Sarf in Short

(1) ) individually i.e. not investigates the behaviour of the word (( investigates the ( from the perspective of its formal structure and the changes that affect that structure either to give rise to different meanings or ease the overall pronunciation of the word.

in relation to other words ( ). More specifically, it ) in the sentence ((

(2) The ( in Arabic is of three types

(a) the

( noun which includes ad!ectives, adverbs, pronouns, etc.) e.g. (student), ( (pen), etc. (letter, message), ! ( verb) e.g. " # ( wrote), # $ (write, will write) and # & (used to convert statements into $uestions), and

(b) the ("rite#)

(c) the ( particle) e.g. %

' (in), ( did not), etc. (

(%) The and those of the %

because of the fact that their rigid structures are not amenable to the type of changes that is commonly studied in . 'ence, only deals with

! which resemble the " structurally, semantically and functionally (such as the +, ) * % 3 # 1 - +, 56 " - .+, ( 2+, / . - 3 4 0 - 7 . , etc.) do not form part of the sub!ect&matter of 8

! and the " and more specifically those among them that do not bear any structural, semantic or functional resemblance to the . %
the (() can be divided into three sections (a) (b) (c)

" (Morphology of the )erb), ! 4 (Morphology of the *oun) and 4

: ;! " 9 (Morphology of the )erb and *oun together), ! 4 also called +< + (,hared Morphology i.e. the Morphology #8
common to the )erb and *oun).

 " ! 4
(-)

from seven perspectives " " investigates the ! ! 4 ( 4 2( number of root letters) 2 ( > ? . (wea. letters, namely
the

(a) the time of the occurrence of the action (b) the number of

(c) the presence or absence of

the @ 2 and the - ) among the root letters (d) intransitivity and transitivity (e) the presence or absence of the

93 ,

( doer / sub!ect of the verbal sentence) ? "

(f) fle0ibility and infle0ibility (i.e. rigidity) (g) intensification or non&intensification (1) The first perspective: the time of the occurrence of the action

! from this perspective is divided into three categories " (a) ' ( past tense / perfect), which denotes the occurrence of the " ! A action in the past, li.e + # + (wrote), (b) B ( present or future tense / imperfect), which denotes the " ! * occurrence of the action in the present or future tense, li.e + # $+ (write/s or will
The write), and (c) 2 ;

! (verb of command / imperative), which denotes the re$uest for the ( occurrence of the action in the future, li.e + # + ("rite#)
(2) The second perspective: the number of root letters) The

( 4 2( number of 2

! from this perspective is divided into two categories " (a) ' comprising three root letters, li.e + ( # + C D EG F( triliteral), which is a !
(wrote) (b) ' G ( $uadriliteral), which is a C ?

H I+ (rolled)

! comprising four root letters, li.e (

3ach of these two categories is sub&divided into two more categories. Thus, the ' C D EG F is sub&divided into (i) I ' C D EG F( na.ed / divested triliteral), which is any ' C D E D divested and stripped of any additional letters such that it only consists of root letters, li.e + + (was happy), + H + (went out), +K + (was good), etc. and J (

(ii) M$ N

' C D EG F( increased / augmented triliteral), which is any ' C D E D whose root form is increased by the addition of up to three letters, li.e + H .+ (put J out, threw out), +H P+ (graduated), +H # + (too. out, e0tracted), etc. O O
4i.ewise, the ' G is sub&divided into C ? (i) I ' G ( na.ed / divested $uadriliteral), which is any ' C ? C ? divested and stripped of any additional letters such that it only consists of root + (put at ease), etc. and letters, li.e +H R I+ (rolled), +Q (ii) M$ N

' whose root form is increased by the addition of up to two letters, li.e C ? + (was at ease), etc. H R M P+ (was rolled), +Q

' G ( increased / augmented $uadriliteral), which is any C ?

(*5# 6or more details see the Appendi0 1 at the end of the boo.)

( > ? . (weak letters, namely: the 93 2 and the - ) among the root letters , the @
(7) The third perspective: the presence or absence of The (a)

! from this perspective is divided into two categories "

S whose root letters are free from % ( ( sound / strong), which is a ! ( > ? . (wea. letters), and consists of three types

(i)

S 4 % % ( super sound / strong), which is a S that is free from @ * #( doubling i.e. have two identical root letters) and N ! ( having one 6 of the root letters as a /N T+,+T ), li.e +H # + , etc. & J
(ii) @? * +U

@! 4 * % % S ( doubled strong), which is a S N that has two identical root letters, li.e + M + W ; + (e0tended, lengthened), +V
($ua.ed, shoo.), etc. (iii) W3 6

S 4 % % ( ham8ated strong), which is a S that has one of R the root letters as a /N , li.e + .+ (ate), +V + (as.ed), + . & + (read), etc. C #! whose root form constitutes at least one of ( ( wea.), which is a ! the three ( ! . and comprises four types
(b)

(i) VF ( $uasi&sound), which is a ( (wea. letter), li.e > ?

