PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

PRIMITIVE
THE "

SOCIETY
OF

BEGINNINGS THE RECKONING

THE
OF

FAMILY

DESCENT

BY

EDWIN
LL.D.,

SIDNEY
F.S.A.,
HON.

HARTLAND
F.R,S. A. (IRELAND)

METHUEN 36

" STREET

GO.

LTD.
W.G.

ESSEX

LONDON

First

Published

in

1921

SOCIETY

PRIMITIVE

CONTENTS

CHAP.

PAGE

I.

INTRODUCTORY
......

II.

THE

BEGINNINGS

OF

SOCIETY
.
.

.11

III.

RUDIMENTARY

FORMS
.
. . .

-25

IV.

MOTHER-RIGHT:

ITS

CHARACTERISTICS
. .

32

V.

THE

AUSTRALIAN

RACE
.

-37

VI.

MELANESIA,

POLYNESIA,

MICRONESIA
.
.

50

VII.

AFRICA:

NEGROES

AND

BANTU
. .

.64

VIII.

INDIA

84

IX.

INDONESIA
. . .
.

.98
.

X.

ASIA,

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

BASIN,

EUROPE
.

115

XI.

AMERICA
.

.133

XII.

CONCLUSION
.
. . .

157
.
.

INDEX
.......

177

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTORY

THE
race

history
its

of

the

evolution

of

human is
one

society
of the modern of the and the

from
most

remotest

beginnings
the
to

interesting problems
What first lines the did
was

confronting
condition
man

anthropology.
when what
and
man

social be

began
it of

?
And

How
were

along
direction and

develop
its ? The

stages
the visions
same

development
the

always
of of many

everywhere
the than upon futile
:

speculations
revelations for

philosophers,
more one

of
were

poets,
with

religion
In

concentrated

ages and

these energy. mankind and influence

questions
one

dogmatic only tragic

its

insistence
were career

thing
on

they
in
some a cession suc-

agreed
external

started innocence that

happiness
of it has

until

corrupted
the and
to
race

by
in

plunged
sorrows

into

misfortunes,

struggles
the

which hour.
to

been

entangled
the last

down
two

present

Science bound limits another

during by
to

generations, refusing opinions

attacked and and the

be all

preconceived inquiries, has By

the

disdaining problem
of inferences in

its side.

from

collection and it has

collation its

facts,
on

discarding
ascertained

old

dogmas

basing
succeeded

customs,

discovering

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

much of the social history of humanity. formulating And though it has not yet succeeded in completely it has revealed the unveiling the originsof society, branches stages and conditions through which many of the race have passed,and has shown that if those it will only be by means to be known are ever origins of facts which have already of the fuller investigation and Its conclusions of course up their secret. and provisional are, like all the conclusions of science, liable to be ever revised in the light of fuller knowledge rendered discussion. Its main lines, penetrating dence but upon evihowever, rest not on dogma or speculation, to be set aside. repeatedlytested,and not lightly It is proposed in the following pages to present in
more

and

accordance

with

this evidence

human through which not race, is actubut certainly ally a largepart of it,has passed, or in its social evolution,namely, the stage passing,
in

summary the necessarily whole

of

one

stage

which

the

mother

alone, and

not

the

father,is

of regarded as the stock of descent and the source this it will be requisite to kinship. To understand exhibit and discuss shortly the previousstages, so far as they can be inferred from the evidence at our command. is so of society The mother the sole foundation as alien from the habits of thought of civilized nations decade of European descent that up to the seventh ously of the last century the subject had hardly been sericonsidered.
aberrant

At

most

it

was

dismissed

as

an

by system practised
unscientific

very

few

peoples. Apart
the
seventeenth

from
and

the

of speculations

Sir Henry eighteenth centuries, indeed, when Maine published in the year 1861 his remarkable work Ancient Law, little attention had been paid on to the growth and society. development of human The

science of

was anthropology

then in its

infancy.

INTRODUCTORY
Evolution
as

had

only just been

methodical

announced
;

by Darwin
it had
not
as

the law

of the external

world

and

yet been

appliedby

lawyer whose life had been spent in India. The study of Hindu institutions had to those of ancient impressedhim with their similarity Rome. Although he saw that the law of the Twelve the earliest point at which Tables was the juridical the first historycould be taken up, because it was written statute, he saw equallyclearlythat it presupposed unwritten tion, tradia long line of immemorial during which custom was evolvingand gradually hardening into definite law. But familiar only with
a

history of human (Great Britain)Maine importance. He was

to the investigation In institutions. this country

was

the

first to

discover

its

the ancient customs

and

and

codes of Rome,
on

of the Hebrews, his scientific

of the

Hindus, he based
the and origin
were

these

of exposition

evolution framed

These

codes

of social ization. organfor societies in the traced

or

patriarchal stage, when

the father and
ruler

descent
was

was more occur

through
to

the father

the
not

less absolute
to

of the the

family.
codes
to

It did the

behind for the

customs

of

an

go earlier date,

him

purpose institutions had of Rome, of India

in

of

ascertainingwhether always existed among

and

patriarchal the peoples

except

of Palestine ; still less to enquire, how other very cursory manner,

peoples
down

were
"

organized. Consequently he
the effect of the evidence

lays

it

that

derived

from

is to establish that view comparative jurisprudence of the primeval condition of the human which is race known the Patriarchal Theory." 1 He delineates as as a societyorganized on the patriarchalmodel, collected from the early chapters in Genesis," thus :
"

Maine,

122.

4
"

PRIMITIVE
The eldest male

SOCIETY the eldest ascendant His is

parent

"

"

absolutely supreme
extends
to

in his household.

dominion

life and

death,

and
as

is
over

as

his children and the relations of

their houses

unqualifiedover his slaves ; indeed,

sonship and serfdom appear to differ in little beyond the higher capacity which the child in blood possesses of becoming one day the head of The flocks and herds of the children a familyhimself.
are

the flocks and

of the father ; and the possessions of the parent,which he holds in a representative herds than
at

rather divided first

in

character, are proprietary

among eldest son his descendants sometimes

equally
in

his death the

the

receivinga of birthright, double share under the name but more with no hereditary advantage generally endowed 1 beyond an honorary precedence." is Sir Henry Maine's Such generalization.It will that the emphasis is laid on the family be observed which a property and the paternal power power its apogee in earlyRoman reached cally law, and is technidegree,
"

known

as

the

Patria

Potestas.

Later, in

explaining the Patria Potestas, he arrives almost of this form of social at the foundation incidentally clusively organization namely, the reckoning of kinship exA female the paternal side. on name closes the branch or twig of the genealogy in which
"

"

it
are

occurs.

None

of the

descendants

of

female

line

notion of familyrelationship." primitive 2 is that the The result then of his enquiries of reckoning descent is through primitivemethod men only, that the power and property of a family vested in its father as head, and that the vesting are included
in the

of this power and property is derived of reckoning descent.

1

from

the method

Maine, 123.

Ibid.

148.

INTRODUCTORY The
same

by the publicasignalized tion year that was also the publication of Ancient witnessed Law

an opinionexactlythe contrary maintaining of Sir Henry Maine's. eminent Swiss An lawyer, to the conclusion, named J. J. Bachofen, had come that the from an investigation of classical literature, earliest method of reckoning descent was through women only,and that the earliest organizedrule was matriarchal His book is entitled and not patriarchal.

of

work

Das

Muttenecht, the

name

which

he

gave

to

this

polity,convenientlyEnglished as Mother-right. It is, he declares, an historical phenomenon that had hitherto been considered by by few and investigated nobody in its entirety. He starts from Herodotus' of the Lycians : One custom account they have that is peculiar to them, and in which they agree with no after their other people,that is,they call themselves
"

mothers his

and

not

neighbour parentage and

and
if
a woman are

ask after their fathers ; and if one he is he will state his mother's who
enumerate

his mother's is of
a

fore-mothers
a

who accounted
a

citizen wed

slave

her if
a

children
man

gentle birth, whereas

if the
or

who

is

even citizen,

first

man

them, have
that this may
be

an

alien wife born

are

concubine,
civil

the

among children From

without

1 rights."

example of matrilineal descent, attested by the Father of History and declared by him to be unique, the juristproceeds to examine the mythical history and customs of various states of antiquity (travelling far to the east as India and Central Asia, and to as the west of Spain) and far as the Cantabrians as them wherever illustrating possibleby works of art in showing He has no difficulty preservedin museums. that the myths and customs in many cases can
1

Herod,

i. 173.

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

explainedby the hypothesisof a social condition in which kinshipwas reckoned only through women, and which must have preceded the reckoningof patrilineal descent the primitive as posited by Maine
condition goes further and with the aid of traditions of the Amazons and other stories of mankind. But
he
comes was one

be

to

the of

conclusion

that

the that

promiscuity,and

condition primitive ended by an it was

of the unwho bridled were uprisingof the women, weary the proand insisted on passions of men tection of marriage. They resorted to physical force, and together obtained banding themselves the victory. With it they established the institution of marriage(by which he apparently means monogamy) and the reckoningof maternal only ; and they lineage for their sex political well as social supremacy. won as His

argument

is learned, but

tiresome

and

full of

It is also encumbered repetitions.1 by views, quite untenable to-day, of the evolution of Greek a religion.He was pioneer,who lived before the discoveries and the studies that during the last thirty much so lighton the earlyhistory years have thrown of Greece His Die
and

other

parts of the
on

Mediterranean

basin.

further

researches

Sage von inportant in the discussion of other evidence from classical antiquity never brought him beyond the point of view of his earlier work. also was J. F. McLennan a lawyer. In writing the cycloped article on Law for the eighth edition of the En"
"

in subject,embodied and other works, though Tanaquil(1870)

the

Britannica,
the existence

his

attention and

was

drawn
in

to

of institutions

customs

various

parts of the world

1

inconsistent

with

the

patriarchal
especially

This his

summary

of Bachofen's
to Das

conclusions

is collected

from

preface

Mutterrecht.

INTRODUCTORY

vestigat subsequently to further inthe meaning and during which origin of the form of capture in marriage ceremonies came under consideration. The of his reasoning course alike in savage upon a wide survey of cases, occurring and civilized communities, pointed to matrilineal, rather than descent the primitive as patrilineal, form of social organization.Bachofen's work was him ; and unknown the result of his labours, to in 1865 under the title of Primitive Marriage, published therefore independent of that of the continental was a jurist. Like Bachofen, he was pioneer in a very difficultregionof human history if that may be called so history which is concerned largelywith peoples who have written records. Unlike no Bachofen, however, but like Maine, he had a giftof clear and forcible exposition, and he was free from the burden of fanciful mythological theories arbitrary and
" "
"

theory.

This

led

him

current

at

that His His human

time

among thesis

the

learned

men

of

Germany.
discussion. of

works, therefore, speedilyprovoked

main
"

that

the

earliest

dition con-

of unorganized one society was and that organizationbegan with the promiscuity, reckoning of kinship through women only was The in his work on accepted by Sir John Lubbock Origin of Civilization, publishedin 1870. The same taken position was by Dr. Lewis H. Morgan, the American from independent enquiry. anthropologist, His conclusions were based largelyon the institutions of the Iroquois, the American tribe with which he was best to acquainted ; but his researches extended of the lower other tribes, indeed to the practices culture the world. works all round After dealing the in detail with North American peoples, their in Ancient result was embodied mature Society, pub"

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
on

lished in

1877,a
studies.

work

that has left its mark

pological anthro-

SubsequentlyA. Giraud-Teulon, professorof the dn Philosophy of History at Geneva, in Les Origines the arguelaborated Manage et de la Famille (1884), ment
of Bachofen

and

extended

it to the lower

culture

rather everywhere. In his discussion it is assumed than proved that maternal the descent is founded on buted contriuncertaintyof paternity ; but he materially of the evidence by his systematic presentation of matrilineal customs of a body of to the formation of matrilineal opinion in favour of the general priority descent. over patrilineal Meanwhile Professor Robertson Smith, applying his specialknowledge of Semitic institutions to Arab records and had traditions, which scarcely been touched by previous writers on the subject,showed in his Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885) that maternal form of descent had been the original the Arabs, and organization among incidentally the Hebrews, as had been already surmised among the same time G. A. Wilken, About by McLennan. professorat Leiden, after years spent in the Dutch East Indies servingthe Government in various capacities
in which
on

he studied

the natives and

to the

their institutions
in
a

the

spot, gave

world

series of

valuable

scientific periodicals (1883papers in Dutch 1891)the results of his researches on the same subject. researches
went to strongly

These

confirm
Indian

of matrilineal
and

among

kinshipin the East Semitic peoples in

Maine
was

priority Archipelago
Asia.
the

the

south-western

possibility that some other forms of social organization might have been of greater antiquitythan the patriarchal he had claimed form, which as primitive.

Ultimatelyeven

forced to admit

10

PRIMITIVE
relations with of be
must all,
women

SOCIETY of
more

marital

than

one

group,"
"

that it becomes each

woman

importance. Then, indeed,

restricted of
to
one

unless

man,

descent, if

counted
To
seems

at

follow necessity
more

the female line." than

one

have

connubial

relations with

thus to be

relations with On the

regardedas one only a very questionable opinion.

"

group less primitive than to have continent also

North

American of the

more

tensive ex-

examination

tribes aboriginal

than

was

to Morgan has revealed practicable of those tribes are organized by

the fact that many of paternal means from the

descent

their social order matrilineal

is far removed

organization of the Iroquois, which Morgan had investigated most completely, and which he regarded as typical. Some American and more are anthropologists accordingly more disinclined to the theory of the universal priority of maternal kinship. A new impetus has thus been given to the attack, of matrilineal the priority on previouslylanguishing, arrived to have reckoning. The time therefore seems for a brief restatement in popular form of the facts and leading to the conclusion that the arguments of deriving earliest ascertainable systematic method human kinshipand descent is through the woman only, and that patrilineal reckoning is a subsequent development.
In such
a

elaborate

restatement,

however,

we are

must
never

always
more

remember

that

scientific conclusions

to
a

be
more

: they are liable at any time provisional revised and modified by a wider knowledge and accurate reasoning. The greater the number

than

of relevant

facts

we

can

assemble, the
from the less

more

careful and

circumspectthe
the conclusions

inferences will be and

them,

the

stronger
be upset

to likely

by

new

discoveries.

CHAPTER

II

THE

BEGINNINGS

OF

SOCIETY

THE
must to must

earliest

condition If

of
man

human
were

society
evolved the
It

is

naturally
from have
a

unknown. ape
or

an

ape-like

creature

tion opera-

been

exceedingly
to

slow.

is difficult

assign
be
we

limit, and
as as

say

at

what

point the
to

species
to

regarded
look have

human,
the

and lower

ceased animals.

belong
Moreover,

what
man

upon

must not

evolved
one

from
"

gregarious
"

creature,
them

and

from

of

the

higher

apes

"

all of

solitary, or
alone have

found

only

in

pairs with
numerous

their
hordes

immature would would

offspring. Comparatively
furnished
to

that

co-operation
Human
in

which
are

be

necessary
in

evolution. Even
in

beings
lowest

always
where
are,

found

societies. about small whom of

the

savagery

they

wander in

search

of

nutrition,
within reach

they
of

though
for
the

parties, always
from time
to

their

fellows, with

time

they forgather
intercourse,
Primeval be

purpose

religious rites, social

and
even

amusement, societies
as

consultation of this
must

joint action.
if

kind,
have
a

worthy
many
a

to

qualified
of habits habits be
in

human,

retained
state.

trace

contracted

in like

lower
sexual

Among
may

these

something
reckoned,
the It which
nature

promiscuity
by

probably
unions

relieved

perhaps

temporary

of

monogamy.
use no

is of
we

little possess

to

speculate
records.

upon

beginnings

of

Absolute

promiscuity

12

PRIMITIVE find nowhere in human

SOCIETY
so-

we

called

society But in the and in classificatory system of relationships,

and
customs
a

the

institutions
to

coverabl abundantly disinto social origins Many previousenquirers who have accepted maternal descent as the earliest social form of organization, have to the set it down tions uncertainty of paternityarisingfrom these instituand Over and customs. over again travellers matrilineal society have attributed it to a describing be
traces

of such

savage condition are

of

life,what

seem

the

same

cause.

There

is reason

to doubt

of the

inference.

If matrilineal where

descent
were

the accuracy in prevailed

all communities

conjugal ties
there
was reason

loose, if it
sexual

prevailedonly
was

in

communities

where

laxity
that

notorious,or where
once

to think
we

it had

been

the

rule, then

indeed

in ascribingto such a cause the justified of kinshiponly through women. But this is whom being the case. Many people among doubt of the paternity of reasonable no reckon their kinship only through women.
the

might be reckoning
far from there is

children

Among
equator

coastal tribes of Western the husband

Africa

from

the

forth buys his wives, who thenceThe belong to, and reside with, him, ment punishfor adultery is death, though frequently muted comfor a fine or the death of a slave. the Still, law is very severe, and its severity is increased by the Miss definition of the offence. Kingsley very wide of laying your reports that it is often only a matter in self-defence from a virago, on a woman, hand, even * There or brushing against her in the path." can, the on therefore, be little doubt in ordinary cases of the children. Yet matrilineal descent is paternity southwards
"

the law

in all these
1

tribes.

On

the other

side of the

Kingsley,Travels, 497.

THE continent

BEGINNINGS

OF

SOCIETY

18

kinshipis reckoned in the same way by the Barea of northern Abyssinia, whom by fidelity among the wife is strict and adultery exceedinglyrare.1 In India the Ulladans belong to the lowest of the purely and animistic castes of the Cochin Malayali Hindu State. the jungle tribes They are classed among and are miserably poor. But poor and despisedas they are, they hold strict views as to the chastity
of both married before and
unmarried
"

women.

Sexual

licence

marriage
an

is

neither

recognized nor
pregnant

tolerated. and

Should

unmarried
her

become girl

the fact be

known,

secret

lover is summoned

by the tribesmen, who compel him to take her to wife, as otherwise they will be placed under a ban." 2 Divorce is effected easily and without any formalities ; but it is superfluous there is nothing to say that like free love among them." Paternity therefore can seldom is reckoned be in doubt. Yet all relationship through the female side, and a child takes the name of its mother's family. A similar tale is told of many tribes of Melanesians. Such peoples as these and they are many give us pause before accepting the of the rule of uncertainty of paternity as the cause matrilineal kinship,even though allowance be made for its persistence for its establishment after the reason has passed away. On the other hand paternity certain is by no means in communities in which kinship prevails. patrilineal Among the Arunta and other tribes of Central Australia and lineage is reckoned through the husband sumed preThese father. a tribes, when girlarrives at maturity, inflict a cruel and senseless operation upon her. She is then compelled to submit to the embraces
"
" "

of other
1

men

than

her destined
*

husband,
Auantha

and

first of
i. 60.

Munzinger, 525.

Krishna,

14

PRIMITIVE whom
in
a

SOCIETY marry, then takes because

all,men
to

she cannot tribal

they stand
our

her

equivalent to relationship
She is he
acts

bidden forher

degrees.
husband
;

handed

over

to

but

before

exclusive with
men

possession
her
as are

of her the ceremonial many Even husband

cases

of congress repeated with the same is settled

in
to

in

before. her of

after he

she

the

possession of
her,
as an

is accustomed

lend

act

courtesy and

to hospitality,

belong
married.

to

the class in which

visiting strangers who she might have lawfully

the occasion of tribal Beyond this, on ceremonies, occupyingperhaps ten days or a fortnight, and women of men when number a large are gathered together, there is considerable licence.1 In face of
these
customs

it cannot

be contended

that

there is any

of paternity. certainty Nor does the practice of many peoples in a much assure higher stage of civilization than the Arunta it or at any rate fix that certainty upon the husband. Moreover, so great is the desire for children in patrihusbands lineal peoples that are means by no they adopt to obtain them. squeamish in the means Sexual hospitality of the kind practised by the Arunta In certain stages of the is very common elsewhere. lower culture the sexual relations of unmarried boys and girls are quite free ; and a girlwho is pregnant, has all the better chance or has already borne children, of marriage. In such a case takes the husband readily the offspring over begotten before marriage ; and they are regardedas his own. Nay, in default of children of which he himself is the father,he will even arrange of strangers in his wife to the embraces to submit
"

order
1

to

secure

them.

This

is often

done

under

the

North.

Cent. Tribes, 92, 93, 96, 98 sqq., 107, 381 ; id., Spencer and Gillen, Tribes,133, 136 ; Strehlow, iv. i,43, 61, 91, 92, 97, 101, 102.

THE sanction of

BEGINNINGS

OF

SOCIETY

15

The sacred law of the Hindus religion. for begetting, and elaborate provisions made special than the husband, and even after through other men would who his death, sons tinuance provide for the due conduties.1 Similar institutions of his religious
are

the ancient among In these cases Armenians.2 found

Persians
we

and

the ancient order of

find the

same

thought
which Hebrew
to

as

in the
was

Hebrew raised limited

custom

of the levirate, by the deceased. The

seed

custom

up the

to

woman's that Arabs

her

husband's death. When

a

brother, and
The
man

concubitancy only after her

went

husband's further.

ancient desired
a

much

goodly seed

he

might

call upon his wife to cohabit with another man until she became pregnant by him, or he might lend her to
a

going a journeyhe might get a friend to supply his place during his absence, or he might of conjugal rights with aninto a partnership enter other
guest, or when
man

in return be

he

would

might
at

bear.

for service ; yet in all these cases the father of any children she reckoned The child of a woman already pregnant her the

the time

husband,
children married accounted

marriage would also belong to though not begotten by him ; and

a

of her

of

divorced and took

woman,

or

again

them

with husband.3

widow, who be her, would

those of the second

even more

Similar and
a son are

shifts to obtain extraordinary widespread among patrilineal peopleson the witness

to

African
the

continent, and
to

the

indifference the

of

husband
to

the

actual

paternityof

children

credited
1

him.
xxv.

Sacred
1911,
v.

Books,
xiv. 281. 143
n.

327-38, ii. 267,

302,

303.

Cf. hid.

Cens.

Rep.
"

Ibid.

; Zeits.

vergl. Rechtswissenschajt, xxv,

no

296,

'

Robertson

Smith, Kinship,

sqq.

16

PRIMITIVE of

SOCIETY

Among the Dinkas Negro tribe,all children

of children children and borne their may

Bahr-el-Ghazal,

Nilotic

spective by a man's wives, irreactual his begetter,are reckoned inherit as such. Moreover, all

borne

by his widows at whatever distance of time from his death, and whoever have begotten may If a beng (sheikh or head of them, are his children. a village)marry, being too old himself to beget children, such wives cohabit with his sons ; but all children they bear are recognized as the husband's
children and The brothers children
or

sisters of
a

their actual
woman

getters be-

of

divorced

whose have
on

has been repaid,though they bride-price begotten by her former husband, become the husband years
return

been
marriage re-

her

children
woman

of who

her has

new

husband. married

The for two

of

been

without of
to

the

giving birth to a child may the ground on bride-price

; but

sue

for she

that
so

is

unable submit
in order

conceive

before of
one

he

can

do

he must relations

her to the embraces

to

of his male

of barrenness, since support his allegation

have borne is
no

the fact that his other wives

in his favour. If
a man

evidence

leavingonly a widow past and no the age of child-bearing children, the widow in the name of her dead husband must a girl marry she pays out of the estate left by the whose bride-price deceased ; and she must provide her with one of the male relations of the deceased, or if he have left none,
with that
one

die

of her
a

own

to

cohabit

with.

The

children
not
name

such

bride

will bear

will be

reckoned
in whose her

to

their real father, but to the deceased

was was

she

married, and

from

whose

property
left
no

paid. Descent cannot if the dead man therefore,

and
no

be counted
have

bride-price through women ; an only daughter

child whom the

other

children

or

widow,

18

PRIMITIVE
a

SOCIETY

lend her to

friend of

express purpose to himself. The

for the or by way of hospitality, to be imputed procuringoffspring

a are

however, to submit arrangements justdiscussed, of a stranger are a productof to the embraces woman advanced comparatively stage of civilization. They
intended

for a man to provideoffspring artificially who has been unable children by his own to secure children in that state of society act, yet for whom In needed to fulfil religious and social purposes. are do such not a more primitivecondition purposes exist. Patrilineal kinshiphas not arisen ; or if it has arisen it has not yet become united with a religious cult and with social and economic a organization which demand of a particular line of the maintenance traced solelythrough descent, or at least affiliation, It is even men. extremely probable that in that more primitivecondition the physicalbond between father and of
we

child is not

understood, and the mechanism

The sexual of the which on passion, to depend, is species thought of the any is accustomed
to

is ignored. paternity

know

the continuance

without gratified instinctively,

A consequences. sexual intercourse

early age, often long before puberty..Consequently in an overwhelming proportionof cases it has no result in childbirth. The inevitable hardships of savage life do not tend to lessen this proportion. Even the most prehension rudimentary comhave of the process of reproduction must been of slow growth. Coition results in pregnancy of favourable conditions, only by the concurrence bodily and mental, which are not always present.
a

savage from

woman

very

When

it is in fact caused, the manifestation Weeks does not immediately occur. may

of pregnancy
or even

months

elapsebefore

it

can

be

known. certainly

THE
In the

BEGINNINGS the
a

OF

SOCIETY

19

meantime

attention

be

diverted

by
and
or

hundred these
woman,

importance.
of both
man

While

primitive may other events of pressing call upon the thoughts may
the latter may which the
cause

of the

meet

with
seem dition. con-

adventures
to
one

personaloccurrences ignorant of natural laws

When
once an

may of her

the

attention the

is

concentrated

be conjecture would speedilyconfirmed by a varietyof real or imagined Post hoc ergo propterhoc is a fallacy events. to which in all degrees of culture have been liable. A men of primitivemankind, only parfortiori the reason tially to developed and running on lines not parallel would succumb to its apparent force. The our own, mind, seeing connection everywhere between savage and his environment, invests every event with man ception Conmysticismand every objectwith mysticalpower. and birth are regarded with wonder and awe as They are attributed to things not understood. different from human, and often above human. causes would be supposed to operate on the These causes is the agent of birth. The man, who whose woman, be disregarded. relation with it is not obvious, would find in traditional tales descendingfrom a Hence we remote antiquity conceptionascribed to all sorts of alien from causes as humanity as fish,plants, and That these causes not the mere stones. are even play of pleasurable fancy, unrelated to serious belief,we the various practicesadopted by women learn from upon
occurrence

such

all

over

the world

in order

to

obtain

children.

With

this

conditions, object they eat, under ceremonial food of various kinds, fruits, roots, seeds, and other animal substances vegetable products, cakes and including fish and eggs, they drink potions, often of sacred salt, they consume scrapings very repulsive,

20 stone statues

PRIMITIVE
and other

SOCIETY
mineral

substances, they bathe in sacred springs, blood, they wallow in human to rain or sunshine, they they expose themselves wear amulets, they enter into contact with various
others powerful, among menhirs and rocks,they expose on where themselves they think they may be fructified of by the entry into their bodies of the spirit child or adult, they simulate deceased the act some In short, they perform an of birth. extraordinary often to unpleasantor variety of rites,and submit loathsome conditions,that they may be blessed even with offspring. Many of their performances are
or

objects esteemed rubbing themselves

sacred

obscene of

; many
even

are

enacted

under

the direct sanction

times some-

religion ;

in the
at

higherreligions they are

the

connived The

by

ecclesiastical authorities.

great varietyand world-wide be contemplated without cannot they have arisen from an ancient that birth is produced by some
natural existence
cause.

spread of
the and

these rites that

conviction

belief deep-seated other than the only have owed its

Such

belief must the

and

to vitality

physiological ignorance
to warrant

of mankind.1 Nor do
we

lack The

direct

evidence tribes

that
to

conviction.

Australian
causes
"

ascribe
to
one

birth

totallydifferent
others
to

some

tribes
were cause

cause,

another. this

The

Arunta

the

first tribe
was

of which

ignoranceof
it
was

the real

of birth Sir

reported. Since Spencer and the

has been continent made
;

discovered F.

late Mr.

by J. Gillen,a

Baldwin

similar

ance ignor-

found

and

other tribes on the islandamong it is attested by repeated researches evidence and is above their

by enquirerswhose According to the Arunta

1

suspicion. birth neighbours,

Hartlaud, Prim,

Pat. i. chap. ii.

THE is caused mother's

BEGINNINGS the
as

OF

SOCIETY into spirits

21

by
womb

entry of ancestral

the

these this way their attention is directed to her

she passes near their haunts.1 In incarnated. become Sometimes spirits

by

magical ceremony

other or some man. performed by the husband Coition is merely regarded as an enjoyment. Yet of birth,in some undefined though it is not the cause for the receptionof an it prepares the woman way ancestral spirit in other words, for conception. It that the Arunta would are seem beginningto suspect
"

the

truth, but
The
more

have

not

arrived of other

at

definite notion

of it.
are

inhabitants

innocent.

It is true

parts of Australia of them, as has been

of the Trobriand

said

of the

Melanesian
"

inhabitants of

any conceived kinship,

and

Islands,that

That
been

or paternalconsanguinity father as a bodily relation between to the native mind." child,is completelyforeign truth has an understandingof the physiological

view

retarded

is due

to the fact that all women,

often

maturity, partake of sexual intercourse,while fertilization takes place in comparativelyfew cases, but perhaps even to the fact that in their ignormore ance they only date conception from the time when
the that
woman

before

first becomes

is to

place this respectagreeing with

who date its commencement
it first becomes

say, from months later than

pregnancy quickening,which only takes

"

conscious

of

the

actual
of

the Bahau

conception in Central Borneo,

"

only

from

the time that

an

when
error

visible.3

It is obvious

of this kind
1

is fundamental.
Gillen, Cent.

