Evaluation of Ni-Plating Electrolysis Variables and Development of Eddy Current Testing Technique for Plating Thickness Measurement

By

Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for The degree of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan October, 2013

Declaration of Originality
I hereby declare that the work contained in this report and the intellectual content of this report are the product of my own work. This report has not been previously published in any form nor does it contain any verbatim of the published resources which could be treated as infringement of the international copyright law. I also declare that I do understand the terms copyright and plagiarism, and that in case of any copyright violation or plagiarism found in this work, I will be held fully responsible of the consequences of any such violation.

Signature: _______________________________ Name: Date: Place: Sheikh Abdul Samad October 24, 2013 PIEAS, Nilore, Islamabad

Certificate of Approval
This is to certify that the work contained in this thesis entitled

Evaluation of Ni-Plating Electrolysis Variables and

Development of Eddy Current Testing Technique for Plating Thickness Measurement
carried out by

Sheikh Abdul Samad

It is approved as 15-credit hour thesis required for the degree of MS Mechanical

Engineering at PIEAS

Signature: - ___________________________ Supervisor: Dr.Muhammad Asim Rasheed

Signature: -____________________________ External Supervisor: Mr. Mahmood Khan

Approved by: Signature: - ____________________ Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stamp:

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Dedication
I find no words in my grasp to articulate our gratitude and profound obligation to my worthy supervisors Dr. Muhammad Asim Rasheed & Mr. Mahmood Khan (SES) who constantly pushed us to complete the project in time and provided every possible help in this regard and as such I always deem him as a divine source of inspiration.

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Acknowledgement
All praise and thanks to ALLAH Al-mighty who gave me valor and vigor for successfully completion of such a momentous project. No thesis is the result of individual effort only; it includes also the precious contribution of others, which pave the path of triumph. Same is true for this thesis. The efforts embodies in this manuscript attained its present form under the vibrant and skillful leadership of Dr. Muhammad Asim Rasheed & Mr. Mahmood Khan who made it all possible for me. Their encouragement to prepare this project and enabling me to eradicate the errors and augment the report .I would also like to thank Dr. Mazhar Mahmood & Dr. Mirza Jamil for their helpful discussions & suggestions. Also I would like to pay my regards to all the employees of SES (NCNDT), particularly Mr. Khurram Lal, Mr. Raheel Zia, Mr. Sultan Sikandar and Mr. Mehboob Aalam, who helped me during the course of the thesis, in terms of equipment handling & technical support. The input i received from the said personalities allowed me to complete the project in a timely manner. Heartfelt thanks are extended to Mr.Tamoor Ahmed, Mr. Aamir Raza and Mr. Uzair Mehfooz Awan (MS Fellow PIEAS). I find no words in my grasp to articulate my gratitude and profound obligation to my treasured and affectionate friends, who always remembered me in their prayers and as such I always deem them as divine source of inspiration.

ME-36

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Abstract
The task of this study is to evaluate the eddy current responses of various types of substrate materials including steel and brass with nickel coating. The control variables of electroplating process were changed and the corresponding coating thickness variations were studied. For this many samples were prepared and subjected to electro-plating process. The control parameters for coating are time, temperature, current density, pH and thickness of the specimens. Then eddy current testing technique is applied on those coating to evaluate the response of the technique. Signal analysis was performed to relate the coating thickness with impedance change .The eddy current signals show that as the control parameters; current densities and time are changed, a shift in the impedance locus on instrument screen is obtained. This change in the operating point on the impedance plane indicates the change in coating thickness. The ET curve in the impedance plane diagram shifts away from the base metal signal (increase in normalized inductive reactance) indicating an increase in coating thickness of the sample. Normally eddy current testing technique is used to determine non-conductive coating thickness on conductive substrate. In this research conducting substrates of brass and carbon steel were used with conducting coating of nickel. Eddy current testing technique is difficult to interpret for such circumstances. However, the experimentation on variable electroplating control parameters reveal that the ET signals of nickel coating can give reliable information with traceable trend about the coating thickness. As a result, a quantitative data about the coating thickness can be obtained from the change in impedance method using eddy current testing as a non-destructive testing technique. More over uniformity of the coating thickness and damaged/worn-out layers can also be identified with reliable evaluation for future use/replacements.

Contents

1 2

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review: Coatings .................................................................................... 3 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 Industrial Coatings ............................................................................................ 3 Coating Techniques [1] .................................................................................... 4 Electro-deposition / electroplating ............................................................ 4 Electroless Nickel [2] ................................................................................ 5 Anodizing .................................................................................................. 5 Carburizing/Carbonizing ........................................................................... 5 PVD/CVD [3]............................................................................................ 6 Plasma Spray Coating ............................................................................... 6 Industrial Coating Applications [4] .................................................................. 7 Non-Stick Coatings ................................................................................... 7 Anti-Corrosion Coatings ........................................................................... 7 Wear Resistant Coatings [5]...................................................................... 7 Dry / Solid Film Lubricant Coatings ......................................................... 7 Chemical Resistant Coatings ..................................................................... 8 Coating Measurement ....................................................................................... 8 Hardness .................................................................................................... 8 Coating Thickness [7] ............................................................................... 9 Nickel Electro-deposition [10] ....................................................................... 11 Overview ................................................................................................. 11 Benefits of Electro Nickel Plating........................................................... 12 The Electro Nickel Plating Process ......................................................... 12

Literature Review: Non-Destructive Testing ....................................................... 18 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 NDT Techniques [11] ..................................................................................... 18 Types of NDT Methods [12] ................................................................... 18 Applications of NDT ............................................................................... 23

Literature Review: Eddy Current Testing ........................................................... 24

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4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 4.7.6 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.10.1 5

Introduction to Eddy Current Testing ............................................................. 24 Electromagnetic Induction Principle ....................................................... 24 Generation of Eddy Currents................................................................... 24 Standard Depth of Penetration [13] ................................................................ 25 Instrumentation [14] ....................................................................................... 27 Meters ...................................................................................................... 27 Eddy Current Probe Types [11] ...................................................................... 27 Internal Probe .......................................................................................... 28 Encircling Probes .................................................................................... 28 Surface Probes ......................................................................................... 29 Reference Standards ....................................................................................... 29 Impedance Plane Diagram [15] ...................................................................... 30 Eddy Current Testing Applications [17] ........................................................ 31 Surface Crack Detection.......................................................................... 31 Material Sorting....................................................................................... 31 Defect Detection in Heat Exchanger Tubes. ........................................... 32 Clad Overlay Measurement ..................................................................... 32 Material Thickness Determination .......................................................... 33 Examination of Ferrous weld .................................................................. 33 Advantages of Eddy Current Testing ............................................................. 33 Limits of Eddy Current Testing ...................................................................... 33 Signal Analysis [18] ....................................................................................... 34 Important Parameters [18] ................................................................... 35

Research Work: Experimental Procedure ........................................................... 40 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Cutting ............................................................................................................ 40 Grinding .......................................................................................................... 40 Measurement of Surface Area ........................................................................ 41 Masking .......................................................................................................... 41 Activation ....................................................................................................... 41 Rinsing ............................................................................................................ 41 Electrolyte Preparation ................................................................................... 41 PH Measurement ............................................................................................ 43 Nickel Coating using AC Electro-deposition Process .................................... 43 Eddy Current Inspection Setup ....................................................................... 45

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Results & Discussions ............................................................................................. 47 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 Coating Results ............................................................................................... 47 Coating results - Batch 01 ....................................................................... 47 Coating Results - Batch 02 ...................................................................... 49 Coating Results - Batch 03 ...................................................................... 51 Coating Results- Batch 04 ....................................................................... 53 Coating Results- Batch 05 ....................................................................... 54 Coating Results-Batch 06 ........................................................................ 55 Eddy Current Inspection ................................................................................. 57 Frequency Optimization .......................................................................... 57 Eddy Current Responses ......................................................................... 61 Comparison: Coating thickness vs. time with ET Responses ................. 66 Confirmation from Theoretical Results .......................................................... 68 Batch 01................................................................................................... 69 Batch 02................................................................................................... 69 Batch 03................................................................................................... 69 Batch 04................................................................................................... 70 Batch 05................................................................................................... 70

7 8 9

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 71 Vita ........................................................................................................................... 72 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 73

