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MarcoFrascari was born in Italyin 1945. He received a Dottore in Architetturafrom the Istituto Universitariodi Architetturadi He practiced architecVenezia (I.U.A.V.). ture in Verona. He is the recipient of the M.S. in Architecture from the Universityof Cincinnati and the Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania, where his dissertation was on the Sortes Architectiiin the eighteenth-century Veneto. He was a member of the architecture faculty at the Universityof Pennsylvania until 1986. He is currentlya faculty member at the Georgia Institute of Technology and practices architecture in Atlanta. His design for Ca' Venierdei Leoni was selected for exhibitation at the ThirdInternationalExhibition of Architecture at the Biennale in Venice. He is now writing a book on the architecture and technology of Carlo Scarpa. Contemporaryarchitecture is almost entirely tasteless.1 Architecturaltaste has been ruled out by the moral standards of the Modern Movement. This has, I think, resulted in a meaningless architecture. As a reaction to the buildings presented under the functional ethics of International Style architectural expression, the Post-Modern Condition presents an approach grounded in the generation of a new "morality"for architecture. This "morality"stresses the visual components of signification. This tendency results, paradoxically, from the nefarious puritan ideology of the Modern Movement, which evolved into the visually dominated manipulation of meanings proposed by the Post-Modern Condition of architecture. Both the Style and the Condition strip away from architecture any pleasure to be had in either its use or conception. Such architectural products are rich in voluptuous visual processes of signification, but are completely bereft of tactile pleasures (the tactile means of signification) that is, "taste." And taste and tacility, as will be shown below, are closely related. (Fig. 2) Characteristic of any theoretical work is the confrontation with the use and the abuse of terms, i.e., language games. The results of such play of terms can lead to pleasant discoveries. Phenomenological language games do not necessarily reflect linguistic or geographical boundaries, but ratherenrich the taste for knowledge. The key terms under scrutiny in the specific game joined here are "taste" and its related intellectual "pleasure." The latter begins in the tactile origin of taste and culminates in the interwoven ramifications of the architectural and culinary realms of knowledge.2 The rigorous design moralityimposed by the formfunction polarityof the Modern Movement has reduced architecture to its untouchable structural and functional bones. For example, a completely different sensation is evoked when one rubs the naked hand across a marble column as opposed to rubbing it across a Miesian "I"beam. The ethical stance of both the Modernand the Post-Modern theories aims to produce buildings that "look good" over a predetermined life-span. In this sense, their built products are similar to another set of products generated under the spell of modern times: the edibles produced by fast-food chains. These look like the real thing, but they have been designed to be gulped down. They are a feast for the eyes but there is no possibility, no reason, to take the time and pleasure to taste them. In other words, the limited temporalityof contemporary architectural production, a

Thispaper proposes an appreciation of architecture from the standpoint of taste and tactility. The two sensitivities, taste and tactility, are etymologically related and prior to our own time were given wide credibilityas importantgenerators of knowledge and wisdom. The conclusion is drawn that taste, as a theoretical analogy, can have important consequences for the reciprocal acts of constructing and construing architecture. The demise of taste as a legitimate theoretical analogy for architecture is traced to the great intellectual revolutions of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At that time this component of human knowledge was demoted to a faculty which " "presents 'sensibility, but not reason.' This article examines and discusses those various positions which, since the eighteenth century,attempted to indicate the connections between taste, primarilyarticulated as gastronomy, and architecture, particularly architectural theory. It concludes in this regard by constructing a link between the surrealism of Salvador Dali and the "abductive" reasoning postulates of the American pragmatic philosopher Charles S. Peirce. Recognition of this linkage has clear implications for how we make and understand architecture.