(ii) 3 2( hollow), which is a Z

C #! ; whose first root letter is a + 4 9 Y $+ (was dried), etc. + (reached, arrived), +X C #! ; whose second root letter is a

+ (said), +B ( , li.e +V > ? + (sold), etc. ( , li.e > ?

(iii) [ \ ( defective), which is a

C #! ; whose last root letter is a +? I+ (called, invited), +]; + (threw, cast), etc. ^

(iv) @ ( two&folded), which is a "

C #! ; whose first and third root letters or 9 second and third root letters are from the ( ! . , li.e +] + (protected, safeguarded), +]? 9 + (comprehended, fathomed), +_3 `+ (intended), +_9 +
(reported, narrated), etc. (9) The fourth perspective: intransitivity and transitivity The

! from this perspective is divided into two categories " ! whose action is confined to the (

(a) 5W E( intransitive), which is a

( doer / sub!ect of a verbal sentence) and not transferred directly onto a ? " ; + (was happy), +X V3 " + (sat), etc. (direct ob!ect), li.e +K Z ! ( ! whose action is not confined to the ( but is transferred directly onto a ; ? " V3 " , and further comprises !

(b) a # bM! ( transitive), which is a three types (i) M 9 > letter),

c a ; V " # ] bM! ( transitive to one direct ob!ect only i.e. singly > 3 ! transitive), li.e + # + in for e0ample +( d $W # + (:ayd wrote the b M ! ; (ii) " 3 c a ] # bM! ( transitive to two direct ob!ects i.e. doubly transitive), li.e + M J d $W e+ in for e0ample +: $ e+ (:ayd thought : M ? ? ;halid to be noble / generous), and + ]f M .+ in +: # .+ J : M ]f d $W
(:ayd gave ;halid a boo.), and (iii)

c a ; ? " D E D ] # ( bM! ( transitive to three direct ob!ects, i.e. triply transitive), li.e + : M$ .+ in for e0ample +: $ .+ (Ali J ? ' W ? ? g : M informed :ayd that ;halid is noble / generous), and + _ _ .+ in + h b M . + (The teacher made the student see the problem as ( : 6 R f (
being easy) ,ome scholars add a third category, namely that which is neither

+ and its sisters and +I + and its sisters. , and comprises verbs such as +Q
(1<) The fifth perspective: the presence or absence of the subject of the verbal sentence) The (a)

5W i ! #; + nor M

( doer / ? "

! from this perspective is divided into two categories "

not dropped, li.e

whose ( ' ( active form of the verb), which is a ! ! C \ Y 53 is mentioned (even in the implied and implicit sense) in the sentence and ? "

O + # + in +j f

f # + (The student wrote the letter), O + # $+ in +j f f # $+ (The student is writing the letter), and k

+ # + in +l `.m (b) V 3 6

# = + >"rite (you)= ! whose (

sentence, that is, it is dropped from the sentence, leaving a vacuum which is normally filled by the V3 " ( direct ob!ect), li.e !

is not mentioned (not even in the implied and implicit sense) in the ? "

' ( passive form of the verb), which is a C \ Y

O + # + in +j f

# + (The letter was written) and O + # $+ in +j f # $+ (The letter is being written)

(11) The sixth perspective: flexibility and inflexibility (i e rigidity) The

! from this perspective is divided into two categories "

(a) ( fle0ible), which is of two types # b (i) # G

5 that e0ists in all three states ( fully&fle0ible), which is a ! ( C # of the ! , that is the ' " , the B and the ; 2 , li.e A * !eaning ' ; B 2 A * to write, record # # $ # j j j $ To hit, beat, stri.e A * A
(ii) # G

[ \ that e0ists in only two of ( semi&fle0ible), which is a ! ( the three states, that is the ' * and the B only, or the A B and the ; 2 only, li.e * !eaning ' ; B 2 A * to be on the verge, almost, nearly $ I I to continue W V +n; o +n; o N V $ to leave, abandon B B M $ I to leave, abandon p $ q
(b) M; ( rigid), which is a

! that e0ists in only one of the three states, li.e ( ; 2

!eaning not hopefully shouts, ma.es a noise

' B A * X ] ? 6 $ r

! V P &

?ome# @ive#

(12) The seventh perspective: intensification or non"intensification The

! from this perspective is divided into two categories "

t (a) M ( corroborated), which is a

! that has either the M 3 ( # Q3 ` u " ( M F( emphatic Q3 O 3 G \ of corroboration) or the "( # Q3 ` (non&emphatic Q3 G \ of corroboration) suffi0ed to it. (b) M t (non&corroborated), which is a ! that does not have the v ( u " ( M F M O 3 3 # Q3 ` or the "( # Q3 ` suffi0ed to it. M 3 # Q3 ` is disallowed.

