Schaum's Outline of Abstract Algebra

CHAPTER 1

Sets

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we study the concept of sets. Specifically, we study the laws of operations with sets and Venn diagram representation of sets.

1.1 SETS

Any collection of objects as (a) the points of a given line segment, (b) the lines through a given point in ordinary space, (c) the natural numbers less than 10, (d) the five Jones boys and their dog, (e) the pages of this book … will be called a set or class. The individual points, lines, numbers, boys and dog, pages, … will be called elements of the respective sets. Generally, sets will be denoted by capital letters, and arbitrary elements of sets will be denoted by lowercase letters.

DEFINITION 1.1: Let A be the given set, and let p and q denote certain objects. When p is an element of A, we shall indicate this fact by writing p ∈ A; when both p and q are elements of A, we shall write p, q ∈ A instead of p ∈ A and q ∈ A; when q is not an element of A, we shall write q ∉ A.

Although in much of our study of sets we will not be concerned with the type of elements, sets of numbers will naturally appear in many of our examples and problems. For convenience, we shall now reserve

ℕ to denote the set of all natural numbers

ℤ to denote the set of all integers

ℚ to denote the set of all rational numbers

ℝ to denote the set of all real numbers

EXAMPLE 1.

(a) 1 ∈ ℕ and 205 ∈ ℕ since 1 and 205 are natural numbers; , −5 ∉ ℕ since and −5 are not natural numbers.

(b) The symbol ∈ indicates membership and may be translated as in, is in, are in, be in according to context. Thus, "Let r ∈ ℚ may be read as Let r be in ℚ and For any p, q ∈ ℤ may be read as For any p and q in ℤ." We shall at times write n ≠ 0 ∈ ℤ instead of n ≠ 0, n ∈ ℤ; also p ≠ 0, q ∈ ℤ instead of p, q ∈ ℤ with p ≠ 0.

The sets to be introduced here will always be well defined—that is, it will always be possible to determine whether any given object does or does not belong to the particular set. The sets of the first paragraph were defined by means of precise statements in words. At times, a set will be given in tabular form by exhibiting its elements between a pair of braces; for example,

A = {a} is the set consisting of the single element a.

B = {a, b} is the set consisting of the two elements a and b.

C = {1, 2, 3, 4} is the set of natural numbers less than 5.

K = {2, 4, 6,…} is the set of all even natural numbers.

L = {…, −15, −10, −5, 0, 5, 10, 15,…} is the set of all integers having 5 as a factor

The sets C, K, and L above may also be defined as follows:

C = {x : x ∈ ℕ, x < 5}

K = {x : x ∈ ℕ, x is even}

L = {x : x ∈ ℤ, x is divisible by 5}

Here each set consists of all objects x satisfying the conditions following the colon. See Problem 1.1.

1.2 EQUAL SETS

DEFINITION 1.2: When two sets A and B consist of the same elements, they are called equal and we shall write A = B. To indicate that A and B are not equal, we shall write A ≠ B.

EXAMPLE 2.

(i) When A = {Mary, Helen, John} and B = {Helen, John, Mary}, then A = B. Note that a variation in the order in which the elements of a set are tabulated is immaterial.

(ii) When A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 2, 3, 2, 4}, then A = B since each element of A is in B and each element of B is in A. Note that a set is not changed by repeating one or more of its elements.

(iii) When A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then A ≠ B since 3 and 4 are elements of B but not A.

1.3 SUBSETS OF A SET

DEFINITION 1.3: Let S be a given set. Any set A, each of whose elements is also an element of S, is said to be contained in S and is called a subset of S.

EXAMPLE 3. The sets A = {2}, B = {1, 2, 3}, and C = {4, 5} are subsets of S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Also, D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = S is a subset of S.

The set E = {1, 2, 6} is not a subset of S since 6 ∈ E but 6 ∉ S.

DEFINITION 1.4: Let A be a subset of S. If A ≠S, we shall call A a proper subset of S and write A ⊂ S (to be read "A is a proper subset of S or A is properly contained in S").

More often and in particular when the possibility A = S is not excluded, we shall write A ⊆ S (to be read "A is a subset of S or A is contained in S"). Of all the subsets of a given set S, only S itself is improper, that is, is not a proper subset of S.