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List of Figures
FIGURE 4-1-INDUCTION OF EDDY CURRENTS IN A CONDUCTOR ................................................... 24 FIGURE 4-2-VARIATION IN STANDARD DEPTH OF PENETRATION ................................................. 26 FIGURE 4-3-INTERNAL COIL PROBE............................................................................................... 28 FIGURE 4-4-ENCIRCLING PROBE .................................................................................................... 28 FIGURE 4-6-CRACK STANDARD ..................................................................................................... 29 FIGURE 4-5-SURFACE PROBE ......................................................................................................... 29 FIGURE 4-7-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM .................................................................................... 30 FIGURE 4-8-CRACK DETECTION USING EDDY CURRENT METHOD ................................................. 31 FIGURE 4-9-MATERIAL SORTING ................................................................................................... 32 FIGURE 4-10-VECTOR DIAGRAM SHOWING IMPEDANCE ................................................................ 34 FIGURE 4-11-NORMALIZED IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM [18] .................................................... 35 FIGURE 4-12-EFFECT OF CONDUCTIVITY REPRESENTED ON IMPEDANCE PLAN DIAGRAM [18] ..... 36 FIGURE 4-13-CHANGING PERMEABILITY REPRESENTED ON IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM [18].. 37 FIGURE 4-14-EFFECT OF CHANGE IN THICKNESS [18] .................................................................... 38 FIGURE 4-15-CHANGE IN FREQUENCY AFFECTING THE OPERATING POINT [18] ............................ 39 FIGURE 5-1-ELECTROCHEMICAL DEPOSITION APPARATUS ............................................................ 44 FIGURE 5-2-PHASEC 3D APPARATUS [19] ...................................................................................... 45 FIGURE 6-1-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM (F=10 KHZ) ................................................................ 57 FIGURE 6-2-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM (F=30 KHZ) ................................................................ 58 FIGURE 6-3-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM (F=60 KHZ) ................................................................ 58 FIGURE 6-4-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM (F=100 KHZ) .............................................................. 59 FIGURE 6-5-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM (F=200 KHZ) .............................................................. 59 FIGURE 6-6-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM-BATCH 1 .................................................................... 61 FIGURE 6-7-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM-BATCH 2 .................................................................... 62 FIGURE 6-8-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM-BATCH 3 .................................................................... 63 FIGURE 6-9-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM-BATCH 4 .................................................................... 64 FIGURE 6-10-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM-BATCH 5 .................................................................. 65 FIGURE 6-11-IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM-BATCH 6 .................................................................. 65 FIGURE 6-12-COATING THICKNESS VS. PLATING TIME .................................................................. 66 FIGURE 6-13-COMPARISON ET RESPONSE WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS (BATCH 1) ................. 67 FIGURE 6-14-COMPARISON ET RESPONSE WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS (BATCH 2) ................. 67 FIGURE 6-15-COMPARISON ET RESPONSE WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS (BATCH 3) ................. 67 FIGURE 6-16-COMPARISON ET RESPONSE WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS (BATCH 4) ................. 67

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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1-NICKEL ELECTRO-DEPOSITION DATA - BASED ON 95.5% CATHODE EFFICIENCY [10].... 14 TABLE 2- NICKEL PLATING SOLUTIONS AND SOME PROPERTIES OF THE DEPOSITS [10] ................ 16 TABLE 3-COMPARISON OF VARIOUS NDT METHODS (A: HIGHEST COST, D: LOWEST COST) [11] 22 TABLE 4-OPTIMIZED CONDITIONS & PARAMETERS FOR ALL-CHLORIDE SOLUTION ...................... 42 TABLE 5-INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION FOR DIFFERENT COATINGS ................................................ 46 TABLE 6-THEORETICAL MASS DEPOSITED (BATCH 1) ................................................................... 69 TABLE 7-THEORETICAL MASS DEPOSITED (BATCH 2) ................................................................... 69 TABLE 8-THEORETICAL MASS DEPOSITED (BATCH 3) ................................................................... 69 TABLE 9-THEORETICAL MASS DEPOSITED (BATCH 4) ................................................................... 70 TABLE 10-THEORETICAL MASS DEPOSITED (BATCH 5) ................................................................. 70

1 Introduction
Coatings are a protective covering on the surface of an object that is used to protect the material from hazardous environmental effects such as wear, corrosion, and scratch & also frequently used for decorative purposes. Coatings are very important processes for the protection & life durability of engineering & other materials. Coatings have been in use for centuries & are achieved through various processes. Research is ongoing to improve the coating methods in order to achieve better coatings resulting better optical, mechanical, chemical etc. properties.

The required coatings can be achieved by many processes such as chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, chemical & electrochemical techniques, spraying, optical coating & others. The method depends on the many things such as substrate material, coating thickness required, equipment cost, running cost etc.

Coating thickness is a very important parameter which determines the quality of the coating and various techniques are used to determine the thickness of the coatings like ultra-sonic testing techniques, eddy current testing techniques, magnetic induction technique, beta-backscatter, x-ray fluorescence and also destructive methods. Each technique has its own advantages and disadvantages. But determination of conductive coating thickness on conductive substrates is a bit difficult. So there is need to find a technique which can give us some idea about the coating thickness of the test specimen, particularly a NDT technique so that the specimen need not to be taken to the laboratory for destructive tests.

Non-Destructive Techniques incorporates a vast variety of testing methods including liquid penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, ultrasonic testing, eddy current testing & radiographic testing to inspect the in-service condition of the material & its properties at the location where the part is installed instead of taking it a laboratory facility to test such conditions. Also the properties of the material remain intact as it is when carrying out NDT techniques and as a result the NDT techniques very cost effective & saves a lot of time as compared to destructive ones.

Eddy current testing technique has been chosen to determine the coating thickness of conductive coatings keeping in view the coating condition. Selection of this testing technique has been based the merits of high sensitivity to permeability changes & conductivities as different coating condition or parameters produces difference in conductivities. With the slightest of changes in conductivity as a result of coatings we will be able to detect different eddy current responses therefore we can co-relate the coating thickness of the coating with the eddy current response.

The responses are obtained as impedance plane diagrams. We get a different impedance value when we perform ET on coatings of varying conditions; hence it will represent a different coating thickness. Hence with our study we will be able to establish some information about coating thickness of the material by an NDT technique.

2 Literature Review: Coatings

2.1 Industrial Coatings
A coating is a protective cover applied to the surface of an item, which is usually called a substrate. Coating is applied for decorative purposes, for environmental protection against chemicals & also for improving the mechanical properties. The coating can be partial meaning that it may cover only a part of an object or it can be applied allover the object. That depends on the application where the coated material is going to be used. An example can be of coated bottles where an all-over coating is applied on the inner surface of the can & a decorative coating is applied on the outer surface to form specific patterns & images depending on the product. Industrial coatings are usually applied to change the surface properties of the base metal, such as adhesion, wetability, corrosion resistance, or wear resistance. In some cases like e.g. semiconductor device manufacture (where the substrate is a wafer), the coated material imparts a totally new property like magnetic properties or electrical conductivity and are vital for the finished product. An important parameter while coating a material is the control of coating thickness to achieve the desired properties and this control is achieved by a number of different processes. These processes can be very simple or can be very complex where certain machineries are used to apply the desired coatings to a certain thickness value. For partial coatings a further consideration is that where the coating needs to be applied. Numerous industrial coating processes involve the use of a thin film of required material to a base metal, such as metal, paper, fabric or a foil etc. If substrate begins and ends the process wound up in a roll, the procedure may be termed "roll-to-roll or "webbased" coating. A roll of substrate, when coiled through the coating machine, is usually called a web. Coatings can be applied in many forms such as liquids, gases or solids. Then after coating the product is checked for proper opacity & also its coating thickness is verified. Research is being carried out to produce coatings using nanotechnology which have

potential of providing surface with long term surface protection enhancing the shelf life of the product. Industrial coatings are usually composites of various substances. For example Xylan dry-films which are used as corrosion resistant agents on various OEM products are composites of fluoropolymers. A usual coating system may comprise of an initial also called a primer, a middle coat, and an outer most coat. The coating acts as a physical barrier between the substrate and the corrosive environment such as atmosphere, water and soil.

2.2 Coating Techniques [1]

There are numerous technologies that are used to coat a material. The specific process used depends upon the application and financial concerns. Some of the famous coating processes are as follows:

2.2.1 Electro-deposition / electroplating

Electro-deposition is the process which is used to impart certain properties to the substrate by coating the surface with the help of electric current. The substrate which is to be coated is made the cathode is given a negative charge & is dipped in the solution which is known as electrolyte. This solution contains the metal ions which are to be deposited. These ions are positively charged and are attracted to the base metal. Pretreatment of the surface is an important aspect which needs to be addressed when carrying out Electro-deposition and this can be done by chemical or mechanical processes, because the coating will only adhere to the surface of the surface evenly when contaminants are removed from the substrate. Aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, iron, nickel, lead, tin are some of the common metals that are coated commonly by this technique. Coatings can be varied by changing the control parameters such as temperature, PH, amperage, time & bath purity of the solution. Applications of electroplating are very diverse because it is cheap and very simple process, and is used in electronics industry, automobile industry, optics etc.

2.2.2 Electroless Nickel [2]

Electroless nickel plating is different from electro-deposition process in that the procedure is carried out without the application of electric current the interaction between the substrate and solution is absolutely chemical. Hot aqueous solution of the electrolyte is used for the process. The coating in this process is more uniform than that achieved through electro-deposition process. Coating is achieved through metal ion exchange using chemical reduction in a hot aqueous solution and in this way we can achieve an even coating over the surface of the dipped substrate irrespective of its shape. Range of the coatings can be as thin as .0005" and can be achieved upto a thickness of .010". The technique can be used on a wide variety of substrates and provides superior wear resistance, hardness & corrosion protection. As with the previous technique the surface of the object need pretreatment for optimum coatings. The operating conditions for the PH are 4-9 and temperature requirements are between 250C-920C. The plating thickness as with electro-deposition technique depends on the factors mentioned before.

2.2.3 Anodizing
Anodizing technique is used to coat the required material both on the surface and into the metal itself. It is an electrochemical oxidation process of the metal with an appropriate electrolyte which is used in various concentrations depending on the requirements. Parameters such as temperature and current density are used to control the material to be deposited.

2.2.4 Carburizing/Carbonizing
Carburizing is done to increase the carbon content on the surface layer steel. In this process the components are heated in a liquid or vapour containing medium which contains carbon. Parameters such as time and temperature control the penetration depth

of carbon into the surface of the object to be carburized. Usual carburizing temperature is around 17500C and this temperature needs to be uniform in order to achieve uniform carburizing. After carburizing has completed, the metal is cooled slowly or quenching is performed.

2.2.5 PVD/CVD [3]

PVD or physical vapor deposition applies the coating over the whole material rather than on a confined region. The technique is carried out in a vacuum chamber at elevated temperatures of around 4000C. A focused high energy plasma beam is directed on the metal surface which is to be coated.

