SUMM+./ N0TES SE*0ND SEMESTE.

%IN+1
UNIT 1 Scientific Measurement & Experimentation Designing experiments Induction Making a generalization from repeated obser ation !all plants "a e green lea es# !la$s# Deduction %iguring t"ings out b& means of an experiment in $"ic" $e test a prediction or "&pot"esis 'ariable Somet"ing t"at can c"ange !(ualitati e) (uantitati e# Dependent ariable Measured or calculated Independent ariable *"anged b& experimenter Depends on

Dependent ariable

Independent ariable

+ffects *ontrolled ariable ,eld constant so t"e& don-t influence results

,&pot"esis + prediction t"at is 2ustified $it" an explanation and testable If33333333333 t"en 333333333333because 333333333333

Independe nt is c"anged in some $a&

*ontrol group

Depende nt $ill be affected in some $a&

+n explanation based on pre ious kno$ledge or experience

Trials in an experiment t"at are sometimes used to dispro e somet"ing .andom error +ll experiments in ol e some amount of uncertaint&) no measurement is perfect 4urpose Statement t"at summarizes t"e reason for performing t"e experiment Multiple trials Effect of random error minimized *ollecting Data 1engt" T"e distance bet$een 5 points Mass 6uantit& of matter in an ob2ect 'olume +mount of 7D space an ob2ect occupies Temperature + erage kinetic energ& of particles

Electric current T"e flo$ of electric c"arge to a medium Electric potential T"e $ork per unit of electric c"arge in an electric field 4recision ,o$ carefull& measured a (uantit& is

SI Units 8ilo ,ecto Deca k " da ;asic unit : m) g) 1< d c m 1999 199 19 1km : 1999m 1"m : 199m 1dam : 19m

Deci *enti Milli

1=19 1=199 1=1999

19dm : 1m 199cm : 1m 1999mm : 1m

Measuring De ices 1engt" ruler Mass scale 'olume graduated c&linder Temperature t"ermometer Electric current ammeter Electric potential oltmeter

4arallax T"e error t"at is associated $it" ie$ing t"ing on an angle> In order to a oid parallax it is essential t"at &our e&e is at t"e same le el as t"e t"ing &ou are measuring>

%UN*TI0NS ;eaker "olding=mixing li(uids N0T measuring E aporating dis" to let a li(uid e aporate *rucible for "eating at reall& "ig" temperatures Test tube to "old li(uids) "eat t"ing up) mix t"ings !small (uantities of li(uids) not er& "ig" temperatures# Erlenme&er flask "eating) mixing ?raduated c&linder for measuring li(uids ?raduated pipette for more accurate measuring of li(uids 'olumetric pipette for e en more accurate measuring of li(uids !onl& one olume# 'olumetric flask to prepare solutions of one specific concentration %unnel pouring) filtering

Scoopula to transfer="old solids

4.0*ESSIN? D+T+ D/MENSI0N+1 +N+1/SIS

*elcius to 8el ins @5A7

*B

C5A7

1ine grap" $"en 5 sets of data to plot are numbers

Mean calculated b& adding up all t"e results and di iding b& total number of trials 1>5 C 1>7 C 1>5 C 1>D C 1>7 = E mean : 1>F Median median alue is t"e one in $"ic" "alf of t"e results are greater and "alf of t"e results are smaller !if it is an e en number &ou calculate t"e mean of t"e 5 middle ones# 1>5 1>5 1>7 1>7 1>D Interpolation in ol es using a grap" to determine unkno$n alues $it"in a set of data Extrapolation in ol es using a grap" to determine unkno$n alues outside of a set of data !b& extending trend line# Slope .+TE !a GperH relations"ip# Slope : rise =run *onclusion ans$er t"e purpose and support or refute "&pot"esis 2ustif& b& referring to data anal&sis explained using logic) possibl& proposing a t"eor& E aluation sources of error suggestions for impro ement implications !$"& do results materI +re t"e& usefulI#