An the case of the ' the suffi0ing of the A An the case of the

>"orship your 4ord (in the non&emphatic sense)=, etc. An the case of the

; 3 2 the suffi0ing of the M # Q3 ` is optional, li.e + w 9 9 M Y? Y? Q + >"orship your 4ord (in the emphatic sense)=, + w M + B 3 the suffi0ing of the M # Q3 ` is either *

B denotes the future and is in the * of oath) not 5 affirmative in an oath construction with the 5Eo u being separated from it, li.e + ( 5 ; 9 u Y \ 3 F! $ + (5y Allah# "e will be raised on the Bay of Cesurrection), # 4 $ (5y Allah# A P M 2 ; \ .Q
(i) necessary, which is when the will play a tric. on your idols), or

B is preceded by the * conditional +Q c+ (meaning DifE) that is assimilated into the additional + ; + so as to Q form +; l M6 d Z P ; `R( c+ , li.e +S c+ (Af you really wor. hard, then you ` #
(ii) close to being necessary, which is when the will be successful), or (iii) often, which is when the B . (particle of is preceded by an > /I * re$uest such as command, prohibition, supplication, gentle or urgent re$uest, wishing, in$uiring), li.e # : E( v $ P 9 % Y ! ? doing)

$ (Bo not thin. that Allah is unmindful of what the wrongdoers are Q 3 x

(iv) rare, which is when the additional +; + , li.e

afflict the wrongdoers F)

( $ (And guard yourselves against a severe punishment which will not only : 4 J

B is preceded by the negative + + or the * P9 # : \ #( 3 3 P ( $p Y ;\ e u

B > N Z /I .+ is preceded by + + or an * (conditional word) other than +; c+ (and it ma.es no difference whether it is in the or 7 j3 position the 7 ) and is found mostly in poetry, li.e 8 8 Z
(v) very rare, which is when the

 ' 9 +( Y # . : M \ # ' 0 (

u F P + \; " ; 6 > )z ( X

"hosoever you find of them will not return & ever & and .illing 5anu Gutaybah is a healing

(vi) disallowed, which is when one of the conditions for the necessary corroboration S $ is violated, li.e +Q 9 3 " x + (5y Allah# The wrongdoers will not be successful)

4
(1%)

also from seven perspectives investigates the 4

(a) the stripping or addition of additional letters (b) rigidity (non&derivation) and derivation (c) masculinity and femininity (i.e. gender) (d) the type of ending (e) number (f) diminution (g) relation and ascription (1() The first perspective: the stripping or addition of additional letters The from this perspective is divided into two categories (a) I ( na.ed or divested), which is an additional letters and comprises three types (i) ' C D EG F mare), etc.

divested and stripped of any

+

I ( trilateral na.ed), li.e

+ (horse, Z + (man), +h (

(ii) ' G C ?

& + (dirham), etc. I

! I Z + (HaIfar, broo.let), + ( $uadriliteral na.ed), li.e +"

+

(iii)

' I O ( $uin$ueliteral na.ed), li.e C

Z + ($uince), etc. "

(b) M$ N that can be increased up ( increased or augmented), which is an to seven letters by the addition of additional letters to the root form and comprises numerous forms, some of which are illustrated in the following table

The %ncreased / &ugmented 'orm

(oot 'orm
Triliteral Root

&dditional )etter(s)

(someone understanding) & ( j9 ; (beaten, coined) * 6 # ; (someone finding

something easy)

6 ( j A 6 HJ

H # ( e0tracting, ta.ing out) O

@2 the and 93 the +, and -# the +, 43 /N& -#+, and @2

the

Quadriliteral Root

H M; (someone rolling something) H M #; (something being rolled) 5 ` ( gathering, assembling)

H I H I Z
Quinqueliteral Root

the and -# the +, 43 /N& Q3\ , and @2

the

Y (the of a well in Jannah) N Q3 (!u!ube, linden tree) $W ( (ginger) Y `W

Y N ( $W Y `W

- the 93 the -
the

(1-) The second perspective: rigidity and derivation The from this perspective is divided into two categories (a) M; ( rigid / non&derived), which is an anything and comprises two types

that is not derived from

(i) p or ( concrete noun), which is an that is not ! only non&derivative but also none of the derived nouns is derived from it, and refers to an entity or essence the nature of which is that it can be $ualified and described + (horse, by highlighting a $uality or attribute in it, li.e + Z + (man), +h ( mare), and
(ii) ]\ ! ( abstract noun), which is an * even though it is non& derivative J all derivatives are derived from it and is thus appropriately called the M ( ultimate source)K moreover, it denotes the $ualities, states and actions that inhere in entities and essences and which ma.e it possible for the latter to be $ualified and described, li.e + V + (beauty), + + (goodness), +} + Z

