Echinodermata Porifera

Cumulave number of new natural products

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Year
TRENDS in Biotechnology

Figure 1. New natural products from marine invertebrate phyla [5].

interfaces to analyze and compare genetic information across known and related, but uncharacterized, genes. These challenges are being addressed through the development of new purpose-built databases, bioinformatics programs, training of taxonomists, and development of new model organisms. Well annotated databases containing molecular and genomic data from microbial communities and individual genomes are fundamental to this work. Databases like the Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) system [8] serve as a community resource for comparative analysis and annotation of all publicly available genomes. They are free and publicly available. Additionally, largescale international R&D projects often develop or use common data formats or computational approaches (e.g., BIOMformat, http://biom-format.org/, used by the Earth Microbe Project) but these are not necessarily shared among initiatives or consortia. Given the complexity of the knowledge landscape, with different actors holding different knowledge, and the benets of being able to exchange databases and analysis platforms, there is a wealth of opportunities for harmonization at an international level. Governance of the marine environment and associated bioresources Biodiscovery faces additional challenges arising from the absence of a comprehensive global framework governing the access, exploitation, and protection of the marine environment. The Convention on Biological Diversity, and the more recent Nagoya Protocol (http://www.cbd. int/abs/) provide a broad framework that governs access and benet sharing of genetic resources within Exclusive Economic Zones but this framework breaks down in the open ocean and deep sea. Organisms and genetic resources lying in areas beyond national jurisdiction are considered by many to be shared
2

resources, yet few countries have the capacity to access, develop, and benet from these resources. For instance, the majority of marine patents (90%) belong to just ten countries although these countries occupy just 20% of the world coastline [9]. These ten countries have the scientic and technological capacity for biodiscovery and development that many other countries, especially developing coastal nations, lack. If this gap is not addressed, success in biodiscovery, patents being one indicator, may spur further investment from capacity-rich countries, exacerbating existing global inequities, and reducing the capacity of developing countries for innovation and sustainable development. Contributing to growing global food demands The farming of sh and shellsh has grown signicantly over the last four decades and is now the fastest-growing food sector globally. With 600 species grown in 190 countries, aquaculture is becoming recognized as a critical component of global food security [10]. Aquaculture is a source of high quality protein and essential micronutrients and, compared to terrestrial crops, has a lower carbon footprint and uses less land [11]. However, in many areas, intensive aquaculture faces several sustainability challenges including reliance on wild-caught sh in aquaculture feeds, high antibiotic use, nutrient discharge of efuents, and habitat destruction [10,11]. Sustainable, high-volume production The application of biotechnology to sh farming, termed molecular aquaculture to help to distinguish it from the more production-oriented activities within aquaculture, has in many places helped to address pressing environmental issues. Advances in sh health including diagnostic and vaccine developments have reduced the economic impact of disease and the use of antibiotics. More recent

TIBTEC-1046; No. of Pages 4

Forum: Science & Society

Technological maturity System in successful operaon Qualied and complete system (reference) Demonstraon in operaon Demonstraon in a relevant operaonal environment Technical validaon in a relevant operaonal environment Validaon in the laboratory Proof-of-concept Descripon of a technology concept Descripon of the funconal principle

Trends in Biotechnology xxx xxxx, Vol. xxx, No. x

Commercial phase

Pilot/ Demonstraon/ Reference phase

Laboratory/ Pilot plant phase

Key:

Sugar BR Starch BR Vegetable oil BR

Algal liqid BR Lignocellulosic BR (pulp) Lignocellulosic BR (fermentable CH)

Green BR Synthesis gas BR Biogas BR

TRENDS in Biotechnology

Figure 2. The technological maturity of various biorefinery concepts, demonstrating that algal lipid biorefineries are among the least advanced and furthest from market. Redrawn from [15]. Abbreviations: BR, biorefinery; CH, carbohydrate.

advances in genomics [12] are enabling marker-assisted breeding for traits of economic importance, and opportunities for development of alternatives to sh-based feeds (especially high omega 3 oils) and for utilization of the whole sh to reduce discard of residuals exist [11]. Aquaculture governance, often with sustainability as its principal goal, has grown in importance in recent years. Countries that have achieved sustainable production on a large scale have developed national aquaculture development policies, strategies, plans, and laws to support sustainable development of the eld [10]. A number of international guidelines and tools such as the FAO Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture Certication, which provide direction for the development, organization, and implementation of sustainable practices and certication schemes, have also been developed [10]. Development of policies that support development and application of molecular aquaculture, environmental sustainability, economic viability, and social acceptability might be effective in ensuring sustainable aquaculture development. Next-generation biofuels In an effort to reduce their carbon footprint, many countries are turning to renewable biomass to supplement, or replace, some petroleum-based feedstock as a source of alternative biofuels. The use of marine-derived biomass, micro-, and macro-algae for biofuel production represent one of the newest and most promising applications of marine biotechnology. Algal biomass has several advantages over biomass from terrestrial sources. Algae lack difcult-to-process