UNIT 7 ENE.?/ Energ&J abilit& to do $ork or Gcause c"angeH KorkJ mo ing somet"ing L$ork : force x distanceM 4otential Energ&J stored energ& due to position !gra it&# and composition !*"emicals 4E# ?ra itational 8inetic Energ&J energ& of mo ement !"eat# 4E T"ermal Energ&J energ& t"at all ob2ects "a e *"emical 4E due to t"e random mo ement of t"eir particles Elastic 4E K0.8 : %0.*E N DIST+N*E Magnetic 4E ON x 7m : 1P Q 15N x 9>Em : OQ 19N x 19mm : >1Q 1a$ of *onser ation of Energ&J GEnerg& can c"ange from one form to anot"er) but cannot be created or destro&edH ex> *"emicals 4E 8E ?ra itational 4E 8E "eat escapes into space ,eating *ur eJ grap" of temperature s> time T,E.M+1 ENE.?/ ,eatJ flo$ of t"ermal energ& from one ob2ect $it" "ig"er temperature to an ob2ect $it" lo$er temperature T"ermal Energ&J energ& t"at all ob2ects "a e due to t"e !random# mo ement of t"eir K"en 5 particles 1# temperature substances are 5# mass put toget"er t"e Depend on 7 7# "eat particles $it" "ig" factors speed bump into TemperatureJ a erage kinetic energ& of particles ,eat *apacit&J t"e abilit& !Gcapacit&H# to "old "eat S4E*I%I* ,E+T *+4+*IT/ Specific ,eat *apacit&J "o$ muc" "eat energ& is needed to "eat up 1kg of a substance b& 1c 6 : c !x# m !x# T units @ Q/kg!x#c LT : Tf R TiM ,ig" ,eat *apacit&J "olds a lot of "eat) "eats up slo$l&) colds do$n slo$l& !ex> Kater# 1o$ ,eat *apacit&J opposite 6uantit& of "eat energ& : specific "eat capacit& !x# mass !x# temperature c"ange 6 : c !x# m !x# T 1# 15EQ of energ& are needed to raise t"e temperature of 5g of
t"e ones $it" slo$ speed making t"e slo$ ones speed up and t"e fast ones slo$ do$n coming to an

$ater from 51c $ater> 6: 15EQ *: I M : 5g Tf : 7Oc Ti : 51c T : 1Ec

to 7Oc> *alculate t"e specific "eat capacit& of 6 : c !x# m !x# T c : 3336333333 m !x# T c : 33315EQ333 5g!x#1Ec c : F>1OA 3332333 g!x# c

*alorimeter mac"ine to measure calorimetr&

1# 6+ : c !x# m !x# T *+10.IMET./ 5# 6+ : @6; *alorimetr&J measuring "eat transfer 7# * : 3336;333 +ssumptionJ 6+ : @6; m!x# T +ll of t"e "eat lost b& G+H is gained b& G;H Sample calculation R determine t"e "eat capacit& of a metal Metal Kater 6: 6: 6$ater : F>5Q=g!x#c LNM F9g LNM *: I * : F>5 Q=g!x#c 19c M : 79g M : F9g : 1OP9Q Tf : 79c Tf : 79c 6$ater : @6metal Ti : P9c Ti : 59c 1OP9Q : @1OP9Q T : @E9c T : 19c *metal : @1OP9Q = 79g !x# @E9c S4E*I%I* 1+TENT ,E+T : 1>15 Q=g !x# c

6uantit& of "eat energ& : latent "eat !x# mass 1atent "eatJ G"idden "eatH) "eat t"at is used N0T to raise temperature) but rat"er to c"ange state 6 : 1 !x# m 1 : Q=g Depending on a substance-s specific latent "eat its abilit& to c"ange state aries> If it "as a "ig" latent "eat it means t"at it "as to use more "eat energ& to c"ange state per gram) t"is takes more time because more energ& is used> K"en t"e specific latent "eat is lo$ it "as to use less energ& to c"ange state per gram so it c"anges faster> 6 : 1!x#m 6 : 599Q=g !x# AEg : 1EOAE Q MET,0DS 0% ,E+T T.+NS%E. *onductorJ conducts "eat G$ellH InsulatorJ conducts "eat poorl& %luidJ li(uid or gas .adiationJ a form of "eat energ& transfer in $"ic" $a es of electromagnetic radiation tra el t"roug" space) and are e entuall& absorbed

Ex> In summer if &ou don-t $ant it to be so "ot don-t $ear black clot"es because t"e& absorb muc" more "eat t"an lig"t colors> Same "appens $it" cars and arious ot"er ob2ects> ;lack : absorb all colors K"ite : reflect all colors *onductionJ t"e mo ement of "eat t"roug" a substance $it"out t"e mo ement of t"e substance itself

1# particles mo ing rapidl& 5# collide $it" neig"bors 7# temperature spreads t"roug"out t"e substance

Ex> If &ou $ant to make a fr&ing pan &ou use materials t"at are conducti e *on ectionJ t"e mo ement of "eat b& a fluid !li(uid) gas# because t"e fluid mo es !up#

Sea breezes !da&#J 1# air abo e land rises b& con ection because land "eats up er& fast so particles "eat up expand and float up 5# land becomes region of lo$ pressure 7# "ig" pressure air mo es to lo$ pressure region 1# "eat 5# densit& decreases because olume increases 7# it rises !buo&ant# F# "eats air abo e