+ (anger), +( (whiteness), +* v + (writing), +h3 # + (sitting), etc. Z ~

V Z you can say that it is + (beautiful), or if someone is in a state of * ( anger) you can say that he is (angry) or if someone performs the action of ( QY v ( writing) you can * # (someone writing), etc.= say that he is P
>Thus, if something possesses the $uality of

(b) that is formed from the M C #8 ( derivative), which is an on a specific pattern or patterns to indicate the particular manner in which the $uality, state or action is related to someone or something (i.e. a vague entity or essence), and comprises seven types
[someone / something (i) + quality / state / action = derivative]

; " ( active participle), which is an formed from the C #8 ? M on a specific pattern to indicate that someone or something is performing + the action indicated by the M in a non&permanent sense, li.e + P + (someone or something standing), + (someone writing), + ; d ) + d (
(someone traveling), etc.

(ii) V " 3 !

the M on a specific pattern to indicate that someone or something is the ob!ect receiving the action indicated by the written), +H # d ; + (something ta.en out or e0tracted), etc. O (iii)

; ( passive participle), which is an formed from C #8 M , li.e +j3 + (something # ;

patterns to indicate that someone or something is the bearer or possessor of the $uality indicated by the M and is not confined to any particular tense but rather stretches from the past into the continuous present, li.e + d

" Y8 "( b ( )descriptive noun), which is an o (6 ? ; formed from the M C #8 ( of an intransitive verb) on specific

+ (angry), etc. + v + (good), + .+ (white), +QY * d

(iv)

Z + (beautiful),

# " ( comparative or superlative form), which is an * .+ to indicate that ; ( C #8 formed from the M on the pattern of + ! someone or something is surpassing something or someone&else in a shared $uality which is denoted by the M .+ (more beautiful), + .+ , e.g. Z .+ (angrier), etc. (better), + v * (v), (vi) Q 9 Q ( nouns of time or place), which are Q N ; #8 ; Q formed from the M on specific patterns to indicate the time or u ; place in which the action, denoted by the M d , is occurring, li.e + + 8 f; and + ; d + (time or place of the rising of the sun), + j + (time or place of the setting of the sun), + J M; ; + (entry), +H + (e0it), etc. O
(vii) (

; ( noun of tool or instrument), which is an formed C #8 ; ; ; from the M T+,+T ! + or +V! + to " " " on the patterns of +!(

indicate the tool or instrument with which the action indicated by the

; accomplished, li.e +I " + (file), +( + (broom), +K# + (.ey), etc. \ ; Y;

(11) The third perspective: masculinity and femininity (i e gender) The from this perspective is divided into two categories

M is

p; (a) (masculine), li.e +

+ (pen), etc. Z + (mountain), + + (man), + YZ

; (b) ` t (feminine), which is of two types ; ` t that denotes a female whether + (6atimah), +\ amongst human beings or animals, li.e + ( $W + (:aynab), + ( /. + (female cat), etc. + (woman), +(f ;
(i) ' u (real), which is an C u

; (ii) a t ; that does not denote a C W (metaphorical), which is an ` female whether amongst human beings or animals but because of having been used ; ; as ` t t by the ancient Arabs it has ac$uired the status of ` , li.e + + (sun), +} X + (eye, spring), etc. ? 0 .+ (earth), + The ` t also comprises three more categories ( feminine in form only), which is an (i) ' C x"
(:echariahs), etc.

p; whose meaning is but whose form is feminine due to having one of the (signs of ` R #; E? femininity) suffi0ed to it, li.e +/N + + ('am8ah), +(% + (Talhah), +$ W
(ii) a ; C 3 (feminine in meaning only), which is an \!

('ind), etc. (iii)

whose meaning is p; ; ` t but whose form is due to it not having one of the ; E? $W & ` R # suffi0ed to it, li.e +$ + (:aynab), +M\ + + (Maryam, Mary), +\ ;

( feminine in both form and meaning), which is an a ; C 3 9 ' C x" \! + (6atimah), +] ; that is ` t + in both form and meaning, li.e +( ( (,alma), +- .+ (Asma), etc.
The ` R #

; are two in number E?

3 (i) the (
(Aishah), etc.

-# ( i.e. the !oined or closed -# because it is !oined or + (6atimah), +(8 )? close at its ends), li.e + \( + + ('asinah), +( (
(ii) the @ 2 , which is either

; / + ('usna), + (shortened), li.e +]\ u 3 ] 9 + ('asna), + + (,alma), etc. or /I ; (lengthened), li.e +-\ M - .+ (Asma), etc.

 to go into a similar p p classification for the , A have thought it in order to treat the in a
(emark: 3ven though it is not customary in similar fashion.

p Thus, the can either be

p; in meaning and in form li.e + + , etc. or T+,+T' Z C ? in meaning only li.e +/N + ('am8ah), +(% + (Talhah), etc. or + (pen), etc. in form only, li.e +j# + (boo.), +

(12) The fourth perspective: the type of ending The from this perspective is divided into five categories

\ 3 + that terminates in a -$ ( defective), which is any declinable u + (the !udge), +' preceded by a / u ( i.e. +&a + ), li.e +' + (the A A
(a) past), etc.