Tribes, 265, 337, 338 ; id., North. Tribes, 150, 156, 162, 330, 606 ; Spencer, North Australia, 264, 336, xi. 7 n., iv. i, n 337. 338 ; Strehlow, ii. 52 n., iii. i, (p.) ; Langloh and Parker, 50, 61, 98 ; Roth, Bull. v. 22, 18 ; Frazer, Totemism

Spencer

and

Exog. i. 576, 577. a J.R.A .1. xlvi.

403-13.

"

Globus, Ixxxvi.

381.

22

PRIMITIVE In the

SOCIETY the truth

was

long run

of

course

bound the

to be

It may in civilization of a

discovered.

be fairly community

said that

is measurable

progress by the

of the understanding on the part of the average man general meaning and implication of the principal The Australian Blackfellows phenomena of nature.
are

among earth. As

the lowest

savages the

now

on

the face of the

us

such, they represent

most

to

much

more

nearly during
ancestors
must

than

others
even

condition original made years

some

of

mankind, though
the many

they have
of

thousands into

progress since their

emerged
expect
of

humanity. Consequently we
such definite evidence

not

to find elsewhere

of the

belief that

of the speciesis independent reproduction Yet that is precisely coition. what we do TroNew

the Melanesian inhabitants of the among briand of coast Islands, off the south-eastern

find

Guinea, who
is caused

hold, like the Arunta, that

an

mother's both

the entry of On the womb.1

by

ancestral

conception into the spirit

are

African

continent, among
similar
to

the Bantu

and

the true

Negroes there
Birth
:

ignorance and
every
cause

similar beliefs. the

true
one

is attributed

but

of the

of spirits

the

trusion very often to the indead into the mother's

body.2 In other parts of the world peoples who recognizeand acquiescein paternityas the present
arrangement preserve
their archaic in traditional tales of the of
are

past

the birth ignorance. And has been often attributed by nations who civilized to specialcauses other than the of the existence of a human being. From
1 2

heroes

highly
cause

real

such

traditional

tales and

from

the

practices
131
n.

J.R.A.I,
Frazer,

xlvi. 403. Totemism

and

Exog. ii.

507;

Ellis, Yoruba,

Spieth,70*, 507, 558, 804, 820, 840.

THE in in

BEGINNINGS with them what

to

OF

SOCIETY
women

28

harmony

indulged in by
are

alike

and savage there is reason former that times

called that
more

civilized countries,

think

this

even1 prevailed

ignorance has widely than now

Whether

in
"

in fact it has

been

universal.

it has

usuallycoupled with anything like promiscuity is a question on which it is unnecessary to pronounce an opinion. We have no records to inform us of the in this respect. If originalcondition of mankind absolute nowhere, promiscuity be actually found sexual morality is a different thing in savagery or barbarism from what it is in a high state of civilization looser ; and ; the conjugaltie is as a rule much there is evidence,not merely in occasional or periodical of indulgence, outbursts but in the ordinary life of to a limited sexual communism. tribes, pointing many the meaning of Scientific controversy has raged over
the facts. Whatever may be
the

been

inferences

to

be

ultimately drawn from them, it is clear that sexual jealousyplays a smaller part in savage life than in a the and that where it occurs on high civilization, the purity of the danger of tainting part of the man descent does not generally into consideration. enter A wife's temporary union with another indeed, man, is frequently sanctioned by the husband, or by tribal it is not so sanctioned, it is usually Where custom. regarded as theft a breach of property to which he has the exclusive right of possession.But there differences between different peoples in this are being apt to set a higher value on respect, some this right, and jealous,than consequently more
"

others. The

due

importance in these stages of society. This is probably in its origin to the physiological ignorancealready
no

truth is that the actual

father is of

24

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

discussed.

Where

such of the

ignorance
world
at

has has the the done

given
the
"

way

"

as

over

large

part

it and obscure

sexual of of

customs

already
itself would

glanced
tend
to

constitution

society physical

importance

paternity.

26

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
to
a mere

and

they

are

now

reduced

miserable
and

remnant,
to
more on

roving in

small

despisedand companies of twos

other

threes the desert and dwell. than it

people care
never

the steppe, where few Their organizationwas what

are

but rudimentary,
was

took,
Nor

or

what

founded,

we

probably shape it hardly

informed. is
our

mentary knowledge of the Fuegians less fragThe in canoes about Yahgans travelling often consisting form only of a very small parties, children. In such a party the his wives and man, would be supreme. man as as Occasionally many five such families may in one be found living together rude generallytwo families. They wigwam ; more clans said to live in is the organiare zation ; but what of a clan we not told. ment are Probably the state" "

has

no

better

foundation

than

near living learn is that they consider the maternal utmost we and the tie much more important than the paternal, duties connected with it of mutual help,defence and held sacred." 1 are Superficially, vengeance very matrilineal kinship that statement to favour seems in spite of the dominance of husband and father ;

felt

by

relatives for

preference together. The

natural

"

but

it cannot of

be

taken

as

conclusive It

evidence

in the

absence
some

definite in

information.
a were

has, however,

confirmation earlier

tradition under

which female

in

days

men

allegesthat domination,
the the

but
women women

they rebelled,adopted
and
in
more

initiation rites from

to spirits,

invented

masked

keep

subjection.2
favoured
Hum.

In
1

lands

the
44,

natives
105,

formed

larger
from

Westermarck,
T.

Marriage,

quoting

letters

Rev.
*

Bridges.
Ixiii. 156.

Bull. B.E.

RUDIMENTARY hordes. Those of Tasmania any

FORMS
were

27

terminated exunfortunately

before obtain
a

real effort had

been

made

to

only told
and
"

the

knowledge of their organization.We are that they had neither government nor laws, was place of command yieldedup to the
the tribe."
l

bully of
and There facts the
was

The

relations almost

of the

colonists hostile.

aborigines were
therefore would be
no

uniformly
made
to

attempt

ascertain and the

that

of for

opportunity is
known
about

lost

scientific value ; From what ever. believed

to have

little is

belonged of the population of the adjacent to an earlystratum of Australia. mainland can only Accordingly we that their customs had surmise and a organization Blackto those of the Australian generalsimilarity which we shall discuss at a later stage. fellows, and Thanks Mr. Man, Mr. M. V. Portman, to Sir R. C. Temple we are a littlebetter informed about amother of these lowly races, the inhabitants of the Islands in the Bay of Bengal. A Negrito, Andaman dwarfish mentary people, their civilization is still in a rudistage ; for while they are well acquainted with the use of fire, they do not know how to produce it. Our knowledge of their organization is stillvague. told that We Andamanese are an individual,as the recognize,belongs to a family, people themselves which belongs to a sept, which belongs to a tribe, which belongs to a group of tribes or division of the race." But what is the exact definition of a family or There is," says Sir a sept we are not informed. R. C. Temple, idea of government, but to each no tribe and to each sept of it there is a recognized head, that who has attained positionby tacit agreement

them

they are

"

"

"

Ling Roth, Aborigines of Tasmania, of Science, i. 253. Jottrn,

H.

70,

quoting Dove,

Tasm.

28

PRIMITIVE
account

SOCIETY mental superiority,

or

on

of

some

admitted
a

physical,and
obedience
men as

commands the
or

limited

respect
other is
a

and

such

self-interest of the

individual

of the tribe

sept dictates.
the natural

There

tendency personally

to

hereditary rightin
there is
l

selection of chiefs, is not

more

but

no

social status
am

that that

acquired."

informed

recent

vestiga in-

by Mr. A. R. Brown, the results of which have not yet been published, lead to the belief that all this is somewhat stated. A tribe is a too definitely loose aggregate, held togetherby a common dialect and feelingof kinship. It consists of local vague
clans groups, in no sense of households, each of
or

septs, and
husband
An
"

these

in turn with

and

wife

dependent immature beyond this does not

the
more

children.

exist ; and the influential men, without

organized family chiefs are only real authority.

"

stand Undeveloped as their culture is, they appear to underthe originof children. Parents different use in referring words The their offspring. to father calls his son Him that has been by a word signifying begotten by me, the mother by a word meaning Him whom I have borne. And not we are surprised to learn that traced in both lines." are relationships It naturally follows,as is the fact,that polygamy and
"

divorce

are

alike unknown,
sexes are

and

that

while

the

married un-

unchaste, when universally once marriage has been entered into conjugal fidelity is probably the rule. A state of things, far as we so have material for understanding it, so exceptional does not enable us to bring Andamanese within society Until further researches category at present known. any lay bare something of its history and more precise information regarding its organization we
1

of both

Temple,

Ind.

Cens.

Rep.

1901,

iii.49, 62.

RUDIMENTARY
must

FORMS it aside, merely

29

be

content

to

leave

noting its
of

peculiarities.1
The Andamanese have
a

occupiedtheir
stormy
sea

little chain

forest-clad islands in
in isolation from

for unknown To

the

rest

of mankind.

ages this fact

of the particular much they probably owe ment developAt the extremity taken by their institutions. of the habitable earth, on the inhospitable shores of the Eskimo the Arctic Ocean long enjoyed a similar, if not quite so complete, separationfrom foreign influences. There, though in an utterly different tinguish environment, they have evolved an organizationdisof kinshipon both also by the recognition and maternal sides. Unlike the Andamanese, paternal in polygyny (probably favoured however, they indulge by the dangerous occupationsof the men, which often result in loss of life and consequently widows), many and the divorce, sexual ceremonial, hospitality, The wife temporary or permanent exchange of wives. goes
to

live with
out

her

husband
more

"

custom

which

has

perhaps grown of by a man

of the wife

primitivepossession
children. Indeed the

his

and

to have passed seem Eskimo, like the Yahgans, never entirelybeyond that stage. The unit of society to be a family of husband appears to whom wives and growing children,
or
a

with

his wife

or

dependent mother
than
one or are

be may this consist of housemates, where

in the
same same

adopted children added. munities Larger commore

than

familyresides
inhabitants
no

house, and
:

place-

fellows There
are or

of the
no

little settlement. the

of

people bound not together by any wide-reaching bond What blood. sentiment of common Steensby says the Polar Eskimo is true in greater or less degree
1

and chiefs,

or clans gentes,

Man, J.A.I, xii. 126, 135.

30

PRIMITIVE
"

SOCIETY Polar Eskimo is

of all
not

everything has the formation of the society, contributed to retard which that the tendency to work and live together, so also in possession the Polar Eskimo are of, certainly the chance had has never to develop. Practically subordinate kind of the only sort of co-operation or formation talk of in the case of we can sociological
the Polar Eskimos is the settlement sometimes
or

Naturally the life of the wanting in social features, but

:

but

as

this is

the move, on constantly more concentrating very

constant

times somescattering,

less, this unit

basis for this

is not

either.

The

periodic

ship, meeting togetherat a settlement is in part relationOn the in part the comradeship of the hunt. such thing as true alliances, other hand, there is no or grouping according to age, probably on account of the small
are

numbers any

and

scattered
or

nature

of
on

the the

tribe ; nor attainment Climatic

ceremonies

forms

known

of

1 maturity."

and

economic both archaic

reasons

account

for

the

at preservation

extremities and

of

the

American

rudimentary a form of social order. At all events the severity of the climate for the greater part of the year, the consequent of finding which subsistence,and the perils difficulty
continent
so ever as

of

environ the

the

Eskimo

man

have

raised his value

means

sole protector and provider of the life for his dependants. When he returns

of his

from

fishing voyages
not
more

on

the

stormy
he is but

seas

his catch immediate

is often circle.

than

sufficient for

his

If it be
not
1

than usual larger these only among

sqq.
;

compelledto divide it his neighbours among

Boas,

Rink, Tales, 22 R.B.E. vi. 578 sqq.

108, 115,
i2i,

Crantz,

; Murdoch,

i. 159, 179, 180, 191 ; ibid. ix. 42 ; Nansen, Eskimo

Life,

139,

147 ; Steensby, 364-6, 368, 370.

RUDIMENTARY without times where the of

as

FORMS

31

distinction,

especially
In
a more

in

the

oft-recurring
even

necessity.
in Australia lives for

genial climate,
is at its lowest the her
to

civilization from hand and

and

population
her search

mouth,
and

mother,
skill in

by
as

roots

berries small

capturing
much the

insects the

and
resources more

other

animals,

contributes her of husband the the hunt

man

to

of the

family
Arctic
on

as

by
for

greater but
game. his the

uncertain in the

booty
the

larger by
the obtain

But

regions
water

alone
to

daily

adventures food

is able and
to

necessary

and look

clothing ;
for these where

him It

children
not

habitually impossible
and

things.

is, therefore,
are

extraordinary that,
and
an

larger
sciousness con-

communities of the father which of

extended
cannot

propinquity
an

protection
and his the
an

exist,
in his

has

authority
preserved
On

influence and

family
the with and shown

have

position
other

created the ties

care as

feeling
the

kinship.

hand,

mother,

originating in birth,
are

continued

personal affection, by
too

felt
case

by
of

the

children,
of

is the

the
son a

rule

that

in

separation
mother. with his

parents

the

always
case

follows
to

the reside
to

times Somewife's them

as we

husband this

goes he

parents.
and shall is
to

In
some

helps

maintain

extent

under

their

control,
It would

find

among

matrilineal the
and

peoples.

seem,

therefore, that
the with

rudimentary
of the Eskimo

institutions

both

of

Fuegians

might
Jnto
a

easily

evolve

favouring society.

circumstances

matrilineal

CHAPTER

IV

MOTHER-RIGHT

ITS

CHARACTERISTICS

BEFORE
upon the it will

discussing
lines be of

the

organization
to

of

society
and scent dethe In its and

matrilineal

kinship
enumerate

convenient of that

principal
fullest

characteristics

organization.
as

development
the

it is known items the

:

Mother-right,
most

comprises
1.

following
is that

As

already intimated,

first and and the in

essential

characteristic
are 2.

descent,

therefore mother. its often

kinship,
form is

traced A

exclusively through community

in clans, clan united is in
a as

matrilineal

typical
is
a

found

organized Every
to

very band

patrilineal
women

people.
believed
Between

of

men

and their
as

be

blood
are

through
regarded
of the clan.
means

mothers. brothers
not
are

themselves
:

they
descendants

and of

sisters the

the also

latter, but

former,

belong
to

to

the

Strangers
of the is the members

sometimes

admitted
a

the

clan

by

blood-

covenant,
mixed with
are

rite that

whereby
of
some

their members
as

blood of
true

artificially
clan
;

and the

they

thereafter all the member

regarded rights
of
a

of

clan, with
3.
or

and

obligations of kinship.
whether sexual clan take other is
;

No

typical clan,
or

matrilineal intercourse but

on

patrilineal,may
another all of the member member

marry of

have
same

with

the
must

the

contrary
members
with
a

marriages
clan
and

place
clan.

between

of
same

some

Marriage
as

of the

clan

regarded

incest,

34

PRIMITIVE niece's children, or sister. When the

not
as

SOCIETY brother
or

or or

from

sister to brother
women are

rule is

by

women,

usually capable holding property

It is not
are

only
well
as

of

transmitting but

of

office. that these characteristics

intended

to assert

counting the fifth and Patriarchal rule and patrilineal sixth as alternative. kinship have made perpetualinroads upon motherthe world ; consequently matrilineal right all over institutions are found in almost all stages of transition in which the father is the centre of to a state of society kinshipand government. Where a community counts descent through the father, and yet the women take the husband a prominent share in the government, or resides with his wife and her family, or the inheritance of property or the succession to office is traced through the mother, these arrangements are gruous obviouslyinconinstitutions ; and we may reasonwith paternal ably suspect any such that we find as a relic of a prior stage of maternal institutions. The social importance of the maternal uncle,when it appears in a patrilineal for by patrilineal community, too, is not to be accounted institutions ; but it suggeststhe former existence of a matrilineal society, with the conditions of which in harmony, and in which it is entirely it is almost suspicionarises when invariably present. The same affect less strongly, in not or marriage prohibitions the father's kin than the than equal strength, more mother's, or when emphasisis laid on pedigrees through is strengthened by the The the mother. suspicion than one of more such incongruityin the concurrence moral become a same community, until it may certainty. The maternal social order centring on kinship in so rude an age at so remote a periodand originated
all

invariably present,even

MOTHER-RIGHT: that
no

CHARACTERISTICS
"

85

record

is

possible.We
It must of

are

therefore

left to

conjectureabout
that

it.

have

earliest manifestations

humanity. took shape in a happierenvironit first gradually ment, food supply,than such amid a more plentiful
the

arisen among the We may suppose

as

surround

small

communities

at

the extremities

Consequently a larger population and a closer aggregation of societywere munity possible. It has been suggested that the first comhuman into which formed was beings were that normally sought its the food-group the group food and perhaps actuallyfed together. But when mankind slowlyemerged into consciousness the group have realized a dim sense of kinship. must very soon the origin of the child from As this sense strengthened, the mother, and its long and visible dependence upon and have pointed more more her, must certainlyto of the manner in which the rudimentary apprehension bound together. And as soon as humanity group was far advanced to organizemore less was or sufficiently the mother became the pivot on naturally consciously, In this way the organization turned. which clans be formed, each comprising the mothers would and In circumstances in which the search for their offspring. food and other necessaries did not compel wide and continuous and did not give the opportunity segregation, for force to win and keep a bride, the and the need and carrying did not succeed in detaching off from man the community his female companion, and therefore did not avail to establish that perpetual dependence himself which has ripened among the Eskimo upon of centuries into kinship with the children. in course of the manifestations Probably, if we may judge by some and woman the union of man of mother-right, was at least too liable to change,to contoo fugitive, or
"

of the

American

continent.

36

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

solidate the
terms

into

that husband

permanence
and

with wife. tie of

which Whatever

we

associate the
exact

course

of is

evolution,
that It

the
meets

kinship
most

through
in

the human the

mother societies.

which is has indeed

us

as

archaic

more

than

possible
hard in from and the

that

kinship

that

emerged

in discussed

the

pathetic unsym-

environments

previous
matrilineal This

chapter society
however,
turn

may

have its

been

developed
into need smaller
not

by
a

separation
that the
we

units. discuss
current

is,
may

question
it into

we

from

more

general

of

human

history.

CHAPTER

THE

AUSTRALIAN

RACE

THE
the
been in

Australian
upon

race

is

one

of

the
a

lowest

now

found of
two

the

earth. it has
ages

Probably
been from shut

compound
off
on

peoples,
for many Some

its with has

so

island-continent outside the

intercourse

world.
extreme

contact,
with it has the
some

indeed,
the

there but

north that

Malays,

little and blood

nor

intermittent the There

affected

neither of

the the with

language
has

and
been

institutions intercourse islands has

been contact

natives.1 the

also the

inhabitants Its far

on as

of

western

of

Torres

Straits.
so

influence, however,
we can

ant, unimporthas

tell.
coast.

Other Such

been

asserted

the

eastern
as

contact,

though

possible,remains
When of and how

yet without
race

adequate
has

proof.2
the
came

the

arrived the The White

been

subject
it
was

speculation.
the the Stone
most

When

Man

still in
even

Age.
what

cultivation
manner,
was

of

the

earth,
;

in

rudimentary
on

unknown the natural

the

people
Spencer
Dr.

lived

has

been

called

and

Gillen, North.

Tribes, 17 ; Spencer,
out
some

North this of

Australia,
statement

8.
quires re-

Haddon

kindly
the
one

points
is the

to

me

that

qualification.
presence of
to
more on

There

evidence and
canoes,

contact

in

the

shores

of of

north

north-east
a

of

Queensland

than

type
the

outrigger
Ocean Studies So far

foreign
Pacific

craft

peculiar
(see
other

the

shores in

of

Indian and

and

the to
aware

islands

Haddon,

Essays

presented
as

William there is

Ridgeway
no

(Cambridge,
evidence,
and

1913), 614).
none

am

at

all of any

penetration
37

of contact

inland.

38

PRIMITIVE
:

SOCIETY
is to say, by fruits. The and

basis of subsistence

that and

hunting and
men

gatheringedible the largergame

women

roots

hunted
;

with

spears

boomerangs

the

dug for roots or sought for insects and other small inconsiderable animals, contributing thus no portion of the food supply. A community in this
condition in
one

is

ever naturally

upon
to

place until its resources exhausted, and then going on

Australian tribe
has

the move, remaining for the moment are another. But

each

foraging grounds, the boundaries of which are well known, are transgressed, if ever, only for an isolated hunt ; and trespassesare There is,therefore,no wholesale promptly resented. is unknown. migration ; and the fight for territory
its
own

of Migration,
race

course,

must

once

have

taken

place;
or

the

must

once

have

when

long
wars

the country was ages ago ; and confined

or

spread from one centre first populated. But

no

more,
was

that

traditions
was

of it remain. small. of

The The

total number
are

of inhabitants
to

always out petty raids,arising

death

quarrels
the

about

women

or hunting trespasses, some

else from

attempt

to avenge

imagined to

be caused

by witchcraft. changes are slow. They Consequently effected by the peaceful of ideas or of are penetration of more ceremonies, rather than by the violent means
restless and
An

virile races. tribe is

a

Australian

very

with their women groups of men, within a certain definite range. is Chieftainship in a rudimentary condition,unstable, dependent upon and personal qualities, Each group
and

aggregation of and children, ing wander-

loose

often

each
or

tribe is

hardly recognizable. allied to its neighbours

bodies Each of persons who of these clans is

by community,
A
account

of language. by diversity, repelled into clans kinsfolk.

or

tribe is divided themselves

THE

AUSTRALIAN

RACE

39

an animal, less commonly distinguished by a totem, usually and other more a rarely still some vegetable, phenomenon of nature, which is in mystic relation of the clan, and is, at all members with the human in Central Australia,and probablywas in other events influenced to be by parts of the country, deemed certain ceremonies performed at intervals to secure of the totem-species the multiplication other or some influence for the benefit of mankind. These clans, extend over their equivalents, the whole continent, or

and The

are

not

confined of
a

within

the

limits of

one

tribe.

local group account themselves in some apart from the totem-clans,as akin to one way, another ; and they recognize a similar kinship with members groups speakingthe other

(often together designated

same

nation)
its allied

tongue.
as a

The

group,

with

groups, considered in the descendible

to

time

with
in

unit,is thus a body political from time male line. They meet their fellow-tribesmen and friendly
assemblies
;

neighbours
affairs in

ceremonial

and

there

the

interested are cussed disthey are jointly and marriages made. Marriagesare ordinarily arranged by exchange of sisters, though, under the the term sister classificatory system of relationship, embraces
a

which

far wider

circle than
to

is denoted

in

our

system.
where

The

wife is taken
his power among

live with and

her husband,

she is under
same

the
But

way

as

the

protectionin much Eskimo and Yahgans.

she retains
descent
to

kinship has
children.

developed :
under She
serves,

her

own

totem-clan, and
it to her the

matrilineal

transmits

however,
husband

continue

belongs. The influence of this state of thingsin bringingabout patriin a state of society lineal kinshipis obvious, especially so If, as might looselyorganizedas the Australian. body political

to which

her

40

PRIMITIVE well

SOCIETY
men

given local group belonged belongedto one totem-clan, while the women all be physically to various clans, the children would children of that one totem-clan. The fathers wielding children,and claiming authorityover their respective in some them their property (beingthe prosense as duction if physicalpaternity of their wives) even not understood, moreover, were lookingto their sons
very

happen, all

the

in

"

at any

rate
a

to carry

desire

the local group closer tie than the indefinite

on
"

would

ally natur-

of kinship
male

the In
ship kin-

tribe, by
these

reckoning them
that

in

their is not
not

totem-clan. that

circumstances is found, but

the wonder it has

more

thoroughly
see ever

and

widely prevailed. Nor female kinship matrilineal

"

is it easy to descent could

"

how have

come

into existence,unless it inheritance of the

race.

were

tive part of the primiis in full

Where force the

throughout
rule

the

world

totemism

it is connected
at

of exogamy though whether prevails, with totemism is in originorganically In Australia

a

present a subjectof debate.

has
taken

further

place. There the regulationof marriage is providedfor by the institution of marriagewhich between which, and classes, between only, found over are Marriage-classes marriage is allowed. a great part of the continent. They appear to have formed, out of the totemic grown, or been deliberately organization.In their simplerdevelopment they are which found two as phratriesbetween exogamous
evolution the
totems

of

tribe
and

are

shared,

some

totem-clans It is also
of
we

belonging to one that significant

names

the rest to the other. the

while

of these the
are names names

classes is of the two of

trace

meaning of most unknown, wherever primary classes or

The tribes
so

the
can

moieties divided

they

animals.

42 to

PRIMITIVE
the

SOCIETY

or sub-class,not to complementary tertiary the father's own sub-class. or Among the tertiary from the Arunta, the two Warramunga, northward distinct two primary classes or moieties occupy

districts of between

the

country.

The

totems

are

divided

them, the totem-clans of one moiety occupying the one of the other and the totem-clans district,

moietyoccupyingthe other district. This arrangement would under patrilineal descent naturally result from
the Australian husband's children the rule that the wife goes to reside at the Warramunga accordingly the camp ; their father's totem. The totemism of totemism found

take

Arunta, however, differs from

The child does not everywhere else in the world. belong to either its father's or its mother's necessarily totem-clan. the Arunta As we have seen (ChapterII), are unacquainted with the physicalrelation between father and is child. They suppose that pregnancy caused by the entry of a spirit, or a germ, into the mother's body as she passes a placehaunted by such seeds of life, eats something capable of conveying or it, or sees an animal which is reallya supernatural missioned for the purpose. Thence they have power
evolved
an

elaborate

scheme

of

reincarnation

of

departed ancestors, which accounts for the continuity of the tribe by the constant of deceased reappearance In spiteof this the child is, at all events members. for the purpose of the regulation of marriage and for
some

other

mother's

reckoned the as purposes, husband. The Warramunga

child

of

the of

scheme

things is similar, but simpler. According to the of a deceased the germ or spirit Warramunga wise men
member of the
to to enter

tribe knows

that the
a man

woman

whom

he

ought
totem

is the wife of

belonging to
when alive.

the He

which

he

used

to

belong

THE

AUSTRALIAN
a woman

RACE
out

43

therefore seeks such and which thus the avoids Arunta He does he

for his future mother,

the

complexity and confusion into discarnate spiritmore recklessly

trouble himself
to
see

plunges.
woman

not

that the

whom
or

impregnates
class
a :

is of the very

righttotemoften he

clan

matrimonial from

hence

gets

himself born So

mother

is frequently

the

of the wrong clan or class. blunder made that among the

some

Arunta, the Kaitish

is discarded
same

and

other

the tribes,

totem

in

totem

is

the determiningconjugal rights ; and found in both of the primary classes or these tribes have totem-clans.

moieties. The Instead fact is that

no

they are divided into totem-groups recruited the newborn children to one other or by assigning to the ancestor according supposed to be reincarnated. These totem-groups are distributed unequallybetween the primary moieties,one ably a noticemoiety containing largerproportion of certain totem-groups than the other, often nearly all of them. This means that the present social system, far from being primitive, as
has
that

sometimes
it has

been

contended, is of
from
true
an

recent

date, and

sprung
were

totem-groups
confined
as

to

one

of the

in which the organization each of them clans,and were primary moieties,or phratries,

ordinarytotemic institutions of the continent. For if the present system were of old standing if it what be described were as primitive it is may mathematicallycertain that, independently of special circumstances affecting the chances, each totem" "

in the

group
in the

would

be divided

between
The
now

the moieties

in shares

equal. approximately
form in which it

conclusion
obtains

is that totemism and

in the Arunta

but is,like adjacent tribes is not primitive, class marriage regulations, the result of

the

eight-

evolution.

44

PRIMITIVE rather

SOCIETY
than

It is totemism totemic

decadent

embryonic.