2 Cake in the form of Zaha Hadid's Hong Kong Peak, winning entry for the Hong Kong Peak competition Fall 1986 JAE 40/1

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visual architecture produced sub specie utilitatis, has obviated the search for tactile pleasure in architecture, thereby halting the production of a tangible architecis rather by sensitivity and an intuitive understanding that he is persuaded ... just as we immediately recognize the taste of bread and wine with our tongue."4 In the preface to his Metaphisica of 1638, Campanella contrasted knowledge based on reasoning with a form of knowledge based on immediate perception. The former works like "an arrow which strikes a far away target without getting a real 'taste' of it (absque gustu)," whereas the latter is a form of knowledge "per tactum its inner touch in great gentleness). from Plautus: 'If I had invited you home (in aedem) for lunch.' Hence we also have the word 'edifice' because originally a building was made for eating (ad eden-

ture sub species aeternitatis.

dum factum)."6

Like every other subject or object of interpretation, architecture may be studied from two different points of view. One may describe it either by comparing the means of sign production and classification used in an ideologically dominant discipline without any reference to the origin and nature of both, or one may regard it from an analogical point of view by tracing the causes and the origin of the analogy, thereby creating a new productive understanding. This is an important part of the language game as it is "played" below. In the tradition of Western culture, sight and hearing have been given predominant consideration. Taste is considered the lowest of the senses in the cognitive process, a sense without moral value, an inferior sense. In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle points out that taste is the lowest among the human senses, the one which relates us back to animals. In his lectures on aesthetics Hegel opposes taste, a practical and consumptive approach to objects, to the visual and acoustic senses which rule our conception of the theoretical frameworks. However, in Greek and Latin, "taste" (gustus, sapor) is a term related etymologically and semantically with the act of generating knowledge. The highest form of knowledge, sapienza, i.e., wisdom, is related to taste (sapor) as is clearly shown in an etymology written by Isidor of Seville: "The word sapiens (a wise man) is said to be derived from the word sapor (taste) for just as the sense of taste is able to discern the flavors of different foods, so too is the wise man able to discern objects and their causes since he recognizes each one as distinct and is able to judge them with an instinct for truth."3 Tommaso Campanella recognized the importance of the tactile dimension of taste in a passage in his Theologia, of 1613-24 where he compares tactus and gustus. In this passage, the taste metaphor is used to indicate a peculiar form of immediate knowledge. "It is not by deliberation that man judges whether a spirit is a devil or an angel... It
Fall 1986 JAE 40/1

intrinsecum in magna suavitate" (through

Isidor's interpretation is probably incorrect-edibles and edifices are not the its same etymologically speaking-but value is in the identification of a dominant ideology, to which the gastronomical analogy adds the understanding of the acts of signification involved in the architectural construing. Focusing on the concept of taste, one is able, through this theoretical analogy, to indicate a new direction for architectural production. Taste, a tactile procedure of sign production and interpretation, is the common factor existing between architecture and gastronomy in generating a well established-but usually regarded as fanciful-analogy. The arrival on the architectural scene of the first Moderns in the seventeenth century (see Joseph Rykwert's The First Moderns for a discussion of the emergence of Modernism in this era)7 began the alienation of "taste" from its tactile dimension, giving it a negative connotation. Ever since then, "taste" has been invalidated as a possible rule for architectural production. Understanding the denotative and connotative dimensions of taste in architectural design, however, can lead to a reevaluation of its role within the design process. The analogy between gastronomy and architecture is not only Isidor's fanciful etymological interpretation, but has been used many times. Ben Jonson, an English playwright who disliked architects, used the framework of the analogy in one of his masques to criticize subtly Inigo Jones and Jones' belief in the cultural predominance of the architect. Jonson's masque portrays the masterbuilder as a preposterous mastercook. In discussing the evolution from the deductive procedure of judgment to the inferential procedure of taste, Robert Klein8 traces the changes in the understanding of the idea of taste and singles out the seventeenth-century Venetian notion of productive judgment-productive taste-an inductive procedure based on pleasure. Productive taste is a form of knowledge which results from the chiasmatic relationship between knowledge which takes pleasure and pleasure which knows.