Chemical vapor disposition (CVD) is a subdivision of PVD. The main difference is that reactive chemical vapors at elevated temperatures are used ranging around 9000C. These both are elegant coating techniques but are considerable expensive as compared to other techniques.

2.2.6 Plasma Spray Coating

This process produces high quality machinable coatings. In this process certain powders are inserted in a plasma stream which melts the coating material, and then this molten material is thrust onto the substrate which is then bonded.

Control parameters are the quantity of the powder, the droplet size & the atomized size made by the spray process. Plasma spray coating improves, guards, and change the surface properties for many applications such as dimensional correction, thermal barriers, conductivity, resistance to wear and chemicals.

2.3 Industrial Coating Applications [4]

2.3.1 Non-Stick Coatings
The enhanced properties of non-stick fluoropolymers coatings are very popular for a variety of industrial uses. These include applications of mold release to nonstick food grade products. PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) & FEP (fluorinated ethylene propylene) are some notable examples. Non-stick coatings offer a various physical & electrical property benefits. This includes low coefficient of friction, heat resistance, chemical resistance & unique electrical properties with high di electric strength & high surface resistivity.

2.3.2 Anti-Corrosion Coatings

Anti-corrosion coatings protect metal components from degradation because of the environmental effects such as moisture, oxidation & a variety of industrial chemicals. These coatings enhance the life of the metal surfaces and they act as a barrier that prevents interaction between chemical compounds or corrosive materials & the substrate.

2.3.3 Wear Resistant Coatings [5]

Wear occurs in extreme manufacturing & production conditions & also due to repeated use of metal components that mate together. Common wearing problems include abrasion, corrosion, chemicals, erosion, oxidation etc. Usually wear happens as a combination of the mentioned problems. Enhanced wear issues can be devastating to any production setup, as it accounts for the majority of the maintenance problem & downtime. Moreover, due to wear there is an increased need for recurring equipment calibration resulting in great product variation in manufacturing phase.

2.3.4 Dry / Solid Film Lubricant Coatings

Dry film lubricants are a striking alternative to fluid lubricants that are used for reducing friction and avoiding seizing of components, particularly in high or low temperature environments where fluids may freeze or vaporize. Some common examples are fluoropolymer coatings, xylan coatings & molybdenum disulfide coatings

2.3.5 Chemical Resistant Coatings

These coatings are used to protect the substrate from chemical attack particularly in process industries where use of chemicals is frequent. Examples include phenolic coatings which are used in low PH & high temperature requirements and inorganic zinc coating for corrosion and weather protection etc.

2.4 Coating Measurement

Effectiveness, shelf-life of the material and the cost of the coating are important goals that are to be achieved when carrying out a certain coating for a final finished product. Hardness and thickness are essential parameters to judge a certain coating because the conditions of the coatings are reflected by their results. So we discuss them briefly in the following topics.

2.4.1 Hardness
Hardness is the property of a material that enables the material to resist deformation. Hardness tests are used for characterization of the materials & the results dictate whether the material is appropriate for its application or not. All of the hardness tests usually involve an indenter which is of specific shape, size and is harder than the test specimen. A specific force is then applied with the help of the indenter onto the surface of the specimen, and then the depth or the size of the indent is measured to determine the hardness value. Some major scales that are used for hardness testing are as follows. Brinell Rockwell Vickers Microhardness [6]

These hardness testing techniques can be used to evaluate the hardness parameter of the coatings that are achieved by a specific technique.

2.4.2 Coating Thickness [7]

Coatings that are applied to the substrate impart properties which are not originally present in the material. These include resistance to corrosion and wear, improved conductivity, appearance, and solderability. The quantity of material coated i.e. the coating thickness, is vital for the products eventual application and its cost. We discuss briefly four processes of measuring the coating thickness. Each method was developed to attain cost-effectiveness, precise, and repeatable outcomes, and is particularly appropriate to a specific coating(s)/substrate combination. The four methods discussed are: X-Ray fluorescence Magnetic Induction Beta Backscatter Eddy Currents Ultra-sonic testing technique 2.4.2.1 X-ray Fluorescence The X-ray fluorescence apparatus consists of an x-ray tube and a proportional counter. When the test material is bombarded with x-rays coming from the x-ray tube some electrons will gain energy & will leave the atom resulting in a photon release of a specific energy level. The amount of energy released is dependent on the thickness of the material which has been deposited. These photons then ionize the gas depending on their energies & as a result spectrum analysis can be carried out through which we can determine the material and the coating thickness. This process is the most accurate method and can be used to measure the coating thicknesses.

2.4.2.2 Magnetic Induction [8] [9] Magnetic induction is used when we have to measure the thickness of a nonmagnetic coating on a steel base metal. It consists of probes that are connected to a transformer circuit that are sensitive to the detection of magnetic fields. The efficiency of the circuit and the output voltage which is produced is enhanced when the probe is in the vicinity of a magnetic field thus providing the parameters through which we can evaluate the coating thickness from the magnetic surface. 2.4.2.3 Beta Backscatter The Beta backscatter method is a technique which has quite some similarities to the X-ray fluorescent method. Unstable radioisotopes emit electrons which penetrate the coated specimen and are then reflected back. These reflected electrons are the then counted with the help of a Geiger-Mueller counter and the data is recorded and conversions are applied to give information about the coating thickness of the specimen. 2.4.2.4 Eddy Currents Coating thickness of nonconductive coatings on nonferrous metal substrates can be measured with the help of eddy current testing technique, for example, paints on aluminum. Eddy currents which are generated on the specimen as a result of changing magnetic field of the coil probe. These eddies generate their own magnetic field which alters the original magnetic field of the coil probe and hence the output voltage and the circuit reactance. The coating thickness is measured by the change in the output voltage. The results are displayed on a screen & the data can be sent to a printer or a computer for its analysis. Testing depends on how rough the surface is, base metal thickness, type of base metal, and distance from an edge of the specimen. 2.4.2.5 Ultrasonic Testing Technique This technique makes use of ultrasonic gauges to measure the coating thicknesses on non-metal substrates (woods, plastics etc.). The probe contains an ultrasonic transducer which sends an ultrasonic pulse through the coated portion which is then reflected from the substrate back to the transducer which is then converted to an electrical

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signal. This signal is then digitized and then analysis is performed to determine the coating thickness. 2.4.2.6 Destructive Tests One of the destructive processes is to cut the coated part in a cross section and measure the coating thickness by viewing the cross section from a microscope. Another cross sectioning technique uses a scaled microscope to view a geometric opening through the dry-film coating. A precision V-groove is made into the substrate through the coating with the help of a special cutting tool. Then the coating thickness can be measured microscopically. These techniques however require some skills to prepare the samples and interpret the results and there are still chances of personal error. These methods are rather cheap and can be used to measure coating thicknesses where the nondestructive methods cant be applied or they can also be used to verify the results measured from the non-destructive methods.

2.5 Nickel Electro-deposition [10]

Nickel has been used as our coating material which we apply to different substrates to achieve our desired coatings so its important to give some overview about the nickel plating as well.

2.5.1 Overview
Nickel electroplating is one of the most resourceful surface-finishing processes available having a broad range of applications that encompass decorative, engineering, and electroforming applications. Decorative coatings are protective, mirror-bright, and smooth. Pure nickel is deposited from the solutions in engineering applications and the property which is generally desired in engineering applications is corrosion resistance, wear resistance, solderability, and magnetic and other properties may be appropriate in specific applications. Electroforming is a specified use of the electroplating process in

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which nickel is deposited and then it is removed from a mandrel to produce an all-nickel component or article.

2.5.2 Benefits of Electro Nickel Plating

Nickel electroplating improves an extensive range of features not originally present in the base material. Some of these benefits include: Enhanced corrosion resistance Improved hardness Greater strength Wear resistance Better ductility

2.5.3 The Electro Nickel Plating Process

Electro nickel plating is a process in which an electrical current is used to coat nickel on a conductive material. Common metals used for electroplating include carbon steel, stainless steel, copper, zinc, and platinum. 2.5.3.1 The Basic Nickel Electro-deposition Process Nickel plating is similar to other electroplating processes that use metal anodes. It involves the passage of electric current between two electrodes that are dipped in a conductive, aqueous solution of nickel salts. The flow of current causes one of the electrodes (the anode) to dissolve and the other electrode (the cathode) to become coated with nickel. The nickel in solution is present in the form of positively charged ions (Ni+). When current flows, the positive ions react with two electrons (2e-) and are converted to metallic nickel (Ni0) at the cathode surface. The opposite reaction occurs at the anode where metallic nickel is dissolved to form positively charged ions which enter the solution. The nickel ions discharged at the cathode are refilled by those formed at the anode.

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2.5.3.2 Hydrogen Evolution and Cathode Efficiency While nickel is being deposited at cathode a small amount of current is used to discharge hydrogen ions from the water present in the solution. As a result the efficiency of cathode is lowered from 100 per cent to 92 to 97 per cent depending on the nature of the electrolyte. Hydrogen gas bubbles are hence formed at the cathode surface.

2.5.3.3 Anode Efficiency Normally the efficiency of cathode is 100 percent however if the pH of the solution is very high, however, hydroxyl ions may be discharged in preference to the dissolution of nickel, and oxygen will be evolved. As a result the nickel anode ceases to dissolve nickel. Certain activated anode materials are then required that prevents such passive behavior of anode. 2.5.3.4 Nickel Ion and pH Changes As electro-deposition is carried out the nickel ion concentration is increased and as a result the PH of the solution will also increase as cathode efficiencies vary from 9297% whereas the anode efficiency is always 100%. So the new electrolyte solution has to be prepared when the PH value exceeds certain limit which depends on the nature of plating solution.