The

the^Arunta have in fact broken Maternal down. kinship has gone. Such relics of the system of paternalkinshipas exist seem to do so almost of the matrimonial only for the purpose regulations. At the present day patrilineal institutions, including and the eight marriage-classes, accompanied by the barbarous puberty rites of the Arunta, are spreading
from west. not the
seem

institutions of

the
In

centre

of the

continent Australia

to

the

north

and

south-western
to have made

the

movement

does
as

quite so

much

north. the been

from have

range of hills divides drier interior. The coastal A until

all recently,

progress the coastal tribes

in

region
or

are,

in the matrilineal

stage.

about the Beyond the hills the tribes which wander steppes derive descent through the father. Female kinshipis graduallybeing driven back and ousted in favour of male the coastal tribes, kinship among under the observer's Whether the change eyes. of the elaborate involves the transmission system of the cruel it rites, as marriage-classesand in the north-western has done and area out throughthe interior of West Australia, we have yet to

learn. All the tribes of the eastern reckon of

a

half of the continent the

descent few and

in the

female the
a

line with south and the

exception
of

tribes

coasts

along possiblyof
in

south-eastern mouth
The

tribe at

the

Annan

River

the
so

extreme

north.

tion organiza-

of this tribe is descent that it

the

unusual

and
seems

only
to

four

call for

is said to have male (it secondary marriage-classes) further investigation.Along from find
the
a

southern

coast, however,
to

border number

of of

West

Australia

Gippsland,we

THE tribes of

AUSTRALIAN

RACE

45

divergentcharacteristics reckoning descent through the father. The Eucla or Yerkla-miningat the head of the Great Australian Bight, and the of them, to the eastward Narrang-ga and Narrinyeri down to the Murray to have River, do not seem Their totem-clans possessed any marriage-classes. were as may localized, very well be under a patrilineal in her husband's the wife residing organization, camp. South-east and east of the Narrinyeri, the Buandik, the Wotjobaluk, with their sub-tribe the Mukjarawaint,
and
two

the

Gournditch-mara

had

female

descent

with

which, if not having names marriage-classes identical in them related. To each all,were closely of the certain totem-clans were marriage-classes and these were ; assigned again divided among
a

number the

of

sub-totems. of
a

We

seem

here of the

to

be

in

presence

development

totemic

system.
the Kulin Beyond these tribes to the east was ward nation occupying the Great Dividing Range, northfar as the Murray River and eastward to the as Ovens River ; while south of the Range they held the whole couniry to the sea as far eastward as Gippsland. watered covered Their habitat
was an

extensive

and

well-

it mountains country, including within with thick, almost impenetrableforest,containing

some

As largesttrees in the world. might be expected, a variety of tongues was spoken, related to enable the though they were sufficiently tribes speaking them to be classified together as one
"

of the

nation."

and classto the totemic as Very little is known organization of these tribes, beyond the fact that There is reason to they had such an organization. think that the tribes to the north of the Range were

46

PRIMITIVE those
to

SOCIETY the south of the

matrilineal,while
reckoned the last
an

Range

In the southern tribes paternal descent. to have totemic been in the seems organization effected by stages of decadence. Marriage was

exchange of sisters (own or tribal) ; and the tribes to locality. were as exogamous The Kurnai, who spoke a language related to that of the Kulin, may stock have been part of the same that nation, though they looked upon the latter as as
enemies.
two cut

They

inhabited

a Gippsland,

coastal

district

hundred off from the

miles

long by seventy miles in width,

the interior Kurnai

:

by

the Great of

Among
was

the

system
But

DividingRange. marriage-classes
vestigesof
to
seems

unknown
been

only
our no

faint and

uncertain

it have

surmised.

totemism

have

survived, though
and
we

knowledge of it
evidence of

have

meagre, totemic specialty district ; other district

own

is very

ceremonies.
man

Marriage was
a a woman

A regulated by locality.
woman

might not marry he might not marry His indiscriminately.

women

of his

choice

of any limited was which had

woman

to

the
was

of

certain

districts with

there

connubium. of
same

this arrangement Indirectly

man

the effect

preventing a
totem.

from the This

marrying
would

of the descent
in

For

Kurnai

reckoned
result in

the of
a

paternalline.
man's
own

the

women
own

totem

being congregated in his

forbidden
to

where district, of another

he

was

wed

the

women

district
reason,

might
or one

have

another

totem,
for

and
nubium con-

probably the
was was

of the

reasons,

that

effected

Marriage they had another totem. from the ordinaryAustralian differently exchange but by elopement, ment. possibly capture and punishwho carried perseveredfinally

not by way : it was followed by pursuit and

But

the

lover

THE off the

woman

AUSTRALIAN
own

RACE No certain

47

to his

district.

vestiges

kinshiphave been found.1 in possessionof a Lastly,the Murring tribes were stripof country extending from the Kurnai between is now New the Dividing Range and the sea in what
of female South
seems

Wales
to

northward extended

to
as

limit
as,

that ill-defined,
or

have

far

beyond,

the

are tinct exMany of them information concerning their organization ; and our and customs is in all cases meagre and fragmentary. The all extinct. So far tribes north of Sydney are their customs resembled be conjectured, those can as of their neighbours,the Kamilaroi, who had marriagefemale descent. classes and the Southward, among Yuin there were of traces no class-names, nor even

present port of Newcastle.

them.

There from

were

totems,

and A
man

the

totem-name

was

might not marry a of his totem-name. The woman prohibitionwas coupledwith the further rule that he might not marry As among of the same the adjacent a woman locality. connubium with Kurnai, certain localities had one of a a woman another, and he might only marry with his own. which had connubium locality Marriages effected in the ordinaryfashion by the exchange were of sisters, varied by occasional elopements. far totemism How the was a living force among Yuin doubtful. We shall probably be safe in seems had that its power inferring begun to wane ; but it
was

inherited

the father.

still considerable.

The

Yuin

were

aware

of the

relation between physiological they had a strong opinion on

1

father the

and

child, and
Howitt

subject.
at

The

polity of

the Kurnai

has been

examined

op. cit. i. 493

The

Cf. Hartland, Matrilineal sqq. tribes is discussed of the Australian organization

length by Frazer, Kinship, 80 sqq.

in the latter

work, pp. 61-87, and

references to authorities

given.

48

PRIMITIVE
:

SOCIETY it said

writes child takes he

can

"I

have
to

heard the

by

the

Yuin

that

the

belongs
care

of his what

father, because his wife merely children for him, and that therefore
likes with his

daughter." If this be a view, the physiological fairlyrepresentative knowledge of the Yuin, however imperfect, had advanced Australian tribes. beyond that of many Yet we question whether they had long adopted may it. The result of male kinshipin localizing the totemclan had
"

do

he

not

been

reached

among
totems

the Yuin, for there scattered

over

were

very
as

numerous

the
in

country,
the

is the line." take

x

case

in the

tribes with of

descent the

female

The

localization

totem-

clan would

generations.It is,therefore, male descent had to be inferred that been adopted for its results in this direction to be fully too recently The of local exogamy worked out. superimposition
up the whole to upon To totemic
sum

several

suggests Kurnai influence. exogamy of the evidence relating : a consideration

of the Australian
one race

leads to the
were

clusion con-

organized the basis of matrilineal descent. If they had on started by reckoning descent through the father, still prevailsso matrilineal descent, which widely throughout the continent,would in their circumstances have and been owing to their customs impossible. Moreover, it is difficult to see how, with their beliefs, discussed in a previous chapter,they could have started by recognizing kinship through the father at side only is the rule throughout all. Descent on one clusively Australia, as commonly in the lower culture. Expaternal descent must have been the result of considerations operatingnot at the beginning,but of time. the dual in the course Whether subsequently
1

that at

periodall the

tribes

Howitt,

133, 261-3.

CHAPTER

VI

MELANESIA,

POLYNESIA,

MICRONESIA

NEAREST
Straits, New

to

Australia and

are

the

islands the

of Torres

Guinea and

(furtherto
inhabited

east) the

Fijian, Solomon
known less in rude
some as

other
are

islands, collectively

Melanesia. than the of

They
Australian
a

by peoples
an

natives, having

art

respects

comparatively
on

high order,
of the the

and land.
race

being dependent
They
the and
east coast
or

partly
two

the

cultivation
races,

belong
the

to

distinct of

Papuan
and Torres islands
near some

occupying
the and

mainland

New

Guinea those of the and

are

of

outlying islands, including

Melanesian
a

Straits,
to

race

occupying
on

the
sea-

number

of setlements
to

the

of New

Guinea,

which

they

probably
islands

more

less recent The

immigrants.
of the In
are

inhabitants

Torres the

Straits

are

patrilineal in
the
It clan western

descent. there

customs,
of

however,

of

islands mentioned

remains
even

mother-right.
the
are

has
and

been the

that
are

in ruled

mother-right
by
Such
the
men men

family
of the

usually
would

who

descendants be in the

female

members. occupy

would

elders, and

they
and

place taken

government

protection
As
we

among hereafter between

patrilineal
see

peoples by the father.

matrilineal and
as

shall

among
a man

communities,
brother that the

the

relation close
a man

his

mother's than

is very between

; it is

esteemed

far closer

and

his mother's
on

husband.

Despite

paternal

kinship

which

MELANESIA,

POLYNESIA of Torres Straits is

51

societyin
the The
term

the

islands brother for

mother's

has the

used

organized, influence. an extraordinary was relationshipwadwam

" "

: it included reciprocal

both

the mother's

brother

and

his sister's child.

It is necessary in
same

to remember

that it

is used in the many

classificatory sense,
who the
our

and

therefore includes
are

persons recognized in of them

table

of kindred of

not

degree
one

or relationship,

perhaps hardly as
as we

relatives at all, so

distant fact

are

some

distinguishes them : they are all related by blood solelythrough For simplification I shall use here the English women. terms most nearly applying. An uncle can stop a his nephew and another fightimmediately between and that merely by a word or by holdingup his man, hand. the other hand A nephew on is at liberty to anything belonging to his uncle ; and if appropriate it were or destroyed the uncle would utter no spoilt of reproach or anger. word These indicate customs
a

reckon, though

very close relation uncle and nephew. lead descent

to

and

much

confidence other

between

They

and
not

ditions convestigial

the

inference

only
and

that

maternal very clan still

but formerly prevailed, Totemism recentlydisappeared.1

also that

it had

the

exist,but
both

are

decadent
appears
to

and be

sides

kinshiprecognizedon gaining ground. Clan-

is limited to the same island. In the islands exogamy of the eastern group further progress has been made. The cultivation of the land has gained in importance. The of territorial aggregation
a

clan,which

is the result

of male

has resulted in the transformation of kinship, has clan-exogamy into village-exogamy.Totemism vanished, leaving only a few doubtful remains ; and the system of kinship is in process of beingsimplified.2
1

Cambridge Expedn.

v.

144,

146.

Ibid. 159 sqq., 169 sqq.

52

PRIMITIVE The island and of New Guinea

SOCIETY has been

subjectto
from

vasion in-

settlement

by

Melanesians
are a

the east,

with

the result that there the of

eastern

number

of Melanesian

populationson
and

and

south-eastern

shores,

populationshave mingled with the aboriginalPapuans. Speaking generally, the further west they are found the more various are their cultural characteristics, for the more they have mingled with the Papuan stock. The Massim, as the
many
eastern

that

these

tribes

are

are called,

in

condition

of transition The tions institu-

from

matrilineal and
customs

to

descent. patrilineal it may totemic be said that

differ in detail in different localities. the

In
are

however, general,
divided into

people

clans, still descendible

The clans In are through females. exogamous. restriction appears to be some placesthe exogamous breaking down ; elsewhere it is extending to the Other father's clan. are prohibitions undergoing a like change ; a man regards his father's totem-animal in some equally with his own places,as on Murua with even ceremonial ance avoidmore (Woodlark Island),
"

than is that
a

his
man

own. now

Another
owes

result of the and

transition
to

obedience

help both

his father and

borrows
or

to

his maternal

uncles.

In return, he

helps himself to the property of both without : permissionand without objection perhaps to his uncle's property than his father's.1 more readily
The that Australian inheritance natives is possess
so

little property

in the scale of

unimportant. But as we ascend civilization, property accumulates, and

becomes

the direction of its inheritance Articles of immediate in the native

a savour
1

personaluse
with
an

of consequence. which are associated

seem a

mind

individual

of his

personality ; they
435 sqq.,

become
677

acquire part of it ;
to 506
n.

Seligmann, Melanesians,

sqq., 447,

MELANESIA,

POLYNESIA him. Such articles

are

58

they

are

identified with

quently fre-

destroyed at his death, or buried with him. This practice in culture ; but originates very low down it begins early to be modified, and is finally for the Other most to part abandoned. property descends the clan, or the family, in accordance with custom.
When the father's of the relation
to

his children upon

becomes

clearer,one
found
in to them.

them

in

is mother-right his desire to transmit a portion of his property He effects this often by disposing of it to his lifetime, of which shall find examples we

first inroads

hereafter.

the Massim at Tubetube his on Among his property is divided death into two categories. His armshells and necklaces, valuable objects that

be described as his jewellery, would may go in part to his children,and the remainder to his sister's children,

particularobjectsbeing given in accordance with his his pigs, a staple article of dying wishes. Sometimes But his drums, food, are divided in the same way. his apparatus for the chewing of betel-nut,his canoes
and his

fishing-nets go
uncle, or

in the

old matrilineal
are none

fashion

to his sister's children,or

if there
own

of these to and
"

his maternal
and

his

brothers

sisters ;

be called his landed property that is may to say, his garden-ground and his clearances in the bush His house is generally goes in the same way.
"

what

allowed, for superstitious reasons,

or

is

destroyed ;
inherit

and

decay, his matrilineal heirs thus practically

to

fall into

only the

site.

Similar rules

apply in
from

other

settlements.1 The Britain insular

and

Melanesians, who
Ireland down

extend
to

New donia Cale-

New the

Fiji,New

Loyalty Islands,are found in various stages of social development. Their institutions have
1

and

Seligmann,

523.

54

PRIMITIVE examined
and

SOCIETY described
be

been

by

whom among may Codrington and Dr. W. H. work is of

that of the latter
on

named Rivers.

plorers, competent exthe late Bishop

R.

The

elaborate

the

of Melanesian History
to

Society
concludes

the the

utmost

value

students. of

He
an

population is composed
which upon with their own hence that the
two
or more

substratum

aboriginal migrants layers of imbeen of

customs

have

strange mixture
Dr. Rivers

superimposed stituti social inthe

is found. of

infers that

society was mother-right.1It is stillfound in a comparatively in pure form, especially Islands. the Banks in two Societythere is organized or meaning vev, a word groups or moieties called veve of subdivision mother, each again divided into a number
Each of the moieties

original form

findinghis wife in the moiety belong. Membership in the veve

mother. The
two
; and

is exogamous, a he does to which is inherited from

man

not

the

moieties

are

believed
son

to have eat

ent differ-

characters lest the

on man son

father and

do not

together,
There is
a

acquire his
hand

father's character.

the

other

and

very close his mother's brother.

between relationship The

As
a

latter is treated
in

with the

far greater respect than the man's father. islands of Torres Straits, a man can stop his sister'sson than the is concerned. rather the father who introduces men's
one

fight

in which

It is the maternal
a

uncle

lad for club

or

initiation into

Sukwe,

of species releases
women.

membership in which society, necessityof feedingwith the

with
are

from

the

In

connection ceremonies of the of

It

the

birth

of in

firstborn the

boy

certain

performed
take
a

which

maternal The

uncles

child

prominent part.
in

inheritance islands.

property differs
1

detail in

the

various

Rivers, Melanesian

Soc. ii. 70.

MELANESIA,
be said may cultivated land

POLYNESIA the ancient On

55

that generally

hereditary
the other

hand, the
and

goes to the sister's son. himself land which a man under cultivation

clears of bush
to

reduces

children. which may

The
be

ownership of
distinct from

frequently goes trees planted by a

on

his

man,

that of the land

In

which island

they stand,
of Mota his
a

also goes to his children. the will often specify man is made

the

child to whom

newly-plantedland

child himself

if adult, by planting,
a on

In such a case is to go. the of to take part in the ceremony walking behind his father with

hand

on

his shoulder,or if stillyoung

as

by beingcarried
There is
even a

his father's shoulder of

he

plants.

custom

in the act

plantingfor an unborn child, represented carried by the planter. by a dried coco-nut

than

Property other
as an

land the

indication
he may to do

of

goes to the children ; but inheritance of the former

sister's son

if not allowed

is not
secret

much

anything he chooses,and ship take everything. Chieftainso may developed,apart from rank in the
stilltake
a

societies ; and introduced into them will In

secure

father takes and advanced

care

to have
a

his
rank

son as

to such

him

influence.1

Fiji the people are divided into a number of independent bodies of the districts they known by the names each of these is again grouped into inhabit, and smaller bodies, called matanggali. These matanggali faint traces and bear some are generallypatrilineal, of totemism, which always raises a suspicionof
mountainous

the

region

of the

interior of

maternal

descent

at

a a

former

time.

Almost between
as we

where everya man

in Fijithere
and
1

is

relation special called vasu,

his sister's son,

here

such
61

found

Soc. i. 20, 37, 55 sqq., Rivers, Melanesian 35, 63, chaps, v. and vi.

sqq. ;

Codrington,

56

PRIMITIVE
islands is
even

SOCIETY Straits. Indeed

in

in the relation

of Torres
more a man

Fijithe
in the

pronounced.
will not
eat

Even

districts patrilineal animal of

a

the he

tabooed
is
vasu.

tribe
vasu

or

matanggalito
take any

which of the

possessions of his uncle, root up his uncle's plantations, and if he wished kill any of his pigs; though now, probably under British influence, this right is no cognized. longer rebefore the British occupation it was Even beginningslowly to be limited. He could go, if the of a chief,into his uncle's town and appropriate vasu he desired. The uncle has still a general any woman rightto his vasu's obedience ; he takes the chief part in the direction of his nephew's life ; he arranges and with his nephew ; leads in any ceremonies connected On in former days he taught him the art of warfare.
the death of
a

Formerly the

could

child his father

to the mother's

liable to pay compensation In many brother.1 parts of

was

general rules of inheritance found in the Banks Islands subsist, with various modifications ; but everywhere there is a tendency to the inheritance by the children of the deceased, though there is a clear indication of the priority of inheritance by his sister's children, or by the social (matrilineal) group to which scends dehe belonged. Chieftainship the hand other on
the from islands remains On
to
son are

Melanesia

father to

son.

Several

of the Melanesian there

are

patrilineal ; but
earlier

everywhere

of the

system of maternal

descent.

the other be detected

are hand, the beginnings of father-right

in many of the matrilineal islands : a respects his father's totem-animal, or the animal

tabooed of father
and

by

his father's social division, the child is

to be

and

relationship fullyrecognized,and marriage

founded
more

other

rightstend
1

and

more

on

Rivers, Melanesian

Soc. i. 264 sqq., 290.

58

PRIMITIVE
out

SOCIETY he has

carried
now no

through right in it.

The

the other, signifying that But

apparentlyhis
in the

children

by

her time

remain.

land

is vested

pure for the

being,and

is divided of in the land

year

by

by the members private property

property
and be
to
some

hoag being

year and cultivated under his directions, unknown. domestic These Private
animals
seem

extent

exists in

articles made
at entirely

his

by a man's labour. and are disposition,

some

to

usuallygiven
may

by

him

at death

to

relation

or

friend who

have

taking care of him.1 In Tikopia, island where the clan-system, an though ance, descent and inheritdecadent, stillprevails, patrilineal
been
as

well but

as

succession functions mother of

to

the

office of chief,are maternal uncle

are

found

the The

of the
a

extensive.

child is also taken, ten where she shall find

to her parentalhome, days after delivery, stays for another period of ten days.2 We

elsewhere

similar custom

at childbirth.

It is

usually

regarded as a relic of matrilineal institutions. Among the immigrants who have gone to form the the Melanesians, a foremost as compound we know place is doubtless to be given to the Polynesian race. This race occupied most of the Pacific islands from Hawaii Zealand. Their line of descent, when to New first known to Europeans, appears to have been of the divinities were divinized arbitrary.Most
ancestors.

child at

birth

was

dedicated
;

either to this determined

its father's the

gods or familyto

to its mother's

and

however,
as

was

results that

they
1 2

were

tendency, it to its father's gods. It to dedicate descent, and social arrangements, so far in a state dependent on descent, were
340.

which

it belonged. The

J. S. Gardiner, J.A.I, xxvii. 429, 478, 480, 485. Soc. i. 303, 306, 308, 312, 315, Rivers, Melanesian

MELANESIA,
of transition. descent
In

POLYNESIA line original

customs
was

59

That

the

that of female islands.

is clear from

the

of various Zealand
to

we are particular, the Maories, a child familyof the mother

told of New
was more

that, among

considered than

belong

to

the

to that of the father.1

One
not

of the characteristics of maternal

a

descent, though

conclusive

test, is matrilocal
at least the
was

marriage.

In

New
of
a

Zealand, among
bride
a

higher ranks, capture

means

by

force The

the favourite

of obtaining
was

wife.

simulation, indeed, of capture

when all even usuallypart of the marriage ceremony, father might a parties were willing. Alternatively and live simply tell the suitor that he might come with his daughter; if he did so, she forthwith became his wife, he lived with his father-in-law, reckoned was of his father-in-law's tribe, or hapu, and in as one of war often obliged to fightagainsthis own case was So common, relatives. of in fact, was the custom matrilocal marriage that it frequently occurred, when the husband refused to live with his wife's relatives, that
Cases

she
were

would often

leave known

him

go of husbands and
a

and

back

to

them.
to

who their

tried wives

break

through

the

custom,

lost

in

The children of consequence. remained with their mother's of her

marriage people, became part

her

matrilocal

family or clan, and

with
an

inherited

lands.2
or

If

child met the

accident,whether
was

serious

trifling,

instantlyup in arms, visited the deemed father, who was responsible,with a legalized plunderingexcursion, that might leave him
almost him in

mother's

clan

without

the

means

of subsistence, and
was

attacked

until personally
case
1 8

blood

drawn.3
was

fortiori,
liable
354.

the
New New

father
Zealand,

killed his child, he

no.
*

to

Old Old

Taylor, 336, 337,

Zealand, 108.

60

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
same

of the child's clan. The vengeance happen if he killed his wife, though the the

would

authority of husband and a father was such that he might do a the one the other, but for the dread of vengeance.1 or The institution of chieftainship and the respect for rank were the Polynesians highly everywhere among Zealand.2 and nowhere more so than in New developed, in the paternalline. descendible A chief's rank was deemed of higher rank than In fact,a chief's son was
his and father. the He had which
one more

illustrious ancestor
and

taboo

encircled

defended and

his

father
him he

with

mortal

terrors, encircled
As
a

defended

chief grew old generallyresigned his authorityin favour of his son.3

or

also from

his earliest hours.

eldest tribe

The
was a

land
as a

of

district held

belonging to
common.

clan held
to

rule

in

If it

any one reverted

seems

on portion in severalty, common

his death

the

stock. decadent.

This Lands
a

rule,however,
were

to

have

been In

claimed

dying declaration, what would be called in England a nuncupative or divide it among those whom the dying will, would desired to benefit,generallyhis sons this man ; and wish would be respected.4 If a woman landed owned
by
a case

individuals.

such

property
default has been

it

would

descend
to her

to

her

children, or
In

in

of children

brothers.
a

spiteof
her

what his

said above

about

father's consent that

was

to

daughter'smarriage, it
were

is stated it

brothers necessary
to

the persons whose consent to obtain, the parents having say

1 8

most

to

the

matter.

The

reason

comparativelylittle assigned for this

Ibid. 37. Cf. Ellis, Pol. 351-2.
2

is

Polack, i. 36, 32.

Ibid. 27, 47 sqq., ii. 61 ;

Taylor,

Res.

i. 260.
4

Taylor, 356

; Shortland, 273.

MELANESIA,
that with

POLYNESIA power
to

61

they
any

alone

had

the

endow

their sister

Both portion of the family inheritance.1 for by their powers are probably to be accounted under mother-right.The reports of the prohibitions the ground of consanguinity to marriage on are tradictory. conOn the one hand, it is said that marriage with much certain horror
near as

relatives

would

have

excited

as

it is asserted
are

On the other hand, ourselves. among that marriages between relatives near

is even a case quoted of a infrequent ; and and wife. brother and sister livingtogetheras man It is, however, significant that they were children father.2 of different mothers, though of the same Such marriages often recognizedamong matrilineal are be noted, Islanders,it may peoples. The Sandwich not averse to consanguineousmarriages. were certainly It is doubtful whether the Maories possessedthe clannot

system.
were

any rate the clan, and with it totemism, decadent before the advent of Europeans throughout
At

Polynesia. In Tonga, according to Mariner, who was a captive there in the early years of the last reckoned through the mother, century, descent was ruled by chiefs,who owed though the islands were their position probably to recent conquest, and whose rule of succession was patrilineal.3
The
in

the

groups of islets known and Pacific Ocean under

are

as

Micronesia, situate
to

the

north

of the

equator,
or no

generallyin possession of
On
some

matrilineal is little

institutions.

of the

islands

there

illegitimate children. In the Caroline group, we are emphatically real children told, the children are only to the the other hand, they are mother ; to the father, on
between
"

distinction

and legitimate

1 3

Shortland, 140, 273.

Mariner, ii. 88

sqq., 98.

Cf

Ibid. 142 ; Polack, i. Rivers, op. cit. ii. 236.

138.

62

PRIMITIVE
not

SOCIETY his kin.

son

strangers
between

belongingto

In

case

of

war

oppositesides enemies." * The as has, tendency to father-right however, begun to make inroads on the earlier organization. On the island of Yap it has finally conquered it. and We are told that the children belong to the father, from father to son. descend property and dignities But another account, apparentlyof equal authority, declares that the totem descends through the mother.
two

kins, father and

take

The

husband
"

can

sell his wife for either of two

offences law. spouse however

Yet
can

to her adultery,or disrespect separationis easy and common it ; only it must have some require

grave mother-in:

either

ground,
matrilocal

trivial.2 found.

In

many

of the
one

islands

marriage is
islands, the
custom

In Nauru,

of the best known

is
to

: probably the reports are conflicting undergoing change, and the wife is now

taken

her

husband's

residence.

In

the

same

island,where maternal descent prevails, payment for bloodshed, and presumably therefore the duty of falls not to the children, but to the blood-revenge, brothers and sisters of the victim. Inheritance,even
succession father to
to
son :

the

does chieftainship, of
to

not

go

from

while

the latter falls to the

daughter's
clan,
to

issue, inheritance
avoid which the his land

property goes
often

the

father

in his lifetime

divides

of him. his sons, if they take care among The Patrilineal descent is obviously making way. totemism and
most
are

with clan-system, force the

1

on

of the islands.3 divided into

is in full exogamy, Islands In the Pelew clans with

people

exogamous

Wilken, Vers. Ges. i. 398. Globus, xci. 141, 142 ; Anthropos, viii. 609, 627 ; L' Annie iv. 328. 8 xiv. Globus, xci. 57, 75 sqq. ; Zeits. vergl. Rechtswissenschajt,
a

Soc.

422.

MELANESIA,
female
common

POLYNESIA

63

descent. descent
an

Every
from in but least
not
a a

family
woman

or

clan and

traces

its

the life of

women

have there

importance
are

social

and
a

political
few,
other

which

some, at
are

only

examples.
with The
on

They
men,
women

enjoy
if

complete
to

equality
them. influence well without treated the in deities
as

the eldest the

;

they
of of
a

superior

clan its

exercise

decisive
as

conduct and them.

as

affairs,
dare

foreign
do

internal

the

headman

nothing
to
"

consulting
their
seem

Nay, equal
female,

they
to male

are

said deities

be and of

time lifeto

the

be This

all

gods

being
of

later
women,

introduction. doubtless achieved and food

unusual in

predominance
maternal from is

the

rooted

descent,
economic

has
causes.

been The cultivated of

;

prolonged
of
women.

staple

the

islands Even with have

taro,
the
on

which richest her

is

entirely
the

by

woman

village
she does

looks
may
not

pride
assistants

taro-patch
to
an

and

though
she

enough
to

do

the

work,
to

disdain
in

herself the

set

example
with
sweat
women

them covered
are

by

working
with mud.

fields, dripping
it the is

and who

Moreover,

the

the their

priestesses, invoking mouthpiece.1

1

deities

and

acting

as

Christian,
204,

74;

Anthropos,

iv.

106,

107,

viii.

609,

627;

Frazer,

Adonis3,

citing Kubary.

CHAPTER

VII

AFRICA

NEGROES

AND

BANTU

TURNING
the

from

the fields south

true

islands of of

of

the
we

Pacific find

to

swarming

Africa,
the

that

great continent

Sahara the

occupied
Sahara
the
to

by
the
over

two

allied races, of Guinea, immense of Good

the and

Negroes

from

Gulf the

southward

of these down
a

Bantu
to
race,

territorystretching Hope.
not

almost mixed

the

Cape

The

latter of
in

are

embodying
Hamitic,
The

elements and

only

Negro origin, but

trace

also

perhaps
social
one

others

varying proportions.
we can

earliest is

polity that
which
A

in

Negro

institutions

reckons number is the

descent of

exclusively
Islam, have
find
to

through
made

the

mother. which

ever, influences, howof

we

chief

among upon in

spread
;

inroads

the

system stages

and

Negro
some

institutions form
or were

various

of

transition

of

father-right. Probably all the Negroes are, originally,organized, like the Tshi-speaking
of
the

peoples
their which
most
names

Gold the
to

Coast, in totemic animal,

their among

clans, deriving
or

from

vegetable
totem.

other
are

object
for the

happens
of

be up

They
small

part divided
one

quite
A
as

communities chief
as

independent
head of his the had On

another.
assumes,

powerful
many Thus
a

the of of

clan title the the

among

tribes

Bantu,
Ashanti

of

the of

totem.

the of

King
venomous

title Gold
1

borri,
a

kind is

snake.1

Coast

wife
sqq.

required

to

be

Ellis, Tshi,
64

204

66

PRIMITIVE
are

SOCIETY

merely dependantswould be entitled in the event, very rarelyhappening, of partitionto share in the family property. Meanwhile the property is vested in the head of the family, the senior generally male member, tion, appointed from time to time by elecand is administered by him for the benefit of the entire family. Such property, unless movable, cannot be alienated except with the consent of all the principal of the family. But property acquired members efforts may be sold or disposed by a man by his own of as he pleases at the present day death-bed ; and are recognized.1 dispositions
not

who

For

the

fullest account

of the

Fanti
a

laws

we

are

indebted Further the

to the to

of privateenterprise the
own

native barrister. has had

the west
its

French

Government

wisdom, for
in

the investigate
and
to must

customs

to purposes, in force along the Ivory Coast

administrative

the

hinterland

under
a

French handsome

and authority,

publish the

results in

volume, which
The
.

be of service to the colonial official also has

cause

pologist anthro-

gratefulfor it. If the Fanti laws disclose a community in which fatherright has made only a limited headway, the laws of the Alladians, a population inhabiting the low-lying lands adjoining the seashore, exhibit one in which the mother's influence has still greater predominance. For among the Alladians,althoughthere is,as among other African peoples, unlimited polygyny, many although the wife must work on her husband's plantations, prepare his food, and follow him where he may choose to reside,and although there is a high value and upon a wife's fidelity all set upon a virgin-bride of them of father-right this enmueration, in notes
to be
" "

the absence

of other
1

and

more

vital characteristics

of

Sarbah, 85, 34, 67, 74, 77, 82.

AFRICA

NEGROES

AND

BANTU

67

to how institutions,only serves patrilineal prove thoroughly mother-right is the natural organization find it expresslylaid down of the people. We that of an the appearances ordinary civilized family by no means : the authority correspond with the reality of the family scarcelyexists ; of the father as head

if he die his wives

their
case own

will go back relatives the same

" "

with

their children will

to

thing
who

happen

in
are

of divorce
to

and

it will go hard

if the

children

able

recall

as

their father

him

has been

their

mother's

husband. the

only through
the
no

tribe is based

familyis reckoned mother, the social organization of such reckoning, on paternitygives

in the Alladian
to
sense

For in truth the

rightsover
the of head
mere a man a

child, and
is
no

of the

word

child

relation

his

father.