In discussing the "visual versus the tactile" approach in architecture, Kenneth Frampton points to the large number of processes of interpretation involved in the appreciation of the built environment. Those processes are based on signs registered by "the labile body." They are: ". . the intensity of light, darkness, heat and cold, the feeling of humidity, the aroma of material; the almost palpable presence of masonry as the body senses its own confinement; the momentum of an induced gait, and the relative inertia of the body as it traverses the floor; the echoing resonance of our own footfall."5 In one of his Fragments (1797), Novalis states: "a body is to space as the visible is to light." The tactile "measure," the body's understanding of the signs in space, is the basis for taste and is the dimension which enables us to see whether there is a tasteful correspondence of general relations of signification among the "architectural facts" producing a non-trivial architecture. Furthermore, taste implies creative inferences-a productive approach. This inferential act is an interpretative process which singles out the appropriate solution from the existing architectural facts. The processes of interpretation, the result of architectural expression, are the summation of the acts of dwelling. Architecture as totality is the representation of the expression of dwelling. Resorting again to the etymological visions of Isidor of Seville, one can clearly articulate the tasteful and tactile origin of architecture: ".. . the ancients used the word aedes (i.e. dwelling, in reference to any edifice). Some think that this word was derived from a form of the term for 'eating' edendo, citing by way of example a line

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ture, garments, carriages, and also all the unnecessary things, the bizarre caprices devised by luxuryand fashion and quite often by the corrupted taste."10 To understand the problem posed by this theoretical framework,one might usefully list some of the definitions given to "taste" and single out the different questions raised within each area. Duringthe Enlightenment, "taste" was defined as: "a judgment based on strict rules," or as "a feeling completely relative to the person who expresses it. It is not standard," or as "a faculty of the understanding in judging works of art. It is based on a standard." Sometimes "taste" was defined as: "an extemporaneous judgment without attending to rules or reason," and again as "an impulsive tendency of the soul towards the true good." Taste is a faculty which presents "sensibility, but not reason" or "quick intellectual discernment plus delicacy of feelings.""1Removed from its tactile roots, taste becomes a confusing, unnecessary and meaningless tool. Taste complicated the solution of design problems. The only sphere of influence left to taste was the realm of gastronomical artifacts where a negation of the tactile dimension of aesthetic enjoyment was quite impossible. Limitingtaste to the process and the place of eating renewed its position in architecture; again, the dining room becomes the phenomenological origin of architecture. The wonders of a cuisine and its physical expressions in the dining room were the tasteful realms of Marie-Antonine Careme, the first and in many ways the most importantof all the French chefs. Careme has been labelled the architect of French cuisine. (Figs. 3 &4) This label is not only a metaphorical usage pointing out Careme's predominant role in the rise of French gastronomy, but indicates also his interest in architecture and his search for the relationship existing between the two disciplines. Careme, the sixth child of an impoverished stonemason, was abandoned in the street at the age of eleven. He found his way to the back door of a public eating house, where he began his career to become one of the most important chefs de cuisine. In this position he could afford to turn down a permanent job offer from Czar Alexander of Russia, for whom he had catered a series of feasts. Careme, however, did prepare a book of designs for landmarkshe thought necessary for improving the architectural environment of Petersburg and dedicated it to the Czar. (Figs. 1, 5 &6) Architecture
Fall 1986 JAE 40/1

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6 M.-A.. Careme's design for a monument in Petersburg for the Czar

In the eighteenth century, discussions of taste attempted to define the relationship between the perceiver and the work of art, thus generating a theoretical framework for the production of artistic texts in a contextual situation. Francesco Milizia,an architectural theoretician with "FirstModern" Rigorist9attitudes, shows the pro-

cess of removing taste from the tactile realm in one of his definitions: "Taste ... this name is given to that understanding which feels and judges of natural and artificialworks. In the beginning, taste was for judging the goodness of food, then for judging the goodness of books, statues, paintings, buildings, furni-