2.5.3.5 Faraday's Law for Nickel Nickel deposition like all electroplating techniques is governed by Faradays law. This law states that the quantity of nickel coated at the cathode and the quantity dissolved at the anode are directly proportional to the product of the time and current (Faraday's Law). Faraday's Law for nickel may be expressed as follows: m = 1.095 (a) (I) (t) (2.1)

Where: m is the quantity of nickel deposited at the cathode, in grams; I is the electric current that flows through the electrodes, in amperes; t is the time that the current flows, in hours; and a is the current efficiency ratio. The anode efficiency is 100% (a =

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1). The cathode efficiency may vary from 92 to 97% and accordingly, a will vary from 0.92 to 0.97. 2.5.3.6 Average Nickel Thickness The nickel electro-deposition data assembled in Table 1 has been calculated on the supposition that cathode efficiency is 95.5%, which is usually the case for most nickel plating electrolytes. We can determine the time required to deposit a definite thickness of nickel at a certain current density by going through Table 1. The figures in the table provide a way of estimating the average coating thickness. The actual thickness on a substrate may be different depending on the uniformity of current density distribution.
Table 1-Nickel electro-deposition data - Based on 95.5% cathode efficiency [10]

Deposit Thickness

Weight per unit area

Amp hours per unit

Time, in minutes, To obtain deposit at various current densities

Current Density, A/dm2 m 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20

G/dm2 Ah/dm2

0.5 20 41 61 82 100 120 140 180

1 10 20 31 41 51 61 71 82

1.5

4 2.6 5.1 7.7 10 13 15 18 20 26

5 2.0 4.1 6.1 8.2 10 12 14 16 20

6 1.7 3.4 5.1 6.8 8.5 10 12 14 17

8 1.3 2.6 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.7 8.9 10 13

10 1 2 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.2 10

0.18 0.36 0.53 0.71 0.89 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.8

0.17 0.34 0.51 0.68 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7

6.8 5.1 3.4 14 20 27 34 41 48 54 68 10 15 20 26 31 36 41 51 6.8 10 13 17 20 24 27 34

200 100

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2.5.3.7 Types of electrolytic solutions Several types of commercial solutions can be prepared for the electro-deposition of nickel coatings .Two most popular solutions the watts solution & the sulfamate solution. Some other solutions are listed below. Each has its own unique advantages and disadvantages for its selection. Fluoborate Solution Hard Nickel All-Chloride All-Sulphate Sulphate/Chloride

The different electrolytic solutions and their operating parameters are summarized in Table 2 shown below. The solutions give their best coating results when operated in the given parameters. Outside these conditions the coating results may not be as reliable as they should be under normal circumstances.

2.5.3.8 Current Density in the Electro Nickel Plating Process Electro nickel plating can be achieved in a wide range of current densities. Current density directly determines the rate of deposition of nickel to the substrate, the higher the current density, faster is the deposition rate. Current density, however, affects plating quality and its adherence as well. Higher the current density the worst the results are for electro-deposition. Therefore, an optimum current density value is required for acceptable results. This optimum value depends on the substrate and the final coatings that are required of the specific properties that we want to impart.

15

Table 2- Nickel plating solutions and some properties of the deposits [10]

Composition1, g/L Fluoborate Nickel fluoborate, (225300) Nickel chloride, (0-15) Boric acid,(1530) Hard Nickel Nickel sulfate, 180 Ammonium chloride, 25 Boric acid, 30 All-chloride Nickel chloride, 225-300 Boric acid, (3035) All-sulfate Nickel sulfate, (225-410) Boric acid, (3045) Sulfate/Chloride Nickel sulfate, (150-225) Nickel chloride, (150-225) Boric acid, (3045)

pH

Current Density, A/dm2

Tensile Strength MPa

Internal Stress MPa

2.5-4

38-70

3-30

380-600

90-200

5.6-5.9

43-60

2-10

350-500

300

1-4

50-70

2.5-10

230-260

275-340

1.5-4

38-70

1-10

180-275

120

1.5-2.5

43-52

2.5-15

150-280

210-280

2.5.3.9 Pre-treatment Process for Electro Nickel Plating Appropriate pre- and post-treatment of the substrate is necessary for a quality nickel deposition and deposition rate. Following three steps are carried out to ensure that the pre and post treatment are carried out in a way that produces the best possible results for nickel coatings.

16

Pre-treatment surface cleaning: Surface cleaning of the specimen is a pre-requisite for a good electro-deposition for eliminating contaminants through the use of solvents, abrasive materials like ambry papers , alkaline cleaners, acid etching, water, or a combination of all of these can be used for pre-treatment of the surface. Surface modification: Altering the external surface of the substrate to improves the adhesion property through processes like striking or metal hardening. Post-treatment surface cleaning: Carrying out finishing operations, such as rinsing with distilled water, careful drying.

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3 Literature Review: Non-Destructive Testing

3.1 NDT Techniques [11]
Non-destructing testing of a specimen means applying procedures to test specimens & their assemblies without destroying their future usefulness. NDT shows flaws in the structure but cant tell where flaws will build up in the specimen. These techniques are a rather cheap, fast & reliable way of analysis of a specimen.

3.1.1 Types of NDT Methods [12]

NDT involves use of electromagnetic radiation, sound waves, magnetic particles and radiography etc. to sense flaws in the structure of a material. On the basis of principle NDT can be categorized into the following categories:

Visual Testing(VT) Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) Magnetic-Particle Testing(MT) Eddy Current Testing(ET) Radiographic Testing Method(RT) Ultrasonic Testing(UT)

All NDT methods have some features in common. Some of them are: (a) Testing medium is applied on the product to be tested. (b) Changes encountered by the testing medium due to defects in their structure. (c) A way of detecting these changes. (d) Infer from the data obtained to get the information about the flaw in the structure.

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3.1.1.1 Visual Testing (VT) Visual inspection is one of the most commonly used of non-destructive testing. Visual testing demands adequate illumination of the test specimen and proper eye-sight of the examiner. Visual testing can be categorized as direct VT, remote VT and translucent VT. Frequently the tools required are simple, a portable and light. A mirror, a 2x or 4x lens, one magnifier with magnification 5x or 10x. For internal inspection, systems such as bore scopes allow remote areas of the specimen to be examined. The applications of visual testing include:
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Examination of the surface state of the test specimen. Inspection of alignment of mating parts. Checking of profile of a part. Examination for evidence of leaking.

3.1.1.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) This procedure can be used for the detection those flaws which are open to the outside surface any product; however, the material should not be porous. This technique is extensively used for testing of non-magnetic specimens. In this technique a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the specimen for a certain time, after which the excess penetrant is cleaned from the specimen surface. Drying of the surface follows next and a developer is applied to the surface. The penetrant remaining in the flaw is absorbed by the developer to point out the presence as well as the size, location and nature of the flaw. Penetrants used are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye penetrant. The inspection for the occurrence of visible dye indications is made under normal light while inspection of occurrence of indications by fluorescent dye penetrant is made under UV light under darkened conditions.

Some of the advantages of LP testing are as follows: a) Relatively cheap. b) Extremely portable NDT technique.

19

c) Extremely sensitive to fine, tight flaws. d) Simple method. e) Applicable on a wide variety of materials. f) All surface flaws are detected in one operation, regardless of direction of the flaw 3.1.1.3 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) Magnetic particle testing is used for the examination of materials which can be easily magnetized. This technique is capable of detecting flaws which are open to surface and just below the surface. In this technique the test specimen is first magnetized by using a permanent magnet or an electromagnet or by passing electric discharge. If there is a flaw which interrupts the flow of magnetic lines of forces, some of the lines of forces must exit and reenter the specimen. These points form opposite magnetic poles. Whenever miniature magnetic particles are sprinkled onto the surface of such a specimen, these particles are then attracted by these magnetic poles and hence create a sign approximating the shape and size of the flaw. Advantages of MP testing include:
(a) (b) (c) (d)

It does not need pre-cleaning operations. Fast and simple NDT method. Generally cheap. Can be used on thin coating.

3.1.1.4 Eddy Current Testing (ET) This technique is commonly used to detect surface flaws, in material sorting, measuring thin walls and also to measure thin coatings and in some applications measuring case depth. This technique is appropriate to electrically conductive materials only. In this technique eddy currents are induced in the product by bringing it closer to an AC carrying coil. The changing magnetic field of the coil is then changed by the magnetic fields of eddies. This alteration, which depends on the state of the part near to the coil, is then represented as a meter reading or CRT display. This method may be used for:
(a)

For the revealing of flaws in tubings.

20

(b) (c) (d) (e)

For material sorting. For measurement of thin wall thicknesses For estimation thin coatings. For determining case depth in certain cases.

3.1.1.5 Radiographic Testing Method (RT) The RT method is used for the assessment of internal defects in many materials. A suitable radiographic film is firstly placed behind the test part and is exposure is given by passing either X- rays or gamma rays. The intensity of the X- rays or gamma rays as they pass through the specimen are altered depending on the internal structure and thus the exposed film, after processing, shows the radiograph, of the specimen. Then the interpretation of the radiograph is done to extract the data about the discontinuity that are residing in the specimen. Some of the advantages of RT include: (a) Inspection of large areas. (b) Wide variety of materials can be tested by this technique. (c) Useful for examination of internal structural flaws, misalignment or misassembly. (d) Provides us with record which could be kept permanent.