EXAMPLE 4. For the sets of Example 3 we may write A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S, C ⊆ S, D ⊆ S, E ⊈ S. The precise statements, of course, are A ⊂ S, B ⊂ S, C ⊂ S, D = S, E ⊈ S.

Note carefully that ∈ connects an element and a set, while ⊂ and ⊆ connect two sets. Thus, 2 ∈ S and {2} ⊂ S are correct statements, while 2 ⊂ S and {2} ∈ S are incorrect.

DEFINITION 1.5: Let A be a proper subset of S with S consisting of the elements of A together with certain elements not in A. These latter elements, i.e., {x : x ∈ S, x ∉ A}, constitute another proper subset of S called the complement of the subset A in S.

EXAMPLE 5. For the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} of Example 3, the complement of A = {2} in S is F = {1, 3, 4, 5}. Also, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {4, 5} are complementary subsets in S.

Our discussion of complementary subsets of a given set implies that these subsets be proper. The reason is simply that, thus far, we have been depending upon intuition regarding sets; that is, we have tactily assumed that every set must have at least one element. In order to remove this restriction (also to provide a complement for the improper subset S in S), we introduce the empty or null set ∅.

DEFINITION 1.6: The empty or the null set ∅ is the set having no elements.

There follows readily

(i) ∅ is a subset of every set S.

(ii) ∅ is a proper subset of every set S ≠ ∅.

EXAMPLE 6. The subsets of S = {a, b, c} are ∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, and {a, b, c}. The pairs of complementary subsets are

There is an even number of subsets and, hence, an odd number of proper subsets of a set of 3 elements. Is this true for a set of 303 elements? of 303,000 elements?

1.4 UNIVERSAL SETS

DEFINITION 1.7: If U ≠ ∅ is a given set whose subsets are under consideration, the given set will often be referred to as a universal set.

EXAMPLE 7. Consider the equation

(x + 1)(2x − 3)(3x + 4)(x² − 2)(x² + 1) = 0

whose solution set, that is, the set whose elements are the roots of the equation, is provided the universal set is the set of all complex numbers. However, if the universal set is ℝ, the solution set is . What is the solution set if the universal set is ℚ? is ℤ? is ℕ?

If, on the contrary, we are given two sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, and nothing more, we have little knowledge of the universal set U of which they are subsets. For example, U might be {1, 2, 3, …, 7}, {x : x ∈ ℕ, x ≤ 1000}, ℕ, ℤ, …. Nevertheless, when dealing with a number of sets A, B, C,…, we shall always think of them as subsets of some universal set U not necessarily explicitly defined. With respect to this universal set, the complements of the subsets A, B, C, … will be denoted by A′, B′, C′, … respectively.

1.5 INTERSECTION AND UNION OF SETS

DEFINITION 1.8: Let A and B be given sets. The set of all elements which belong to both A and B is called the intersection of A and B. It will be denoted by A ∩ B (read either as "the intersection of A and B or as A cap B"). Thus,

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

DEFINITION 1.9: The set of all elements which belong to A alone or to B alone or to both A and B is called the union of A and B. It will be denoted by A ∪ B (read either as "the union of A and B or as A cup B"). Thus,

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A alone or x ∈ B alone or x ∈ A ∩ B}

More often, however, we shall write

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

The two are equivalent since every element of A ∩ B is an element of A.

EXAMPLE 8. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3, 5, 8, 10}; then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10} and A ∩ B = {2, 3}.

See also Problems 1.2(––1).4.

DEFINITION 1.10: Two sets A and B will be called disjoint if they have no element in common, that is, if A ∩ B = ∅.

In Example 6, any two of the sets {a}, {b}, {c} are disjoint; also the sets {a, b} and {c}, the sets {a, c} and {b}, and the sets {b, c} and {a} are disjoint.

1.6 VENN DIAGRAMS

The complement, intersection, and union of sets may be pictured by means of Venn diagrams. In the diagrams below the universal set U is represented by points (not indicated) in the interior of a rectangle, and any of its non-empty subsets by points in the interior of closed curves. (To avoid confusion, we shall agree that no element of U is represented by a point on the boundary of any of these curves.) In Fig. 1-1(a), the subsets A and B of U satisfy A ⊂ B; in Fig. 1-1(b), A ∩ B = ∅; in Fig. 1-1(c), A and B have at least one element in common so that A ∩ B ≠ ∅.