The

members
the true

(not
may such

the
be

thing as by marriage creates no bar to future alliances it simply is not recognized. Marriage depends as much
"

called the Etiocos ; family are technically of the familyis the eldest of these Etiocos head of a household), and that head woman. or a Moreover, there is no a by affinity, relationship relationship

upon
or

the

bride's consent

as

upon

that

of the

Etiocos

be given bridegroom, though she can legally before puberty. It is effected by husband to her the part of the suitor to the the presentation on be regarded as purchaseof gifts which may relatives, defect of virginity, and the whether covered dis; money before or after the marriage, merely reduces the price. All children, however begotten,are legitimate,

of the

all

can

inherit from
cannot

the
or

Etiocos of their mother.

otherwise

The

father the

pledge
may

child ;
at

maternal he

uncle

may
him
as

pawn
to

dispose of his his nephew

him he is
a

any

and

age ; obey him

compel

reside with

; he

is his tutor

long as

child.

68

PRIMITIVE mother
not

SOCIETY

The but of

pledge her children for her debts, may without of the uncle or the head the consent
Etiocos.

the

Property
when

is

always

in

principle
The

individual,even
head

in appearance

collective.

of the Etiocos may of even disposeas he pleases family property. On a death the eldest of the Etiocos is the heir,whether
has
man or woman

; but

if the deceased

expressed before witnesses testamentary any wishes, they are generally respected. Successions to the chieftainship to be governed by the appear
same

rules.

wife is entitled to hold

earn

property apart
will. If
he
a man

from labour

her husband, to and

to

property for herself by her

it
as

dispose of
wives he

she

already married
a

desire to add

to

his harem

makes

alreadyhas, and consults them as to his choice,though he is not bound by their in Africa a wife does not disapproval.1 But generally offer opposition to her husband's polygynous desires, because if they rob her of much of his company, the on other hand they lightenher labours by sharingthem
present
to

those

example of mother-rightin a high degree of development the gradations in the French territory of the Ivory Coast to the opposite organizationof All the northern half of are numerous. father-right is occupied by various tribes converted the territory The law of the Prophet which consequently to Islam. is not, strictly controls them speaking, father-right, since kinship is recognized through both parents ; but the father rules the family,and the law gives precedence to him and to his male relatives. The
heathen Krumen kin of Sassandra
on on

among From

greater number
this

of hands.

the southern the maternal

coast

also reckon
has
1

both

sides,but

line

little importance.2 Their relatively

Clozel and

congeners,
*

Villamur, 391 sqq.

Ibid. 493.

AFRICA the Krumen

of

NEGROES

AND

BANTU

69

do not recognize it at all. In Cavally, the polity is founded unlimited polygyny, both cases on of the mother-right and is the precise of the converse Alladians. Yet it resembles the latter in making no distinction between and dren. chillegitimate illegitimate All the children in a family are welcome, all his children, even are as accepted by the husband those born during his absence, however long, even those whom he knows he cannot have begotten. In conformity with this value placed on children, it is ginity not to virstrange that no importance is attached wife ; in fact,that marriage-market at Sassandra
in
a a

woman's increases Nor

more

value if she is the

in the

be

widow

or

have

been

divorced. of much

wife's

to infidelity

her husband

consequence

to her. infidelity old chief, things are be not an generally arranged her on quite comfortably at least at Sassandra of the lover. It is sharing with him the generosities to find a reallyjealoushusband rare ably ; and it is problittle different at Cavally. But the lover may be proceeded against for damages ; that is another matter.1 belonging Property is divided into collective, either to the family or the tribe,and individual.
" "

than

the

husband's

If the husband

The

former and

is what
is

we

managed of the familyfor the time being. Individual or head property is inherited by the eldest brother of the him by the eldest son deceased, or failing or nephew. It vests in the head of the family only if the deceased held that position. In no case inherit.2 can a woman is inhabited Togoland,latelya German appanage, by branches of the Ewhe-speaking race. Originally and they were organized on the basis of mother-right,
1

call real property ; it is inalienab by the chieftain of the tribe

Clozel,507

sqq., 511, 497

sqq.

Ibid. 500, 515.

70

PRIMITIVE Ewhe who

SOCIETY British

portion of the Slave Coast are of the Togoland some tribes have but to patrilineal institutions, gone over traces of the previous even they retain abundant stage. the in Negro peoples, Among the Hos, as frequently
those the occupy still.1 In so mother's exceeds children them
above

love that
to be

is supreme.

Her

care

for the
never

children
allow her

of the

father.

She

will

without

pledged for debt : the father will pledge compunction. The children regard her

their father ; and next to her love is that of brothers mother. and sisters,the children of one

They
home

never

forsake

or

betray

one

another.2 and

If

man

be wounded
to

by a wild beast in the bush and die,it is his brethren on linger

for his The
care

brought
of the

the mother's

side who

pay medicine-man. uterine

and

the

attentions is buried

poorest person

by

his

be buried brothers, though the richer may by those on the father's side, a public and solemn ceremony It is not with the

slaughter of duty of a husband

brothers rich
A
to
woman man on a

animals
to

and

feasting.3
sumably Pre-

bury

his deceased

wife, but
uterine
a

of her if not

the

father's side. be done

this would who has

to

by

her

brothers. looks

tribunal

his mother's

before appear brother for support.

The who
in

mother's

brother

falls in the bush.

is liable to pay the debts of one of a girl The bride-price is paid

same

uncle gets the palm-wine, and her maternal a deceased quantity as her father 4 In Anecho farmland and house fall to his
own

man's

the country districts the farmland fall to his sisters' children. by a man

children ; but in and houses acquired His

movable

property is
sisters
1 8

divided
same

between mother

the
A

children woman's
'-

of all his

by

the

property
688.

Ellis,Tshi, 207. Ibid. 286, 262, 258.

Spieth,182, 568.
Ibid.

388,

AFRICA

NEGROES
to her
own

AND kindred had

BANTU

71

goes after her death

not gets nothing,
even

; her husband

the

he gifts
on

made

to her in

The relations herj[lifetime.

in responsible

the

mother's

side

are

the blood-feud.1 adhere territory between

sons

The descent.
of which

Lobi In have

of French
case

to

maternal

of

war

two

clans members range selves them-

intermarried,the
kill their

must

on

the side of their mother's

even woman

fight and marriage a home, and

little one

father
to

clan ; they must if need be. After her

continues
not

live at

parental
the

does

follow her husband Even than

the then

until the first

can

walk.

her

authorityin

family is greater
nominal. mother's needs father and The

father's,which

is often

has real authorityis the person who eldest brother ; he provides for his nephews' bears the cost of their It
a

marriage,while
is to his looks for
he

the

gives

them

nothing
father,that
if he
to
were

maternal
succour

uncle, not
in time

to his

Lobi refused

of want

would

deem he

himself

authorized In
to

steal from when

a man

his uncle becomes

what

required.
and

return,

infirm

unable have

he any

one,

his own his brother, if affairs, manage his nephews take possessionwithout or them
him despoiling they of a littlepoisoncomfortably dispatch ancestral shades. The owner usually
;

further
on

formality. The
and

dependent
can

poor after

man

then

becomes

with the aid

to

join the keeps all the property he can until his death. it falls to his uterine brother, if there be one,
the
sons

him

Then
and
to

of his sisters.
are no

His

own we

sons

do

not

inherit,

unless

there

heirs whom
a woman

should

call collateral. in default

On

the

death

of
her

her succeed

brothers, or
to

of brothers
1

sons,

her
loo,

property. The
102,

Zeits.

xxvi. Rechtswissenschajt, vergl.

103,

120.

Cf.

Spieth,785.

72

PRIMITIVE tillthe

SOCIETY

acquainted with the use of cowries as a medium of exchange ; and individual property is the dominant, if not the only, to them. We thus find mother-right property known in unimpaired force in an and existing agricultural pastoral society.1 The Yoruba who, since the beginning of the last down from the north and colonized century, have come like the Lobi the Slave a Coast, have tively comparacivilization. Unlike them, they have advanced abandoned mother-right,, probably under the influence of Mohammedan tribes with which they appear to in their previous This have been in contact habitat. the downfall of the clan-system. has brought about both sides, though on They recognize consanguinity still by many of them children of the same father by different mothers are scarcelyconsidered bloodrelations. from father to son. Dignities descend When dies his property is divided between his a man The daughters have inheritance in their no sons. father's house, but they divide between them the property of their mother ; for the property of a wife is always separate and distinct from that of her
are ground, keep cattle,
" "

Lobi

husband. relics of of which

These the it may

and

former

be to appear organization.2 In confirmation

customs

other

be added

that the of Yorubas

Negroes in Surinam,
carried
across

the largely Atlantic

as

descendants

the

slaves, still practisemother-rightwith

of
to

but littleintrusion It is needless

paternalinstitutions.3
examine the
customs

of

other

under British or French, Negro peoples. Whether or German, overlordship, lately under they all tell the same story. Where they no longerhave a maternal
1
*

R.E.S. Zeits.

ii. 209,

212-7.

Ellis, Yoruba, 174 sqq.

sqq.

vergL

xxvii. 392 Rechtswissenschaft,

74

PRIMITIVE
contact
names

SOCIETY

into

with
to

similar oma-anda
a

objects
at
once

and

transmitted
from

their

the
was

descended

them.

Every
oruzo woman

Herero
and

member

of his father's
a

his mother's

eanda

; for whether
oruzo or

married
never

entered

her husband's

no,

she

quittedher dwelling on
hut for the became

native eanda.

If she entered
returned
; offspring

her husband's
her

marriage
birth

she

to

mother's brother

of her

and

her
As

guardian of peoples who reckon many tory system, the mother's mother, and conversely
the children called within
as one

her

children.

kinship on
sister was, she and

the

among classifica-

like her, called her

own

regarded
her

sister's children

her

own,

while

they

another eanda

brothers
was

and

sisters.

Marriage

formerly forbidden ; and such into neglect, was falling though the prohibition marriages remained always exceptional.The bloodfeud is carried on a man only by the eanda. When
the

is slain his brothers brothers

are avengers a woman ; when

his brothers
is killed uncles.

and
are

mother's her sons, objects of his eanda

:

they

and

maternal

And

the and
to

their vengeance are in either the oruzo

matter.

the
case

guiltyperson has nothing

do

with

the

The

cattle,on
and with

their chief property of the Herero was which they depended for their livelihood,

of which violence
a

they

were

first cheated of the

and

then

robbed
to

in pursuance

determination

annihilate German German

on

the

helpless people who stood in the way of for mark greed, and offered a convenient brutality. Cattle were usuallyheritable only paternal side. But if that side failed they
to to

went

over

the his
own

eanda

and
on

the

eanda-heir

could

take

them

kraal which
oruzo

ceremony,
it were,

through
with his

he

performinga religious incorporatedthem, as

inheritance. This
was,

own

AFRICA

NEGROES

AND

BANTU

75

individual of course, property ; but side by side with was it, it is asserted by subsequent investigators, a

stock
as

privatelyowned, but held by the eanda heritan a quasi-corporate body, and not subject to inThe oruzo ing individualizan was essentially based the worship of ancestors on institution,
not

and

of

the

hearth, and

attributed

to

that All The

say, to the influence of the indications point to the priorityof twofold

is to

nganga, medicine-man. the eanda.

the

is manifestly the result of a organization conflict between matrilineal and tions. institupatrilineal It is recent in origin,but probably began when, or shortlybefore, the Herero penetratedto the found them, an event, where the Germans possessions series of events, which than or happened not more five or six centuries ago, and which has been by some than a hundred assigned to little more years since.
Had

the

conflict
been

been worked

of

ancient
out

date

its results

by the developments of time to a more or less symmetrical conclusion.1 Beginningsof such a conflict are to be traced higher the West Coast among the Bafiote of Loango. up on There the husband takes the wife to his own dwelling, in South almost Africa ; but the as universally is strictly the line of maternal descent. on organization Royalty and all princely families,equally with the families of the common people, are continued only difference is made through the mother ; and no between Yet children. legitimate and illegitimate the paternalline seems to be in some recognized, way from the maternal line. though clearlydistinguished The family relationship rests on birth, on the unity of the flesh and blood ; and possessions inherited are
1

would

have

Dannert,

36-9

S.A.F.L.

sqq., 21, 33, 47, 58 ; Journ. i. 40 n., ii. 92.

Rep.

Natives

of

S.W.

Africa,

76

PRIMITIVE it.
on Paternity,

SOCIETY the other

through
be

hand,
some

seems

to

connected

in the the

native

mind

with

obscure is held

on speculations

subjectof
the
are

the soul, which of the

sexes,
as

to

be

conferred

by

union

whereby
it has

the been
race,

ancestral

souls

or reincorporated,

suggested the
is continued.

ancestral This

chain, the soul of the

is

phallicin origin, and probably connected with the worship of ancestors. Yet we told that the paternalkin is not in the are least a religious, but rather a political organization. Viewed in the mystic lightof a spiritual connection it would at any rate tend to draw togetherthe children of a polygynous family, extent counteractingto some
view the natural and is it would
area.1

affection

for

the
as

mother
we

and
seen

uterine

brothers

sisters which,

have

where, else-

heightened by matrilineal reckoning; and spread the sentiment of kinshipover a wider

tribes in the gone much
centre

The Africa

Bantu have

and

east

of South

They have passed into a frankly patrilineal stage, usuallyalmost into full father-right. Yet they have retained customs of a previous hardly to be explainedunless as remnants form of organization in which kindred was matrilineal. Marriage is effected by the payment of a bride-price behalf of the intendinghusband. The effect of the on
payment
is twofold
:

further.

it entitles the

husband

to

the

of his wife at his own kraal, thus legalizing possession the marriage; and it gives him the right to the offspring of the marriage. Without the payment the lover gets neither exclusive possession of the woman
"

she is not the the

married
to

to

him

"

nor

is he entitled to reckon But

the Basuto among her husband, when
sqq.

children

his

family.

wife, though she resides with

1

Pechuel-Loesche,

187, 467

AFRICA

NEGROES

AND

BANTU

77

for the first time pregnant and the time of her delivery draws returns to her mother's home, where her near, child must be born
or

it is believed

that it cannot the

grow

up ; and there she gives birth to it. When old she takes it to her husband's is a month
as
"

baby kraal,but
parents,

soon

as

it is weaned

it is sent

back

to her

the bridebelong," despite This seems has paid for her.1 a price her husband relic of a practice such as prevails the Bahuana among of the Congo Basin. There the people are matrilineal, but the wife always resides in her husband's home. As the children reach puberty they are to the sent and become maternal uncle's home hold.2 part of his houseThe rightsof the Basuto maternal family are, for the most part, centred in the brother of the child's mother. He is called the malume, and enjoys special all his sister's the first but over rightsnot only over and to purify children. It is his duty to protect them of sacrifices them, when they need purification, by means offered he heifer.
to

to whom

it will in future

the

maternal

ancestors.

At

cision circum-

presents his nephew with an assegai and He pays part of his marriage expenses ; he

presidesat his funeral. In return, he is entitled to share of the spoiltaken by his nephews in war, of a of the cattle paid as brideand the game they kill, Indeed, the whole bride-price price for his nieces.
of the mother's
to it.

niece

who

is

first-born
we

child

goes

to

her

for,as family,

have

just seen, she belongs duty

to prepare

In

the the

Thonga tribe it
skin in the

is the malume's

which

the

mother

carries her

first

child.
as

When

child is weaned,
a

among

the Basuto, become

1
a

though it does not, permanent part of its

vi. 39.

Casalis, 191,

181

Ethnol. Zeits.f. 286.

J.A.I, xxxvi.

285,

78

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
to

mother's remains

family,it
there say with
the

goes

stay
a

at

their kraal malume

and

for
on

nothing to
that
rests

If a years. the choice of father. But and

the girl, husband he the

has

for her"
to
a

her

is entitled father dare

or

portion of
his lead

bride-price ;
barren.
;

not

refuse it,lest the maternal

ancestors latter

kill him consequence

render

daughter
to
to

divorce

required
husband. malume

find

When and

might at least the parents might be or another wife for her disappointed the is received, the bride-price
mother's relatives
a are

The

all the
are

invited

to

the feast,and that

entitled to

is slain for the occasion.

special part of the ox They have to provide

certain outfit ;

objectswhich
and

form she

when

definite part of the bride's is led to her husband's kraal

a times somea

they

are

entitled

to

another

indicates

that

gift. Divination sacrifices (especially for

to

sick
;

child)must
and then them. In the

be

offered

the

maternal

ancestors

it is the malume

whose

duty

it is to

perform
the final

northern after
a

branch
death

of the the malume

tribe at

ceremonies

of the deceased Most

over

of the family. the surviving members purifies remarkable of all is perhaps the rightof a brother his sister when death
his
son

he takes

has

no

children. head

On

the

father's

his

place as
lines he

of the

family.
a

capacityhe is his organized on matrilineal

to

In this

sister's guardian. In would

tribe
not

succeed

his father,but

to

the malume.

Having succeeded,
a

if he be childless he may
to married, by declining

refuse to allow

sister to be

for bride-price her. He the husband's undertakes duty of burying her in case she dies. Meanwhile he allows her (indeed, expects her)to have lovers and to give birth to children. But these children will belong to their mother's family,

accept the

AFRICA
not
sons

NEGROES The

AND malume

BANTU

79

to
;

their father's.

appropriates the

they take his totem, they continue his line and inherit his property. On the other hand, a woman's lawful children have with regard to specialprivileges uncle. their maternal They take a prominent part in the sacrifices to his ancestors, thus asserting their membership of his family. His nephews are on terms of familiarity with him. They may take any food they like from him without asking permission. They are addressed husband." After his by his wives as death they will be given certain of his widows, though
"

any
In

children

that

may

result will be

counted

as

his

(seepp. 15, I6).1 grades of development from pure matrilineal descent up to patrilineal descent with few relics of the previous organization. We will, the however, pass to the Baganda, who are among of the Bantu northernmost peoples. They carried Bantu civilization to the highestpoint achieved before the coming of the White Man. descent Among them reckoned was through the male line ; children were
we
"

Central

Africa

find all

members A
to to
"

of the father's and

not
"

of the mother's
were

clan."

woman's

children, however,
and
to

taught in infancy
them
"
"

respect her totems,

act
as

avoid

that theirs
"

is,

if their mother's

totem

were

also

but

when
-and

they grew
seldom

totems

up they adopted their father's 3 mentioned those of the mother."

Adoption
become
so

The implies choice. universal by custom

To

choice that it

may
was

have
at

last

unconscious.
upon
1 2

conform

to it may

have

been

looked
the

as

compulsory. But
i. 44, 82.

however

unconscious

Junod, S.A. Tribe, Roscoe, Baganda,

Ibid. 268. Ibid. 128, 129.

58, 253 sqq., 162, 164.

Yet the
common

oath

"

was,

By

my

mother."
*

Compare

the Herero

oaths, Meyer, 39.

80

PRIMITIVE had the

SOCIETY

choice from

become, it is clear that the transfer itself

mother's
totem to

the

father's

remained
an

conscious, and perfectly

of adolescence. full It
was

that
a

it took
to

place as

act

step
a

adult

life with

its

rightsand duties. unless at one explained,

If so, it must upon this is not
"

Such
time

transfer is
was a

hardly to

be

it

deliberate choice.

paternaldescent had supervened and had conquered it. But mother-right all. Though paternal descent was lished, estabmean was

that

man

forbidden

to marry

woman

from

his mother's
as

clan, because
relations."
1

its members The Rev,

his

near

regarded J. Roscoe, the

were

careful indebted

and

experiencedmissionary,to
as

whom for most

we

are our

for this information

well

as

of

knowledge of the inner life of the Baganda and the adjacent tribes of the northern Bantu, does not use confined the word family, as if the prohibition were circle of the mother's to marriage within the immediate of relationship founded on a recognition kin, and were The and a supposed horror of incest in our sense. extended to her entire clan,to every member prohibition in other her totem of that body that shared bidden words, to all those with whom intermarriageis forwhere exogamic mother-right is the social organization. It is curious too that this appears to We be the only trace of totemic are where noexogamy.
"

told that

man

was

forbidden

to

his father's clan. reckoned his

His

father's brother's and sisters ; There

even sense were

within marry children were he

brothers

presumably
other
women

might
whom
were

not

marry

his sisters.
not

he all

might
near

marry, or relations in onr

approach. They
of the word
"

his

father's sister's

daughters
1

and

his mother's

brother's
the

daughters
"

or

else his wife's mother.

Roscoe, Bag. 128.

On

other

82

PRIMITIVE
as was

SOCIETY of the

totems

well
no

as

that

Eagle, though

in fact

Eagle clan. To the present time the various clans speak of having given birth to such of their and such kings and claim them members as The clan," of course through the mother. Kingdom of Uganda was ruled by a line of monarchs who seem and to have been of foreign, probably Hamitic, origin, To this conquest the introduction who conquered the realm. of paternaldescent has been ascribed. How descent with the did these kings square their paternal ? The custom native Bantu kings of the adjacent realm of the Banyoro had the same puzzle from the cause. same They solved it by marrying their halffather by different sisters,daughters of the same of such a marriage would The offspring mothers. be of the royal house, whether reckoned the children through the mother or through the father, and thus heirs to the crown. they took their placesas legitimate The kings of the Baganda solved it otherwise. The always one of the king'shalfqueen, to be sure, was
there
"

sisters ; The

but

she

was

never were

allowed born from

to

have

child.

king's children
To of
we none none

other
was

ladies of married
;

his harem. hence But in

a

of these ladies children

seen,
was

he

his have

strictly legitimate.
consequence acknowledged all
no

this,as

is often of

society. The king them his children, thus constituting princes and chosen on his death was ; and his successor princesses
matrilineal from
seems

among
to

his been

sons.1
an

The

arrangement

in

fact

have

elaborate

royal dignity from of any single clan, as appanage the Banyoro. It may become among
the
1

machinery becoming the

it had be

for preventing permanent in fact

conjectured
Bantu, 36.
Cf
.

Roscoe,

Bag. 84, 85,

and

133,

187

ibid.

North.

Frazer, Totemism

Exog. ii. 524.

AFRICA

NEGROES

AND

BANTU

88

that their claimant

it

was

by

the

mutual

jealousy
the honour that house the

of of

the

clans,

and

competition
to

for

contributing
clanamid the

the the of

throne,

matrilineal

reckoning
common

of wreck

royal
maternal

was

preserved

institutions.

CHAPTER

VIII

INDIA

THE
that the
one

continent the
races

of India of
a

has

been

inhabited three

from tinct dis-

before

dawn
; at

history by
minute times

at least

and

examination
come more

shows from with the

others

have

different and The Dravidians

down
or

north,
or

conquering
of these. the and

mingling
and

less of

other
were

original occupants peoples,

The the

peninsula
both in
a

Pre-Dravidians,
latter

very very

dark low

long-headed
of
are

stage
who
some

civilization.
now

speaking
the north

people,
and
in

dominant

Aryanthroughout
much and the
more

other well
as

districts,were

highly civilized, as
different and of

lighter of
entered
a

colour from

quite
west, northof the in

physique. conquered

They
and

settled
course

large

district
as

Upper
issue their cultural the them India

India, ultimately in
of
numerous or

of

time, and
are

struggles

which rather the

were

reflected

literature,

perhaps
Dravidians Of them the

by

persistent
part
all Southern of of

penetration, permeating
The

greater

country.
the

probably
of of

matrilineal.
are were

Nayars people
as a

classical

example
dominant

mother-right.
in

They
but Hindu

originally the
now

Malabar,
in

have

become

recognized
;

caste
seen

the

social

hierarchy
have in other

and,
a

as

will

be

ately, immediof of

they
blood.
As

received

large
the

infusion number
caste

Aryan
divisions sub-

castes,
for
84

is considerable,

every

in

India

has

INDIA
an

85

ineradicable
our

tendency

to

fission.

What

is material

present purpose is that the various sub-castes divided into taravdds,or of the Nayars are families, descendible Every girl is only through women. called Thalikettu, required to go through a ceremony under Brahmanical the tying of the tali, now or influence usuallyperformed before puberty. The tali is,like the ring in Europe, the symbol of marriage. A and or tali-tyer, bridegroom, is chosen by the family, of girls where, as often happens, a number undergo
for the
ceremony
at

the

same

time, he officiates for all

of them. fee and is at

ceremony departs. There cohabit

at

The

being
seems

over,

he doubt

receives whether

his he

some

to liberty

with

the

for girl he does

whom
not

he ties

the tali ; but do

so.

now

all events

generally

lasts so day, for the ceremony long, the girl's wedding-dress is torn in two, which the dissolution of the marriage between her signifies and the tali-tyer. This sets her free to choose another, and real, bridegroom. The union with the latter is terminable will of either party, but is said to be generally happy and enduring. In South Malabar
at

On

the fourth

the

the

husband

does
own

not

reside with

the He

wife has

he

only

visits her at her for the wife's

family home.
are

no

sibility respon-

children, who
he is The

maintained
make

though family,
his wife.
from
more

expectedto
do
not

by his frequent
from
a

giftsto
him, but
may

children

inherit

his wife's brothers. than

one

Whether
at
a

wife

have

husband

time

is

hotly

that to be disputed by Nayars. The truth seems in former times, but has become polyandry was common in civilization and by the advance delicacyof feeling obsolescent, or in most places wholly obsolete and repugnant to the present generation. The Nambutiri Brahmans have taken advantage of the Nayar social

86 to organization

PRIMITIVE
cohabit with

SOCIETY
the
are women a

of the sacerdotal

higher
and

sub-castes.

The

Nambutiris

doubtless landowning aristocracy, Aryan in origin, who have subjugated the Nayars. They virtually and their positionthe to maintain are patrilineal, eldest son alone in a family enters into lawful wedlock, that is understood To as by the Brahmans. from sons being condemned prevent the younger in the interest of the caste they are allowed to celibacy unions with the Nayar women, to contract which, though often consecrated by real affection and long continuance, and quite regular by Nayar custom,
are

not

celebrated

with

Brahman

rites and

are

looked

upon

law as irregular and conferring no by Brahman rights upon the issue. This is emphasized in North of performing a special Malabar, by the custom to enable the bridegroom to take his wife to ceremony live at his house a however, which gives ceremony, her no rightin her husband's property, no part in his
"

funeral rites.
must

On

leave The
in

the

the contrary,in case of his death house at once and return to her

she
own

home.

result the

is,

as more

Francis than

Buchanan,
a

who

travelled says
:

district

consequence no propagating the species,

"In

century ago, of this strange manner of

Nayar

knows

his

own

father,and
as same

every his heirs. He fondness for their

an

man

looks upon his sister's children indeed looks upon them with the

that fathers in other

own

parts of the world

he he would
to

have

children ; and
monster
were a

be

sidered con-

unnatural

show

such

signsof griefat
cohabitation

the death love

of with

and

child,which, from long its mother, he might

of a child as he did at the death suppose to be his own, of his sister. A man's his family; mother manages and after her death his eldest sister
assumes

the

INDIA
direction.
same

87

Brothers

the

roof ; rest he
...

always live under the of the family separatesfrom but if one is always accompanied by his favourite
almost man's movable

sister. is divided sisters. male

to
a

property after his death

and is

the sons among His landed estate

daughters of managed by the

individual
A

all his eldest

a

of the share

family;
of the

but

each

has

right

income." exclusiveness

curious is that

of who

the

Brahman with

consequence Nambutiri a

touch his cannot Nayar woman issue by her without pollution, only to be removed be added, to complete by ceremonial bathing. It must the sketch of the Nayar social polity, that the the royalhouse of Travancore is Nayar. Consequently cession Raja's sons can in no case succeed him, but the succonsorts
a

to
or

the

throne
to
one

failingthem daughters' sons,

so

passes to his uterine brothers, his sister's sons his sister's or after
case

the

other.

The

rule

is

carried the

far that in

of failure of the female

line

to continue it.1 Raja adopts a girl This of propagating the species may manner have been as as to Herodotus strange to Buchanan in the fifth century B.C. It was, however, by no in India. In the far north, means even singular, the Syntengs of the Jaintia hills in Assam, among
" " " "

it subsists in full force. reside with

does
; he

There
more

the husband than the

does

not

his wife any

Nayar

only
does

visits her
not
"

at

her

mother's
or even

spouse house after

dark.

He

eat, smoke,
idea

partake

of

being that because none of his earnings go to support this house, therefore it is not etiquettefor him to partake of food or other refreshment it there. If a Synteng house is visited,
there,
1

betel-nut

the

Anantha

Krishna, ii.22
Tribes and

sqq. ; Ind. 152

Cens.

Rep.
sqq.

1901,

xx.

150

sqq. ;

Thurston,

Castes,v.

sqq.,

283

88

PRIMITIVE
to

SOCIETY of any of the married of the family may the sons

is unusual

find

husbands

daughtersthere, although
be
seen
l

in the

house

when

they

have

returned

from

work." The
consorts

husband

thus, like the Nayar woman's of old time, a mere agent for the purpose
is

continuing the famity of his wife. But among their neighbours, the closely related Khasis of the after one children are two or adjacent Khasi hills, born, and if a married couple get on well together, the husband his wife and family removes frequently
to
a

of

house

of his

own.