3.1.1.6 Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic inspection is technique in which high frequency sound waves are sent into the specimen being tested. Testing frequencies range between 0.5 and 20 MH. The waves travel through the specimen with some attenuation depending on material characteristics. The strength of sound waves which are reflected is then measured, at interfaces or is measured at the opposite surface of the part .The reflected beam is detected and then the signal is analyzed to characterize the presence and location of the discontinuity.

Ultrasonic testing method is:

(a)

Used for detection of discontinuities in specimens.

21

(b) (c) (d)

Extensively used for thickness measurement. Determination of grain structure and mechanical properties. Evaluation of processing variables on specimens.

Table 3-Comparison of Various NDT Methods (A: highest cost, D: lowest cost) [11] Equipment cost Inspection cost

Technique

Access requirements

Remarks

Optical methods

One entry point is often sufficient

B/D

Very flexible; Little skills required; Useful at design stage.

Radiography

Access to both sides is a necessary requirement Requires entre to one or both side

B/C

Expensive, large surface area examination is possible. Skill required to understand the results Demands point-by-point search; Skilled staff is compulsory.

Ultrasonic

B/C

Magnetic particle

Pre-cleaning is required

C/D

Applicable to magnetic material only; Little skill required; detects only flaws which are near to the surface

Penetrant flaw detection

Penetrant access to the flaw is a must requirement

C/D

For all materials; Some skills are required.

Eddy current

Some clean and smooth surface is required

B/C

C/D

For electrically conductive materials only; coating thickness variation can be detected, or material sorting can be done; some skill required to interpret the results

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3.1.2 Applications of NDT

NDT covers the following industrial activities in which it is being carried out. Some of them are listed below: Aerospace Industry: Testing components like the engine of airplanes, landing gear and the parts of air frame. Aircraft Overhaul: Components of aircrafts can be tested during the overhaul phase . Automotive Industry: Engines, brakes-steering and critical components can be tested for flaws that are developed during manufacturing phase. Petrochemical & Gas Industry: Pipe-lines and tanks can be tested for internal corrosion measurement .Automotive LPG tank can also be tested. Railway Industry: Cracking developed on rails due to heat can be tested, stock axles can also be tested, and different locomotive parts can be tested for discontinuities. Mining Industry: Pit head equipment testing. Power Generation: Weld inspection for boiler and pressure vessels during manufacture or in-service components. Steel Industry: Inspection of rolled and re-rolled products like billets & plate sheets.

23

4 Literature Review: Eddy Current Testing

4.1 Introduction to Eddy Current Testing
We will be using eddy current technique for the testing of our samples; therefore this requires its comprehensive explanation and the theory involved behind it.

4.1.1 Electromagnetic Induction Principle

Eddy current inspection is based on Faradays electromagnetic induction law. When magnetic flux is changing continuously then they induce eddy currents in any conductor near the vicinity of the magnetic field. [13]

4.1.2 Generation of Eddy Currents

Figure 4-1-Induction of Eddy Currents in a Conductor

When there is an AC carrying coil whose magnetic field is changing continuously, if that coil is brought close to an electrical conductor then primary magnetic field is changed as the magnetic field starts interacting with the conductor and penetrates into the material. As a result eddy currents are setup on the surface of the material which have their own magnetic field which is rather weak than the field of the coil. The magnetic field of the circular eddies oppose the magnetic field of the coil and as a result the

24

impedance of the coil is changed resulting in variation in voltage and current signals. Measuring these changes reveal specific information about the material such its composition and conductivity etc. To generate eddy currents on a surface of a conductor a coil which is encased inside a probe is excited using alternating current. As a consequence a changing magnetic field is setup in the vicinity of the coil. Now if any conducting material is placed nearby this magnetic field then eddy currents will be setup on the surface of conductor. The phenomenon that governs the whole process is electromagnetic induction principle.

4.2 Standard Depth of Penetration [13]

Eddy currents do not penetrate indefinitely into the material. The strength of the eddy currents decrease as the penetration depth increases. The strength of eddies is maximum at the surface of the material. Below a certain depth the eddy currents strength becomes very weak and the signals given at those depths also diminish significantly. So, the concept of standard depth of penetration has been introduced which is defined as the depth at which the eddy current strength value decrease to about 37 percent of the surface value. Standard depth of penetration depends upon the following factor: Probe Frequency Material Conductivity Material permeability

25

Figure 4-2-Variation in Standard Depth of Penetration

Standard depth of penetration is given by formula:

(4.1)

Where; =Standard depth of penetration [mm] = Material electrical conductivity [ft/mm 2 ] =Magnetic permeability (H/mm) f=Test frequency (Hz) = 3.141

It is clear from the formula above that the standard depth of penetration varies inversely with frequency, electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. Electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of a material is constant so we can change the penetration depth of eddies by changing the frequency of the coil.

26

4.3 Instrumentation [14]

4.3.1 Meters
They are among the simplest of the eddy current apparatus. Two types of such meters are analog and digital ones. 4.3.1.1 Digital Meters Digital meters give digital values of those parameters that are under observation. The parameter can be the conductivity of the sample or its permeability. Digital meters give more accurate results than analog meters & the data can be recorded for later analysis of the test material. 4.3.1.2 Analog Meters Analog meters are used for determination of the flaw, the thickness of the component under observation or its coating thickness which can either be conductive or non conductive. The display which we get from these instruments is in the analog form. This display can be calibrated or un-calibrated depending on the type of test that is being carried out. Calibrated displays have some scaling factors which associate with+ the property of the test specimen that is being measured.

4.4 Eddy Current Probe Types [11]

There are three types of probes which are being used for testing. The coil differs from each other in geometry as well as the distribution of current by each type of probe. The choice of the probe type used depends on the testing condition. These coils include:

Internal coil type Encircling type Surface probe

27

4.4.1 Internal Probe

Circular coils are used in the internal probes. These probes are generally used to test flaws in internal surface of tubes or holes which are circular in shape. The coil as shown in fig-3 is inserted into the tube and eddy currents are setup circumferentially on the inner section of the tube which can then be analyzed for flaws in the tube.

Figure 4-3-Internal Coil Probe

4.4.2 Encircling Probes

The construction of the encircling probe is very much similar to the internal type probes. However the difference in this type of probe is that the testing is passed into the probe and the outside surface of rods or circular materials can be inspected for discontinuities.

Figure 4-4-Encircling Probe

28

4.4.3 Surface Probes

These probe types are among the most commonly used probe type used for testing materials for flaws. These can be used to test flat surfaces as well as contoured surfaces for flaws. Such a coil is shown in the fig-4-5.

Figure 4-5-Surface Probe

4.5 Reference Standards

The results of ET signals get affected by many ways and if we change the calibration of the equipment ever so slightly then we may get totally different results. So reliable results can only be obtained if we compare the signals from an unknown quantity with some similar thing whose features have been well defined and compare both of them. Hence the concept of reference standards comes into play. So for ET inspection the equipment has to be set by the help of reference standards.

Figure 4-6-Crack Standard

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4.6 Impedance Plane Diagram [15]

Impedance diagram shows the total impedance when resistive and reactive portions are plotted at 900 to one another. In this way we can separate & identify the variables that affect the results of the inspection. [16]

Figure 4-7-Impedance Plane Diagram

When we place the probe on a non-ferromagnetic material, the magnetic field is weakened by the opposing eddy current magnetic field. As a result the resistance of the circuit is increased and the reactance part of the circuit is decreased. So the response is on the lower side of the air point. Figure 4-7 shows that the impedance plane has been divided into two semi-planes. The part of the impedance diagram where X < 1 is for non-ferromagnetic materials. The imaginary portion of impedance with X > 1 is for ferromagnetic materials. If we bring a probe near a ferromagnetic material, the reactance portion increases. The reason is that ferromagnetic materials enhance the original magnetic field of the coil because the permeability for such materials is greater than 1 whereas for nonferromagnetic materials, it is less than 1.

30

4.7 Eddy Current Testing Applications [17]

ET is being used for a variety of purposes e.g. determination of surface cracks, measurement of thickness, detecting changes in conductivity or permeability. Some details for them are as follows:

4.7.1 Surface Crack Detection

Probes can be used to detect cracks on the surface for both ferromagnetic and non-magnetic materials. For that purpose usually pancake type probes or surface probes are used for detection. The excitation frequencies range from 100 KHz to a few MHz. Crack size upto 0.1 mm can be inspected using this technique. A vital consideration is the position of the crack while using this method for detection. A crack or discontinuity disrupts the eddy currents and as a result they are weakened and such changes can be used to measure the crack size, and position.

Figure 4-8-Crack detection using eddy current method

4.7.2 Material Sorting

Metals and alloys can be sorted on the basis of conductivity in when we are dealing non- ferrous metals while on the basis of permeability while dealing with ferrous material. This is due to the reason that the conductivity change is prominent in nonferrous materials and permeability change is prominent in ferrous metals.

31

Figure 4-9-Material Sorting It is depicted in fig 4-9 that as the conductivity of the material changes, so do the response changes and we get different curves for different materials. In this way we can easily sort out the materials on the basis of conductivity or permeability depending on the type of the material.

4.7.3 Defect Detection in Heat Exchanger Tubes.

This technique is also used for the inspection of defects in the tubes of heat exchangers. A bobbin type coil is used for this purpose which produces electromagnetic field in the tubes of heat exchanger. When the probe comes in the vicinity of a defect then the field is changed. This disturbance in the magnetic field changes the impedance of the coil. In this way this technique can be used to measure wall losses, cracks in the tubes and also detect pits as well.