Suppose now that the interior of U, except for the interior of A, in the diagrams below are shaded. In each case, the shaded area will represent the complementary set A′ of A in U.

The union A ∪ B and the intersection A ∩ B of the sets A and B of Fig. 1-1(c) are represented by the shaded area in Fig. 1-2(a) and (b), respectively. In Fig. 1-2(a), the unshaded area represents (A ∪ B)′, the complement of A ∪ B in U; in Fig. 1-2(b), the unshaded area represents (A ∩ B)′. From these diagrams, as also from the definitions of ∩ and ∪, it is clear that A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

See Problems 1.5–1.7.

Fig. 1-1

Fig. 1-2

1.7 OPERATIONS WITH SETS

In addition to complementation, union, and intersection, which we shall call operations with sets, we define:

DEFINITION 1.11: The difference A − B, in that order, of two sets A and B is the set of all elements of A which do not belong to B, i.e.,

A − B = {x : x ∈ A, x ∉ B}

In Fig. 1-3, A − B is represented by the shaded area and B − A by the cross-hatched area. There follow

A − B = A ∩ B′ = B′ − A′

A − B = ∅ if and only if A ⊆ B

A − B = B − A if and only if A = B

A − B = A if and only if A ∩ B = ∅

Fig. 1-3

EXAMPLE 9. Prove: (a) A − B = A ∩ B′ = B′ − A′; (b) A − B = ∅ if and only if A ⊆ B; (c) A − B = A if and only if A ∩ B = ∅.

(a)

(b) Suppose A – B = ∅. Then, by (a), A ∩ B′ = ∅, i.e., A and B′ are disjoint. Now B and B′ are disjoint; hence, since B ∪ B′ = U, we have A ⊆ B.

Conversely, suppose A ⊆ B. Then A ∩ B′ = ∅ and A − B = ∅.

(c) Suppose A − B = A. Then A ∩ B′ = A, i.e., A ⊂ B′. Hence, by (b),

A ∩ (B′)′ = A ∩ B = ∅

Conversely, suppose A ∩ B = ∅. Then A − B′ ∅, A ⊆ B′, A ∩ B′ = A and A − B = A.

In Problems 5–7, Venn diagrams have been used to illustrate a number of properties of operations with sets. Conversely, further possible properties may be read out of these diagrams. For example, Fig. 1-3 suggests

(A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B)

It must be understood, however, that while any theorem or property can be illustrated by a Venn diagram, no theorem can be proved by the use of one.

EXAMPLE 10. Prove (A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).

The proof consists in showing that every element of (A − B) ∪ (B − A) is an element of (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) and, conversely, every element of (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) is an element of (A − B) ∪ (B − A). Each step follows from a previous definition and it will be left for the reader to substantiate these steps.

Table 1-1 Laws of Operations with Sets

Let x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (B − A); then x ∈ A − B or x ∈ B − A. If x ∈ A − B, then x ∈ A but x ∉ B; if x ∈ B − A, then x ∈ B but x ∉ A. In either case, x ∈ A ∪ B but x ∉ A ∩ B. Hence, x ∈ (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) and

(A − B) ∪ (B − A) ⊆ (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B)

Conversely, let x ∈ (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B); then x ∈ A ∪ B but x ∉ A ∩ B. Now either x ∈ A but x ∉ B, i.e., x ∈ A − B, or x ∈ B but x ∉ A, i.e., x ∈ B − A. Hence, x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (B − A) and (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) ⊆ (A − B) ∪ (B − A).

Finally, (A − B) ∪ (B − A) ⊆ (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) and (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) ⊆ (A − B) ∪ (B − A) imply (A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).

For future reference we list in Table 1-1 the more important laws governing operations with sets. Here the sets A, B, C are subsets of U the universal set.

See Problems 1.8–1.16.

1.8 THE PRODUCT SET

DEFINITION 1.12: Let A = {a, b} and B = {b, c, d}. The set of distinct ordered pairs

C = {(a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (b, b), (b, c), (b, d)}

in which the first component of each pair is an element of A while the second is an element of B, is called the product set C = A × B (in that order) of the given sets. Thus, if A and B are arbitrary sets, we define

A × B = {(x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B}

EXAMPLE 11. Identify the elements of X = {1, 2, 3} as the coordinates of points on the x-axis (see Fig. 1-4), thought of as a number scale, and the elements of Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} as the coordinates of points on the y-axis, thought of as a number scale. Then the elements of X × Y are the rectangular coordinates of the 12 points shown. Similarly, when X = Y = ℕ, the set X × Y are the coordinates of all points in the first quadrant having integral coordinates.