(b) 3 ( shortened), which is any declinable u

that terminates in an @ . (whether it is written as an actual @ . or a dot&less -$ ) preceded by a (i.e. +&+ or +&_+), li.e + + (the young lad), etc. (% " #( + (stic.), +]# !

(c)

producing, establishing), etc. (d) S %

I9 that terminates in an ( lengthened), which is any declinable M @ . which is e0tended by a /N (i.e. +&-+ ), li.e +- + (red fem.), + & ` c+ (creating, - 4 + (type of cloth or clothing), +-8 + (desert), +- %

( $uasi&strong), which is every declinable Y8 :d > + ), li.e :d> + and +&a terminating in a 99 preceded by a Q3 (i.e. +&9 or -$ 3 + (sweet), +' d d Ye+ (deer), etc.
(e)

S % that does not terminate in ( strong), which is every declinable any of the four previous endings, li.e + j# + (boo.), + Z + (man), etc.
(17) The fifth perspective: number (singular, dual and plural) The from this perspective is divided into three categories

(a) I ( singular), which is any "

feminine ob!ect, li.e etc. (b) ]\ F ( dual), which is any

that denotes a single masculine or + (one male student), +(Y + (one female student), + d

that denotes two masculine or feminine ob!ects by suffi0ing the @ 2 and Q3 G \( i.e. +&Q + in the case of ( ) or the - (i.e. +& and Q3 ) to the \ and G \ C $+ in the case of
singular form, li.e

 (two male students) Y Y * Q (two female students) Y # # Y * Q

(c) ( plural), which is any that denotes three or more masculine or feminine ob!ects and comprises two types (i) S ; or ( (sound plural), which is when the Z E Z # % singular form remains intact and unbro.en when forming the plural form and which in turn comprises two types

(sound masculine plural), which is any that Z p

denotes three or more males by suffi0ing the

93 9 and Q3 G \( i.e. +&Q + in the case of ( and Q3 $+ in the case of ) or the - G \( i.e. +& ) , li.e \ and C *Q 3 Y Y

`t (sound feminine plural), which is any that Z

denotes three or more females by suffi0ing the

@ 2 and -# ( i.e. +& >d + ) to the singular form after dropping the ( (vowelled ` R # -P # b % -# of femininity), li.e + >d Y + (three or more female students)

(ii) # (bro.en plural), which is when the singular form changes Z when forming the plural form and which in turn comprises two types

( B3 u (plurals of paucity), which are plural forms that denote three to Z

ten ob!ects and comprise four forms

.+ (months) (sing. +n+T +6 0 0 d 6

. ! ( +/M (pillars, columns) (sing. +n+TI .+ ? d 3 ? ! . ( ( .+ +V" (loc.s) (sing. +n+T d " . V! ( +( + (young lads) (sing. +n+T]# : ( #( ! ( (
/ (plurals of multitude), which are plural forms that denote Z F B3
eleven to an infinite number of ob!ects, and comprise the following forms

+" d \ " + (ships) (sing. +n+T( ! ( + + 6 0 ! ( . (gray) (sing. +n+T 6 0 L

+/ +

! ( ( +3 + (pictures, images) (sing. +n+T/ 4 3 4 ! ( +]A (sic. people, patients) (sing. +n+T + d $ ; ; ]! ( + +j3 (hearts) (sing. +n+T d V3 ( ! +% + (seas) (sing. +n+T d % V! ( +Y d + (lessons) (sing. +n+T/ ? Y? ! ( +Q (young lads, servants) (sing. +n+T5 + d Ev v ! QE ( .+ +- (wretched, villain) (sing. +n+T' 0 0 u g u ! . -E ( +( + (wor.ers, labourers) (sing. +n+T d ; ? ? + +Bf (people severing or cutting) (sing. +n+T d V! ( + +QY (stic.s, branches) (sing. +n+T * d * ! QE ( ( +( d ( + (elephants) (sing. +n+T( ! ( ( +- (scholars, learned people) (sing. +n+T + ? d ? ! -E ( + (fugitive, stray, defectors) (sing. +n+TI +I d 0 0 ! ( +& (dirhams) (sing. +n+T d & I+ I ! ( + (dinars) (sing. +n+T I+ $I `` d \ ! (

(tyrants, oppressors) (sing. +n+T >

! ( (

] A G +j Y 8 G (' { +/ 3 6 u ; " Y9 Y? % { 3 4 B { + Z + f 0 Q . * u ` ; 6 v > Y " ( ( ? +Y +I 3 d 9 (' 6 Z ! 0 ? ! ]6 ]6# \; 9 # ` 9 8