4.7.4 Clad Overlay Measurement

This technique can be used for the non-ferromagnetic material coating over a ferromagnetic base e.g. stainless steel/Inconel coating over carbon steel. While the coating thickness changes, the impedance of the coil changes. Spot probes are used for this purpose.

32

4.7.5 Material Thickness Determination

Material thickness can be measured using ET. When samples of different thicknesses are inspected then the strength of eddies would vary with material thickness .This strength can be related to the thickness of samples. Aviation industries use ET to establish material loss as a result of erosion and corrosion. The ET signals is changed on the area where erosion or corrosion takes place and as a result the material loss can be determined.

4.7.6 Examination of Ferrous weld

Special coils have been made for weld inspection as factors such as the weld shape, HAZ and other fine flaws makes it difficult to use ET on ferrous welds. By using these probes the inspection can be carried out easily.

4.8 Advantages of Eddy Current Testing

1. Surface & sub-surface flaw identification is possible 2. Quick testing method with instant results 3. Portable equipment 4. Doesnt require a lot of specimen homework in order to carry out testing. 5. Contact with specimen isnt a necessary requirement in order to test. 6. Complicated profiles can be tested using this technique.

4.9 Limits of Eddy Current Testing

1. Nonconductive material cant be tested using this technique. 2. Object to be tested must be in the vicinity of magnetic field of the probe 3. Skilled labors required to test and interpret the results. 4. Test standards are an essential requirement otherwise the results arent reliable. 5. Depth of penetration causes problems as the strength decreases away from the surface into the material.

33

4.10 Signal Analysis [18]

Impedance plane diagram is used to examine and infer signals obtained from eddy current testing. The excitation current of coil varies sinusoidaly with changes in phase angle & amplitude. The test system impedance variation in the complex plane is known as signals in ET. Impedance of the circuit is given as;

(4.2) Where inductive reactance XL is given by XL = 2fL Here; f =Coil excitation current frequency L= Coil inductance

Figure 4-10-Vector diagram showing impedance Normalized impedance plane diagrams are generally used to make the results effective. The normalization is done by using the following procedure: 1. First the coil resistance is subtracted from the resistance of test system, as it gives no information the conditions of test material. [18]
2. The new resistance and reactance of the system are then divided by empty coil inductive reactance.

34

Normalized impedance plane diagram obtained in this way is shown in the fig 4-11 below.

Figure 4-11-Normalized Impedance plane diagram [18]

4.10.1

Important Parameters [18]

There are some important parameters that must be taken into account while performing ET. These parameters control the outcome of ET. Therefore the proper knowledge of these factors is a pre-requisite for proper analysis of results. These factors can be divided into two groups majorly: Test material parameters are: Permeability Thickness Conductivity Test system parameters are: Coil excitation frequency Coil geometry Liftoff

35

4.10.1.1 Material Parameters Material parameters are intrinsic to the test specimen & vary from one material to another. Usually ET is done to assess these parameters. These parameters gives a combined effect in testing therefore it is essential that we separate out the individual effects to focus on parameter of our interest.

4.10.1.1.1 Conductivity Effect Conductivity has a remarkable effect on impedance diagram which can be visualized from the following fig 4-12; Conductivity depends upon the following factors; Temperature of specimen Chemical composition Stress intensity in the test component

Figure 4-12-Effect of conductivity represented on impedance plan diagram [18] Point A shows zero conductivity of the material. Impedance point moves down the curve with decreasing resistivity or increasing conductivity. [31]

36

4.10.1.1.2 Permeability Effect Only a small increment in permeability leads to a large impedance value change. The following fig 4-13 shows the effect of permeability on impedance diagram. Materials whose permeability is greater than one enhance the magnetic field. Inductive reactance values are also higher in materials with high permeability. Eddy current technique is very much dependent on permeability of a material because the eddy current responses considerably vary with permeability change. Therefore ferromagnetic material inspection is carried out by examining changes due to the permeability of the material.

Figure 4-13-Changing Permeability represented on Impedance Plane Diagram [18] 4.10.1.1.3 Material Thickness Eddy current signals also vary with the change in thickness of test specimen. Increasing thickness of material causes a decrease in resistivity to flow of eddies, as a result impedance point moves down the curve. If the coil is moved on a conductor with increasing thickness then a reversal swirl is observed on the graph due to combined effect of skin depth and phase lag. [18] The effect is shown in the fig 4-14

37

Figure 4-14-Effect of change in thickness [18] 4.10.1.2 Test system parameters These parameters can be changed according to test necessities. They affect the impedance value in different behavior. 4.10.1.2.1 Frequency Effect It is a very important parameter which can be attuned through instrument to find optimal condition for testing in a particular environment. The following fig 4-15 depicts the effect of increasing frequency on impedance point in a complex plane.

38

Figure 4-15-Change in frequency affecting the operating point [18] 4.10.1.2.2 Magnetic coupling between coil and Test component i.e. Lift off It is the alteration in eddy current signals in impedance diagram that arises due to the difference of distance between coil and test part. A skilled operator learns with experience that how this problem can be minimized by keeping a constant distance between coil and test piece. [18]

39

5 Research Work: Experimental Procedure

Two type of material were used in the research work, one material was of brass, and the other one was carbon steel. Chemical analysis of the specimens revealed that the carbon percentage in the carbon steel samples were 0.166. Original dimensions of the specimen were 5cm*3.5cm*1cm. Five samples were of brass and four samples were of carbon steel were initially prepared. Original samples were too big to be nickel coated through electro-deposition process. Coatings on small surface area samples yield better results than on larger ones. So the surface area needed to be reduced to produce better results meaning the original dimensions had to be changed. This work required several machining process explained in detail as follows.

5.1 Cutting
After proper dimensions of the sample pieces have been determined. Cutting was performed by a variety of machines, such as milling machine to cut the samples in half up to a particular point, then using a simple hacksaw to split the pieces in two. The rough edges of the samples were then removed with the help of a grinding machine. The samples were cut according to dimensions. Care had to be taken to ensure that the sample pieces split in half are of equal sizes as eddy current results vary significantly with varying thickness.

5.2 Grinding
Before coating is to be performed, the surfaces of the samples were needed to be grinded to achieve an even surface resulting in uniform coating throughout the samples. This was achieved by different methods such as a grinding, polishing machine & by using sand papers of various sizes such as 120, 180,400, 1500 etc.

40

5.3 Measurement of Surface Area

Its imperative to calculate the surface area to be exposed to the electrolyte. The surface area is calculated with precision with the help of vernier caliper. After that the dimensions are marked carefully & the uncoated area is covered with the help of masking tape. Only the exposed surface is taken into account while measuring surface area.

5.4 Masking
Before coating process is to be proceeded, the unexposed surface area was needed to be masked so that nickel doesnt deposit on unnecessary surface & coating is performed according to our surface area calculations. This is done by covering the unexposed area with Teflon tape. Care is taken that whole of the unwanted area is covered by masking upto the marked lines that separate the coated from the uncoated portions.

5.5 Activation
The sample to be coated may have foreign particles on the surface of the sample. To ensure a clean surface, the surface of our samples is dipped in 20% H2SO4 solution for 10 seconds. To prepare 20% solution, 4ml H2SO4 solution was dissolved in 16ml of distilled water with the help of burette & thoroughly shaken to make a uniform solution.

5.6 Rinsing
After activation of the surface, the sample is cleaned by distilled water so that the surface to be coated is free of impurities. Now the surface is ready to be electroplated.

5.7 Electrolyte Preparation

The electrolyte in which our samples are to be dipped in is prepared next. The required quantities of salt (Table 3) is weighed & mixed in water with help of a magnetic stirrer. Since our solution requires an operating temperature of 50-70 0C, heating is also provided along with stirring of the solution to prepare solution up to the required limit.

41

The choice of the electrolyte for the required nickel coatings is all-chloride solution. Its principle advantage is that it operates effectively at higher cathode current densities. Some other advantages of all-chloride are: High conductivity slightly better throwing power reduced tendency to form nodular growths on edges Deposits are smoother, finer-grained, harder and stronger than those from Wattss solutions, and more highly stressed.

The optimized conditions and parameters for all-chloride bath are given in the table below. When the parameters are controlled under the limitations mentioned in Table-4, the resulting coatings are much more uniform. In addition to that uniformly homogenized solution is achieved by constant magnetic stirring for 30 minutes & temperature kept constant.

Table 4-Optimized conditions & parameters for all-chloride solution All Chloride Solution Concentration (g/L) Nickel chloride 225-300 Boric Acid 30-35

PH Temperature (0C) Current Density (A/dm2)

1-4

50-70

2.5-10

Tensile Strength (MPa)

620-930

42

5.8 PH Measurement
The PH of the electrolyte solution is to be measured with help of a PH meter & ensure it is within our required limits. AC electro-deposition process is used in which there is no consumable anode, so the nickel ions that are plated come from the electrolyte solution that we prepare. As we continue to coat the material with nickel, the concentration of the nickel ions in the solution gradually decreases. This has the effect of increasing the PH value of the solution and the electrolyte becomes more & more acidic as more coatings are carried out. Eventually the solution cant be used anymore as the concentration of nickel ions in the electrolyte decreases so we need to check the PH of the electrolytic solution after every coating is performed in order to remain in the allowable limits of PH.