1and breezes !nig"t#J opposite

UNIT F Ecolog& R .elations"ips in t"e biosp"ere 0.I?IN +ND E'01UTI0N 0% 1I%E ;iosp"ere ;iome : large ecos&stem !tropical rainforest# Ecos&stem : communit& C non@li ing !abiotic# factors *ommunit& : all t"e population in an area 4opulation : se eral indi iduals of t"e same species 0.?+NISM : one li ing t"ing 0rgan s&stems 0rgans Tissue : group of cells *ell : basis of life 0rganelles Molecules +toms *,+.+*TE.ISTI*S 0% 1I'IN? T,IN?S 1# made of cells 5# exc"ange matter & energ& $it" en ironment 7# reproduce F# respond to t"eir en ironment

E#regulate internal condition !"omeostasis# E'01UTI0N E olution is a process of gradual c"ange) in $"ic" t"e c"aracteristics of organisms c"ange slig"tl& eac" generation) resulting in noticeable c"ange o er man& generations> +# Mec"anism : "o$ it "appens : Gnatural selectionH !i# 0rganisms tend to reproduce be&ond t"eir resources !ii# T"ere is ariation $it"in a population !iii# Nature GselectsH $"ic" organisms sur i e !i # 0rganisms $it" beneficial c"aracteristics !GadaptationsH# reproduce and pass on t"ese adaptations to t"eir offspring ;# .esults !i# 4"&letic e olution ?radual c"ange in t"e c"aracteristics of a species o er man& generations !ii# Speciation T"e creation of ne$ species) as numbers of a population e ol e independentl& in different en ironments

;I0DI'E.SIT/ 1# ;acteria R single@celled prokar&ote !simple cells# 5# 4rotists R single@celled eukar&ote !complex cells) contain nucleus<# a# 4rotozoa R single@celled eukar&otic) "eterotrop"s !must eat# Ex> euglena b# +lgae R single@celled eukar&otic) autotrop"ic !self@feeding p"otos&nt"esis# Ex> ?reen algae 7# 4lants R can perform p"otos&nt"esis !use energ& from sun to make food# a# Mosses R don-t "a e proper roots b# %erns R "a e proper roots) produce spores) don-t "a e seeds c# *onifers R needle s"aped lea es and cones) GnakedH seeds Ex> Ge ergreensH pine trees d# %lo$ering plants R flo$ers $"ic" produce seeds) seeds in fruits Ex> %lo$ers and fruits F# %ungi R multicellular) "eterotrop"ic) do not "a e digesti e s&stem

Ex> Mus"rooms) molds E# +nimals a# *nidaria R one opening) tenticles Ex> *orals) 2ell&fis") anemones b# %lat$orms R flat bod& co ered $it" cilia !mo e t"roug" en ironment# Ex> 4lanarian c# Molusc R one coiled s"ell or t$o) t$o openings Ex> S(uid) octopus) clam) snail d# +nnelids R bod& encircled $it" man& rings Ex> Korms) leec" e# +rt"ropods R exo@skeleton) 2ointed appendages !i# *rustaceans R "ard outer skeleton !ii# Insects R O legs and 5 pairs of $ings !iii#+rac"nids R P legs) no $ings f# Ec"inoderms R gro$ arms back Ex> starfis" g# *artilaginous fis" R don@t "a e bones Ex> S"arks) ra&s "# ;on& fis" R scales) fins and gills) s$im bladders Ex> tuna i# +mp"ibians R li e in ,50 and land Ex> Salamander) frog 2# .eptiles R co ered $it" "ard) dr& scales) dr& eggs !ecot"erms) "eat from outside# Ex> snakes k# ;irds R co ered $it" feat"ers and $ings) endot"erms !"eat regulated# l# Mammals R "air& skin) milk Ex> *ap&bara

.E1+TI0NS,I4S IN E*0S/STEMS Ecolog& R stud& of relations"ips in t"e en ironment Ecos&stem R all t"e biotic and abiotic t"ings in an area ;iotic R li ing +biotic R non@li ing ,abitat R $"ere and organism li es !GaddressH# Nic"e R $"at an organism does !G2obH# S&mbiosis R relations"ips in ecos&stem 1# Mutualism C=C ;ot" organisms benefit Ex> %lo$er : insect gets food) reproduction !insect co ered in pollen goes to next plant# Ex> 4lant : bacteria get food) plant gets nitrogen 5# *ommensalism C=9