An the grey ships the tyrants are images of sic.&hearted people while the seas are lessons Their children wor. for the wretched, cutting off branches because the elephants And the scholars are astray and the final of their plurals ends finishes in the seventeenth (position)

*5# An the final analysis the division of the

and / is not a crucial one as the two types of plural are often Z F interchangeable, such that there is no hard&and&fast rule stating that the one has to be used rather than the other. Lften !ust one of the two types e0ist per noun in which case it can be used for either type. (19) The sixth perspective: diminution The from this perspective is divided into two categories (a) ( diminutive), which is any original

# u into ( Z Z

from which it is formed, and comprises three forms (small fels) (diminutive of +n+TX d (
(small dirham) (diminutive of + n+T d & I (small dinar) (diminutive of + n+T $I d \

that denotes the diminutive of the

+ +X (

! ( +6 I+ $ ! ! ( + \ ` I+ ! ! (

(b) Y ( original non&diminutive), which is the original

is formed, li.e

from which the

( +X + (fels, small coin)

+& + (dirham, silver coin) I +\ $I + (dinar, golden coin)

(2<) The seventh perspective: relation The from this perspective is divided into two categories (a) j3 \ ( relative noun), which is any

that has the \ -$ (i.e. the - of relation and ascription, that is +a C + ) suffi0ed to it in order to show that the is related to the original bearing that - before the suffi0ing of the , li.e \ -$
+a + (3gyptian) from + + (3gypt), C ; ;

+' E c+ (Aslamic) from +5E 1+ (Aslam), C ; ; +' + (Meccan) from +( + (Mecca), C b ;

(b) c +' $M + (Medinan, civil, municipal, urban) from + \( + (Medina, city), etc. C `M;

j3 \ before the ( noun related to), which is the original ; suffi0ing of the + and + , li.e +( \ -$ 1T+,+T T+,+T5E ; \( $M + in the previous e0amples.

 < #8
(21) < and " from the investigates both the ! #8 perspective of the changes that affect their structures J changes which facilitate the overall pronunciation of the word. The most important of these changes are the ? I 1( assimilation, merging), VE following three 5v 1( changes involving
wea. letters) and

VM 1( substitution, replacement).

I 1 is when the first of two identical letters is assimilated into the second (22) 5v so as become one emphatic letter. Thus, instead of pronouncing them twice they are pronounced once only. The following are some of the important rules pertaining to I 1 5v
(a) "hen two identical letters meet and the first of them is unvowelled and the second vowelled, then the first is assimilated into the second becoming one emphatic letter, li.e +M g ; d M; + which was originally +I + on the pattern of + d

+ , the first of the two ! ( Q ( i.e. two Dals) is assimilated into the second becoming + M g ; +. M

(b) "hen two vowelled identical letters meet in one word and they are preceded by another vowelled letter, then the first of them is first unvowelled and then assimilated into the second becoming one emphatic letter, li.e

+ , the first of the two ! ( Q ( i.e. two Dals) is then unvowelled becoming + I M; + and then assimilated M into the second becoming + M ; +.
+M ; M; + which was originally +I + on the pattern of + (c) "hen two vowelled identical letters meet in one word and they are preceded by an unvowelled letter, then the first of them is first unvowelled by transferring its vowel to the preceding unvowelled letter and then assimilated into the second becoming one emphatic letter, li.e +M G M $+ which was originally +I $+ on the pattern of +

Q ( i.e. two Dals) is unvowelled by transferring its vowel to the preceding M unvowelled becoming +I M + $+ and then assimilated into the second VM becoming +M G $+ .
(d) "hen two identical letters meet and the first of them is vowelled and the second unvowelled and they are preceded by an unvowelled, then it is optional for the first of the two identical letters to be unvowelled by transferring its vowel to the preceding unvowelled letter, such that two unvowelled letters meet and to escape the meeting of two unvowelled letters the second of them is vowelled either with

$+ , the first of the two ! "

a / used for the meeting of two ( due to it being the primary ( %

unvowelled letters), (due to it being the lightest of the three (% #(

) , or % the ( corresponding the previous ( , li.e % % y

 b G M T+,+TM $ + or +M $ + which was originally +I $ + on the $ pattern of + ! " is optionally unvowelled by + , the first of the two Q M transferring its vowel to the preceding unvowelled becoming +I M $ + and then the two unvowelled Q meet and to escape their meeting the M +, / second is vowelled either with a (% which is the #( or the ( * ( on the preceding , thus that corresponds to the ( * % becoming either + M b G $ T+,+TM $ + or +M $ + .
+M $

< A # b % ( T+,+T T+,+T T+,+T T+,+Tl + and + (i.e. + ! ( ( ( ( ( ! # ! # ! # ! + ) suffi0ed to it, then assimilation of the first into second is disallowed, li.e + \ ! ( IM; Q IM; IM; PIM; T+,+T T+,+T PIM; T+,+T PIM; T+,+T + and +` +.
(e) "hen the second of two identical letters has the

? (2%) VE 1 is a type of change that affects wea. letters as regards

+ in which the transforming one wea. letter into another, li.e + ? I+ and +V
unvowelling the wea. letter either through dropping the vowel completely or
transferring it to an unvowelled letter before it, li.e + 3 M $+ in which the ?