While

she lives in her mother's

earnings (which are mainly derived from of the soil) the cultivation are given to her of the maintenance on mother, who expends them the family. From the time she leaves the house she and her husband pool their earnings and spend them in the support of their joint family. Despite the removal, however, the children still belong to the wife and her family. The wife's brother, or maternal uncle, is the head of that family,and is regarded by in the light the children of a father than of an more
house, all her
"

uncle." children
in many

In

case

of divorce, which back

follow their mother

cases

is common, the to her family; and

they are ignorant even of their father's Yet the father counts for something more in a name. Khasi household than where mother-rightreignsin full power. Facing the dangers of the jungles,and in his own his life for wife and children, risking familycircle he

is

nearer

to

his wife
even

and

children clan

than

the

(to which of he does not belong) he occupies course a place of high the regard, second Among only to her brother. various divinities of the Khasi ancestors are religion,
;

wife's brother

and

in

her

Gurdon,

Khasis, 76.

90

PRIMITIVE mode of descent

man,
some

SOCIETY in the various since

cases

to the

districts.

The

Siem

is

a generally

formerlyhe
a woman

used to lead

his army. Thus social found

zones

Yet
at

in

two

ends

of the

the

succeed.1 may peninsulathe archaic of

on organization

lines

mother-rightis

in full force, among peoples in two different of culture,and belongingto two distinct races. Khasis
are

The

certainlynot, like the Nayars, is yet undetermined. Dravidians, though their origin They speak one of a group of tongues called Monand Khmer, are conjectured to be of Mongolian In spite of the Aryan example and the affinity. social and influences for many dominant religious
ages
castes
even

in

the have

country, many
still the it has found
a

other

Indian

tribes and and

where
are

organization ; generally passed away, numerous

scattered up and down.

matrilineal

remains

The

Garos, also

hill-tribe of Assam, Thibeto-Burman the mother's and

belonging to the children belong to

motherhood,
or

speak a language family. Their machong, literally

members
a

machong
mother all
or

claim

clan ; be to
"

all the

of
common

descended The
woman

from

ancestress.

is the her

owner

of

daughters inherit to the exclusion of sons. Though the property cannot has pass out of the motherhood, the husband full use of it during his lifetime, and he can select a him to succeed as (nokrong, house-supporter) person the protectorof his familyand manager of its property. The nokrong,who is usually his sister's son, comes
to

except self-acquired property, and

live in

his

house when wife

as

the

husband

of

one

of

his

daughters,and
Should
or a

he dies marries

also the widow.

man's

be

divorced,her
1

predeceasehim without daughters, clan will provide him with a second

82 sqq.

Guidon, Khasis,

INDIA

91

wife, who
maintains

takes him

the property of the first wife and so in actual possessionof it. These whose
are

customs," adds Mr. Gait, from Indian Census, 1911, I quote,

report

on

the

interest special as a showing how primitivecommunity adapts to conditions it has outgrown." new a system which It should also be noted that the proposal of marriage from the girl,never from the man, who is comes at first to refuse, and to run required by custom and hide himself. The modest victim is sought away for by a party of friends and brought back by force to the village.He escapes again, and is captured a second

"

of

comedy
to

if he attempt to perform this time ; but that his unwillinga third time, it is assumed ness he is allowed
case

is real,and be

only

in the

go free. It appears of marriage between a man

to

and

his maternal

uncle's

daughter
In other

that
cases

he

goes

to

reside in his wife's house. he takes his

ever

price is
"

presumably wife to his own dwelling. No bridepaid. Polygyny is permitted. But

a

before
to

taking
obtain

second

wife

it is

customary

for

a a

man

the

breach The

of this rule Garos have

permissionof the first ; and l entitles her to compensation."

therefore taken

several steps away from mother-right their neighbours, as it exists among the Khasis. The of the husband tends to power increase. There is no regularworship of ancestors,
so

that

the

woman

The but

husband he has
not

longer the family priestess. the wife's family property ; manages yet succeeded in ousting her machong
no

is

in favour

of inheritance been taken

by

his

own

children.

This
an

step has
allied
1 a

by the Rabhas, who

tribes and
Cens.

speak
in
i. 237.

language.2 Other
Rep.

castes Rep.
1911,

north

Playfair,Garos, 65, 67, 69,

Gait, Ind. Cens.

71 ; Ind. 1911, i. 237.

92

PRIMITIVE south
custom

SOCIETY
to

and the

husbands follow
a

the

formerlyfollowed of descent through females, with visiting the Nayars, now like the Syntengs and ordinary Hindu law. There is, moreover,
who
are

known

have

long list of tribes and castes which are divided, one another portion portion following matrilineal and The descent. Halepaiks,for instance, a patrilineal
Kanarese exogamous

caste,

are

divided known named

as

into

number

of

sections
women,

balls, descendible
some

through
tree

and

after

animal

or

which
are

is held

They
Kanara

all have

of the bali. by the members Hindus ; and those of North by religion of paternal law adopted the Hindu sacred those of South
are

inheritance, while
maternal

Kanara

retain
as

succession.1

There

others, such

the

or Pisharatis, a class of Ampalavasis, temple-servants,

in Travancore

and

descent, but

marriage)
like the Hindu

may Valans

follow female ordinarily (apparently on by special compact Others become again, patrilineal.2 Cochin who of Cochin, who otherwise follow the

adopted a compromise whereby any himself is divided after property acquired by a man
law, have
his

death

between

his brothers
if

and

his sons,
to

but his brothers.

ancestral

property,

any,

goes

his

the Nayars, is preceded by a Marriage, as among ties the tali the man who tali-tying ; and ceremony The the girl's husband. become does not necessarily maternal uncle of the girl provides part of the cost. Divorce is easy merely a matter of a small payment.3 often Other of the older organizationare remains have found. The Pulluvans of Cochin, who adopted
"

1 8

Ind. Ibid,

Cens.

Rep.

1911,

vii. 262.

and
8

xxiii. 266; Castes, vi. 201.

Anantha

Krishna,

ii. 143;

Thurston,

Tribes

Anantha

Krishna, i. 231 sqq.

INDIA

93

paternal descent
husband's
a woman

with

the

wife's
custom

residence which in the

in

her

the house, practise

to

requires
seventh

go to her

parents'home

month the
news

of

there delivered ; and to be pregnancy, when the delivery is accomplished is carried uncle to her husband.1
a woman

by

her maternal

Even
to her

among

the Parsis of Baroda house

to

returns

parents'

be

husband's
"

parts of India a many residence in his wife's house is stillpractised.

delivered.2 In of Madras

forms of two recognize marriage, the ordinary one, or kalydnam, and a rite known maimed as viddram, where no bride-price is paid. A girlmarried by the latter rite need not reside in her from makes their
a

The

Mukkuvans

husband's

house.

Her

children

inherit

them and father, only if he recognizes small payment to their mother ; otherwise
to

they belong
The
at any

the

family of
form of

their maternal

father. grand-

viddram time

by the ceremony." The objectof the transfer of the husband to carry on the wife's to his wife's residence is usually she has no brothers to do so. father's family where Thus amongst the Coorgs, who are said formerly been who has no male to have man a polyandrous, children give his daughter in marriage on the may understanding that she will remain in his express have will belong house, and that any issue she may With the Santals and Oraons of to his family." of a woman who Chota has no Nagpur the husband
" "

pleted marriage can be comperformanceof the kalydnam

brothers, if he stays in his father-in-law's

works for him
till he

house

and

It would

3 dies, inherits his property." be easy, but is needless, to multiply here

examples.
1
3

Anantha

Krishna,

i.

148.
v.

"

Ind.

Cens.

Rep.

1911,

xvi.

178.

Ibid. 236 ; Thurston,

115.

94

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

residence with however, the husband's Frequently, his wife's family is terminable ; sometimes indeed it of the becomes In Selangor, one purely ceremonial. medans. states of the Malay Peninsula, the people are MohamBut the bridegroom is expected to remain the roof (and eye) of his mother-in-law for under about two days in the years (reduced to forty-four of after which he may be allowed to case royalty '),
" '

remove

to

house

of

his

own."

Inasmuch
" "

as

all

brides and

is, as
means

bridegroomsare treated as royalty (that sacred, taboo),it is probable that the writer
that
to

in all

cases

the term The

of residence

is

now

reduced

forty-four days.1
a

fisher-folk of Patani

people, are divided into each of which reverences families, a particular species of fish and abstains from eating it. The family and Bay,
also Mohammedan the cult,if cult it may be called, appear have been originally, descendible in the A
to
man

to

be,

or

to

female

line.

who

marries

into such

its

if prohibitions; liable
to to

becomes

the the

customary
at

spend
of the the

family becomes liable he himself of a fisher-family It is of both. prohibitions life of married first fortnight
a

the

house

wife's parents.

At

the

end

of

fifteen

mally and forbridegroom'sparents come conduct the coupleback to his old home, where untilhe can afford to have a house they live together of his own. Generallyin the Patani States, we are told, the bride and bridegroom are expectedto take in the house of the bride's parents ; up their abode but the custom has now become largelyceremonial, and as a rule they only stay a fortnight."Women, however, have a very independent position, quite at groom variance with the polity of Islam ; and the brideforce the bride to leave her parents, cannot

days

"

Skeat, 384.

INDIA

95

though
for
a

her

refusal to do

so

is considered

valid

ground
kin,

divorce.1

An

which

example of the claims of a married can hardly be explained save

descent, is found
among the

woman's
as a

relic of

maternal

Manipur. These tribes are wife dies he is man's male ascendancy. Yet when a compelled to make to her father,or in default of her of kin, a payment called mandu, father to her nearest such payment is the price of her bones. But no or if she die in her parents'house. A made similar obtains in some of the neighbouringtribes. custom The husband, in whose to be custody she was, seems held liable to his wife's family for her death. In any the duty of revenge, should she be hurt, is with case her clan of origin," not with her husband.2 in Beluchistan, On the other side of India, the Brahuls, who adherents of Islam, have some are now interesting that a daughter's There is a very strong feeling relics. wedding is no place for her father. In olden days have been quite a scandal for him to put in it would at all ; he was an expected to quit the appearance house, leavinghis wife's brother to act as the head of he must the family." Even now keep himself in the background during the festivities. It is, moreover, that a Brahui mother's rights in her child quite clear received formal and tangiblerecognitionages before
" " "

Naga tribes of with complete patrilineal,

the

Brahui

father be
more

had

learned than

to

assert

his.

For
a

nothing can on milk-price

her husband Nor himself.

certain

that

she claimed

the

marriageof her daughter ages before of claiming a bride-price dreamed for is marriage the only occasion when the
up ; until
Mai.
a

milk-pricecrops
1

Brahui

mother

has

Annandale,

Fasc.

i. 75, ii.75-6.

"Hodson,

Naga Tribes,92, 71.

96

PRIMITIVE
all dream

SOCIETY

expressly renounced
child, no
the
one

mother-rights in
of

her

dead
to

would

removing

the

body

grave."1 Everywhere, except

the sacred

follow

the Brahmans among brother law, the mother's

who has
a

with special and rights, recognized position privileges duties. his sister's They frequently begin with they do not end until the funeral ; and pregnancy of her child are ceremonies Completed,or until that child has himself officiated at the uncle's obsequies. the mother's brother is concerned In particular, with the education and marriage of his sister's children ; and he takes a prominent part in the marriage rites. uncle in regard to his The positionof a maternal nephews and nieces is usuallyregarded as a relic of this opinion is, there can matrilineal descent ; and
be

little doubt, correct. that in India

It has, however, been is position

gested sug-

the uncle's

of cross-cousin the prevalentcustom upon Cross-cousin marriage is the marriage of a mother's

woman

dependent marriage.
man

to his
a

brother's

daughter, or
brother's

the
son

marriage of
the custom

to her mother's

; and

givesa rightto
issue Frazer
as

the maternal

uncle to claim

his sister's

children. But Sir James spouses for his own Folk-lore in the Old has shown in his work on that the
custom
a

Testament

of

cross-cousin
a

is, in the

first instance,

of corollary

marriage previous

exchange of sisters,whereby the consideration for a of a bride-price, not the payment man's marriage was but the marriage of his sister to the brother or some other relation of the bride he sought ; and he has it highly probable that the practiceof exrendered changing stood, undersisters began before paternitywas father had no and when a authorityover his
1

Bray, 67, 40, 125 ; Ind. Cens. Rep.

1911,

iv.

112.

CHAPTER

IX

INDONESIA

THROUGHOUT
either matrilineal

the

islands

of the is the found.

Indian rule
or

Ocean
well-

kinship
of it
are

recognized
its
most

remains form in

It retains

complete
inhabited

the

Padang

Highlands
settled in

of

Sumatra

by

the

Menangkabau
of into

Malays.
tricts, dis-

They

form each

an

agricultural population
a

comprising they
are

number

villages. Among
clans descendible buted distri-

themselves

divided line. These

only

in

the

female

clans, though
or

throughout negari), do
of
a

the

districts,

settlements
;

(called
members

not
or

dwell

promiscuously
live within she the

but

the
a

clan,

suku,

together, forming
suku in remains Prof. she
on

separate
suku
never

village,or
When and
a

kota.
woman
"

Marriage
marries

is forbidden. her
"

own

kota.

In

fact," says
in which the
in

Wilken,
was

she and

forsakes grown with

the up.

house But clan

born side also

has

husband

his
.

remains thus

his

own

its settlement.
. .

Marriage
married

results Married visits that the This

in

no

dwelling
reveals the

together
itself

of

the
in

pair.
form

life

merely
to

the He her

of

paid
is
to

by
say,

husband

his
her

wife.
in

comes,

by

day, helps
takes

work

in her. visits

rice-fields, and
at

his it the

mid-day begins.
man comes

meal

with
the

least
become
to

is the
rarer

way
;

Later,

by

day

only
if
a

in

the

evening
husband,

his until

wife's the

house,

and

stays,

faithful

following

morning."

The

family

INDONESIA thus

99

comprises not
and wife

husband,
have
no

wife
common

and

children, for

husband consists
remoter

dwelling.
her children household

It

merely
her

of the

mother The

with

and is

descendants. eldest

head His
as we

of the

usually
towards with

brother.
are

her children
:

such

the father

the actual father his

own

rights and duties associate ordinarily has nothing to say

hold suku, the housedescendants, his he
be

in the matter.

Belongingto
and

of his mother
duties

his mother's if rights,

and

his correlative toward

to

the

eldest

brother, are
thus
not

his sister's children.

The

children

look

their uncle, their mother's

brother, and
ruler. perty Pro-

to their

father,as their provider and

into the head
two

is divided

classes
in

family property,
and
;

which

belongs to by the
husband

stock

common

minister is ad-

of the

household

and

dividua in-

property, earned
When
and
own

wife

by a man's own industry. acquire property by their

common.

jointlabour, they
dies his interest
remains
"

it in

When
own

man

in

the
"

property of his
widow
on

family
children,
and

to that

his individual

family not to his property descends

wife is divided and When the
a successors woman

and

his brothers
common

sisters and of husband

on

his sisters'children. and hand

hand.

The

property
the survivor
on

between

the

one

of the deceased

the other
are

dies,these
her share.
and

successors

her
:

children, and
her

them failing
has
no

brothers When
a

and
man

sisters

husband
are

dies,his
If the

successors

his mother

her descendants.

marriage-bond be severed in the it frequentlyis, their common as parties,

divided between them
;

lifetime of both

property
abide

is

but

the

children

with

the
death

wife.
in
a

This

is

descend on dignities similar way to property. the polityof the Syntengs, That precisely

Heritable

titles and

100

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY it

of the
on

Nayars
race,

differs from

only in

details

dependent
owning landtion. civilizathe
In-

the

fact that
are

the latter, an
on a

aristocratic and

somewhat

higherstage of
our era

In

the

fourteenth

century of

settled by Menangkabau Malays dragiriValley was from the Padang Highlands. Thither they doubtless in took their social system ; but there they came
contact

with ancient

Mohammedan matrilineal

their

which modified influences, still preserved institutions,

These seats. original influences can be traced in increasing strengthas the is descended. In the higher settlements almost valley the only change observable is that the husband, though to live permanently with his wife in the comes rarely, of her family. Further down it becomes the dwelling general rule that he should either enter his wife's for her and build a new house or family-dwelling, himself in the placewhere her suku, or clan,is settled. Family life thus begins to develop at the expense of clan-life. Rank and title have a tendency, faint as

by

the rest of the tribe in their

yet, to fall after

lower

man's

death

to his children.

Still

although the division into sukus persists, less sharply distinguished. Their their limits are members have a tendency to settle elsewhere, sometimes permanently,and in the latter case to choose a head. new Marriage within the suku has become of different sukus members two frequent. When ; either the husband marry, as a rule they live together goes to the settlement of the wife's suku, or if his suku be the more powerful he builds a house in his own and takes her thither. The children in the village latter case belong to his suku, and the mother's clan
down,
has

little or

no

claim
so

over

them.

Yet

the transfer to if the husband follow

the and

father's clan is

imperfectthat

wife separate in their lifetime the children

INDONESIA her. The distinction between the the different kinds is

101

of

property recognizedin
effaced. At
the

Highlands
of the

becoming

death

of either

property is now
and children
are,
on

very often divided between sisters' the children ; and where there is offspring

the spouses the survivor

get

no

share.

The

children
or

of the deceased
her

the other
even

hand, liable for his

debts, and
These within
ing mean-

may

be

pawned

to

secure

payment.
come a

changes are

instructive ;

historical time ; and of inconsistencies

they have they afford us

elsewhere

about

clue to the what

in

is, on

the

whole,
Such

Sumatra.

patrilineal organization.1 changes have been taking place all refer to As an example we may
true

over

the
an

Achehnese, who

unequal
Achehnese

many years maintained rulers. struggle against the Dutch for

so

The

have

their earlier with

home

of long accepted Islam ; but many still persist sistently social customs quite inconthe law of the Prophet. If a husband's his wife's he
woman comes never

be
an

near

to live in the

latter,
it will
a

for

Achehnese

quits
be at
a

the

parental
will be

abode.

If her husband's
on

home

distance he

depend
his home
her
a

the

circumstances whether

whether he will He

visitor to his wife,or substantial

for that of his wife.

exchange entirely is requiredto make

marriage,and giftof meat at each of the two great Mohammedan feasts. For every bungkay of gold (twenty-five dollars) in the wedding-gift the bride is made dependent for a
the
the the support of her parents. When full year on committed is exhausted to the sole she is formally gift

of present after the consummation a monthly giftafterwards,besides a

charge
become
1

of her

husband,

and

not

until then

does

he
not

liable to

support her, though she does

348, 419-22,
429 ;

Wilken, i. 314-20,

Bijdragen,xxxix.

43, 44.

102

PRIMITIVE
even

SOCIETY
to

seem

then

to

remove

his

dwelling. All

the

of her first child-bed fall upon her parents, expenses being regarded as by the husband any contribution

voluntary.1 Up to the last quarter of the eighteenthcentury in Pasummah there prevailed and Rejang, two tiguous condistricts in the south-west of the island, two kinds of marriage. They are as interesting showing how the rightsof the husband to depend on come the payment of a bride-price. In the one kind, and called jujur,the bridegroom pays a bride-price, it is wholly paid the bride passes entirely when into his possession It is,however, seldom paid and power. in full. A portionmust be paid before the husband take his wife home can ; but if it be paid,long credit is given for the rest. In any case there are certain appendages or branches," the most important of which is a sum of five dollars, called tali kulo. This is usually from of delicacyor friendship motives left unpaid ; and so long as that is the case ship a relation" "

is understood and
on

to subsist between

the two

families,

the parents of the woman have a rightto interfere of ill-treatment, is also occasions the husband

liable for

wounding her, with other limitations of absolute right." When in question is finally the sum paid the wife passes into the absolute power of her husband. If, on the other hand, the man's family of the jujur agreed on, an cannot pay the balance by which the arrangement is not uncommonly made debtor becomes a slave, all his labour practically in being due to his creditor without any reduction of the debt. extension In return he only gets an credit : so great an extension indeed that the debt sometimes remains unpaid to the second and third
1

Hurgrouje,

295

sqq.

INDONESIA and it is not uncommon generation ; suing for the jujur of the sister of Such
be debts
are
"

103 to

see

man

his

grandfather."
are

looked

upon

as

sacred, and

said to

lost. An alternative to the payment ever scarcely maiden of a jujuris the exchange of brides,one being an expedient we have met with given for another in savagery. before, and one originating very low down ambel-anak. The other kind of marriage is known as it in India, used for the continuation have found We of a woman's family when there are no sons to carry the paternal line. In Sumatra a on man, young is chosen by the girl's of an inferior family, generally is handed He father for her husband. over by his familyand lives in his father-in-law's house in a state
"

between

that

of

son

and

debtor.

His

wife's

for all his acts after marriage. family are responsible His own familyhas no further rightor interest in him. All his earnings belong to his wife's family. He is in this liable to be divorced at their pleasure ; and
event

he
as

must

leave

wife If

and
are

children
on

and
terms

return

naked

he

came.

they

good

with

him, however, they may release him and his wife on of payment of a jujur, with additions the amount which will depend to a great extent whether he on
has

daughters,whose jujur would otherwise go to his wife's family.1 These have been admitted not arrangements into the institutions of a fortuitously population reckoning kinship through the father. They are obviously an adaptation of arrangements springing and of a much out more as primitive civilization, such at variance with the Mohammedan and religion which the inhabitants of Rejang and Pasummah polity now profess.
lMarsden,
257, 262, 225, 235.

104

PRIMITIVE Batak
are,
or

SOCIETY

The

Battas, whose
other

country

is south

of

of the East populations Indian Islands, of Malay origin. They have made considerable in civilization. They are a progress and markable slave-holding patrilineal people. Yet it is re-

Achehn,

like most

that when lawful other with

a

free

man

weds

slave,even
on

in the

the offspring are marriage, hand the children

are

slaves, while
woman

slave

free ;

by marriage and if slaves belonging to two

a

of

free

different masters the master law

can

not

their children are slaves of marry, of the man, This but of the woman.1 else than
a

be

nothing
are

survival

of

matrilineal indications
not

stage, of

which

indeed

preexisting other

the wanting. So, when among of noble Macassars and Buginese of Celebes a man of lower rank, which frequently birth marries a woman happens, the children only take half his rank ; but
a woman

if

of noble take

the children The

us

birth marry the same rank of the of

a as

man

of lower

rank

the mother.2 Islands enable

various

groups

Molucca

to trace

the progress

Luang-Sermata
husband
enters

no group his wife's

paternaldescent. In the is paid ; the bride-price family, and the children

is in the female line. belong to it. Inheritance Apparently a married man possesses nothing but his and clothing. On his death these personalweapons go to his sons, if any ; the rest of the property remains In the neighbouring and her children.3 to the widow is exacted, Babar though a bride-price Archipelago, it seems only to carry the right to cohabitation,not
to

removal

of the

bride

from the

her

maternal dwells

home
in her

for the

husband

follows

wife

and
her

house, and

the children
man

belong to
as
8

family.
as
8

If rich

enough
1

may

have

many

seven

wives,

Wilken,

i. 248, 251.

Ibid.

361.

Riedel, 324, 330.

106
are gifts

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
the in bride is

exchanged, and
her

formally handed
In

over

to

husband

his

home.

the

secret

and marriage the bridegroom comes sleepswith his sweetheart, remaining with her until discovered by her this happens, he declares his parents. When passion for their daughter and gives himself wholly to be dealt with as they decide, or as it is up to them their slave." as expressed "to be marked figuratively On their consenting, he stays in the house, enters their

family and
the the
over

works
;

for them. if later he

The
can

children

then

follow

mother

but

children them
as

become

his, and
and

pay the he obtains

more

bride-price full rights

above On

in the open mentioned.1

formal

marriage

the island of Celebes among the Bare'e -speaking Toradjas the rule is that the bridegroom enters the household
but not

of the

bride.

is agreed bride-price does

not
seem

on,

have

usuallypaid until later. It the effect of transferring the

nor

to

children
to

to

the and

husband,

does

it authorize

him

take

them

him his wife away. But it recognizes their father, as thus legitimating their birth,and it enables his brothers
or

sisters to

common

adopt any of them custom.2 If,however,

to her

;
a

adoption is a girl's parents refuse

for

their consent

and marriage,

if she, notwithstanding,

is determined Her
the

family
bond
into

upon it,the result is an elopement. feels itself in this case greatly injured; it is broken, the husband's
the

with

received
the

the
of

youthful pair are family,and presumably

to

children

marriage will belong

it.

But

for the familybond elopements are of rare occurrence, is very strong.3 In certain districts there is also a form of marriage with residence, as it is patrilocal
1
8

Riedel, 205-6.
Ibid. 17.

Adrian!

and

Kruyt,

ii. 16, 27.

INDONESIA

107
to live in her

called,in
to

which

the

bride

is taken

band's hus-

the

for, in family. It is very expensive, various presents have to bride-price,

her husband's, and Hence it is
to induce

addition be

given

to the bride to induce

her to leave her home, to induce her to settle

her to enter down in it.

richer persons. Of the told nothing.1 It may be noted that among the Torentered into for a marare riage, adjas when negotiations it is

rarelyadopted, and only by effect of this marriage we are

by the bridegroom'smother or aunt usually in Lage, where thingsare done (mother's ; and sister) they take place not with the bride's very formally, over, parents, but with her uncle (mother'sbrother). Morethe kindred of the bridegroom (not he himself) for the bride-price, which is received are responsible those of by the bride's father and distributed among his own who kindred have contributed to that paid
for himself. but of
The
care

mother's
to

kin

have

no

claim

to

it ;

they

take

all sorts

of

"

indemnify themselves by means presents from the bridegroom's

"

family.2
On the small islands between Celebes Yet and the and the
a Philippines

is paid. bride-price

groom bride-

goes
a

to

live in the

the

bride's home

becomes

member

of

but

in consequence
men

price only rich

often. wife's On

are family. Divorces frequent ; of the obligation to pay bridea afford to change their wives can

the island of Talauer, in the event pays

In
a case

of the
to

adultery her paramour husband, but to her parents.

children
are

fine not

her
the

of divorce

they don't cry," be assumed which may to be usuallywith the mother ; when they are old enough they are reputed to be free whether to choose they will belong to the father's
to

said

"

go

where

Adrian!

and

Kruyt,

ii. 23.

Ibtd. 14, 25.

108

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

On the island of Sengir family or the mother's. they belong to the wife's kampong, that is, to and her household family. In these islands only their wives : are rajahs'sons exempt from following able do to as they please in the they are
matter.1

occupiedby many tribes often of widely the general rule seems to be different origin. But follows the wife, and that the husband presumably the in the wife's family. But the children remain rule is not universal. Among the Kayans a brideincludes a priceis paid, and the marriage ceremony is, symbolical capture of the bride. The custom however, that the bridegroom goes to live for some in the bride's dwelling, though he ultimately years
Borneo is carries off the bride this avoid
to

his
a

own

house.
custom

It has of

been
recent

suggested that
introduction
to

is

modern

marriage,whereby
home.

the expense of an older form of the wife is taken to her husband's be the

only child of a chief,the husband remain permanently in her home and may the Sea Dyaks succeed her father as chief.2 Among of Sarawak a marriagethe future place of residence on As often of the coupleis the subjectof arrangement. takes up his abode with as not, we are told, the man This particularly his wife's relations. happens when is an only child,but not only then ; the girl many taken into consideration in decidingwhere matters are gone they are to live." The natives of Borneo have undera varietyof foreign influences,temporary and In their originalcustoms permanent. consequence On the have modification. been subject to much other hand, we have no such systematicinvestigation
If the bride
( "

of their civilization
1

as

of that
*

of many
and

other

East

J.A.I,xvi. 138-9.

Hose

M'Dougall, ii. 174.

INDONESIA Indian in
our

109

communities. power the

"

From

the

fragmentary reports
form
a

it is

difficult to

connected

view.1 Of Guinea other

we

largeisland
a

of the

Archipelago
"

New
Like

have

number

of careful accounts.

Borneo, it is occupied by tribes of different origins.

In
an

earlier

chapter we
on was

have the

glanced at
south
-

those

of

Melanesian

descent

eastern

coast.

Among
between

the Kai of what

a

German

territory marriage
of different in
to

brother

and

sister,if born
A

mothers, is permitted.

man's of
a

chief
woman

motive
to

marrying
watch

is said to be the need and

work,
her

boil water, to fetch water his field.

a

firewood, to weed
to

and kin for

In

her transferring Therefore her he must

him pay

lose such

worker.

them

her.

wifely duties she remains theirs : she and her possessions belong to her own uncle and her to her maternal relations,and especially If in a quarrelwith her, her husband break brothers. subject to
her

Yet

household in
case

he utensils, of her death adult

must

pay

her who

next
are

and Her
her

it is

they
the

of kin ; her heirs.

uncles

and

brothers

receive her

parents get nothing ; but

for her father.2 Yet
as a

bride-price, bridegroom must

takes her
to

work

rule he

live with He
so

him, and
takes her

does far
:

not

never

go to live in her family. her kindred would not suffer The children
are

complete a severance.3 property ; they belong to

and
them.

the

wife's

her kin, not

to their father's ;

he

has

not

even

the
and

right
or

of

correction

over

It is her mother

sisters who die.4

decide at their In
case

birth whether husband's brother's

1 2

they

are

to live

of

her
his

death wife

the without

widow

generally becomes
ado. He
had
i. 124, 125. Ibid. 42.

further
Sarawak,
3

paid

Anthropos,i. 167
Neuhauss,

; Roth, iii.83, 92, 88.

Ibid. gi.

110

PRIMITIVE share she

SOCIETY her first

his

of the
may wed

on bride-price a

marriage.
to

But

stranger, who

then

has

pay

than on though a smaller one bride-price, her firstmarriage. We are told that that is the chance for a poor When she to get a cheap wife.1 man marries again her uncles and brothers avail themselves of their right to the children of the former marriage.

another

On

man's

death all the

his
rest

sons

planted ;
articles of and

get the fruit-trees he has of his property, his pigs and

and

personal use
uncles

ornament,

his brothers
case

maternal

inherit.