5.9 Nickel Coating using AC Electro-deposition Process

First the sample and the reference electrode which is graphite is clamped on to a stand & made sure that both are in line to ensure uniform coating. Connecting wires are attached from the electro-deposition machine to the corresponding electrodes (one to the graphite & one to our sample).Care is taken that the electrical wires that connect the electrodes with the apparatus dont come in contact with the base of magnetic stirrer; otherwise the high temperature might burn through the electrical insulation and damage the wires. The current requirement for deposition is calculated with surface area multiplied by the current density to give us the current value in amperes. The process is to be carried out in constant current mode. So the equipment is to be processed by switching the equipment to galvanostatic mode. The functions generator switch is turned on in order to get the values on the digital indicator screen. The potential (V) value which is twice the amount of our current value is set. This whole process is carried out with the machine in check mode. When all the calibrations are completed then the machine is switched on to perform the electro-deposition process. The process time depends on the amount of coating thickness which is to be achieved through electro-deposition. The longer the coating time given more will be the amount of nickel deposited on the sample.

43

The electro-deposition apparatus is shown in the fig 5-1.

Figure 5-1-Electrochemical deposition apparatus

The electrolyte as shown is contained in a beaker, the temperature of the solution is maintained with help of a thermometer, and clamps are used to hold both graphite anode and the cathode which is to be coated. A magnetic stirrer is used to facilitate thorough mixing of the electrolytic solution. Before starting the electro-deposition, it is made sure that the electric connections are accurate. Reversing the polarity results in chemical reactions that are not according to our requirements.

44

5.10 Eddy Current Inspection Setup

The instruments used for the detection of eddy current traces is Phasec 3D. This apparatus is generally used for the following purposes: Surface defect detection Weld Inspection Subsurface defect detection Material Sorting Rotary inspection of holes The apparatus diagram along with its button functionalities are shown the fig 5-2 below. It is a multifunctional apparatus & can be adapted to perform eddy current inspection.

Figure 5-2-Phasec 3D apparatus [19]

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Before performing ET inspection, the instrument needs to be calibrated according to the testing needs. As we have two test specimen materials (brass & carbon), so the calibrated settings for both of them would be different. The settings are changed until we get optimum signal which gives maximum separation of the responses from different coated samples. These settings are mentioned in the table below.

Table 5-Instrument Calibration for Different Coatings Brass Gain Frequency Probe Phase Input Gain Spot XY Carbon Steel Gain Frequency Probe Phase Input Gain Spot XY 8/8 100kHz Reflection 3130 High X99 : Y-44 20/20 10kHz Reflection 3130 High X29 : Y-44

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6 Results & Discussions

6.1 Coating Results
Several nickel coated samples are prepared by changing the variables such as current density, time, temperature, substrate material and pH. The samples are prepared in batches. Within each batch only one coating parameter is changed while the rest of the parameters are kept constant in order to filter out their affects so we can study the change due to the variation in one parameter only. The following results show the batch wise results of the nickel coatings along with their coating conditions.

6.1.1 Coating results - Batch 01

Nickel Coating :Sample1(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 17min Temperature:620C Thickness:1.4mm PH:2.69

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Nickel Coating : Sample 2(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 20min Temperature:620C Thickness:1.4mm PH:2.81

Nickel Coating :Sample 3(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 23min Temperature:620C Thickness:1.4mm PH:2.61

Nickel Coating :Sample 4(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 26min Sample Thickness:1.4mm Temperature:620C PH:3.61

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The changing parameter in batch 01 is the plating time. A steady increment of 3 minutes is given for each coating sample. More is time given to coat a material; the more will be the amount of nickel that gets deposited on the substrate. Current density is kept at 4A/dm2 and is kept constant for the whole batch. Temperature of the electrolyte is also maintained constant at 610C with the help of a thermometer. The pH of the solution changes as nickel gets deposited with each successive coating because the nickel ions from the nickel chloride hexahydrate solution that we are using as our electrolyte gets deposited and the pH of the solution is changed. So after four or five coatings have been completed using one solution we replace with a fresh when as the pH becomes considerably low. Also thickness of the substrate material plays an important role as substrate with different thickness give different eddy current responses under the same coating conditions, so to isolate that effect, we kept the thickness of the samples constant while preparing a batch.

6.1.2 Coating Results - Batch 02

Nickel Coating :Sample 1(Brass) Current Density: 3A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:1.4mm PH:2.63

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Nickel Coating : Sample 2(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:1.4mm PH:2.75

Nickel Coating :Sample 3 (Brass) Current Density: 5A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:1.4mm PH:1.97

Nickel Coating :Sample 4 (Brass) Current Density: 6A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:1.4mm PH:1.83

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In batch 02 the control variable is the current density which is incremented by one unit in each coating. Current density dictates the rate at which material gets deposited on the substrate, more is the current density; the faster the required mass gets deposited and vice versa. But as we increase the current density, it becomes more and more difficult to get a good finish, so we have to keep the current density at an optimum level and get the required result. Rests of the parameters are kept constant with coating time at 26 minutes, temperature at 620C.

6.1.3 Coating Results - Batch 03

Nickel Coating : Sample 1(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 17min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3.03mm PH:1.71

Nickel Coating : Sample 2 (Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 20min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3mm PH:1.98

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Nickel Coating : Sample 3(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 23min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3.03mm PH:2.08

Nickel Coating : Sample 4 (Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3mm PH:1.97

In batch 03 the variable parameter is again the plating time but the difference from batch 01 is that the substrate thickness is increased from 1.4mm in batch 01 to 3mm. By using this we can observe the effect of different substrate metal thickness and the role thickness plays in the ET response. In theory increasing thickness of material causes a decrease in resistivity to flow of eddies, as a result impedance point moves down the curve. We can verify this when compare the ET responses from batch 01 with those from batch 03 because thickness is the only parameter that is changed, rest of the parameters are the same.

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6.1.4 Coating Results- Batch 04

Nickel Coating : Sample 1(Brass) Current Density: 3A/dm2 Time : 17min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3mm PH:1.93

Nickel Coating : Sample 2 (Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 17min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3mm PH:1.72

Nickel Coating : Sample 3(Brass) Current Density: 5A/dm2 Time : 17min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3mm PH:2.07

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Nickel Coating : Sample 4 (Brass) Current Density: 6A/dm2 Time : 17min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:3mm PH:1.62

In batch 04 again the variable parameter is current density as in batch 02. The difference lies in the substrate thickness with thickness increased from 1.4mm to 3mm.

6.1.5 Coating Results- Batch 05

Nickel Coating :Sample 1(Brass) Current Density: 3A/dm2 Time : 30min Temperature:620C Thickness:3.8mm

Nickel Coating :Sample 2(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 34min Temperature:620C Thickness:5mm

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Nickel Coating :Sample 3(Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 34min Temperature:620C

Nickel Coating :Sample 4 (Brass) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 30min Sample Thickness:4.982mm Temperature:620C

In batch 05 the two plating times (30min & 34min) are chosen and two current densities (3A/dm2 & 4A/dm2) are chosen so we can compare the results at both conditions.

6.1.6 Coating Results-Batch 06

Nickel Coating :Sample (Carbon Steel) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:2.8mm

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Nickel Coating :Sample (Carbon Steel) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:2.5mm

Nickel Coating :Sample (Carbon Steel) Current Density: 3A/dm2 Time : 34min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:2.5mm Nickel Coating :Sample (Carbon Steel) Current Density: 4A/dm2 Time : 26min Temperature:620C Sample Thickness:2.98mm

In Batch 06 we have a ferromagnetic material (carbon steel) as our substrate material. Ferromagnetic materials enhance the primary magnetic field rather than opposing it as is in the case of non-ferromagnetic materials. So the response of ET should be on the opposite side of the air point as compared to non-ferromagnetic material (brass). In this way we can see how the ET response changes as we change the material from non-ferromagnetic to a ferromagnetic material.

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6.2 Eddy Current Inspection

In this section we show & discuss the eddy current responses of the batches that have been prepared. The instrument is calibrated, probe is placed one at a time on each samples & the response is recorded.

6.2.1 Frequency Optimization

The ET response depends strongly on the excitation frequency at which the inspection is being carried out. If the frequency is too high or too low the separation is not enough to qualify it for any qualitative or quantitative analysis. So the frequency needs to be optimized for best possible separation in both the cases (brass & carbon steel). The analysis is much more simplified once frequency has been optimized. The following frequency optimization has been performed for brass samples & similar process is carried out for carbon steel samples.

Impedence Plane Diagram(f=10kHz)

6 5 4

BaseMetal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Normalized 3 Inductive Reactance(V)

2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4

Normalized Resistance Figure 6-1-Impedance Plane Diagram (f=10 kHz)

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Impedence Plane Diagram(f=30kHz)

4 3.5 3

Normalized 2 Inductive Reactance (V) 1.5

1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5

2.5

Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Normalized Resistance(V) Figure 6-2-Impedance Plane Diagram (f=30 kHz)

Impedence Plane Diagram(f=60kHz)

3 2.5 2

Normalized Inductive 1.5 Reactance(V)

1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4

Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Normalized Resistance(V) Figure 6-3-Impedance Plane Diagram (f=60 kHz)

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Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 2(f=100kHz)

3 2.5 2

Normalized Inductive 1.5 Reactance(V)

1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4

Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Normalized Resistance(V) Figure 6-4-Impedance Plane Diagram (f=100 kHz)

Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 2(f=200kHz)

1.6 1.4 1.2 1 Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Normalized 0.8 Inductive Reactance(V) 0.6

0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Normalized Resistance(V) Figure 6-5-Impedance Plane Diagram (f=200 kHz)

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As we keep on increasing the excitation frequency, the separation between the samples progressively becomes poor. So after observing the response at different frequencies, it is found that 10 kHz is the optimum operating frequency for brass samples & 100 kHz is the required frequency for carbon steel samples. This gives us the best possible separation for analysis.