Fig. 1-4

1.9 MAPPINGS

Consider the set H = {h1, h2, h3, …, h8} of all houses on a certain block of Main Street and the set C = {c1, c2, c3,…, c39} of all children living in this block. We shall be concerned here with the natural association of each child of C with the house of H in which the child lives. Let us assume that this results in associating c1 with h2, c2 with h5, c3 with h2, c4 with h5, c5 with h8,…, c39 with h3. Such an association of or correspondence between the elements of C and H is called a mapping of C into H. The unique element of H associated with any element of C is called the image of that element (of C) in the mapping.

Now there are two possibilities for this mapping: (1) every element of H is an image, that is, in each house there lives at least one child; (2) at least one element of H is not an image, that is, in at least one house there live no children. In the case (1), we shall call the correspondence a mapping of C onto H. Thus, the use of onto instead of into calls attention to the fact that in the mapping every element of H is an image. In the case (2), we shall call the correspondence a mapping of C into, but not onto, H. Whenever we write "α is a mapping of A into B" the possibility that α may, in fact, be a mapping of A onto B is not excluded. Only when it is necessary to distinguish between cases will we write either "α is a mapping of A onto B or α is a mapping of A into, but not onto, B."

A particular mapping α of one set into another may be defined in various ways. For example, the mapping of C into H above may be defined by listing the ordered pairs

α = {(c1, h2), (c2, h5), (c3, h2), (c4, h5), (c5, h8),…, (c39, h3)}

It is now clear that α is simply a certain subset of the product set C × H of C and H. Hence, we define

DEFINITION 1.13: A mapping of a set A into a set B is a subset of A × B in which each element of A occurs once and only once as the first component in the elements of the subset.

DEFINITION 1.14: In any mapping α of A into B, the set A is called the domain and the set B is called the co-domain of α. If the mapping is onto, B is also called the range of α; otherwise, the range of α is the proper subset of B consisting of the images of all elements of A.

A mapping of a set A into a set B may also be displayed by the use of → to connect associated elements.

EXAMPLE 12. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2}. Then

α : a → 1, b → 2, c → 2

Fig. 1-5

is a mapping of A onto B (every element of B is an image) while

β : 1 → a, 2 → b

is a mapping of B into, but not onto, A (not every element of A is an image).

In the mapping α, A is the domain and B is both the co-domain and the range. In the mapping β, B is the domain, A is the co-domain, and C = {a, b} ⊂ A is the range.

When the number of elements involved is small, Venn diagrams may be used to advantage. Fig. 1-5 displays the mappings α and β of this example.

A third way of denoting a mapping is discussed in

EXAMPLE 13. Consider the mapping of α of ℕ into itself, that is, of ℕ into ℕ,

α : 1 → 3, 2 → 5, 3 → 7, 4 → 9,…

or, more compactly,

α : n → 2n + 1, n ∈ ℕ

Such a mapping will frequently be defined by

α(1) = 3, α(2) = 5, α(3) = 7, α(4) = 9,…

or, more compactly, by

α(n) = 2n + 1, n ∈ ℕ

Here ℕ is the domain (also the co-domain) but not the range of the mapping. The range is the proper subset M of ℕ given by

M = {x : x = 2n + 1, n ∈ ℕ}

or

M = {x : x ∈ ℕ, x is odd}

Mappings of a set X into a set Y, especially when X and Y are sets of numbers, are better known to the reader as functions. For instance, defining X = ℕ and Y = M in Example 13 and using f instead of α, the mapping (function) may be expressed in functional notation as

(i) y = f(x) = 2x + 1

We say here that y is defined as a function of x. It is customary nowadays to distinguish between function and function of. Thus, in the example, we would define the function f by

f = {(x, y) : y = 2x + 1, x ∈ X}

or

f = {(x, 2x + 1) : x ∈ X}

Fig. 1-6

that is, as the particular subset of X × Y, and consider (i) as the rule by which this subset is determined. Throughout much of this book we shall use the term mapping rather than function and, thus, find little use for the functional notation.