Only

in

of their

failure does inherit

are

his property fall to his sons. nothing ; the next heirs after his
sons

Daughters
own sons

Every kin has its chief,who representsit on all publicoccasions. He has, however, very littlepower of control or punishment, for the Kai are very independent. The dignity descends from father to son, and to a sons failing
sister's son.3

the

of

the

deceased's

sisters.2

departed but little from the of mother-right. The thin end of the wedge status of father-right has, however, been applied to their social institutions. in It is to be seen particularly
Kai the residence her
own

Thus

the

have

of the wife with

in the
are an

the husband of the

apart from
ship. chieftainThe

kin, and
The Kai

inheritance inland

people.

Jabim,
hold
goes it is

an

intrusive
maternal

to to

live with
no means

peopleon the coast, also descent. Among them, too, the wife her husband, not far away ; though
rare

Melanesian

by
The

that
a on

the husband

goes

to

her, and

there

he

lives in

certain the

decisive word
with

rests

her

mother's

dependence on her kin. marriage subject of a girl's A brother. bride-priceis

and her
own
3

paid, and

is received
iii.88.

by

him
-

brothers
Ibid.
100.

Neuhauss,

Ibid. 90.

INDONESIA
her

111

parents

take

nothing.1
and of

But the

the husband children. One

acquires
of the

few
most
on

her rightsover frequent causes the

conjugal strife
his

father's part to chastise a father's property descends to child be

a

is the attempt child.2 disobedient eldest child

:

if that

children
as a

grow rule,little to divide.3

to

the as daughter she usually, But share. a up, gives them

younger there is,

Further

the

west
a

in the

same

valley of
a

the

Keram,

of tributary of social
a

very

remarkable

form

in the territory, the Sepik River, organization has

recently been
Banaro.
a

among It is impossible here

discovered

tribe make

called
more

the than

to

very would

reference to it, but to pass it over slight entirely seem impossible.Marriage is to the Banaro have an we essentially exchange of sisters,which to have seen probably taken its rise in a condition It is also earlier than patrilineal descent. of society the the Banaro with intimately connected among formal initiation to adult life. The bride is compelled intercourse with a friend of to undergo preliminary in the generation the bridegroom'sfather (therefore above her). This person she believes to be a supernatural being ; and intercourse with him goes on to the exclusion of the bridegroom until a child has been She then comes to born, called the goblin-child."
"

live with
to cohabit

her
on

husband, but from

festival occasions when
he
on

time
with

to time

continues

the

father ; and with

that relinquishes
a

passing to she cohabits privilege,

of her

goblin-child's another age-class

on

such

sions occa-

friend

husband.

The

ceremonial with
never

exchange
other
1 3

of wives
Thus

also takes

rites.

place in connection certainty of paternity is

301, 302.
*

Neuhauss,
Ibid. 306.

iii.299,

Ibid. 303.

112

PRIMITIVE
:

SOCIETY

attained the
case

indeed

it is

scarcelyapproached, save
discoverer
to know their

in

of the

goblin-child.1

It has much the Banaro

are

puzzledthe
maternal
or

whether

organization, and to trace the origin of their strange institutions. The offspring of the union with the goblin is called the goblin's child.' Although the child remains with the mother, we cannot speak of a female line of descent,for the child is adopted by the mother's for his further education, and cares husband, who
" '

paternalin

acts practically

as

his foster-father."
we

"

If

we

enquire

how

descent

is counted, and

of both children be

female
are

male

queer combination influence. the Practically

a

notice

their mother's, and

her husband

seems

to

selected He In

only
is the
a

in

order

to

children.

merely
course

the of
a

protect her protector of

and
his

her wife's

family."

long

and

cussion patientdis-

complex question the conclusion is arrived at that this extraordinary system is the result of an invasion of a Melanesian and patrilineal people, its amalgamation with an originally endogamic matrilineal Papuan tribe. By this invasion and amalgamation
the Melanesian

of

gerontocracy succeeded
and

in

posing im-

adopting the institutions of, a more primitive society.2 But the subject research than anthropologists have yet requiresmore of bestowingupon it. had the opportunity
upon, In
an

its power

island
as

so

large and inhabited

Guinea all sorts the
to
course

by

so

various

population
have
we

New

of culture-contacts

taken
must

place in
expect

find, as

of ages. sequently Condo in fact we

find, social institutions in all stages of development.

Few tribes who
are

have

reached
trace
Hi. 260

however,
1

without
Assn.

patrilineal organization, of the prior influence of

J

Mem.

Am.

Anthr.

sqq.

Ibid.

276, 281-4.

114

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

aunts

as

fathers

and there

mothers

;
no

indeed,

they
word

call

them

so

constantly,
ours

being

single

equivalent phenomenon,
classificatory
and nobles

to

for is of their
the

those
common

relationships."
in what The is called

This
the

of

course,

system
trace

kinship.
lineage,
female the
maternal

royal
to

family
the

contrary line,
facts and

general through
to

practice,
the the
custom

through
On the

not

male. former of
to

whole,
of

point kinship,
The

definitely
and
to

prevalence
cross-cousin still

the
are

marriage.

Sakalava

said

be

matrilineal.1

Ellis,
;

Hist.

Mad.

i.

137,
;

150,
van

165,

167,

172;

Sibree, 163, 164.

217,

248,

250-4

Anthropos,

ii. 983

Gennep,

Tabou,

CHAPTER

OVER
in
rare

the

rest

of

the

eastern
are

hemisphere
fewer

the
save

evidences but

of female

descent

and,

significantexamples,
for
a

fainter. but the

There
most

is

no

room

here In The wife

mention descent with

of
was

any

remarkable. lineal. husband

Japan,
remained
her

originally matriown

her

kin, and
The the of
our

the for It that

visited

only

by

night.
into

word house.
era

marriage
was

signified to slip by night

until the fourteenth became
a

not

century
the

the

husband's

residence became

centre

of

family

life, and

marriage
married

regular dwelling
now

together
marries of

by
an

the

pair.
to
name.

Even

when the

man

only daughter

(or perhaps
live
at

eldest and

daughter
the children another ambel-anak
in

the
take

family) he
her of

goes

her

house

family
marriage
also

There

is,

moreover, to

type
of

(somewhat
found
a man

similar

the

Sumatra,
in
a

in who

Ceylon
has him of

and

Northern but
no son

Tonkin) adopts
in

which

daughters
one

stranger

and

gives
born their from

of this

his

daughters
are

marriage.
as

Children heirs
has
a

marriage position
in

considered
their father It

of far

maternal enviable that

grandfather

; and

the

family.
with
as a

is

important,
of the

too,
same

anciently marriage
was a

sister

born
to

mother that with

prohibited
sister

offensive

the

gods,

but

by

the

116

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

only was permitted.1 Among the Ainu, inhabitants of Japan and probably the aboriginal there are, at least in Saghalin, tions Saghalin, strong indicaof a former matrilineate. No is bride-price paid. The wife does not cease to belong to her family, and her children regard her kin as nearer to them In fact she remains, often for than their father's. house : her first child-bed takes years, in her parents' place there ; and thither, after she has left it for returns ordinarylife with her husband, she sometimes of being delivered from for the purpose subsequent 2 pregnancies. the Passing by Siberia and the Caucasus, among
many which tribes
are

father's side

of

which

customs

and

tales

are

found of
we a

system of
may
was

relics as probably to be interpreted mother-rightlong since passed away,

at
once

turn

to the south-west

of Asia.

Here

it

that

Herodotus among

with first, the

wonder, noted

matri-

The Lycians of Asia Minor. Lycians,however, were not the only people of ancient their kinship times in that part of the world to reckon through the mother. Probably the Hittites did the lineal descent
same

; and traces

their descendants, the modern of it in various

doubt

Armenians,

show

be, it is beyond
matrilineal. this

that the

Although

this may ways.3 However the primitive Semites were had Hebrews long passed of the books

stageat

the time of the last redaction

of the Old

is clear from Testament, its former prevalence

"

have escaped the editors. The passages which in the second chapterof Genesis, Therefore utterance many
1L'Annee Rev.
loi
* 8

Soc.

viii. 410,

422,

v.

43;

Morgan, Syst. Consang. 428

; M'Lennan,

Hist. Rel. 1. ; Lunet,

328

n.

; Aston, Shinto, 249

Studies, i.

156, 207, 242, 243. Anthropos, v. 762-3 ; Czaplicka,276 n. Frazer, Adonis3, i. 141 ; Zeits. vergl.Rechtswissenschaft, xxv,
305.

301,

ASIA,
a man

THE

MEDITERRANEAN his mother

not

BASIN and
cleaves

117 unto

leaves his father and

"

his wife

(inthe present tense,

in the future,as

to the practice Englishversion), points of matrilocal marriages. Further matrilineal evidence and is afforded by the marriagesof Abraham Amram (thefather of Moses) ; the express statement by Tamar, his son but by another David's daughter, to Amnon, asked for her of the king to wife, wife,that if Amnon her ; the marriage of the king would withhold not Samson at Timnah to a woman who, it was evidently contemplated, should not leave her kin, but to whom he should be merely a visiting husband, such as we have

translated in the

found mother

elsewhere of the the

with

the

care

with

which

the

name

of the

King of Judah
traces

is recorded
to

from the And

time

to

time, and

of succession

throne

by
are

marriage
not

the

king'sdaughter.
for the Semitic Smith
race

they
While

the

only

evidence of the

Hebrews. the
others

for of

other the

branches

researches
have

late Prof. Robertson the

and

lished estab-

existence

of matrilineal

maintained institutions,

the Arabs down lishment well-nighto the estabamong of Islam in the seventh In century A.D.

fact,they lasted

much

longer,and
was

were

not

formally
by
a

suppressed until after the

prophet'sdeath
at

the
a

Caliph Omar.
husband, who
term
on or

woman

libertyto
him. The

receive

entered

her

tent, either for

definite

until she chose other end

to dismiss

husband,

the
at the

or

he pleased, hand, might depart when of the term, leavingthe children, if any,
were

to

her.

They
the

members do
;

of her
them.

clan, and
The wife
or

he did

had
not

nothing further
follow
her among her

to

with
he

husband
own

either

visited Even

lived with
in the fourteenth the
"

tribe and

clan.

century
women

the

traveller,Ibn

Batuta, found

of Zebid

quiteready to marry

strangers.

The

118

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY he but pleased,

to

husband in that She bade

might depart when

case

the wife him.

could
a

never

be

induced

follow

adieu, and took upon herself friendly 1 the whole charge of any child of the marriage." In Egypt, women occupied a high place. Motherof the mistress was right was the law. The woman
him the took
was

house

her

husband

was

received

as

guest, or

abode with her. up his permanent indeed permitted; but the nobles alone
harems.

Polygyny
were

able

it was discouraged Though permitted, to property, and by the custom by the laws relating their future at marriage the wife and of associating in the ownership of all children with the husband
to

keep

his property. her heirs not

The

wife

retained

and

transmitted

to

of only property but office. In course time this led to endogamic marriages, regarded by modern civilized nations, and by most savages, with In families which horror. possessedproperty, if not in others, it seems been no uncommon to have thing that a brother should marry to keep the so as a sister, of royalty property in the family. The relationships became still more complicated. If the most recent researches of Egyptologists may be relied on, the queen whose possession the permanent element was gave the It was title to the throne. by marrying her that the from her to her secured, and it was kingship was Accordingly, daughter that the throne descended. the king find,at all events in the later dynasties, we not only as her husband, but also as her father,as her in more than brother and as her son, and frequently of these capacities. In other words, to secure one his positionhe married the queen, even though she
were

his
a
1

own

mother

or

his sister,and that

on

her

death
who

leaving

daughter, he married
Robertson

daughter,
passim.

Smith, Kinship, 63-72 and

ASIA,

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

BASIN

119

might be his sister or his own child.1 It is remarkable that throughoutthe fifty centuries of Egyptian or more historydown to the final fall of the kingdom on the death of Cleopatra, matrilineal institutions were never revolutions and even outgrown, in spiteof numerous invaders. In an enervating repeatedconquests by foreign climate societywas highlyorganized,preoccupied with religious and observances under the domination of a powerful priesthood. Religion is proverbially the priesthoodin developingthe conservative, and
cult of Osiris and have
Above

his sister-wife Isis,seems

even

to

lent

emphasis to the ancient social arrangements. munity coman all,the Egyptians were agricultural

carryingon
which lent
no

their

industryin
discontent risen
over

an

environment

demanded stimulus

but continuous, exertion, and little,

to chronic
or

change.

valley of the Nile and the whole of North Africa, submerging and they destroying these ancient institutions. While
The tide of Islam has
the have been

obliterated

in

Egypt,
In the

few

traces

of the

maternal
to

organization linger among

south and
west.

farther populations

the

early part of the

fifteenth century, Makrisi, an Arab writer, described the Beja, an Hamitic people to the south, as pagan nomads Their descendants with matrilineal descent.
at

the bridegroom (one of the tribes) remains with his wife's family for a period often extending to three years after marriage,the bride spending her days in her mother's tent, and only meeting her husband that the at night. It does not appear first child must be born in its mother's family,though this often, perhaps usually,happens. Among allied
xlv. 309 ; Simcox, Studies, xviii. 238 sqq.
1

the present day the Hadendoa among

are

fanatical Mohammedans.

Yet

J.R.A.I,

chaps,

iv. and

viii. ;

Journ.

Hellenic

120

PRIMITIVE
as

SOCIETY Bisharin and Nurab this is

such tribes,

the Amara,

Among the Beni Amer of Abyssinia (also Mohammedans), though the bride is taken to her husband's dwellingshe has the right to return to her mother's home at any time and stay there,where the visit her if he will, husband or she may put an end may to the marriage by leaving him altogether. In case of separationthe house and everything in it belong takes the wife ; the husband to nothing but his
the definite rule.1 weapons. husband honour with
on one

A
;
even

wife

as

rule him

cares

little for
a

her of

if she express Often

loves

it is
to

point
treat

not

to

it, but

rather him

him

she ruins contempt. pretence. The women very slight another and make
common

by

exactions

all understand
cause

againsthim
a woman

in is

case

of

quarrel. On
of

the her
a

other brother.

hand,

to greatly attached effected by payment

seems

Marriage is the bride-price ; but

money. If she be
not

bride

to

be

dear is

at

the

by her husband, but by her own relations.2 Of other Abyssinian peoples the Barea Baze matrilineal. and are They both of uncle (mother's emphasize the relationship brother) father and and nephew, but disregardthe tie between child. The father rules the family, but only while its
murdered, her death

avenged

members

share

his household.

The

uncle
A
woman

can

sell the
returns

children,but
to

their father house

cannot.

her

mother's have

for

her

first

delivery.
towards

The

Kunama

advanced

littlefurther
avenge

father-

right.
murder
not

A husband be

does not

his wife unless the

: a

committed his
own

in his presence
nor children,

father

does

avenge
own

children mother
or

their father. his sisters'

His

brothers

by

the

same

iJ.P.A.T. xliii.649. *Munzinger, 319-21, 324, 325.

122

PRIMITIVE
his wife. The

SOCIETY married
women

live with

eat

before

their husbands, for it is necessary for the maintenance of their beauty that they be well nourished. wards Aftercomes men

the

turn

of husbands

and

other

adult

that of the children.1 and, lastly, family, Descent is still traced through the mother ; and if a of a noble family marry woman man a belonging to the vassal groups, the issue of the marriage will be noble. The old solidarity of the familyis maintained : all the members for a crime committed are responsible When the the chief of a tribe dies, among by one. northern Touareg the dignity passes to his sister's
son

of the

; among

the southern, all the influential members

meet

of his

family,including women,
their relations
a successor.

and This

nominate is

among
but
not

usually,

always,the
son

son

of the dead

chief, or
The The
or

in default

the

eldest

of his eldest sister. the choice ratified.2 is inherited members of

tribe is then

convoked, and
deceased
son,
man

property of
if there be whatever

by

all the

his son, the group

no

their

succeed.3 Thus even degree of relationship has not entirelydestroyed the institutions.

danism Mohammeold pagan of

Crossing to
former
are

the

Continent

matrilineal
in

Europe, traces long since passed kinship,

of

discoverable

the evidence

directions. many of traditions in Greece was If in

some

away, Attention to first directed

by
the

Bachofen.

generalconclusion by subsequent researches

times The
1 * 8

he was mistaken, particulars has been abundantlyconfirmed

;

and

the

existence is
now

in prehistoric

of maternal

institutions
contest

lished. estabPoseidon

story of the

between

Aymard, Touaregs, 100. Ibid. 38, 39, 47 ; Journ. Afr. Aymard, op. cit. 97, 99.

Soc. ii. 179,

quoting Barth.

ASIA,
and Athene

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

BASIN

123

city of Athens, derived by St. Augustine from the learned Varro, relates that in the well as men took as mythical days of Cecrops women named that children were part in public deliberations, after their mothers, and apparently that through those mothers citizens,all of which they became The of Poseidon.1 lost by the victory were privileges of course, is not historical ; but it is evidence of a tale, of the change survivingin the time when dim memory it arose. Others record that before the time of Cecrops
for the
every
one

knew

his

mother,

but

no

one

knew

his

father, because
"

marriage did not then exist of mother-right by no a misinterpretation in ancient writers unfamiliar with any means singular based At institutions. on society not patrilineal
individual

Athens,
father

even

but

in historical ages, children of the same mother not were

of the

same

allowed

to

We know the ancient Hebrews. marry,2 as among from Polybius that the Epizephyrian Locrians, a Greek descent reckoned through the colony in Italy, female line.3 The myths of Orestes, (Edipus, the and Danaids others are only by explicable many In particular, in ^Eschylus' kinship through women. Eumenides, when Orestes, pursued by the Erinnyes for his mother's death, pleads that he is not of kin wins by the casting-vote of Athene to her and (who born from Zeus' head without the help of a was mother), the Erinnyes are startled and shocked on the gods decide finding that even against them, ridden declaring that these, the younger gods, have overthe old laws and unexpectedlyplucked Orestes out of their hands. It seems clear that both the poet
1

Augustine,

Civ.

aM'Lennan,
8

Dei, xviii. 9. i. 223, quoting Leges Attica. Studies,

v.

Polybius, xn.

16.

124

PRIMITIVE his audience knew

SOCIETY that maternal social descent

was

and

the originally and that

foundation

it had
to that the

probably
invasions

organization, been supersededby a new law, due convulsions attending the foreign
Homeric Greece. the in These dawn took

of the

founded

vasions inof

however,

history,and
times
"

it is not

place before suggested that

was

historical Almost

any
we

Hellenic

tribe

matrilinear."

all that several

and

find is local

legends,especially legends in
on

of the states, both

Minor

the mainland islands of the of the

crown

of Greece

Asia

and

on

the

Levant,

pointing to
women,
as

the in

transmission and

through
and

Egypt,
the

isolated local customs

institutions
can

otherwise

expect, for
some

unexplained. These are all we organization had patrilineal

maternal descent. But
can

altogether destroyed
tenacious may learn of these
a

how

old local customs of the island

be,

we

from

custom

of

not leave a bride does to-day, the bridegroom comes to live with her in it. On the eldest daughter her parents' death succeeds to the house ; or if a girlhave no prospect of succeeding, she or her familymust provide another

There, even home, but

Kythnos. the parental

house, else
Etruscan
and

she

cannot

obtain
urns

husband.1

cinerary
of

record
and

merely
the
name

the

name

family
;

the

deceased

of

his

mother
and
are

and

the

funeral social
think

monuments

indicate
women.

in this

other ways
accustomed

the
to

importance of
of Rome
as

We

the

one

place

where Yet
1

father-rightreceived its greatest extension. the early legends betray a social and political
17. On
the

general- question of matrilineal the one side, J. F. M'Lennan, Greece, see, on Studies in Ancient History (London, 1886), pp. 195-246, and on the other, H. J. Rose, Folk-Lore, vol. xxii, (London, 1911) pp. 277-91.
Hauttecceur,
descent in Ancient

ASIA,
condition of
women

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

BASIN

125

utterly incompatible with the subjection from birth to death to a paterfamilias who
the power of life and death and with their incapacity to of descent, still less the
or over

held in his hands his link

all
a

dependants,
in the
to

form

chain

startingof

point,and

receive

to

transmit

an

inheritance

in later times.1 any kind whatever, which prevailed The ancient Germans had passed beyond the stage of matrilineal before the days of Tacitus. organization But the hints given by the historian in his account of them point to their having passed through it. He witnesses to the high consideration in which women held. the companions of the men were They were in danger, even both in labour in war. and They attributed to were more : something divine was them ; as soothsayers held in the highest they were honour for good faith between enemies, ; as hostages of greater value than any men. It may they were be that Tacitus has emphasized this side of German with an manners eye to the comparative degeneracy of Roman writer has well society. Yet as a modern remarked mony : Chip and cut as we will from the testi"

of

the

ancients, this
out
a

reverence

for

women,

or dead, stands living

stubborn

fact in the German German

character"2

"

in

the

ancient

character,
Kaiserdom be sure,

however, only ; for under

this virtue has
a

and Christianity

faded.

The

German,
like

to
as

paid

Tacitus bride-price.

represents it
more

bride
or

herself,somewhat
an

the

paid to the Morgengabe,

current morning-gift, the bride-price is not

in

In any case later ages. incident only of paternal

institutions. been

The

German

bride-pricemay
; but

have

paid
1 2

to
.

the

lady'sfather:
de 141.

in the

Salic law

Cf

D'Arbois

Civ. Jubainville, Cf. the entire

des Celtes, 314.

v.

Gummere,

chaps,

and

vi.

126

PRIMITIVE of recipients
a a
"

SOCIETY

the

widow's the text the

also of
to

maiden's

(and perhaps bride-price rather is ambiguous) seem

line.1 To the
same

be

relatives

in the

female

result
account

points
of the

classical

historian's with
as was

uncle's
a

relations
are

oft-quoted his nephew,

a man

accordingto
as some

which indeed

sister's sons

dear to

his

own as

this connection
more

esteemed that
more

by

closer and insomuch

as

sacred

than
were own

of father valued

and than

son,
sons were

that

nephews
man's this

hostages. A

children, it is

regard for his sister's children can only be a relic from a priorcondition of maternal descent. The Germans were a pastoral rather than an agricultural people: their greatest wealth consisted in their flocks and herds. The kings, whose was power very limited, did not succeed by right of birth, but by election from noble families. Lombard mission history affords indications of the transof the crown the pedigree by women ; and of the Lombard kingsis traced from a woman.2 The warlike Cantabrians, who kept the Romans at bay so long, were apparentlymatrilineal in descent. The geographer Strabo tells us that the daughters succeeded their parents, and that they provided their brothers with wives, by which it may be conjectured
true,
his heirs, and
was were

meant
not

with

the

funds

to

procure

wives, who

The Basques, descendants brought home.3 of a neighbouring until recent times people, preserved of institutions such as customs, probably remains this. The eldest child, whether son or daughter, inherited. When the eldest child was a daughter her husband
1 8
3

came

to live at his wife's house

Rechtsalter.
n.

with

her

Grimm,
Paul.

Deutsche

i. 3, 17 Strabo, ii. 4, 18.

Diac.

by

sqq. translator, iii.35, iv. 42

420

n.

ASIA,

THE

MEDITERRANEAN
very limited being hers. The
a

BASIN

127

parents, but played

the
was son

part in
eldest

the

real
never an

power allowed

family, daughter

heiress.1

an heir, nor the eldest marry Compare the Japanese custom, and

to

the Sumatran Evidence in the

An

custom

of ambel-anak. existence of maternal institutions

of the

British

Isles and

Scandinavia

examination been

of the succession

is very scanty. of the Pictish kings

to

has

held, probably with

the
crown

reason,

show

that the

they by

claimed

by

inheritance

through

mother. Bede

Irish tradition,indeed, affirms,as and the native of women, them

recorded

short

sennchas,that the Picts,being for wives of the Irish, and asked

obtained should males.

only on condition that the sovereignty be descendible through females,and not through The either not understood clearly story was
or

by
We
at

Bede

the Irish writer

both that

were

alike at

stage
tale.

of civilization different from may

one

impliedin
as

the

infer surely time counted dim

that the Irish descent

well

as

the Picts

through

the mother

alone,
gave tion direc-

and

that

recollection of this fact is what In the

same

rise to

this

tradition. setiological and his

points the
foster-father bulk

rule of Irish law, that

next

after his of whom

adoptive father, both

largely in ancient Irish customs, the duty of falls upon his maternal man avenging a murdered consist uncle. is inMoreover, the position of the mother with strict patrilineal institutions ; nor is of kings and magicians even the succession recorded in pagan times in harmony with that form of organization.2 It may be said generallythat the cult, the
1L' 'Annte
2

The rule

Soc. iii.379 ; Simcox, i. 213, 461. succession of Irish kings seems to have of Nemi. See Prof. Macalister's Irish

been

according to
acute

the

learned

and

cussion dis-

of the

subject,Proc. Roy.

Academy,

xxxiv.

326 sqq.

128

PRIMITIVE and

SOCIETY
as

mythology
and

the sagas as well of Celts Scandinavians, disclose evidence

of Germans of maternal

however organization,

misunderstood it may have been and distorted in later ages. It is related of so many Welsh saints that they were

children, that it has been sarcastically illegitimate remarked of a saint seemed that the first qualification to be bastardy. Probably, however, what meant was of the at least the identity or was only that the name saint's mother while his father's was was preserved, because descent was traced through women. forgotten, Both in Wales and in Ireland,to be sure, sexual relations as frequentlyif not usually in that stage were, of civilization, loose. dissolved ; were easily Marriages outside the marriage-tiewere connections frequent ; and many lived in concubinage with married women If a Welsh had an woman men. child, illegitimate in historical times, by a man whom she afterwards even had no married, the children born in wedlock prior the illegitimate right to inheritance over offspring. Yet a bastard does not seem to be legitimated by the subsequent marriage of its parents : it remains to its mother's family.1 The pedigree of the kings of Bohemia, like that of from the Lombards', started Her a woman. name of whom Libussa. She had two was one sisters, was described as a magician, the other as a priestess. The Czech followed her example in choosing women their own husbands, though later marriage by capture developed,and subsequently marriage by purchase. In freedom in case, separationwas any easy, and sexual relations was did not take great. The husband his wife to his home, he went And to live with her. it is significant for women of the high consideration
Zeits. xxiii. Rechtswissenschaft, vergl. 234.

130

PRIMITIVE
accounts
we same

SOCIETY of other Slavonic

The

have

peoples

in story. In the Ukraine, even the seventeenth did century, and perhaps later,men their their wives, but the women chose not choose husbands, a usage said to be still rife in Bulgaria.1 It is clear from the folk-songs found the among peasantry that in other parts of Russia also the bride had
the

tell much

the

the power

of choice.

And

still

"

the family which makes girl's members sending a Svakha, or female matchmaker, to suggest the idea of the marriage to the youth's 2 parents." Probably Russia has gone through similar society,in marriage stages to those of Bohemian by capture, and subsequentlymarriage by purchase. The In it the wedding ritual witnesses to them. bride's brother He sits is a prominent personage. beside his sister armed with a sword, to keep ward over her, and will not give way to the bridegroom or his representative without being well paid for doing him : so. Indeed, in a wedding-song she prays Dear brother, do not give me for nothing ; away or again, Sell not thy sister for a rouble, for gold." close was brother the tie which united a Specially with his sister and her children. Even after agnation had practically become the law, the rightof a sister's his uncle was in a to avenge son recognized expressly by societywhich insisted on the right of vengeance the relations of the murdered person.3 The same
"
" " " "

very often it is its first move,

close tie between uncle and his Slavs.

and between an sister, the sister's children, exists among

a

brother

and

Southern
an

sister
name

swears a

by
man's

her

brother, and
held

oath
1 2

by

the

of

sister is
17.

ii. 170 sqq. ; Kovalevsky, L'Awthropologie, Ralston, Songs,294, 299, 266. Ibid. 274 ; Kovalevsky, 19, 18.

ASIA,
inviolable.

THE

MEDITERRANEAN

BASIN

131

Up to quite recent times sexual relations munal Comwere lax, accordingto ecclesiastical standards. marriage is charged against both the Czechs Such accusations are often merely and the Russians. of mother-right on the part of writers indications
who
do
not

understand

it.

But

there

are

constant nature

complaints by
of the

ecclesiastics of

the

licentious

peasant gatherings at
not
are

probably
Russians

without

festivals,complaints grounds. Moreover, the

charged with endogamous marriages gamy, approaching the type practisedin Egypt. Endoat least of this kind, was ultimately put down ; but, as Professor Kovalevsky has pointed out, the fact that a bridegroom is even yet always spoken of in the peasant ritual as a foreignercoming from a distant country to take away the spouse, is very possibly of the emphasis laid on in the evidence exogamy the contrary practice.1 efforts to put down Among Slavs when the Southern reduced to a a family was to daughters alone or child,and that one a girl, single without a brother, arrangements were made, and still for the only or eldest daughter, are, to obtain a husband the case as might be, in the person of a youth who, within historical times, would contrary to the practice
come

to

live in

the

household.

He

forsook

his old

and renounced his membership of the parental home family and share in the inheritance,taking with him tarily placeshis father might volunnothing,unless in some present him with a parting giftof oxen, horse, Such a husband entered his wife's family or money. districts took her many He became children also bore.
and in
surname,
a

which

his

subordinate

in her

more house-community, which frequentlyincluded of such a husband than one family ; hence the position
1

Krauss,

Sitd-slaven,620

Kovalevsky,

10, 12, 14, 15, 21, 22.