0ne benefits ot"er is not affected Ex> .emora attac"ed to s"ark 7# 4arasitism C=@ !parasite = "ost# 0ne benefited ot"er "armed Ex> Tape$orm) guinea $orms F# 4redation C=@ 0ne predator!C# ot"er pre& !@# Ex> %ox eat bunn& %10K 0% M+TTE. +ND ENE.?/ IN T,E ;I0S4,E.E Matter R an&t"ing t"at "as mass and takes up space Energ& R t"e abilit& to cause c"ange +utotrop"=producer R an organism t"at produces its o$n food 4"otos&nt"esis R a c"emical reaction performed b& plants C algae in $"ic" energ& from t"e sun is used to con ert *05 C ,50 : glucoseCox&gen ,eterotrop"=consumer R an organism t"at needs to feed of ot"ers .espiration R t"e process $"ere ox&genCenerg& is taken in and *05 and ot"er $astes are released ,erbi ore R an animal t"at feeds off plants *arni ore R an animal t"at feeds off ot"er animals 0mni ore R an animal t"at feeds off ot"er animalsCplants Sca enger R an animal t"at feeds off dead pre& 4redator R t"e animal $"ic" captures t"e pre& 4re& R t"e animal $"ic" is being captured b& t"e predator Detritus R plant=animal $aste of remains Decomposer R li e off detritus M+TTE. .E*/*1ED=ENE.?/ N0T Energ& is e entuall& con erted into "eat $"ic" is lost in space so t"e sun produces more "eat> 0n t"e ot"er "and matter is al$a&s being used b& some organism $"ic" $ill continue on into anot"er and $ill create a c"ain> Main organisms for matter R decomposers Main organisms for energ& R plants %ood *"ain %ood Keb

4&ramid of Numbers!animals#

4&ramid of energ&

*arbon *&cle : t"e c"emical c"anges in $"ic" organic !carbon containing# compounds are c"anged from one to anot"er

Detritus !non@li ing organic matter# eaten b& decomposers

404U1+TI0N D/N+MI*S 1# 6uadrat Sampling 5# *apture@mark@recapture Ex> +rea of (uadrant R OAO cm5 N : n1!x#n5 5 +rea of total s(uare R O>F m n7 OAOcm5 x 33331m5333 : >9OAO m5 N : E9 !x# O9 19999 cm5 5O 7P>O lentils : 3333x3333 N : 11E>7P people >9OAOm5 O>Fm5 7OEF>F lentils O>F m5 N : total population size N1 : animals captured) marked and released N5 : total number of animals recaptured N7 : number of recaptured animals t"at "a e t"e mark

4opulation size ;irt" rate mo ing into Immigration a countr& Deat" rate Emmigration mo ing out of a countr&

1inear gro$t" @ it gro$s b& t"e same amount in eac" time step Exponential gro$t" R rapid gro$t" *arr&ing capacit& R amount of species a certain area can "old D&namic e(uilibrium R $"en t"e ecos&stem "as reac"ed its carr&ing capacit&

*arr&ing *apacit&

D&namic e(uilibrium

.apid=exponential gro$t" Slo$ gro$t"

Important e ents 1# +griculture !19999 &ears ago# 5# Industrial re olution

;I0MES 0% T,E K0.1D ;I0ME Taiga !boreal forest# *1IM+TE) S0I1 @coniferous forest !pine trees# @$ater log soil @long se ere $inters) $armer $eter @dense soil) ric" in "umus!t"ick# @"ot in summer @cold in $inter IM40.T+NT 41+NTS) +NIM+1S @l&nx @sno$ "are @caribou @s(uirrels) mice) rabbits) deer and bear @birds !blue 2a&# @bobcat) moose) mountain@lions) $ol es @plants!lic"ens) mosses) oak) maple tree and $alnut tree @ bison @insects @birds @prairie dogs @ferrets @$"eat @r&e @$ild flo$ers @sunflo$ers @droug"t resistant flo$ers @scorpions @arid region $it" sparse to almost nonexistent plant life @ egetation in deserts depends on precipitation le els @more rainfall!s"rubs) droug"t resistant trees# @less rainfall!scattered plant life) bare ground# @driest deserts) drifting sand dunes!no life at all# @cactus!spines)

Temperate forest

?rassland

@"ot summer @cold $inter @5E@AES precipitation=&ear @less t"an 19@1E trees="ectare @soil $it" "umus compost

Desert

@less t"an 5Ecm of precipitation annuall&

Tropical forest

@$arm temperature $et @599cm rainfall @long summer da&s @s"ort $inter lig"t @temp> cold @t"in top soil @permafrost !top soil al$a&s frozen# 4opulatio n

Tundra

p"otos&nt"etic s&stems) $ax& coating reduce $ater loss# @kangaroo rat) co&otes) "a$ks) o$ls) road runners) snakes) lizards @monek&s) snakes) birds @cannop&) ferns) ines @s"allo$@rooted grasses @small plants

Tec"nolog &

I : 4 !x# + !x# T
Impact on en ironment

+ffluence !ric"ness#

Ecological %ootprint 1# %ood 5# Kater 7# Stuff F# Transportation E# Energ&