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to solve their ill-defined problems in a non-trivialmanner. Taste is defined by Jacques-Francois Blondel, an eighteenthcentury French architecturaltheoretician, as the "fruitof reasoning," a sequence of appreciation and fast judgment by which one achieves a nontrivialresult. It is the person of taste, goes about food preparation. Taste is thus a reasoning which suggests what something may be; it is a knowledge which does not know as opposed to a knowledge which knows. The Surrealists were not particularlyinterested in architecturalexpression, but Salvador Dali is one of the rare exceptions. Inspired by the architecture of the Art Nouveau, Dali pointed out the importance of edible edifices for creating a new poetic dimension of architecture. Dali relates the origin of pleasure in architecture to childhood narcissism. This is a stage in human development when objects are interpretedonly from the viewpoint of oral satisfaction. The tactile dimension of taste expresses a desire to learn through a cannibalism; that is, to incorporate the outside world into oneself. This productive inference is based on instinct, just as the incessant oral tasting of childhood is an instinctive part of cognitive appropriation.In Surrealistic architecture, Dali points out that "... Art Nouveau ... incarnates the most tangible and delirious aspiration of hypermaterialism.An illustrationof this apparent paradox is to be found in the comparison made between an Art-Nouveauhouse assimilated into a cake and a pastrycook's ornamental tart... a noneuphemistic allusion is achieved to the nutritious, edible character of these houses which are nothing less than the first edible houses and the first and only heterogenetic buildings whose existence verifies that most urgent and necessary 'function' which is so importantto the amorous imagination; namely, the ability, in as real a way as possible, to eat the object of one's desire."13 The surrealistic approach implies a creative inference, a productive approach based on surprise and wonder, in an attempt to generate new ideas. Wonder is at the basis of any childhood edible discovery. Generating a new concept of image, this idea of wonder and surprising facts was a permanent concern of Surrealists. Pierre
same procedure by which a gourmet, a

7 Exemplary architectural cakes by M.-A. Careme

was one of Careme's main interests. He carefully studied the architectural monuments of the past and designed elaborate table decorations called pieces montees (mounted pieces) as an outlet for his architectural passion. (Fig. 7) Those pieces were rotundas, temples, columns and arches, constructed with sugar, icing and pastry dough. Each of these pieces was carefully designed with an architect's eye, for Careme considered confectionery to be "architecture's main branch." At the beginning of the nineteenth century, in his fifteenth aphorism of the twenty written as preamble to his discusAnthelme Brillat-Savarin states: "On (One can learn to become a cook, but one must be born knowing how to roast). A century later August Perret rephrased this sentence and used it as his own first
aphorism in Contribution a une theorie de I'architecture, stating: "On devient ingenieur, mais on nait architecte" (One can devient cuisinier, mais on nait rotisseur" sion of The Physiology of Taste, Jean

the conjectural nature of architecture and gastronomy. The cook and the engineer can learn their formulas and procedures, whereas the architect and the rotisseur rely on symptoms, clues, and surprising facts to performtheir own tasks using interpretativeprocedures. They deal with processes of design which cannot be methodologically explained; that is, they cannot be reduced to quantifiable recipes or formulas. Architecture and gastronomy employ similar procedures of production. As James Fergusson pointed out, the process by which a hut built to house a holy image is refined into a temple, or a covered markettranformed into a basilica, is the same as that by which a boiled neck

of mutton is refined into cotelettes a I'Imperiale or a grilled fowl made into a poulet a la Marengo.12 In both disciplines taste,

learn to become an engineer, but one must be born an architect). The concept embodied in both aphorisms singles out
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an interpretativeprocedure, is at the base of sign production. In their doing and making, both disciplines face ill-defined problems and solve them using conjectural procedures. Judging by the signs, both disciplines apply the '"'rule" of taste