182

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
enviable. in The

was

often

by

no

means

arrangement,
and

however,

necessitated,
consent
to

Herzegovina
The We Slavonic
to

adjacent
whose

districts, the

of the

village community,
Slav found lands
it in

rights
is
In
a

he

was

share.1 institution. in South almost the the

house-community
Bohemia, has
been

very Russia

ancient and down

owns

it

preserved

the

present property,
either

time. which oldest

The
is
or

community
administered
an

corporate house-elder,
He
in

by
member.

the

elected its voice the

rules

the

community,
and is little

subject
than their

to

expressed
outside

its assemblies,
;

represents
more

it in

world
All

yet

he

primus
earnings
with

inter
to
a

pares.
common

the

members is

contribute

stock, that
of the

expended,
for
as

together
common

the

produce
Every
in

property,
is considered

the

benefit. the

member

belonging
the crimes of in
a

to

kin, and,
was

former

days

at

any for the

rate,
the

munity com-

held

jointly responsible
committed within has
must

and its the

misdemeanours

limits

possessions.
when descent
to
as

Though
its
was

it

been be

continued traced
to

paternal line,
It remains all of of

origin
reckoned

period
mother.
at

only through
women

the

be well

added
as men

that

(Russian
part
in the

women

events)
the

take Russia
;

deliberations
were

community.
the
crown

In

women

capable

inheriting

and

for centuries

they played

important
1 a

public parts.2
Krauss,
Ibid,

op. cit. 466 sqq.

vii. ;

chaps, iv., v., vi.,

Kovalevsky,

49,

55.

CHAPTER

XI

AMERICA

WE
in

have and

thus

rapidly
maternal

run

over

the
or

Old

World dicating 'in-

found

descent

traces

its former the islands of the southern

areas.

prevalence
seas as us

in every well
now as on

part,
all
to at

the

great
condition the

continental In
an

Let
we

turn

America. the of

earlier the
and

chapter
of found where
to

have
two

glanced
extremities in that

of

natives have

the

continent,
condition repress the

them the

mentary rudiditions con-

natural

external
common

only

to

all

tendency living organisms,

the of

develop
also

not

but

to

all human
or

societies. for the

or

Where

environment
or

permits

requires
the
more

purposes

protection
that

food-supply

less permanent
must

aggregation
Araucanians

of individuals,

tion organizasocial

accompany
The

aggregation,
of southern the for and than mother. three

and Chile

life

begins.
and
and

reckon
are a

descent
wild

kinship through
race

They
hundred
at

warlike

which

years rather

kept
to

the

Spaniards
of first with with

at

bay,
the

yielded
to
arms.

last

the

vice

drunkenness

Although
Incas
and their customs

by contact,
subsequently
have
the been

civilization

of the

that
the

of the

Spaniards,

softened,
of

bridegroom
his

still goes

through paying
a

form

capturing
In this of the

bride, afterwards
he
takes
on

bride-price.
but
or

case sum

her

to

his
her

hut father

if the brother

whole be
not

agreed
once,
'33

with
to

paid

at

he

goes

live with

his

134

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

father-in-law.

in Generally,however, he succeeds tion. paying by putting his entire kindred under contribuform of marriage has been as a Bride-capture of exogamy. supposed to indicate the former prevalence their Until marriage the girlsare free to bestow favours whom on they will. After marriage they have the reputation of fidelity, however, as qualified, in the lower culture, peoples by outbursts among many

of unbridled the absolute the

licence

at

their festivals.
; and

The

wife

is

property of her husband

he possesses
"

rightof life and death over the children, as they blood he flesh." It is his own are part of his own blood-feud if he slay them : consequentlyno spills dies arises. Polygyny is practised.When a man his eldest son inherits his widows, except the heir's is free to marry own mother, who again. Among of the tribes, some however, the eldest brother of the times Someinherits in preference deceased to his sons.
the widows of the deceased.
are

distributed is
reason

among
to

the brothers believe that

There

formerlyprevailed. The basis of Araucanian social life is said to be the family, which develops pendent indeinto a clan, and afterwards a tribe,absolutely from the other one we gather ; whence may of a clan, but also those that not only the members of a tribe,considered The clan themselves akin. as was governed by the head of the family,"but how appointedwe are not informed ; the tribe by a chief from father whose dignity is said to have descended He his authority was nominal. to eldest son, but who discuss at the meeting of the adult males presides in council.1 all important matters
totemism
" " "

In the Brazil
at

heart
a

of the continent of

the

Baka'iri of Central their

higher stage
1

civilization trace
353-60.

J.R.A.I,

xxxix.

AMERICA

135

lineage through
obtain and the
means

women.

Living

in

the

forest,they

of existence

not

only by hunting

but by the cultivation of manioc. The fishing, are common plantations property. Individual perty proin the house ; and exists only as to movables the these things descend As among to the children. is not Araucanians, the chief's power great ; the of the dignity is heritable, descending to the son chief and deceased to his only in default of sons sister's son. The parents negotiatethe marriages of their
axe

children.
some

The
arrows

bride's
;

father

receives

stone

bridegroom goes to work with him in the clearing, in the hut hangs his hammock above his wife's, and the marriage is complete. Nor
and

the

is there

more

ceremony

at

divorce

the

will of the be

wife is
to it.

though the enough, even but Polygyny is practised,

than
a one

have bond

more

wife in the with

opposed it is not customary to same village.A close

He

husband

unites

brother

his sister's children.

is reckoned
and in
case

their protector equallywith their father ; of the latter's death he takes his place
them
on

with The
are

regard to
Bororo
still

until the

they

have

Brazilian

grown border

up.1
of Bolivia

They also appear to be matrilineal. of a village The men live together in a common house, unless they are old married men, mainly
heads of families.
at

hunters.

The

young

husband

visits his wife

only
are

live in

with her children to night. She continues her parents' home, where the young couple
a

allowed
on

hearth

to

themselves.

This

mode

of

life goes

death, when the husband parents' goes to live permanently with his wife and becomes the head of the household. The proposal of marriage from the lady, and her parents' consent always comes
1

until the

Von

den

Steinen, 331 ; Schmidt,

IndianerstTtdien, 437.

136

PRIMITIVE
: they required

SOCIETY neither

is not

give

nor

receive
that

for the

marriage. One

marriage the man has a family of his own, when himself : possibly circumstances
are

traveller says lives in his bride's house he builds may few

thing anyafter

until he
a

hut

for We

decide.

told

curious detail

after the

youth has accepted

a

the offer of he

marriagehe delaysfor
to

days, because

entering his bride's house ; and occasionally her father fetches him late at night from the men's common house, to protect him from
is ashamed
be
seen

the

chaff of his fellows.

This

sense

of shame

is said

to be

heightenedif
sexual
seem

neither

of the Such
a

had

intercourse.

pair has previously contingency would,

accounts
we

however,
of the

improbable,if
common

the

have chief's

men's

house

be

accurate.

greater than power is much have already considered we

to

among
;

either of the tribes the

and

dignityis

said
a

be

heritable.
a

tendency than
The
to

perhaps expresses law.1 recognized

Gran Chaco

But

this

rather

tribes of the his

own

people and fixed Marriage only becomes definitely

a

leave

require the husband join his wife's kin.

on

the

birth

of But
to

child when

until then
a

once

it is temporary and child is born the pair are other for life.

provisional.
considered
is the

be bound
:

to

each and

Monogamy

rule
on

polygyny
frontiers

the

polyandry do indeed exist, but and in exceptionalcircumstances

The through the mother. tribes are socialistic ; there are no permanent chiefs and no accumulation of property. They are hunters, hand-to-mouth existence.2 livinga thriftless,

only. Kinship

is traced

It is unfortunate American
1

that
is

our so

information

about

South

peoples
Von den

fragmentary. Travellers,
390.

Steinen, 501 ; J.A.I, xxxvi. 2Grubb, 214, 215-6, 188.

138

PRIMITIVE the Arawaks,

SOCIETY who
are

In Guiana their kin

exclusively through with the mother's intermarriage

a

the

trace exogamous, mother nc ; and

kin is father's

but permitted, kin.1 Before

child

may
a

marriage
of betrothed

marry youth is and

an

into

his

bravery

at

required to undergo various tests Children endurance. are frequently early age, but this hardly hampers

their freedom

of choice when Gran

they grow
a

up.

As

the tribes of the

Chaco, husband
relation.
or

and

among wife may

separate at any time before

then
becomes
a

child is born
A

; the union

definite commodities

is bride-price When the

paid, either in marriageis once

whom
to

services.

arranged the bridegroom goes to live with his bride's family, whose head he obeys and for
he is bound
to

work.

If his children

increase remain

such

any

that the young longer convenientlyhoused number builds The

one a new

couple cannot
under hut the

parental

roof,the husband
father-in-law's.2

by the side of his

in the

Arawaks
or

live in isolated settlements houses

If

of consisting of the

more savanna.

depths
the
more

forest,or
is the than head
one

in the of the

only
there in
a

one,

father houses

the

family; if is vested authority

be

headman,
any

successful hunter, generallythe most formal authority, obeyed. yet implicitly tribal chief.3
The

without There

is

no

medicine-man
and

is

an

important
he is in Arawaks

figure. By the influence

able
to

wealth

he achieves the

indulge in polygyny, which

not

general do

practise. It is said that the office is There would, passing to the eldest son. hereditary, however, hardly appear to be a definite rule, though it is probable that a medicine-man confide the would secrets and of his profession to a mysteries preferably
1

Im Im

Thurn, Thurn,

185.
202,
211.

Ibid. 221,

222.

Cf. R.B.E.

xxx.

314.

AMERICA
son

139

whom On

he

had
"

brought
at all

up and

and
an new

whom

he

could
man

trust.1 "the

death

events, of
a

important
one

settlement We

is deserted

built elsewhere.

property to puttinginto the

The of the
them

suspect that may distribute among

grave

there the

is little other

survivors, after

the usual

grave-furniture.2

social condition

of the Caribs is similar to that

Arawaks, except that there is a trace among of marriage by capture. But in general they
in

marry

the

same

way

as

the

latter.

And

we

are

told that a woman does not escape by marriage definitely from subjection who continue to her own family, her.3 to claim authority over The tribes of the Issa-Japurabasin, north of the to a somewhat River Amazons, have advanced higher their degree of civilization. Livingin the dense forest, household social unit is an undivided community of hundred individuals. These from sixty to two munities comare another, each ruled independent of one He is by a chief who is elected by the household. usually (but not always) a son of the deceased chief
It follows that
must

the houses

to contain

such

household than those

be

largerand

of better construction In the arts of

not

of the tribes of Guiana.

basket-making,
seem

mat-weaving and progressed much

so exogamous, because

pottery they do

to

have

beyond
as

far

the

Marriage is cerned, house-community is conthe latter. of

a

all members

household

are

deemed

akin. and

The

wife is
him

brought
there.
a

to her husband's

household
are

lives with

Women

as

rule

well-

treated, but

they hold

to their husbands.
1 2 3

subordinate place distinctly Descent is strictly in the paternal

xxx.

Im Im

Thurn, Thurn,

334, 340 ; R.B.E. xxx. 225 ; R.B.E.

333.

159.

Brett, 353 ; M'Lennan,

Huinboldt. Studies, i. 34, citing

140

PRIMITIVE
A
man

SOCIETY

line.

may
but
not

household,
himself of
a

into his mother's original marry into his father's household, for he of it. It is has
no

is

member
a

only done
sons

in the

case

daughterof
medicine-man

chief who is the

to succeed

him.

The

only member

of

community

power rivals that of the chief. A recent traveller but he does not speaks of traces of maternal kinship, whose vouchsafe Of the
to tell us
more

they are.1 civilized peoples

what

of

the

mountain-

ranges called the Cordilleras and have hoped for fuller information. have which the been
most

the Andes All such

might ever, howhopes,

we

their Spaniards, tribes. In the

by various causes, among prominent are the bigotry of the greed and contempt for the conquered
north the
most

frustrated

advanced

were

the

Chibcha, the

seat

Bogota. The The monarchy

to the
son

chief government was at ruler of Bogota was absolute monarch. an

was

of whose

descendible

in the female
a

line,first
son

of

and in default of such sister, of the deceased

to

a a

brother, the

sons

only receiving

shipped personal property. The Chibcha wornumber of gods, chief among whom the a was Sun. Their religious ceremonies elaborate and were necessitated an organizedpriesthood. This, too, was line. Their institutions hereditary in the female seemed to have approached full mother-right. It is true the bridegroom had to pay a bride-price to the bride's father. But the Chibcha wife was by no means

portion of

his

subordinate
even

to

her

husband.

We

are

told she

could
on

inflict a

beating to
Chibcha

the extent
were

of six lashes

her first

husband.

The

polygynists.The
great power.
her husband
a

wife married, however, had

on

She

might
should

her

death-bed continence
i

requirethat
after her death

observe

for
68.

limited

period

Whiflen, 48, 63, 65, 66,

AMERICA
up
we

141

to
are

Whether five years. But a woman not told.

marriage was
seems

matrilocal
to have

not

been

lost to her

family by her marriage. For if she died in and the child were not saved, her husband childbirth, was compelledto pay compensation to her kin, to onehalf of his property. Some tribes were ; exogamous others various were degrees of relationship among forbidden in marriage ; among to wed even a some, sister was not prohibited. Details are not forthcoming which might have explained this statement.1 more precisely
If
we

know

littleof the Chibcha

we

know The

stillless of notable

the other of them about

tribes of the north-west.

was

most

that Their

of the feudal

Cara, the dominant

monarchy descended of a to a son, to the son or a son failing but it seems to have been subject to election by sister, a national assembly. That is all we are told. From what less legendary we can or gather of the more it must be suspectedthat the Cara were history, slowly which emerging from an earlier stage of mother-right, understood not was by the Spaniards,into patrilineal kinship.2 South of them the Puruhaes, occupying the present province of Chimborazo, were still for the succession organized on the basis of female kinship,
of their
son.

Quito.

power is said to have

chiefs

was

transmitted

to

the sister's
to male
not

The

other but
our

tribes had

perhaps

advanced
does

kinship;
us

scanty information
any confidence.3 that the

allow

to affirm it with

contrary, we know empire of the Incas, the most

America,
1
z

On

the

great military

rested
Joyce,

on

highlycivilized in South basis. If language patrilineal

32.
20.

S. Am.

Ibid. 59, 54 ;

Archeology, 19, 22, 23, 27, Verneau, Ethnog.Ancienne,

Verneau, 25.

142

PRIMITIVE
a

SOCIETY
race was

be

related closely ship stocks, the Aymara and the Quichua. The leaderof the Incas had welded these two stocks together, and imposed an autocratic rule over a largeterritory of subjectpeoples. Part of inhabited by a number had once been occupied by a more ancient this area almost the only remains civilization of which are certain vived megalithic monuments. Nothing has surto

test, the dominant

of two

tell us what

who

were

the builders

of these

ments, monu-

were were

their

relations,if any,
The

with

the

Incas, or what

their institutions.

Peruvian

peoples
the herds

whom and

Spaniards subdued : pastoral they terraced and

the mountains vicunas. unit
two

the

were

cultura agri-

cultivated

slopes of
of llamas

and

maintained

large

and

pueblos,or
have

The villages. the clan,of which

been

pueblo. There is the patrilineal system of the Inca civilization was developed from an earlier mother-right. The clans totemic ; and were totemism, though often found male with kinship, takes its rise under maternal
found in each institutions. the and old times the

settled in They were of societyseems to or more were generally to suspect that reason

Tradition,
men

moreover,

declared

that

in

and

women

establishment

of

like beasts ; stricter marriage-lawsis

cohabited

attributed, togetherwith
and the abolition
to

other older Such

civilizing regulations
and
more

of the Incas.

barbarous assertions

customs,
of

the

traditional

than the mean no more promiscuouslicence usually which is misundersto prevalenceof matrilineal organization, by those who live under a different system. out of maternal the growth of paternal kinship Finally, for the marriage of the king, or probably accounts the Sapa Inca, to his sister,as in Egypt. It was issue of such a marriagewho succeeded to the throne,

AMERICA
"

148

for otherwise

be bastardized issue of such

of pure
a

they affirmed that the prince might the through his mother ; and failing relative marriage the eldest legitimate
"

blood
can

inherited.1 be

Little the

gathered of
same

the social the

as

organizationof
of the which quest, Conwe

Central and

American for the have

tribes at
reasons so

time

those

have

seen

rendered
and

imperfectthe knowledge
of South World those America. who of the have
vast

of that of Peru The been

area

the north-west

tribes of the New aboriginal most completelystudied are now comprisedin the United
a

States and

Canada.

but group of islands in the Gulf of California, of any civilized never yet reduced under the dominion dwell the Sen, untamable power, savages, among the lowest and most the fiercest, miserable of the On

warfare, supporting themselves by the chase or the collection of shell-fish, quently they are always on the edge of famine, and are frerace.

human

Living in

constant

nauseous inconceivably expedients maternal to find food. They are organized on strictly lines. Mother-rightin its widest significance is their polity. So unapproachableare the Seri that scarcely have been able to get into peaceany white explorers able If the single with them. contact report we have be trusted,they go near to presenting upon them may

reduced

to

that

ideal institution, a matriarchate.

Almost
women

else, even
most
mere

power,
men

they

among have

peoples where
submitted
to

everywhere have of

the

intrusion Their be
and

region of government. sisters would the scorn yoke. Men may and defenders hunt providers they may : it is their duty. fight They may even may the function, though it is not by any means
"

into

the

Seri
their

they perform

confined

Joyce,

100,

154,

85, no

von

Tschudi, 184.

144

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

to

In this medicine-men, or shamans. the capacity,or as war-chiefs,they may dominate of groups, internal but ! movement affairs,never

them,

of

with them in what we participate may call judicial and legislative functions. The executive of the family seems to be exercised by the power mother's brothers only through or in conjunction
matrons

The

with
more

her.

And

when than

she is

shaman To
one

reverenced
reverence

is this

any man. carried that in the

of repute she is such an extent of the

most

portant im-

considerations
a

selection of the chief of

"

band

is his consort's
name

reputationfor

shamanistic

potency." The very predominance of woman.

the native
name or

of the tribe expresses the Sen is a foreign : appellation which motherhood. appears to mean The tribe,"
"

is Kunkaak, rather
"

womanhood,
Dr. M'Gee

tells us, is made up of clans defined by reckoned consanguinity only in the female line. Each

by an elder-woman, and comprisesa times) hierarchyof daughters,granddaughters and (somegreat-granddaughters, incarnating collectively that purity of uncontaminated blood which is the pride of the tribe." The masculine element is merely supplementary to this. The huts are temporary rude it may shelters of the rudest kind. However be, its contents both the hut and to belong exclusively Her the matron. brothers, indeed, are entitled to placesin it. In comparison with them a husband has no rights there. If there, his normal place is the
outermost

clan

is headed

in the group,

where

he acts

as

sort of outer

Marriage, the permanent union of and candidate for is recognized. The man woman, a lady's hand, when provisionally accepted, after lengthy discussions, by the girland her mother and to a year's is required to submit matronly relatives, guard
or

sentinel.

146

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY intercourse
no

frequently preceded by
kind that its results
can

of

so

intimate But

longer be

concealed.

this does not

affect her character

if it lead to

marriage.
of

Indeed, if it do not, it affects very littleher chance

marriage later belongs to the

between Divorce

on

; and

mother's
and

bear since any child she may family there is no distinction

bastards is easy.
to

children husband

born
find leaves

in

wedlock.

If the

his
his

position
wife and his real

he simply becoming intolerable, goes home she

to

back is.
takes

his

own

relatives,with

whom

On
the

the other

hand, if she be tired of him

:

lay

all his

opportunity of his temporary absence personalbelongings outside the door

does
own

he takes
more.

the hint and The

women

not

the

upon her any houses, the crops, the intrude

"

sheep and to relating

peach-orchards, in fact everything the economy of the household, except the introduced horses and donkeys, a modern acquisition use by the Spaniards,whose lightensthe labour of the man. The Zuni are more advanced. They have taken a few hesitating descent, steps towards patrilineal from their themselves towards at all events or freeing strict maternal kinship. The husband is stillno more Yet than a permanent guest in his wife's household. he is capableof ownershipof land and other property, and upon his death his children,boys as well as girls,
share alike what he has left behind. clan. His
The

the

individual

stillbelongs to his mother's father's clan He is called

"

relation to his

is,however, beginning to be recognized.

a

child

"

of his father's clan. his

To

His father's

mother ceremonial

officiates at functions.

birth, performing certain

clan is incest.
not

into one's mother's marry Marriage into the father's clan, though
also
no

is incest,
"

now are

is told

You

disapproved : one better than a dog

who
or a

does

so

donkey."

AMERICA
In is giving way short, clan-kinship
to

147

blood-kinship. the Pueblo The totems are peoples generally among into gods, and priesthoods are becoming transfigured being developed. Among the Zuiii,if these priesthoods
still stand in marked, but

variable,relation
to them
are

to

the clans, the terms

more

of admission the

growing

of father and son relationship has some to preferencein appointing a successor vacant a high office. Fraternities,or ceremonial have arisen throughout the Pueblo societies, peoples. or They were probably in originconnected directly indirectlywith the clans, though membership was purelyvoluntary. But among the Zufii it is clear that "it is blood-relationship, and now mon beyond this comhome-life that most determine choice frequently l of fraternity, not clan-pertinence."

liberal,and

Some group,

communities
reckon

of

the

Tewa,

another

Pueblo

through the father only, others Marriage is, however, still through the mother. matrilocal, and sexual intercourse often, though more than formerly, it. Even where descent precedes rarely is stillmatrilineal not only the children of two sisters,
but also the and children sister The of transition. between the Great Lakes Far away to the north-east, and the Atlantic Ocean, another agricultural and lineal matriare

descent

of two

brothers

and

those

of

brother

all of

width

marriage.2 equally debarred from interthis prohibition is significant

people was
centuries the centre

in

the

seventeenth

and

eighteenth
confedera-

of the most

remarkable

R.B.E.

N.S.,

xiii. 197, vi. 634 ; i. 260

135

340, ; and

368;

xxiii. 293, 304, 290; Zeits. f. Ethnol. xxxvii.

Am.

Anthr.,

629 ; Bourke,

Snake-dance,

Voth,

Anthrop.
"

Am.

iv. 256 ; Anthr., N.S., xvi. 269 sqq. Assn.

Hopi, 67, 96, Anthrop. Pap. Am. Mus.

Trad.

Am. 133 ; Mem. N.H. xviii. 154.

148

PRIMITIVE
ever

SOCIETY

tion

contrived The

evolution. carried out

in the same by a society plane of League of the Iroquois, planned and

by

men

who six

had

the real instinct of statesmanship,

or

embraced

great tribes

nations.

It

held tenacity, proved of remarkable but the surrounding aboriginal tribes, hundred and English for nearly two succumbed United
as

at

bay

not

only only

also the French years, and

at

last to The

States.

irresistible pressure of the Iroquoianpolity may be described

the

mother-rightin
the
Huron into

the fullest

acceptationof
similar. clans The

the term

and
were

divided

polity was eighttotemic

was

Iroquois arranged in two

line.
to
"

phratries.Descent
children," we
and
are

in
"

the

female

The

told,

belong only
The father

the

mother

her. only recognize

stranger to them." l Both forbidden, but divorce were

were common.

always like a polygyny and polyandry and voluntaryseparation

is

Marriage was exogamous ; that is to and prohibited say, all marriage within the clan was The was people lived in regarded as incestuous. each consisting of one or more permanent villages, long-house," only by every such house being owned
"

members ruled

of

one

clan.
women.

under marriage was It was control. maternal usuallysettled between the of the bride and bridegroom,who mothers were duly it had been informed when arranged, and did not submissive than venture to object. They were more in motherfor matrimony generallyare candidates right. If we may interpret(as presumably we may) the Iroquois, the brothers Johnson's words as including and maternal consulted in the uncles of the lady were as a pliment comproposed match, but not her father, save of no was ; for his approbationor opposition

by

the

It was, Even

in

fact, owned

and

Charlevoix, Journal,

v.

393,

394-7,

424.

AMERICA

149

avail,and
matter.
as
a

in fact he On

never

troubled

himself took
up

about

the

marriage the permanent guest with

of divorce he

husband

his abode

his wife and be

her clan ; and

ejected with only his blankets and weapons. goods, such as clothing, personal Meanwhile he brought the products of his skill in of hunting as a contribution to the household supplies his wife and her family. The long-house was tioned partioff into apartments, each containing a fire at which two families were accommodated, one on either of the League side of the hearth. The supreme power Council of fiftysachems. The entrusted to a was descent of the sachem-ship was hereditaryin the clan. When sachem died or was sachem a deposed, a new elected from the same was clan, usuallya brother or of his predecessor. Most of the property a sister's son owned was by the house or the clan, and consequently not was subject to transmission on the death of an individual ; but private property might be accumulated. If so, on his death it was taken by his own relatives : his children were not of his kin, and were entitled to inherit. This property, however, was not small probably little or nothing beyond articles of the meetings of the Women attended personal use. various councils which governed the League and its component tribes and clans. Their influence on such
in
case
"

could

occasions of the Seri

does
or

not

seem

to have
women.

been

so

direct

as

that

came

polityof the and the Pelew islanders was able scarcelydistinguishfrom matriarchy. The polity of the Iroquois far short of this, though the women doubtless
the Pelew The

Seri

exercised
1

great and

continuous

influence.1
312, 315,
;

Morgan, League,
sqq., 425.

M'Lennan,

i. 75, 79, no, Studies, ii. 339, quoting

307;

ii. 271

sqq.
v.

Johnson

Charlevoix, Journ.

418

150

PRIMITIVE other

SOCIETY

the woodland tribes who roamed aboriginal of the North American continent were and plains in various stages of social organization. I have shown elsewhere that both in the Siouan and Algonkian tribes careful analysisdiscovers traces pointing directly a when to prior matrilineal institutions, even they have in the face of a progressive long been abandoned of father-right.1 advance The Jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who in touch with Algonkian peoples in the were chiefly The
east

of Canada
us so

and

the United

States, and

who

have

told

stated specifically rarely how Of the Montagnthey reckoned descent. tory ais, an Algonkian tribe which occupied a large terriin what is now Labrador and Quebec, however, matrilineal.2 told that they were we are definitely
much

about

them, have

The

Delaware, lower down on the Atlantic side of the matrilineal continent, and their cognate tribes were had also. At a much later date the Shawnee, who
then become

of the

older

the break-up retained amid patrilineal, descent. of maternal institutions vestiges

reckoned descent then Among the Menomini, who through the father, less than a century ago it was reported that the succession of hereditarychiefs was oftener in the female line, and a little earlier property but stillinherited not by the children of a man, was by his brothers and sisters and maternal uncles. The Potawatomi totemic, exogamous are Ojibwa and and It is, however, interesting to note patrilineal. that the word has been totem adopted into English from the Ojibwa and cognate dialects to express the animal an or plant to which symbol of a clan,generally the members It of the clan are related. mystically
1 *

Hartland, Mem.

Am.

Anthrop. Assn.

iv. 28

sqq.

Jes. Rel, vi. 255.

AMERICA
comes

151

from

native

word

the consanguine signifying

uterine

between kinshipexisting

brothers

In earlier that is to say, the clan.1 the clan must have had maternal descent. is confirmed
that

sisters, times, therefore,

And
we

and

this know

by
a

other

evidence. the line.

Indeed,

less than

century ago
in the female
and

succession Since the

to

the

sachem-ship was
the Potawatomi
can

the

Ottawa

were

tribe,there
was

be

little doubt

that

Ojibwa, one originally the organization

is
more

the

same

in all three. tribes the evidence

Among
The

the Sioux

ful. plentior

Mandan,

Hidatsa

and

Crow

still do, The

did

Descent through the mother. count lately, and Ponca, Osap^, Kansa Quapaw were
one same.

Omaha,

originally

tribe ; their institutions, the therefore, were All five have now adopted the reckoning of the father.
The But

kinship through
of
maternal
same

they

descent.

Omaha

preserve relics forbid marriage

in the
must

not

and wife gens ; not only so, but husband be "of close blood relation through their The

mothers."

Osage

go

further, and
as as a

exclude

the

entire gens of the mother, as well This is incomprehensible except lineal

to
or

that of the father. relic of matrihusband

a

kinship. The
subordinate
over

Omaha

do not

requirethe
became
"

enter two

his wife's home,

to her

but

he

for

year

father,who

was

sometimes Wherever

tyrant
young

his

son-in-law's

affairs."

the

couple dwelt, the tent or dwellingalways belonged to the woman, togetherwith all those things which The husband pertained to the household. in fact had nothing but his articles of personaluse found among the Iroquois. The or as we ornament, mother's brother occupied a specialpositiontowards her children,to the extent the law of infringing even
1

Handbook,

id. 787.

152

PRIMITIVE blood-feud
a

SOCIETY
or

of the avenge business

to protect them by interfering

in strict clan-law it was no wrong, whereas of his, for he did not belong to their clan. he

Although
father's death.

had

no

lifetime,his
When
a man

power claim
died

over arose

them

during
the
was

the

after brother This father

father's under the

his

to obligation
care

of the and

marry children. former

the But

widow. if both
no

involved and

mother mother's

died,

the

left

brother, the
children

against any other relative of the father.1 This is quite contrary institutions. the to Osage the Among patrilineal
consent

brother

had

full control

of the

of the

mother's
a

brother
a

was

necessary
that

to

the

acceptance of
the
went

proposalfor
seem

marriage ; girl's
the

and

ceremonies
to

to

indicate From

husband

Captain Carver's Travels we gather that maternal kinship was by no obsolete the Winnebago in the third means among quarter of the eighteenth century ; and the traveller
even

live with

his bride.2

found

woman

as

chief.

man

stilllives with of

his wife's relatives for the first few There

a

is,too,
and

close particularly uncle.

not

marriage. between relationship

years
can

man

his maternal

He
take

take

liberties

with uncle

him and

which

he
or

aunt,

may with

with

his

paternal
On
the

his maternal

aunt.

requiredto attend his as a servant, and on the war-path he if his uncle be slain or captured.3
There of the
in
1

other hand, he is

maternal
must
even

uncle
die

is

no

Rocky
we

space to Mountains have dealt

discuss
even

the

other

tribes east

in the

which
R.B.E.

with

the

sketchy manner foregoing. Some,

Anthr., N.S., xiv.

xxvii.