lignin, and microalgae may produce signicantly more energy/tonne than conventional crops like soybean or cotton per hectare [13]. Algal tolerance to salt and brackish water, the ability to use a range of organic wastes as fertilizer, and growth in photo bioreactors (microalgae), provide further advantages. The development of algal strains to better suit production scenarios, the harvesting of other bioactives in the fuel extraction process (through biorening), and synthetic biology through the engineering of microbes to facilitate extraction of other products [14] offer great potential for the eld. Despite this, algal biofuels must compete with existing fuels and associated long established support policies and markets. Algal lipid bioreneries, although at a very early stage of development, may provide a means for large-scale commercialization of algal biofuels, provided a number of hurdles are addressed (Figure 2) [15]. The rapid growth rates and high lipid content of algae are currently offset by the underdeveloped product development, especially concerning high added-value products. The capital-dependent costs for the construction of bioreneries may also be prohibitive, often in the region of tens to hundreds of millions of euro (depending on renery type), with annual operating costs of at least tens of millions. With horizons stretching out as far as 2030, the high costs and high risks call for publicprivate partnerships (PPPs) to leverage investments. Concluding remarks A plethora of industry policies Given the diversity of applications of marine biotechnology, different industries will have different drivers and
3

TIBTEC-1046; No. of Pages 4

Forum: Science & Society

markets, so will require different policies to achieve the desired returns from marine biotechnology. This is a feature of (i) differences in the relative ratios of publicprivate contribution to innovation in different elds, (ii) presence of established and competing technologies, and (iii) maturity of the relevant industrial sector, among other factors. Opportunities for international collaboration Marine bioresources are situated in a shared environment, and are rarely constrained by national or geographic borders. The need for effective and equitable access and development of marine organisms motivates consideration of how international cooperation can support sustainable development of marine biotechnology. Such cooperation may enable development of new models for governance of the marine environment both as related to access and benet sharing, and also protection of marine bioresources and enable dissemination of best practices related to molecular aquaculture. Designation of marine protected areas has been useful for preserving habitat and marine organisms, yet the utility of these approaches to marine microbes (often widely dispersed and difcult to enumerate) for instance, or for poorly understood species, is not known. Marine biotechnology, through bioremediation and the development of biosensors to measure changes in environmental conditions including biological and microbial ecosystems, has a role to play here. Yet, in the absence of a sole regulating authority, use of these tools and governance of marine environment is not well coordinated. Rapid progress related to underlying basic research is also providing opportunities for harmonization or initiatives to manage the huge volumes of data that are driving interest in the eld.
Disclaimer statement
The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reect the ofcial views of the OECD, or of the governments of its member countries.

Trends in Biotechnology xxx xxxx, Vol. xxx, No. x

References
1 Kennedy, J. et al. (2010) Marine metagenomics: new tools for the study and exploitation of marine microbial metabolism. Mar. Drugs 8, 608628 2 Costanza, R. et al. (1997) The value of the worlds ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387, 253260 3 Oreskes, N. (2004) The scientic consensus on climate change. Science 306, 1686 4 Scannell, J.W. et al. (2012) Diagnosing the decline in pharmaceutical R&D efciency. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 11, 191200 5 Leal, M.C. et al. (2012) Trends in the discovery of new marine natural products from invertebrates over the last two decades where and what are we bioprospecting? PLoS ONE 7, e30580 6 Mayer, A.M.S. et al. (2010) The odyssey of marine pharmaceuticals: a current pipeline perspective. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 31, 255265 7 Lerman, J.A. et al. (2012) In silico method for modelling metabolism and gene product expression at genome scale. Nat. Commun. 3, 929 8 Markowitz, V.M. et al. (2012) IMG: the integrated microbial genomes database and comparative analysis system. Nucleic Acids Res. 40, D115D122 9 Arnaud-Haond, S. et al. (2011) Marine biodiversity and gene patents. Science 331, 15211522 10 FAO (2012) The state of world sheries and aquaculture 2012. In World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture (http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ i2727e/i2727e01.pdf) 11 Subhadra, B. and Grinson, G. (2011) Algal biorenery-based industry: an approach to address fuel and food insecurity for a carbon-smart world. J. Sci. Food Agric. 91, 213 12 Davidson, W.S. et al. (2010) Sequencing the genome of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Genome Biol. 11, 403 13 Scott, S.A. et al. (2010) Biodiesel from algae: challenges and prospects. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 21, 277286 14 Wargacki, A.J. et al. (2012) An engineered microbial platform for direct biofuel production from brown macroalgae. Science 335, 308313 15 The Federal Government of Germany (2012) Bioreneries Roadmap (as part of the German Federal Government action plans for the material and energetic utilisation of renewable raw materials) (www.bmbf.de/ pub/roadmap_bioreneries.pdf)
0167-7799/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2013.01.009 Trends in Biotechnology xx (2013) 14