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Reverdy,Apollinare's friend, wrote in Nord-Sud (1918): "The image is pure creation of spirit. It cannot be born of a comparison but of the bringing together of two realities which are more or less remote. The more distant and just the relationship of these conjoined realities, the stronger the imagethe more emotive power and poetic reality it will have."14 In working out his semiotic doctrine Charles S. Pierce, the American pragmatist philosopher, deals with the inferential and iconic creation of images, an act which brings together realities which are more or less remote. Pierce's classification of inferential reasoning differs from most taxonomies of modes of reasoning. He adds a novel type of inference, "abduction", to the traditionaltypology of induction and deduction. Abduction is concerned with the reasoning necessary for adopting hypotheses or new ideas. It refers to "all the operations by which theories and concepts are engendered."15 The structure of this process of reasoning
is:

with the realityof external objects and not with the ideal picture. This power operates on the similarities with respect to form, figure, location and function. Abduction is a productive inference and an instinctive activity. Pierce recognizes obtaining food as a productive and instinctive activity. He sees two kinds of instinct ruling human life: One is selfish, the other social. The social leads to the development of reason, whereas the selfish leads to the development of useful arts such as gastronomy and architecture.20 Abduction is based on the selfish instinct and is a cognitive process. It generates a relationship between a cognitive representation and the process of a known
activity.21

Notes 1 A shorter and less surrealistic version of this article was presented at the Ninth Annual SSA Meeting in Bloomington, Indiana in October, 1984 2 The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology Oxford University Press (London) 1966, p. 905 gives the following etymology of taste, from teist which is "examining by touch, try, test ... experience or try the flavour of... have a particular flavour ... OF taster (mod. Fr. tater, It. tastare ... a blend of L. tangere touch (cf. TACT) and gustare taste (cf. GUSTO)." 3 This passage is a translation of: "Sapiens dictus a sapore: quia sicut gustus aptus est ad discretionem saporis ciborum, sic sapiens ad disconoscentiam rerum atque causarum; quod unumquodque dinoscat, atque sensus veritatis discernat." Isidor of Seville Isidori Hispalenensis Episcopi Etymologarium sive (seventh century) Oxford University Press (London) 1911, vol. 10, p. 240 4 This passage is a translation of: "Non enim discurrendo cognoscit vir spiritualis utrum daemon si an angelus ... sibi suadet ... aliquid; sed quondam quasi tactu et gustu et intuitiva notitia . . . quemodmodum lingua statim discernimus saporem vini et panis." Campanella, Tommaso Theologicum Liber XIV(1613-24), Magia e Grazia (Romano Amerio, ed.) Linceii (Rome) 1958, pp. 147-58 5 Frampton, Kenneth "Towards a Critical Regionalism" in The Anti-Aesthetic (Hal Foster, ed.) Bay Press (Port Townsend, WA) 1983, p. 28 6 This passage is a translation of: "Omne aedificium antqui aedem appellaverunt. Alii aedem ab edendo quiddam sumpsissee nomen existimant, dantes exemplum de Plauto: si vocassem vos in aedem ad prandium:' Hinc et aedificium, eo quod fueritprius ad edendum factum." Isidor of Seville, op. cit., vol. 15, p. 32 7 Rykwert, Joseph The First Moderns MITPress (Cambridge, MA) 1979 8 Klein, Robert "Judgment and Taste in Cinquecento Art Theory", Form and Meaning Viking Press (New York) 1979, pp. 161-69 9 Rykwert, op. cit., p. 305 ff. discusses the relationship between Rigorism and architectural matters in the eighteenth century. 10 This passage is a translation of: "Gusto ... si e imprestato questo nome all'intendimento che sente e giudica del merito di opere naturali ed artificiali. Da principio non si ebbe gusto che per giudicare della bonta del cibo; si ebbe poi gusto per giudicare della bonta dei libri, delle statue, dei quadri, degli edifici, dei mobili, delle vesti, delle carrozze, e anche tutte le inutilita, delle bizzarie fantasticate dal lusso e dalla moda e speso dal gusto depravato." Milizia, Francesco Principij di Architettura Civile (1780) Majocchi (Milan) 1847, p. 76 11 Binni, Francesco Gusto e invenzione nel settecento inglese Argalia (Urbino) 1970, p. 75 12 See Collins, Peter Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture McGill University Press (Montreal) 1967 p. 167 13 Dali, Salvador "De la Beaute terrifiante et comestible de I'architecture modern style," Minotaur (December 1933). English translation in Architectural Design, 2/3 (1978), pp. 139-40 14 See Waldberg, Patrick Surrealism (London) 1966, p. 22 15 Pierce, Charles S. Collected Papers of Charles S. Pierce (1929-35) Harvard University Press (Cambridge, MA) 1965, 5.590 16 ibid., 5.189 17 ibid,. 6.475 18 Pierce is referring to the fifteenth- and sixteenth-century theories of fantasia [phantasy derives from the Greek phos (light)]. 19 Pierce, op. cit., 1.630 20 ibid., 7.378 21 See Ayim, Maryann "Retroduction: The Rational Instinct", in Transactions of the Charles S. Pierce Society, vol, X, no. 1 (Winter 1974) 22 Kahn, Louis, I. Notebooks (R. Wurman and E. Feldman, eds.) Falcon Press (Philadelphia) 1962, p. 91 Figure credits 1: Barry Lewis (A.A. Files) Fall 1986 JAE 40/1