@ 2 in both cases was transformed from a 99 as their original forms were + + respectively, 3 3 I+ and +V ?

93 was unvowelled by dropping the ( M $+ , and as the original form was +3 * ? $+ in which the 93 3 li.e +V * u was unvowelled by transferring the ( before it at the original form was +V $+ , and 3 to the unvowelled u u + in which the 93 dropping the wea. letter, li.e + was dropped due to the + , and then 3 meeting of two unvowelled letters as the original form was + V the 93 to the preceding * was unvowelled by transferring the ( becoming +V +and the result is that the /N 3 unvowelled u & 3 4 is dropped and two unvowelled letters meet, namely the unvowelled , and to escape this meeting the wea. letter 93 and the unvowelled 5E +. which is the unvowelled 93 is dropped, thus becoming +
The following are some of the most important rules pertaining to (a) "hen the

? VE 1

93 is vowelled and preceded by a letter bearing a or - , it is transformed into an @ (% . (and it does not matter whether the @ 2 #( is written as one or as a dot&less -$ I+ which was originally +3 I+, and ), li.e +? ? + which was originally +V + or +]; 3 +V +which was originally +' + and + ; + but B + which was originally + + , all of which are on the pattern of + ! ( because the 93 is vowelled and preceded by a letter bearing a and - , they were transformed into an @ (% . . The original form of the @ 2 can #( be determined from the B and/or the M " ! , for e0ample * |

+/ : 3 IT++T3 M $T++T? I+ ? ?

T++TV $T++TV + 3 +: 3 u
+: ! T++T Y $T++TB + (b) "hen the

+: ; T++T' $T++T]; + ;

93 , it is transformed is unvowelled and occurs after a / into a -$ 3 + which was originally +I? + , and +QN + which was ; , li.e +I! ; ; originally +QW 3 + , but because the 93 ; in each case is unvowelled and occurs after a / . The original form of the - , it is transformed into a -$ can be determined from the ' and/or the M " ! , for A
e0ample +: M? 9 9 $T++TM ! ? T++TM + +: `W 9 9 N W T++TQ + $T++TQ (c) "hen the - is unvowelled and occurs after a

( , it is transformed into a A 99 3 $+ , and + 3 u , li.e + $+ which was originally + $+ which was originally + $+ , but because the second - in each case is unvowelled and occurs after a ( , it is transformed into a 99 A . "e .now the original form of $ .+ and + the 93 because of the ' $.+ u being + to be a -$ A respectively and the M + and + u + of the root form being +
respectively.

@ 2( which is always unvowelled) occurs after a / , it is transformed into an unvowelled -$ , li.e +S + which was originally + ; K 2 occurs after a / , it is transformed into + , but because the @ ; an unvowelled -$ . because + . "e .now that the - was originally an @ S + and the plural is formed from the singular. + is the plural of +KY ; ;
(d) "hen the

@ 2( which is always unvowelled) occurs after a ( , it is A + which was originally +M + transformed into an unvowelled 99 3 0 & & , li.e +M 0 , but because the @ 2 occurs after a ( , it is transformed into an A unvowelled 99 . because + . "e .now that the 93 was originally an @ + is the passive form of + M + which is the active form, and the passive M 0 3 & & 0
(e) "hen the form is formed from the active form.

occurs at the end of a word after a (f) "hen the 93

/ , it is transformed into a -$ , li.e +' + which was originally +3 A + , but because the 93 A occurs at the end after a / . "e .now that the , it is transformed into a -$ - was originally a 99 is +Q3 because the M A + and the popular view is that the ! is derived from the M " .

93 meet and one of them precedes the other in and the - bearing a Q3 (i.e. the first of them is unvowelled), then the 93 is always going to be transformed into a -$ , li.e +M b + which was originally +I3 + on +, but because the 93 the pattern of + ! ( meet and the first of and the - them is unvowelled, the 93 . "e .now that the second is transformed into a -$ of the double and emphatic - was originally a 99 + because of the B * being +I 3 $+ .
(g) "hen the

93 occurs at the end of a word and it is the fourth letter and upwards , then it is transformed into a -$ >and it does not matter if the - is subse$uently transformed into an @ . according to rule (a) or not=, li.e +] `.+ which was originally +3 `.+ , but because the 93 occurs at the end and it is the fourth letter, it is transformed into a -$ . , which in turn is transformed into an @ (but written as a dot&less -$ ) according to rule (a).
(h) "hen the