Let α be a mapping of A into B and β be a mapping of B into C. Now the effect of α is to map a ∈ A into α(a) ∈ B and the effect of B is to map α(a) ∈ B into β(α(a)) ∈ C. This is the net result of applying α followed by β in a mapping of A into C.

We shall call β α the product of the mappings β and α in that order. Note also that we have used the term product twice in this chapter with meanings quite different from the familiar product, say, of two integers. This is unavoidable unless we keep inventing new names.

EXAMPLE 14. Refer to Fig. 1-6. Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {d, e}, C = {f, g, h, i} and

Then

β(α(a)) = β(d) = f,       β(α(b)) = β(e) = h

1.10 ONE-TO-ONE MAPPINGS

DEFINITION 1.15: A mapping a → a′ of a set A into a set B is called a one-to-one mapping of A into B if the images of distinct elements of A are distinct elements of B; if, in addition, every element of B is an image, the mapping is called a one-to-one mapping of A onto B.

In the latter case, it is clear that the mapping a → a′ induces a mapping a′ a of B onto A. The two mappings are usually combined into a ↔ a′ and called a one-to-one correspondence between A and B.

EXAMPLE 15.

(a) The mapping α of Example 14 is not a one-to-one mapping of A into B (the distinct elements b and c of A have the same image).

(b) The mapping β of Example 14 is a one-to-one mapping of B into, but not onto, C (g ∈ C is not an image).

(c) When A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {p, q, r, s},

(i) α1 : a ↔ p, b ↔ q, c ↔ r, d ↔ s

and

(ii) α2 : a ↔ r, b ↔ p, c ↔ q, d ↔ s

are examples of one-to-one mappings of A onto B.

DEFINITION 1.16: Two sets A and B are said to have the same number of elements if and only if a one-to-one mapping of A onto B exists.

A set A is said to have n elements if there exists a one-to-one mapping of A onto the subset S = {1, 2, 3,…, n} of ℕ. In this case, A is called a finite set.

The mapping

α(n) = 2n, n ∈ ℕ

of ℕ onto the proper subset M = {x : x ∈ ℕ, x is even} of ℕ is both one-to-one and onto. Now ℕ is an infinite set; in fact, we may define an infinite set as one for which there exists a one-to-one correspondence between it and one of its proper subsets.

DEFINITION 1.17: An infinite set is called countable or denumerable if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between it and the set ℕ of all natural numbers.

1.11 ONE-TO-ONE MAPPING OF A SET ONTO ITSELF

Let

α : x ↔ x + 1,      β : x ↔ 3x,      γ : x ↔ 2x − 5,      δ : x ↔ x − 1

be one-to-one mappings of ℝ onto itself. Since for any x ∈ ℝ

β(α(x)) = β(x + 1) = 3(x + 1)

while

α(β(x)) = α(3x) = 3x + 1,

we see that

(i) α(β(x)) ≠ β(α(x)) or simply α β ≠ β α.

However,

δ(γ(x)) = δ(2x − 5) = 2x − 6

and

(δγ)(α(x)) = (δγ)(x + 1) = 2(x + 1) −6 = 2x − 4

while

γ(α(x)) = γ(x + 1) = 2x − 3

and

δ(γα)(x) = δ(2x − 3) = 2x − 3 − 1 = 2x − 4

Thus

(ii) (δγ)α = δ(γα)

Now

δα(x) = δ(x + 1) = x

and

αδ(x) = α(x − 1) = x

that is, α followed by δ (also, δ followed by α) maps each x ∈ ℝ into itself. Denote by , the identity mapping,

: x ↔ x

(iii) α δ = δ α =

Then

that is, δ undoes whatever α does (also, α undoes whatever δ does). In view of (iii), δ is called the inverse mapping of α and we write δ = α−1; also, α is the inverse of δ and we write α = δ−1.

See Problem 1.18.

In Problem 1.19, we prove

Theorem I. If α is a one-to-one mapping of a set S onto a set T, then α has a unique inverse, and conversely.

In Problem 1.20, we prove

Theorem II. If α is a one-to-one mapping of a set S onto a set T and β is a one-to-one mapping of T onto a set U, then (α β)−1 = β−1 · α−1.