"The surprising fact 'C' is observed. But if 'A'were true, 'C' would be a matter of course. "Hence there is reason to suspect that 'A'
is true."16

Deductive reasoning is based on the application of a general rule (B is C) to a particularcase (A is B) to obtain a result (A is C). Inductive reasoning is the inference of a general rule (B is A) from the specific cases (A's are B's) and results (A's are B's). Abductive reasoning is the inference of a case (An is Bn) from a rule and a result (A is C). Fromthis point of view, abduction is a highly productive procedure. New understandings are continually generated. A rotisseur understands when a piece of meat is perfectly cooked (a case) by inference from rule and results. That is practice. Pierce describes abduction as "the spontaneous conjecture of instinctive reason"17Reviving a Renaissance terminology, Pierce named this capacity the lume naturale (naturallight).18 He selected this name to indicate that humanity has the possibility of looking into the laws of nature without going through the painstaking procedures of the traditional inferences. Abduction "tries what il lume natu-

The relationship between the premises and the hypothetical conclusion is iconic in nature, since the facts observed in the beginning are in the final artifact.The chief contribution of the lume naturale is economic in nature; its task is to formulate hypotheses based on the tangible dimension of facts, things which can be expressed in icons, and which can also be the basis for the semiotic shaping of them into artifacts. In a process of "transformation," the tactile icon of the fact is embodied in the artifact, such as the enjoyment of eating a successful gourmet dish, or dwelling in a successful building. The task of abduction is to initiate this process of transformation. Deductive and inductive inferences-that is, visual inferences-do not help if they are not guided by abduction, a tactically generated inference. Deduction and induction aid in theorization. Abduction helps to produce within practice, since it is an inference based on the sign interpreted by the "labile body" in search of taste (sapor), or pleasure in discerning, that is sapienza. A poetic statement on architectural practice by Louis Kahn (the italics are mine) encapsulates this relationship between touch and the tangible dimensions of architecture, and the wonder of abductive inference. "Formcomes from Wonder. Wonder stems from our 'in touchness' with how we were made. One senses that nature records the process of how it was made. 'In touch with this record we are in Wonder. This wonder gives rise to knowledge. But knowledge is related to her knowledge and this relation gives a sense of order, a sense of how they inter-relatein a harmony that makes all things exist. From knowledge to sense of order we then wink to Wonder and say 'How am I doing, Wonder?' "22

rale can do."19It is a power concerned