93 occurs at the end of a word after a vowelled letter, or the - then their ( or a / is dropped if it is a ( ( but retained if it is a A % c 3 c 3 ), li.e +a (% M P+ which was originally +a M P+ ] ] \ \ #( I ? ? I , but because the 93 M P+ bears a ( and the - + a \ of +a A of +3 ? I / on the and both these letters occur after a vowelled letter, the ( * 93 are dropped. This also applies to + on the - and the / ? ' $+ which was originally + ' ' $ ' ' u u u u ] ` A * A * ? ' +. ] `
(i) "hen the (!) "hen the second root letter (also called the D+ ( wea. letter (i.e. a vowelled

letter, then the ( of the second root letter is transferred to the unvowelled %
strong letter. Thereafter, if the second root letter (which is the

99 ) and occurs after an unvowelled strong or -$

) is a vowelled ?

not the corresponding sister letter of the ( that was transferred to the % unvowelled strong letter before it, then the second root letter is transformed into the corresponding sister letter of the transferred ( . This is li.e % $+ which was originally +V $+ , 3 3 +V u u + Y $+ which was originally + Y $+ , $+ which then became +5 + $+ which was originally +5 $+ and then 3 3 u u u
+ $+ which was originally + $+ which then became + $+ and O 3 3 O O
then finally + $+ . O (.) "hen two unvowelled letters meet and one of them is a wea. letter, then it is dropped, li.e finally + $+ , u

93 ) is or -

 + which was originally +V + which then became +V + , then + 3 3 +

+ and then finally + +, 3 V + + which was originally + + , which then became + + , then + and then finally + + , .+ , which was originally +l .+ (but even before this it was + +l ; .+ , which then became +l .+ and then +l .+ , and then l ; ; ; 3 3 .+ . finally + l ! is na.ed triliteral starting with a 99 " (which is referred to as $+ (whether it is ; +a " I ; C 9 ' VF C D E D+ ) on the pattern of + ! 9 originally on that pattern or not), then the 93 , is dropped from the B * the ; 2 and the M and the latter case it is compensated for by adding a 3 ( , li.e -P ;
(l) "hen the

+ $+ which was originally + 4 3 $+ + 4 + which was originally + 4 9 + 4 +( + which was originally + 4 9 +.

(2() VM 1 is a change that involves the substitution of one letter for another. The following are some of the most important rules pertaining to (a) "hen the

VM 1

93 occurs at the end of a word after an additional or the - @ . , then it is substituted for by a /N , li.e &

+d ? I+ which was originally +9 I+( because it is from +3 M $T++T? I+ ), d ? ? +d-\ + which was originally +a + (because it is from +' + ) d \ \ Y $T++T]\
(b) "hen the

+ (i.e. the 93 2 of + d ? ( occurs after the @ or the - " , li.e of the first form), then it is substituted for by a /N & ?

+ which was originally +V + (because it is from +++TV d 9 + d )

$T+ ), 3 V u + d ) + which was originally + d $ + (because it is from + Y $T++TB +) ( i.e. the first root letter) of + (c) "hen the -"
li.e

+ is a 99 ! #( , then it or a -$ + , is substituted for by a -P which is then assimilated into the -# of + ! #(

+ P + which was originally + P9 # P + and + which then became +
then finally +

$T++T 4 P + (because it is from + 9 + ), + P + which was originally + # $ + which then became + # P + and then finally + P + (because it is from + $T++T $+ ). =

 ( i.e. the first root letter) of + (d) "hen the -" R D + .

and the first -F is then assimilated into the second, li.e substituted for by a -D
+ R D + which was originally + R # D + which then became + R F D + and then finally +

+ is a -D , then it is ! #(

( i.e. the first root letter) of + (e) "hen the -"

+ is a VI or a ! #( , a Vq + is substituted for by a VI aW of + ! , then the -# #( , li.e

then finally +]? I + ,

+]? I + which was originally +]! II + and PI + which then became +]? + Iq + which was originally + Pq + which then became + Iq + (also + IW IW + which was originally + + which then became + + . PW & 6 &
permissible for + Iq + are + q + and + I + ),

( i.e. the first root letter) of + (f) "hen the -"

+ is a I4 ! ,a #( , a IA or a -e , then the -# , li.e + is substituted for by a - - of + ! #(

f4 #4 +]" + which was originally +]" + which then became +

f4 ]" + , +j + which was originally +j + which then became +j +, fA #A fA + + which was originally + # + which then became + f + and then finally + + , + fe + which was originally + #e + which then became + fe + (also permissible for + fe + are + e + and + + ) Q meet in one word, and the first of them is vowelled and the N & P second unvowelled, then the second is substitute for by a M i ; (letter of prolongation) which is the corresponding sister letter of the preceding ( , li.e + ; ; + which was originally + ..+ .+ + 9 ; ; .+ which was originally + +Q $ c+ which was originally +Q ) c+ .
(g) "hen two

]!P Q3 C P !

==