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6.2.2 Eddy Current Responses

In this section the eddy current responses are shown of both the brass and carbon steel samples. The response for each batch is shown at the optimized frequency for best possible separation. 6.2.2.1 ET Response-Batch 01

Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 1(f=10kHz)

4 3.5 3 2.5 Normalized Inductive Reactance(V) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 Normalized Resistance(V) 3 4 Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Figure 6-6-Impedance Plane Diagram-Batch 1 It can be seen from the fig 6-6 that the eddy current signal for each sample is different. In batch 01 the parameter that varies is the plating time. Both magnitude as well as the phase angle is changing constantly as we increase the plating time. More is the plating time, more the curve deviates from the base metal signal. With increasing plating time, the amount of nickel that is deposited is increased, the inductive reactance is increased & as a result the curve moves away from the base metal signal towards the air point which is the vertical axis line showing that the coating thickness is increasing with plating time which verifies that with increased plating time the coating thickness increases.

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6.2.2.2 ET Response-Batch 02

Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 2(f=10kHz)

6 5

4 Normalized 3 Inductive Reactance(V) 2 BaseMetal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 1

0 0 1 2 Normalized Resistance(V) 3 4

Figure 6-7-Impedance Plane Diagram-Batch 2 It is shown in fig 6-7 that again the ET signal deviates from the base metal as the coating variable is changed. The variable parameter in batch 02 is the current density. Current density controls the rate of deposition & as it is increased the rate at which nickel gets deposited on the substrate gets increased. This result is reflected in the impedance plane diagram. The impedance point moves away from the substrate signal as shown, towards the air point showing an increase in the inductive reactance as current density increased. This verifies that the coating thickness is increasing as the magnitude and phase is changing & the curve shifts away from the substrate signal.

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6.2.2.3

ET Response-Batch 03

Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 3(f=10kHz)

4 3.5 3 2.5 Normalized Inductive Reactance(V) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Normalized Resistance(V) Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Figure 6-8-Impedance Plane Diagram-Batch 3 The variable parameter in batch 03 as discussed before is the plating time. The difference between batch 01 & batch 03 is the thickness of the substrate metal. The thickness of substrate in batch 01 is 1.4mm while that in batch 03 is 3mm. It is clear by comparing the responses from both the batches that impedance point of each sample is different in both the cases, although the plating conditions are exactly the same. This proves that thickness does play a role when eddy current inspection is performed. Like the previous discussions, the same result can also be concluded that the coating thickness is increasing as the impedance point is moving towards the air point & not towards the substrate signal. With increasing time from 17 minutes to 26 minutes with an increment of 3 minutes for each coating, the impedance locus shifts towards air point, indicating an increase in the coating thickness.

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6.2.2.4 ET Response-Batch 04

Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 4(f=10kHz)

4.5 4 3.5 3 Normalized 2.5 Inductive 2 Reactance(V) 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 Normalized Resistance(V) 3 4 Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Figure 6-9-Impedance Plane Diagram-Batch 4 The parameter varying in batch 04 is the current density. Again it can be seen that the impedance points of batch 02 and batch 04 are different as the thickness of the substrate is different in both batches. The trend however still remains the same with the impedance locus shifting towards the air point as current densities are increased showing increasing trend of coating thickness.

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6.2.2.5 ET Response-Batch 05

Impedence Plane Diagram Batch5(f=10kHz)

4.5 4 3.5 3 Normalized 2.5 Inductive 2 Reactance(V) 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 Normalized Resistance(V) 3 4

Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Figure 6-10-Impedance Plane Diagram-Batch 5 The same trend is clear in batch 05 with increasing coating time & current densities leading to increasing coating thickness. 6.2.2.6 ET Response-Batch 05

Impedence Plane Diagram-Batch 6(f=100kHz)

3 2.5 Normalized Inductive Reactance(V) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 Normalized Resistance(V) Base Metal Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Figure 6-11-Impedance Plane Diagram-Batch 6

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The eddy current response for batch 06 is for carbon steel samples. As it is a ferromagnetic material, it enhances the primary magnetic field of the coil and as a result the response curve for such materials is on the other side of the air point as shown in fig 6-11. It can be seen that the substrate metal signal higher resistance value than reactance value as compared to the rest of the samples. So the impedance point is below all other curves of coated samples. As material gets coated and the plating time & current densities are increased the impedance locus shifts away from the base metal signal towards the air point. This proves that the coating thickness is increased.

6.2.3 Comparison: Coating thickness vs. time with ET Responses

The following graph has been plotted from the nickel deposition data shown in Table-1. This shows the effect of current density and plating time on the coating thickness. As the current densities are increased, it takes less time to achieve a certain thickness of coating. Likewise, if we increase plating time, the coating thickness is increased.
45 40

Coating Thickness(um)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500

0.5A/dm2 1A/dm2 1.5A/dm2 2A/dm2 3A/dm2 4A/dm2 5A/dm2 6A/dm2 8A/dm2 10A/dm2

Coating Time(minutes)
Figure 6-12-Coating thickness vs. Plating time Now we compare our ET responses with the experimental data of fig- 6-12.

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Figure 6-13-Comparison ET response with experimental results (Batch 1)

Figure 6-14-Comparison ET response with experimental results (Batch 2)

Figure 6-15-Comparison ET response with experimental results (Batch 3)

Figure 6-16-Comparison ET response with experimental results (Batch 4)

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The comparison conforms with our eddy current results showing that with increasing plating time & current densities leads to increasing coating thicknesses. The experimental results from Table 1 show that coating thickness increase with plating time and current density. Eddy current responses from different batches that have been prepared also show the same results.

6.3 Confirmation from Theoretical Results

Faradays law states that the mass which gets deposited in an electrolytic process is directly proportional to plating time & current. It is represented by the following relation:
m = 1.095 (a) (I) (t) (6.1)

Here; m=mass (gms) of nickel which is deposited at the cathode I=current (amp) that flows through tank t=Plating time (hrs) a=ratio of current efficiency where anode efficiency is 100% and cathode efficiency is between 92-97%.So its value vary from 0.92-0.97. For our calculations we take value of a=0.95 In the following tables, we calculate the theoretical mass deposited in each coating using the equation (3) by inserting the pre-requisite values. In this way tables are generated for each batch and the results are tabulated.

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6.3.1 Batch 01
Table 6-Theoretical mass deposited (Batch 1) I(amp) 0.203 0.208 0.200 0.206 time(hrs) 0.283 0.333 0.383 0.433 a 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 m(gms) 0.060 0.072 0.0797 0.09303

6.3.2 Batch 02
Table 7-Theoretical mass deposited (Batch 2) I(amp) 0.154 0.205 0.259 0.300 time(hrs) 0.433 0.433 0.433 0.433 a 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 m(gms) 0.069 0.092 0.116 0.135

6.3.3 Batch 03
Table 8-Theoretical mass deposited (Batch 3) I(amp) 0.220 0.239 0.247 0.2473 time(hrs) 0.283 0.333 0.383 0.433 a 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 m(gms) 0.065 0.082 0.098 0.111

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6.3.4 Batch 04
Table 9-Theoretical mass deposited (Batch 4) I(amp) 0.223 0.243 0.296 0.357 time(hrs) 0.283 0.283 0.283 0.283 a 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 m(gms) 0.065 0.071 0.087 0.105

6.3.5 Batch 05
Table 10-Theoretical mass deposited (Batch 5) I(amp) 0.248 0.191 0.223 0.223 time(hrs) 0.433 0.566 0.566 0.500 a 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 m(gms) 0.111 0.112 0.131 0.177

From Table 6-10, the theoretical results reveals that as we increase plating time & current, the mass of nickel that is deposited on the substrate is increased which confirms that coating thickness is increasing by increasing these parameters. For each batch the mass of nickel deposited is increased gradually as the control parameters are increased. Hence the theoretical results confirm our experimental eddy current data.

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7 Conclusion
The experimental results reveal that eddy current testing technique can be used to measure conductive coatings on non-conducting substrates. Moreover information about conductive coating on conducting substrate can also be attained. Increasing the control variables shifts the impedance locus towards air point & impedance point moves away from the substrate signal indicating an increase in the coating thickness. From these coating thickness of the test specimen can be estimated. Changes in the impedance locus were observed for different samples coated with nickel. The experimental results are verified mathematically which also testify that by increasing the values of the control variables increases the deposited mass i.e. the coating thickness. Hence eddy current testing technique has the potential to measure coating thicknesses on both conducting & non-conducting substrates with good accuracy. Impedance method can be used to extract quantitative data about the coating thickness using eddy current testing as a non-destructive testing technique. Additionally uniformity of the coating thickness & damaged/worn-out coating layers can also be identified with reliable evaluation for future use/replacements.

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8 Vita
Sheikh Abdul Samad was born on 16th March 1988 in Rawalpindi. His education career started from Rawalpindi. He completed his Matriculation from Saint Marys Cambridge School, Rawalpindi in 2004. He joined Sir Syed Science College, Rawalpindi and did FSc (Pre-Engineering) in 2007. He graduated with a degree of Mechanical Engineering from UET Taxila in 2011. After doing BSc he was selected as a fellow of Mechanical Engineering in MS fellowship program of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS). He did Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering at department of Mechanical Engineering in Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS) in 2011. .

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9 Bibliography
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ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Applications/ conductivitymeasurements.htm. [25] Z. A. k. a. A. A. K. M.Tariq, Lecture notes for level-2 eddy current testing course. [26] R. A.betz, Eddy current fundamentals,American society for metals, ASNT. [27] Advanced manual for: eddy current test method can/cgsb-48.14-m86, Canadian general standards board.

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