324-6, 362, 363, 214, 370;

Am.

127.
* 8

Am.

Anthr., N.S., xiv. 128 sqq. Carver, 32, 259 ; Am. Anthr., N.S., xii. 213.

154

PRIMITIVE the Navaho clan.

;

SOCIETY social institutions The Navaho clans

were are are so

tion,1whereas
of the
now,

those
not

matrilineal

however, totemic
is

whether

they

merly for-

to perhaps a question. There are reasons think they were ; but the matter is not free from also doubt. Kinship through the father is now marriage in recognizedto the extent of prohibiting 2 Of the northern the father's clan and phratry." tribes of the same stock our information is fragmentary. mother's consent, rather Among the Sekani the girl's to her marriage, than her father's, to be required seems and the marriage is matrilocal ; both of which point
"

to

matrilineal

institutions.

The

Carriers,
even

on

the them

other

hand,

are

Yet patrilineal.

among

the husband

dwelling goes to reside in the communal of the wife,and her maternal uncle is the intermediary through
exact

whom

the

marriage

is

negotiated.3
these

More
At

information
it looks
as

is wanted

about
the

tribes.

present
of the the
And

stock
in
same

Hupa
the

originalorganization that of the matrilineal clan, which was the course of their wanderings have lost. probably appliesto other stocks and

though

clans. British Columbia, the

and state adjoining of Alaska territory

of

Washington
inhabited

the

American

are

of by a number stock linguistic these tribes have

tribes of various

stocks, the Salishan

in
the

predominating
an

south.
a

All

advanced

culture, and
all
are

remarkably developed art, though

stage
and of barbarism.

very still in the

The

coastal tribes have

classes have

acquired

wealth.

Social

ranks
more

and

is much society continent.

Cal. Pub.
v.

complex
case
z

than

up ; in the interior
grown

of the
1 8

As

is the

farther south, many

Matthews,
Nav.

Univ.

i. 58.

Leg.

33.

Anthropos,

982.

AMERICA of the tribes appear to be immigrants. of the Salish tribes,which occupy British Columbia
and

155

The
the

tion organizasouth of

the

north
on

of

founded, like that of the Hupa,

The coastal interior tribes
are

Washington, is the village munity. comthe

democratic, but

developed an aristocratic society. The change in organization may be traced progressively from East to their is probably due to West, and of the migration,which has caused the disappearance favoured of and the substitution clan-organization
classes. that The
most

tribes have

remarkable It has Boas and

tribe

farther

north

is

of the

Kwakiutl. Professor

been other

by
northern
is

division of the tribe, known

and

gated investicarefully enquirers. The the Heiltsuk, as innovations

at

though predominantlymatrilineal,
introduced, parents
are

have

been

to liberty place their children in either the paternalor the maternal clan. abandoned They have not entirely the older totemic continues which clan-organization to rule their neighbours,the Haida, Tlingit and
now

Tsimshian.
more

Kwakiutl, however, have admittedly very difficult complex institutions,

southern
As

The

to

understand.
in

Professor

Boas

"

that

number

of wars and consequence and arrangement of tribes and considerable

says, other

It appears events, the

gentes have

undergone

changes." It has been claimed for the southern that they exhibit a transference Kwakiutl matrilineal in process from to patrilineal If this could be proved it would be unique, descent. The far as is known, in the history of mankind. so
process in fact appears
to be

rather the abandonment

and of totemism, in favour clan-organization of an organizationbased upon villagecommunities, complicated by the growth of a social hierarchy, depending partly on wealth, partly on descent and

of true

156

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
and

the

ownership
and the

of the

crest
on

legend of
celebrations the entire of these

distinguished
connection
take

ancestor,
with

partly

certain

privilegesin

magico-religious
the

which

place in
transformed The its

winter,
for the

when purpose
is not

community
celebrations.

is

clan-organization
lines
are

yet entirely superseded

"

being
to
a

obliterated. the gens of

child
or

does

not

belong
but may

by
be

birth made

his

father gens
to

mother,
which his

member

of any
or a

father,

mother,

grandparents
:

belonged," simply by receiving

the gens in of

great-grandparents name belonging to

similar tribes
to

question
the

practice
and

that whose the

recorded

Shawnee is with
ancestor

other
up.

gentile
Kwakiutl,
the and

organization
however,
of the
to

breaking
the who of
a name

Among
child
to

the

inherits the
gens, standing out-

wealth

belonged
all the

is entitled

payment
which
man

ancestor's of the

debts,
wealth
to
more

of
A
one

large part belong

thus
at

Kwakiutl
same

consists. than and his

may
and

time

gens

enhance
;

both chiefs
even

his
are

wealth sometimes
several
course

social

consideration of many

and

members tribes. of the

can

gentes,
and

and the

of
exact

The evolution

starting-point
have
is in

yet
at

to

be

discovered.
there

All
reason

that
to

be

said that

that these

present

is

no

suppose the
discussion

respects the Kwakiutl

differ from
1

rest

of the
the

world.1
of British
Assn.

full in

on

tribes

Columbia iv. 49 sqq.,

will
and

be
the

found

Hartland,
there

Mem.

Am.
to.

Anthrop.

authorities

referred

CHAPTER

XII

CONCLUSION

HUMAN
history
of
a
a

society
is
one

is

complex
and

organism,
evolution.

and

its

of

growth
of its

Out has

common

humanity
life

every
own,

people
with This its
we

developed
with Unless its
we

special
and

special
life,

characteristics

special
an

institutions.
outcome

is peculiarities, know

of

history.
cannot

something
the
a or

of

its

history
it

really
other
and
to

understand

phenomena
is

presents. by

Like

organisms,
a

people
less extent

everywhere
moulded,
not

influenced,
its environment. the outward and of
at sea,

greater

By
and of and
as

environment environment and and

mean

only

physical
wild
beasts

of

climate,

soil

domesticable cereal
;

animals,
is

forest least

fruit-tree

it

influenced

deeply

and

permanently
or

by
the

its human their

"

neighbours,
mental
"

whether

friendly
and

hostile, by
and

and

spiritual characteristics
create is
not

atmosphere
describe with among For

they
it
to

diffuse.
to

To

understand and
in

its institutions

sufficient that that in

some

enumerate

them,

note

of
is
a

them

are

conflict found

others,
other these
and
are

and

this
a are

phenomenon
stage
of inheritance

peoples
only
If,
and
to

similar
an

culture.
the

institutions
be

from

past,
into

explained
we

by
want

investigation
to
common

the

past.
united

for

example,
two

know

why
in

the

English
much of

Scots,
a

nations

of

origin, now
and
so

under

common

government
"57

158

PRIMITIVE and aspirations

SOCIETY
common

common

ideals,are
we

yet

in

English and the Scots possess two state churches so divergent in their features,why alone of all English-speaking peoples they possess state churches, and why the is so remarkable English state church in particular from the democratic of all Englisha deviation polity these questions speakingpeoples: we can only answer of the nations in question by a reference to the history and of their institutions. The history is in this case written, and we can trace it through a succession of But when similar questions contemporary records. arise as to the lineage and evolution of the institutions of peoples who have written history, have to no we well as we as can pick out the answer by what is called intensive study," by careful analysis of an their general polityand of those of their neighbours, and know of the evolution of other by what we peopleswith similar institutions or in a similar stage of civilization. This is the problem set before students of the social organization of nations in the lower culture,and this is the method by which they attempt
many
"

respectsso different

; if

ask

why

the

its solution.

Startingfrom
tried
to

the and

exhibit

postulate of explain the

evolution facts

I have

kinship, a form of social of some undoubtedly very ancient, stillfound among the lowest races absent now extant, and not entirely civilized peoples. Whether even some among every branch of mankind the has passed through loose and rudimentary forms of organization, such as those of the Yahgans and do not the Eskimo, we know. Certain it is that they are at only to be discovered the present day in tribes at the very extremities of the habitable earth, perhaps driven thither by the

matrilineal

to relating organization

CONCLUSION pressure of better or else in lowly and studied.

may be

159

martial tribes, organized and more isolated peoplesnot yet thoroughly Such of organization rudimentary forms presumed to be the product of their special
;
or

environment human
have

if natural towards

in the

earliest efforts of may

communities been

organizationthey
seems

prolongedby Speaking of mankind

all that
we

that environment.
it generally,

clear,

from
be

know,

that

the

earliest

kinship to

and that of mother child. The recognized was and mother is corporal relation between offspring while the recognitionof that patent from the first, father and child depends upon between physiological knowledge and reasoning, which are even yet not of the lowest races. achieved by some Indeed, traces of the ignorance which ascribes pregnancy and birth to everythingbut their true cause are so widespread that we can only suppose it to have been at one time universal. When, therefore, kinship became a matter of social regulationthe father was probably not in the reckoning. Even yet the habits and practices of nations in a stage of civilization very far from the lowest are such that the actual paternity must always remain in doubt in a largeproportionof cases. What is important in patrilineal communities is to provide the paternityof a child can a parent to whom for social purposes. readilybe ascribed with certainty Paternityis thus a social convention ; and community

and
or

individual does
not

are

alike indifferent

whether

it does

approximate to the facts. The husband who his wife's adultery as stealing is so little resents moved by the fear of its tainting the birth of his he wife's offspringthat will actually contrive her union in the hope that it will with another man,
result in children whom he will call his own,
to whom

160

PRIMITIVE will leave

SOCIETY

will fulfil the who his property, and and social duties ancestral worship and other religious
he

incumbent The may be

on

them

as

his descendants.

rise of

of matrilineal kinship out patrilineal ascribed to a varietyof causes, all operating direction in the The
causes course

in the

same

of the evolution have

been

of

culture. discussed. of
a

in Australia
cause

already
case men

Another

would
an

operate in the
band of the native

in migration, matrimonial

which

immigrant
with

effected
whether

union
or

women,

after hostile

peacefulrelations

with

the

populations. The invaders, if hostile,may desire to appropriate to their have had a conqueror's with whom exclusive use the women they entered have been In any into relations. case they may of native impatientof the distinctions and regulations desired to designate have society. And they may the relation with themselves and to bring up in special children whom they regarded as their own progeny, whom over or they claimed ownership. This would
invaded have

resulted,as Dr. Rivers has shown in the case of of the social divisions, Melanesia, in a simplification of a new and in the introduction system of kinship through the father. The individual capture of women
would would after Sabine
a

captured way : the women be compelled to live with their captors, and of them little experience they might, like the
act

in the

same

them. with This prefer to remain issue in patrilineal would not of necessity kinshipand have a tendency to do so, but it would father-right, it might issue, as at and in favouringcircumstances in the extremest form of patriarchy. Rome, even of peoples in prehistoric times The movements can But traced. they must have rarely be satisfactorily
women,

been

innumerable

on

every

continent

and

over

every

162

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

and is reached in a more less or highest civilization, definite shape in a few examples elsewhere. settled agricultural In a community, like the Menangkabau Malays, the ancient Egyptians or the the other hand, the influence of women is on Iroquois, munities, generallyat its highest. Consequently these comadvanced in other respects, are however nearly always found in the stage of mother-right. of uncivilized races the work In the agriculture is the men : are always done by women employed in though, where necessary, they hunting or in war, the land for perform the heavier work of clearing of preparingand raising and sometimes cultivation, the completionof the hut the frame of the dwelling, The fields and plantations, being left to the women. and tended by women, to be regarded as come sown their own to them reason assigns property. The same the greater part, if not the whole, of the dwellings, In such a the labour of buildingwhich falls to them. enters his wife's dwelling the husband as case a guest, or as a permanent inmate during the marriage,to quit the marriage is terminated it when or by separation, the death of the wife, with nothing but his personal and ornaments As the baggage clothing, weapons. and more to depend more on community comes culture agriof things is perpetuated and this state while a different trend of events, or the strengthened, of a foreigninfluence, issue in the introduction may
"

break-up
Free

of of

matrilineal
on society a

institutions
new

and

the

struction recon-

basis. is

usually allowed under matrilineal institutions, though often subject to the approval of the family or clan ; but the tendency of institutions and the growth of paternal patrilineal it is allowed it is usually power is to repress it. Where
choice
a

of

mate

CONCLUSION

163

preceded by
commencement

considerable of sexual

sexual

licence.

The

natural members

relations
or

between

at adjacent communities another, is in visits paid by the man peace with one and may to the woman. They often begin secretly, in a status which is in continue nominally so, even of marriage or permanent union. In a effect one maternallyorganizedcommunity there is frequently between distinction no legitimateand illegitimate those of a publicly children,between recognized and of unrecognized relations and union those formal the parents. All alike belong to the mother's between accession to its strength. as an family and are welcomed be paid by the man A bride-price to the wife's may family. If so, at first it is merely the consideration of sexual relations. the continuance for recognizing the consideration for allowing become Later it may exclusive relations with her, to take her him to have to his own abode, and for the ownership of the children and Meanwhile matritheir reckoning to his kin. local residence graduallydevelops out of the visits there are But variations in paid by the husband. the size and its actual form, dependent chiefly on arrangements of the dwelling. In an Iroquoian or Bornean long-houseit is easy to providean additional for a young room couple and their growing family. of which the On the other hand, among tribes, many Bororo be taken as an example,when the children may of the parental hut. increase out they are crowded

of the

same

community,

But
away hut

the

husband

does
he

not

take

them

and

his wife

them to a new simply removes it : the marriage continues to be The drift towards matrilocal. is very father-right assisted by individual characters often or special Parents and circumstances. children, fathers and

altogether ; adjacent to

164

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY

mothers-in-law
very

tribe

and sons-in-law are (theseespecially), human. When the Banyai, a Bantu among of Central Africa whose women play a predominant

role,a young
at

man

marries, he
"

goes

to live

village. He is required to perform certain services for the mother-in-law, such as keeping her well supplied with firewood ; and when he comes into her presence he is obligedto sit with his knees in a bent position, as putting out his feet towards the old lady would give her great offence. If he becomes tired of this state of vassalage and wishes to return he is obligedto leave all his children to his own family, behind they belong to the wife." But on his paying the wife and children will be transferred a bride-price and he can off. Indeed, by doing to him carry them in the first instance he could have avoided so living in subjection at the bride's home to her mother ; but the Banyai do not encourage such an arrangement.1 It has been suggested that matrilineal features residence, the influence of the mother's (matrilocal brother, and so forth) might be borrowed by a society which is not matrilineal in form from another society which is. In theory it may be possible (I do not say it is so); but is a concrete known ? The only case instance in which it has been even supposed, so far
"

the

bride's

as

am

aware,

is that of the Kwakiutl

; and

an

nation exami-

of the facts

Everywhere
on

entirely negativesthe suggestion. in a society matrilineal features found

non-matrilineal
are

the

whole

the

relics of

the

earlier

of maternal the wrecks organization, that have perished. The Touaregs,the

tions instituHausas
to

and

other

tribes of North
to

Africa

are

known within

have
recent

been times.

converted Amid
1

Mohammedanism cast-iron

the

institutions
Trav.
622.

of

Islam

Miss. Livingstone,

CONCLUSION appear These

have

165

other
are

quite different
Can borrowed

but

firmlyrooted
Mohammedan Can native

customs.

matrilineal.

it be contended

that

they
tribes

been

from
be

matrilineal but

by the neighbours?
ancient

they,
customs

in

fact,
which

anything

the

Islam has failed to uproot ? The customs of the IndragiriValley as compared with the Padang Highlands of Sumatra tell the
same

tale.

The

Kamanga

at

Nyassa preserve a tradition of a definite law the succession of sisters' sons to the throne. prohibiting It is probably not literally historical ; yet it is evidence of the memory of the change and of the need felt by the natives to explain it. The double kinship
of the male eanda
and

Lake

the

otuzo

kinship in the very supervening upon female Australia the process of kinship. In West change is to be witnessed day by day. Wherever, in fact,in the Eastern Hemisphere we find a concurrence
of matrilineal and the society, archaic. This raises
a

among act of

the

Herero

shows

non-matrilineal features

features in the
are

same more

matrilineal

always

the

strong presumption that what

is true

of the Eastern
At

Hemisphere will be

true

of the Western.

least it throws

burden

assertors of the contrary the upon of proof; and no coming. proof has yet been forthIt is significant that patrilineal and lineal matrias a

tribes are,

rule, found

in

contact.

It is

the claimed, however, that there is a hiatus between which reckon unilateral kin, and that the tribes areas
of this hiatus

preserve

the

reckoning,out of has grown. But instance be concrete a again, can found in which a people,having once ship recognizedkinboth sides,and formallyfor social purposes on derived descent on both sides,as would appear to be

bilateral

indeterminate or original which unilateral reckoning

166

PRIMITIVE
case

SOCIETY

the

with

the tribes in

favour which

of unilateral reckon

has dropped it in question, kinshipand descent ? The tribes

on

sides are, beside the or of California. Eskimo, the tribes of the great plains
more

kindred

both

likelythat they have lost their original of their many in the course wanderings organization and vicissitudes than that they originally had bilateral changed. Indeed, wherever kinship and have never find change and a gradual trace their history we can we abandonment of the gentile system for an organization
of
a

It is

different

character.
;

The

Blackfoot

have

been

thus

transformed

but less

features.

We

are

they still retain informed perfectly

seen,

matrilineal
about

the
are

Athapascans.
at

As
even

we

have if

however, there

least traces,

only faint traces,

of maternal

institutions among the northern branches of the stock ; whereas the southern finitel branch, the Navaho, are deand on the other hand the Hupa, matrilineal, Californian branch, are organized rather as village than
as

communities

clans.

It is not

very
same

unusual stock

phenomenon
A
mere

for different branches

of the

to differ in their

organization ;
are

in India it is of the
a cases

common.

statistical enumeration features

in which

matrilineal the

present, and

calculation

of

of those in frankly matrilineal and those proportions in patrilineal societies, ignoresthe enquiry how those features originated.What gate rather investimust we is the history of each organization, for that is the question at issue. If mankind began by recognizing more kinshipwith the father, the much patent and undeniable relation with and through the mother must also have could been then recognized: how have side only one gentile kinship kinship on emerged ? But if kinship with and through the mother the primeval reckoning,though it might was
"

"

CONCLUSION

167

have
is

taken

generations
that

or

ages with

to

pass

beyond
the

it,
father

it

intelligible

kinship
have

and

through
the the of of
wars,

might
women,

ultimately
the
or

arisen of

through

capture

of

arrogance the decadence

conquerors, and
or

overgrowth
clans,
thousand the

of

clans

dying-out
any in

mingling
accidents

of and

foreign
adventures

cultures

the

involved and of these for be

as

pestilences, migrations.

famines,
Whether
economic

voluntary
the it
causes

involuntary
events
were

political
purpose Paternal convention of
as a

or

matters

little very would of time

be

our

present
the
a same.

the

effect thus

would

often
start

kinship
but with it relation.
been

arising lapse

social

the would That

and

the

growth

tion civiliza-

inevitably
the is
course

recognized
of evolution

physical
have

should

reversed

inconceivable.

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Primitive

People

The

Ibibios

of
a

Southern

Nigeria.
New Zealand

London,
and
its

1915. Taylor, Richard. Inhabitants.

Te

Ika

Maui

London,
W.

1870.

Thomas,

Anthropological Report on the Ibospeaking Peoples of Nigeria. 6 vols. London, 1913,

1914.

Northcote

Thurston,

Edgar, assisted by K. Rangachari. Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Madras, 1909. 7 vols. and DemonThe Ban Tremearne, A. J. N. of the Bori : Demons in West and North N.D. Dancing Africa. London,

[Foreword

dated

1914.]
American

University of California Publications.

and

Archeology

Ethnology.

16 vols.

Berkeley, Cal., 1903-

176

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY Etude

Van

Gennep,

Arnold.
et

Tabou

et

Totemisme
1904.

Madgascar

descriptive
Verneau, R.,
et

th"orique.
Rivet.

Paris,

P.

Ethnographie
du d'un Tome Unter Service
arc

ancienne

de

I'Equateur.
de

Paris,
1'Armee
en

1912.

[Mission
la du
mesure

geographique
Meridien

pour

de
icr

Equatorial

Amerique
den

Sud. Karl.

6,

fascicule.]
Naturvolkern Zentral der Zweiten

Von

Steinen,

den

Brasiliens.

Reiseschildemng Expedition,
Mariano

und

Ergebnissse
1894.
and Francis

Schingu
Von

1887-8.
Edward Transl.

Berlin, Rivero,

Tschudi,
Peruvian New

John
L.

James.
Hawks.

Antiquities.
York,

by

1853.
The Traditions Mus. Pub.

Voth,

H.

R.

of

the

Hopi. Anthrop.

Chicago, Series,

1905. vol.

[Field viii.]

Columb.

96.

Westermarck,

Edward. 1914.

Marriage

Ceremonies

in

Morocco.

London,
The

History
Thomas.

of Human
The
among De

Marriage.
North-West Cannibal

London,
Amazons
:

1891.
Notes

Whiffen,
months

of
1915.

some

spent
G. F. A. D. E. Robert New

Tribes.

London,
van,

Wilken,
Mr.

Verspreide
van

Geschviften
4

verzameld

door
1912.

Ossenbruggen.
W.

vols. Mountain

Hague,

Williamson,
British

The

Mafulu,
1912.

People

of

Guinea.

London,

Zeitschrift fur

fur

Ethnologic.

Organ

der und

Berliner

Gesellschaft
Berlin,

Anthropologie,

Ethnologie

Urgeschichte.

1869-

Zeitschrift

fur

vergleichende
1887-

Rechtswissenschafi.

37

vols.

Stuttgart,

178

PRIMITIVE
Abi-

SOCIETY
Herero, 73, 165
Herodotus,
5

Chieftainship,kingship,

137 ; pones, Aus138 ; tralia, 134 ; Arawaks, 38 ; Baganda, 82 ; 108 ; Kayans, Borneo,

Araucanian,

Bororo,

Chibcha, 136 ; 140 ; Irish, 127 ; Iroquois, Issa-Japura tribes, 149 ; gascar, 139 ; Khasis, 89 ; MadaMelanesia, 56, 114; Menomini, 150 ; 58 ; 57, 62 Micronesia, ; Nayar, 87 ; New no New Guinea, ; Zealand, 60 ; Peru, 142 ; Picts, 122 ; Quito, 141 ; Seri, 144 ; Touaregs, 122
ideas
20

Hidatsa, 151 Hindus, begetting of children, 15 ; sacred law, 15 Hittites, 116

Hopis, 145
Hupas,
153, 166 savage, of

Ignorance,

logical physio23

laws,

8,

20,

India, 13, 84-97 Indonesia, 98-114 Inheritance, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 85, 89, 90, 92,
99, loo, 101, 121,

Coorgs, 93

104,
122,

105,

no,

Conception, savage
of, 19, Indians, 151 Czechs, 128
causes

of the

in, 129,

118,
134, 149,

135, 150,

124, 126, 140, 137,

Crow

146,
Irish, 127

156

Delawares, 150 Dinkas, begetting of children, 16 Divorce, 13, 62, 95, 99, 103, 107,
117,
120,

148, 163 Iroquois, Issa-Japura tribes, 139 Japan,

115

128,

137,

138,

146, 148

Kamanga,
Kansa,
151

tradition, 165

Egypt,118
Eskimo,
Etiocos. Eucla. 29-31, 158, 166 See Alladians. 124 See

Khasis, 88-90

Kikuyu,
17

begetting of children^
in

Etruscans,

Yerkla-mining

Europe,
Ewhe,

Kingsley,Mary, 12 Kinship and Marriage

Arabia,
8

Early

122-32 69, 70
40,

Exogamy,

51, 80, 81, 98, 139, 141, 145. loo, 133-4, 146, 150, 151, 155 ; local, 46-8, 51, 131

system, Kinship, classificatory

12, 39, 113-4,
1("i

65 Fanti, inheritance,

Fiji. 55
Fuegians,
25, 26, 31,

68, 69 Krumen, Kulin, 45 120 Kunama, Kurnai, 46 Kwakiutl, 155 Levirate, 15, Lobi, 71
Lombards,
109

158
126

Garos, 90-1 Germans, 125

Giraud-Teulon, A.,
Gold Gran

Lubbock,

Sir 5

John,

7, 9

Coast, 64
45

Lycians,

Gournditch-mara,
Chaco, 136 Greece, 122-4

Madagascar,
Mafulu,
113

113
2, 8

Halepaiks,92
Hebrews,
116

Maine, Sir Henry, Mandans, 151

Manipur, 95

INDEX
Marriage,
women,

179
sanguineous con58-61 ; 61 marriages, Nigerian tribes, begetting of children,17

by
103,

exchange
in

of

] New

Zealand,

guineous, consan-

61, 82, 109,

115,

117, 123, 131, 135, 140, 141, 59, 67, 74, 147 ; customs, 96, 104, 78, 85, 91, 95, 75. 106, 119, 120, 107, in, 105, 121, 131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 144, 145, 152, 162 ; matrilocal, 31, 33, 57, 58, 59, 62,

Oaths, 130 Omaha, 151 Oraons, 93

Osage,
Ottawa,

151 151

85, 87, 91,

93, 94, 100, 106, 107, 105, 103, 116, 117, 119, 115, 124, 128, 131, 133, 135, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152,

ioi,

108,
121,

Parsis, 93
Pasummah Patani and

137,

Rejang,

102

162,
12,

163, 164 ; royal, 118, 142

Maternal 34 ; Maternal

descent, its

reason,

origin,34-6,

52, 54. 55. 56, 58, 67, 70, 71, 74, 77. 78, 79, 81, 88, 90, 91,
92,

uncle, 34, 50,

159 51,

Bay, 94 Patria Potestas, 4 Patriarchal theory, 3 Patrilineal kinship, its relation to purity of blood, 13, 14,
*7" among Bantu X59
advance
"

of,
134;

Araucanians,
tribes,

96, 99,
154

109,

no,

120,

73-83
129 139

;
;

126, 130,
152.

135,

148, 150,

151,

Carriers, 154 ; Czechs, Issa-Japura tribes,

Kunama,
150 72 ;
:
120

M'Lennan, J. F., 9 Melanesians, 50-8 ; chastity of

women,

13

Menomini, Negroes, 64, 68, 70, and PottaOjibwa

;

Menangkabau

Malays, 98-101,

wattomi,
Slavs,

165 Menomini, 150 Micronesia, advance

lineal Molucca
62 kinship,

150 ; Sioux, 151 ; Tewa, 147; 130;

106 ;

Toradjas,
of

patri-

in Australia, 39-49 123;

55,

Zuni, 146 ; ; Greece,

gascar, Mada-

Japan,
113

115; ;

Micronesians, 61-3
Islands, 104-6
in the
lower

56 ;
52,

Melanesia, Micronesia, 62 ;
105,
53,
1

Montagnais, 150 Morality, sexual,

Moluccas,

06

New

Guinea,
142 ;

112

culture, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 23, 65, 66, 67, 69, 121, 128,
134

Polynesia,
104 ; Torres

; Peru, matra, 61 ; Su-

Straits

Morgan, Lewis H., 7, 9, 10 Mother-right, its characteristics,

32-6
Mukkuvans,
93 47

Islands, 50 ; 163, 164, 166

Persians,
15

causes,

160,

begetting

of

children,

Peru, 141
Picts, 127

Murring,

Mutterrecht, Das, 5

Pisharatis, 92

Polynesians,58, 60 Narrang-ga, 45 Narrinyeri,45

Navaho,
153, 166
;

Ponca,

151 Primitive Marriage, ^

Nayars, 84-7, 100 Negroes, 64-73

72 ; New
22

Promiscuity, n Pueblo peoples, 145

in

Surinam,

Pulluvans,

92-3

ance, physiological ignorQuapaw,

151

Guinea, 109-113

Quito, 141

180 Rabhas,
91 See

PRIMITIVE

SOCIETY
Tewa,
147 land. See Ewhe Straits Islands, 50 Torres Totemism, 39, 40, 41, 42,

Rejang.
Rome,
Rotuma,

Pasummah

Togo

124

marriage in, 57

43,

Russians, 130 Salish, 154 Santals, 93 Scandinavians, 128 Secret societies, 54, 55

45, 46-8, 51, 52, 55, 61, 64, 73. 79, 80, 81-2, 94. 134.
142, 145,
121

147,

148,

150

Touaregs,
Trobriand
21,
22

Islands,
of

physiological
inhabitants,

ignorance

Selangor, 94
Semites, Sen, 143
Shawnee,
150
116

Sengir,108

Ulladans
women,

of

Cochin, chastity of
13

Sioux, 151 Slavs, 128-32 Smith, Prof. Robertson,

Valans, 92

8,

117

Society, Human,

its

earliest

condition, n Baldwin, and F. J. Spencer,(Sir) Gillen, 9, 20 Steensby, H. P., on the Polar Eskimo, 29
Succession 105, 134. 140,
to no, 99, dignities, 101,

Warramunga,

42 ;

ideas

on

birth, 42 Welsh, 128 Wilken, Prof. G. A., 8

Women,
33,

influence

and
120,

power
121,

of,
129,

62,

63,
162

118,

122,

126,

135.

136.

141, 144,

137. 150, 151

*38"

130, 149,

132,' 140,
152,

143,

145,

Wotjobaluk, 45
Yahgans and Onas Fuego, 25, 26,
of Tierra
29,

98-104, 165 Syntengs, 87, 89, 99

Sumatra,

del

158

Talauer, 107

Yerkla-mining, 45 Sage
27 R.
von, 6

Tanaquil,

Die Sir

Yoruba,

72

Tasmanians,

Yuin, 47 C.,
27
on

Temple,

the

Andamanese,

Zufii,146

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