Solved Problems

1.1. Exhibit in tabular form: (a) A = {a : a ∈ ℕ, 2 < a < 6}, (b) B = {p : p ∈ ℕ, p < 10, p is odd}, (c) C = {x : x ∈ ℤ, 2x² + x − 6 = 0}.

(a) Here A consists of all natural numbers (a ∈ ℕ) between 2 and 6; thus, A = {3, 4, 5}.

(b) B consists of the odd natural numbers less than 10; thus, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

(c) The elements of C are the integral roots of 2x² + x − 6 = (2x − 3)(x + 2) = 0; thus, C = {−2}.

1.2. Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {a, c, g}, C = {c, g, m, n, p}. Then A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d, g}, A ∪ C = {a, b, c, d, g, m, n, p}, B ∪ C = {a, c, g, m, n, p};

A ∩ B = {a, c}, A ∩ C = {c}, B ∩ C = {c, g}; A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {a, c};

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = {a, c, g, m, n, p}, (A ∪ B) ∩ C = {c, g},

(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {a, c}.

1.3. Consider the subsets K = {2, 4, 6, 8}, L = {1, 2, 3, 4}, M = {3, 4, 5, 6, 8} of U = {1, 2, 3, …, 10}. (a) Exhibit K′, L′, M′ in tabular form. (b) Show that (K ∪ L)′ = K′ ∩ L′.

(a) K′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}, L′ = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, M′ = {1, 2, 7, 9, 10}.

(b) K ∪ L = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8} so that (K ∪ L)′ = {5, 7, 9, 10}. Then

K′ ∩ L′ = {5, 7, 9, 10} = (K ∪ L)′.

1.4. For the sets of Problem 1.2, show: (a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).

(a) Since A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d, g} and C = {c, g, m, n, p}, we have

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = {a, b, c, d, g, m, n, p}.

Since A = {a, b, c, d} and B ∪ C = {a, c, g, m, n, p}, we have

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = {a, b, c, d, g, m, n, p} = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

(b) Since A ∩ B = {a, c}, we have (A ∩ B) ∩ C = {c}. Since B ∩ C = {c, g}, we have A ∩ (B ∩ C) = {c} = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.

Fig. 1-7

1.5. In Fig. 1-1(c), let C = A ∩ B, D = A ∩ B′, E = B ∩ A′ and F = (A ∪ B)′. Verify: (a) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′, (b) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′.

(a) A′ ∩ B′ = (E ∪ F) ∩ (D ∪ F) = F = (A ∪ B)′

(b) A′ ∪ B′ = (E ∪ F) ∪ (D ∪ F) = (E ∪ F) ∪ D = C′ = (A ∩ B)′

1.6. Use the Venn diagram of Fig. 1-7 to verify:

(a) E = (A ∩ B) ∩ C′

(b) A ∪ B ∪ C = (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

(c) A ∪ B ∩ C is ambiguous

(d) A′ ∩ C′ = G ∪ L

(a) A ∩ B = D ∪ E and C′ = E ∪ F ∪ G ∪ L; then

(A ∩ B) ∩ C′ = E

(b) A ∪ B ∪ C = E ∪ F ∪ G ∪ D ∪ H ∪ J ∪ K. Now

A ∪ B = E ∪ F ∪ G ∪ D ∪ H ∪ J

and

C = D ∪ H ∪ J ∪ K

so that

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = E ∪ F ∪ G ∪ D ∪ H ∪ J ∪ K

= A ∪ B ∪ C

Also, B ∪ C = E ∪ G ∪ D ∪ H ∪ J ∪ K and A = E ∪ F ∪ D ∪ H so that

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = E ∪ F ∪ G ∪ D ∪ H ∪ J ∪ K = A ∪ B ∪ C

(c) A ∪ B ∩ C could be interpreted either as (A ∪ B) ∩ C or as A ∪ (B ∩ C). Now (A ∪ B) ∩ C = D ∪ H ∪ J, while A ∪ (B ∩ C) = A ∪ (D ∪ J) = A ∪ J. Thus, A ∪ B ∩ C is ambiguous.

(d) A′ = G ∪ J ∪ K ∪ L and C′ = E ∪ F ∪ G ∪ L; hence, A′ ∩ C′ = G ∪ L.