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NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM 1292

LAWS OF FLOW IN ROUGH PIPES

By J. Nikuradse

Translation of gStromungsgesetze in rauhen Rohren." VDI-Forschungsheft 361. Beilage zu "Forschung auf dem Gebiete des Ingenieurwesens" Ausgabe B Band 4, ~uly/August 1933.

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Washington November 1950

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NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE F O R iZERONAUTICS

TECHNICAL I+EMORANDUM 1292

By J. Nikuradse

INTRODUCTION Numerous r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ( r e f e r e n c e s 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ) have g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d our knowledge of t u r b u l e n t flow i n smooth t u b e s , channels, and a l o n g p l a t e s s o t h a t t h e r e a r e now a v a i l a b l e s a t i s f a c t o r y d a t a on v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , on t h e laws c o n t r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e , on impact, and on mixing l e n g t h . The d a t a cover t h e t u r b u l e n t b e h a v i o r of t h e s e flow problems. The l o g i c a l development would now i n d i c a t e a study of t h e laws governing t u r b u l e n t flow of f l u i d s i n rough t u b e s , channels, and a l o n g rough p l a n e s u r f a c e s . A s t u d y of t h e s e problems, because of t h e i r f r e q u e n t occurrence i n p r a c t i c e , i s more importamt than t h e s t u d y of flow a l o n g smooth s u r f a c e s and i s a l s o of g r e a t i n t e r e s t a s an e x t e n s i o n of o u r p h y s i c a l knowledge of t u r b u l e n t flow. Turbulent flow of water i n rough t u b e s h a s been s t u d i e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t c e n t u r y by many i n v e s t i g a t o r s of whom t h e most o u t s t a n d i n g w i l l be b r i e f l y mentioned h e r e . H . Darcy ( r e f e r e n c e 6 ) made comprehensive and v e r y c a r e f u l t e s t s on 21 p i p e s of c a s t i r o n , l e a d , wrought i r o n , a s p h a l t - c o v e r e d c a s t i r o n , and g l a s s . With t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e g l a s s a l l p i p e s were 100 m e t e r s l o n g and 1 . 2 t o 30 c e n t i m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r . H e noted t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e was dependent upon t h e t y p e of s u r f a c e as w e l l a s upon t h e diameter of t h e p i p e and t h e s l o p e . I f h i s r e s u l t s a r e expressed i n t h e p r e s e n t n o t a t i o n and t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r X i s c o n s i d e r e d dependent upon t h e Reynolds number Re, t h e n it i s found t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o h i s measurements
k A, f o r a g i v e n r e l a t i v e roughness r'

v a r i e s o n l y s l i g h t l y w i t h t h e Reynolds number ( k of roughness and r

i s t h e average d e p t h ,d i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e p i p e ; Reynolds number Re = uv

i n which ti i s t h e average v e l o c i t y , d i s t h e p i p e d i a m e t e r , and v i s t h e k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y ) . The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r d e c r e a s e s w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number and t h e r a t e of d e c r e a s e becomes slower f o r g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e roughness. For c e r t a i n roughnesses h i s d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r h i s independent o f t h e Reynolds number.

* " ~ t r $ m u n ~ s ~ e s e ti zn e rauhen Rohren. " VDI-Forschungsheft 361. B e i l a g e zu "Forschung auf dem Gebiete d e s Ingenieurwesens" Ausgabe B Band 4, ~ u l ~ / ~ u @ 1933. s t

For a c o n s t a n t Reynolds number, h i n c r e a s e s markedly f o r an i n c r e a s i n g r e l a t i v e roughness. H. Bazin ( r e f e r e n c e 7 ) , a f o l l o w e r of Darcy, c a r r i e d on t h e work and d e r i v e d from h i s own and D a r c y ' s t e s t d a t a an e m p i r i c a l formula i n which t h e d i s c h a r g e i s dependent upon t h e slope and diameter of t h e p i p e . T h i s formula was used i n p r a c t i c e u n t i l r e c e n t times.

R . v. Mises ( r e f e r e n c e 8) i n 1914 d i d a v e r y v a l u a b l e p i e c e of work, t r e a t i n g a l l of t h e then-known t e s t r e s u l t s from t h e viewpoint of similarity. H e obtained, c h i e f l y from t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s of Darcy and Bazin w i t h c i r c u l a r p i p e s , t h e following formula f o r t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r h i n terms of t h e Reynolds number and t h e r e l a t i v e roughness:

This formula f o r v a l u e s of Reynolds numbers near t h e c r i t i c a l , t h a t i s , f o r small v a l u e s , assumes t h e following form:

The term " r e l a t i v e roughness" f o r t h e r a t i o

k r

i n which

is the

a b s o l u t e roughness was f i r s t used by v . Mises. Proof of s i m i l a r i t y f o r flow through rough p i p e s was f u r n i s h e d i n 1911 by T. E . S t a n t o n ( r e f e r e n c e 9). He s t u d i e d p i p e s of two diameters i n t o whose i n n e r s u r f a c e s two i n t e r s e c t i n g t h r e a d s had been c u t . I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n g e o m e t r i c a l l y s i m i l a r depths of roughness he v a r i e d t h e p i t c h and depth of t h e t h r e a d s i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e diameter of t h e p i p e . H e compared f o r t h e same p i p e t h e l a r g e s t and s m a l l e s t Reynolds number o b t a i n a b l e w i t h h i s a p p a r a t u s and t h e n t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r v a r i o u s p i p e d i a m e t e r s . P e r f e c t agreement i n t h e dimensionless v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s was found f o r t h e f i r s t case, but a small discrepancy appeared i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y of t h e w a l l s f o r t h e second case. S t a n t o n t h e r e b y proved t h e s i m i l a r i t y of flow through rough t u b e s . More r e c e n t l y L . S c h i l l e r ( r e f e r e n c e 1 0 ) made f u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r X w i t h t h e Reynolds number and w i t h t h e type of s u r f a c e . H i s t e s t s were made w i t h drawn brass pipes. H e o b t a i n e d rough s u r f a c e s i n t h e same manner a s S t a n t o n by u s i n g t h r e a d s of v a r i o u s depths and i n c l i n a t i o n s on t h e i n s i d e of t h e t e s t p i p e s . The pipe diameters ranged from 8 t o 21 m i l l i m e t e r s . H i s o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l Reynolds number i s independent of t h e type of w a l l s u r f a c e . He f u r t h e r determined t h a t f o r g r e a t l y roughened s u r f a c e s t h e q u a d r a t i c law of f r i c t i o n i s e f f e c t i v e a s soon

NACA TM 1292

a s t u r b u l e n c e s e t s i n . I n t h e c a s e of l e s s s e v e r e l y roughened s u r f a c e s he observed a slow i n c r e a s e of t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r w i t h t h e Reynolds number. S c h i l l e r was n o t a b l e t o determine whether t h i s i n c r e a s e goes over i n t o t h e q u a d r a t i c law of f r i c t i o n f o r high Reynolds numbers, s i n c e the ~ 8 t t i n g e n t e s t a p p a r a t u s a t t h a t time was l i m i t e d t o about Re = 103. His r e s u l t s a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r a f i x e d value of Reynolds number t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r k i n c r e a s e s w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g roughness.
L . Hopf ( r e f e r e n c e 11) made some t e s t s a t about t h e same time a s

S c h i l l e r t o determine t h e f u n c t i o n

= f Re

( :) .

H e performed system-

a t i c experiments on r e c t a n g u l a r channels of v a r i o u s d e p t h s w i t h d i f f e r e n t roughnesses ( w i r e mesh, z i n c p l a t e s having saw-toothed type s u r f a c e s , and two t y p e s of corrugated p l a t e ) . A r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n was s e l e c t e d i n o r d e r t o determine t h e e f f e c t of t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s (hydra.ulic r a d i u s r ' = a r e a of s e c t i o n d i v i d e d by wetted p e r i m e t e r ) on t h e v a r i a t i o n i n depth of s e c t i o n f o r a c o n s t a n t type of w a l l s u r f a c e . A t H o p f f s n suggestion t h e s e t e s t s were extended by K. F r o m ( r e f e r e n c e 1 2 ) . O t h e b a s i s of h i s own and Fromm's t e s t s and of t h e o t h e r a v a i l a b l e t e s t d a t a , Hopf concluded t h a t t h e r e a r e two fundamenta.1 t y p e s of roughness involved i n t u r b u l e n t flow i n rough p i p e s . These two t y p e s , which he terms s u r f a c e roughness and s u r f a c e c o r r u g a t i o n , f o l l o w d i f f e r e n t laws of s i m i l a r i t y . A s u r f a c e roughness, according t o Hopf, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l o s s of head i s independent of t h e Reynolds number and dependent only upon t h e type of wa.11 s u r f a c e i n accordance w i t h t h e q u a d r a t i c law of f r i c t i o n . H e considers surface corrugation t o e x i s t when t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r a s w e l l a s t h e Reynolds number depends upon t h e type of w a l l s u r f a c e i n such a manner t h a t , i f p l o t t e d l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y , t h e curves f o r X a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e Reynolds number f o r v a r i o u s w a l l s u r f a c e s l i e p a r a l l e l t o a smooth curve. I f a i s t h e average depth of roughness and b i s t h e average d i s t a n c e between two p r o j e c t i o n s from a the s u r f a c e , t h e n s u r f a c e c o r r u g a t i o n e x i s t s f o r small v a l u e s of b a and s u r f a c e roughness e x i s t s f o r l a r g e v a l u e s of b'
A summary of t h e t e s t s of Hopf, F r o m , Darcy, Bazin and o t h e r s i s given i n f i g u r e s 1 and 2, t h e f i r s t i l l u s t r a t i n g s u r f a c e roughness and t h e second s u r f a c e c o r r u g a t i o n . Hopf d e r i v e d f o r t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r k w i t h i n t h e range of s u r f a c e roughness t h e f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l formula:

i n which

r'

i s t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s of t h e channel
\

(r' =

2F F;

area

of c r o s s - s e c t i o n ; U = wetted p e r i m e t e r ) . This formula a p p l i e s t o i r o n p i p e s , cement, checkered p l a t e s and wire mesh. I n t h e case of s u r f a c e

corrugation he g i v e s t h e formula

i n which Lo i s t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f o r a smooth surface and 6 i s a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r which has a value between 1 . 5 and 2 f o r wooden p i p e s and between 1.2 and 1.5 f o r asphalted i r o n p i p e s . The v a r i a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n with t h e type of wall surface i s a l s o important, a s w e l l a s t h e law of r e s i s t a n c e . Observat i o n s on t h i s problem were made by Darcy, Bazin, and Stanton ( r e f e r e n c e 9 ) . The necessary d a t a , however, on temperature of t h e f l u i d , type of wall surface, and l o s s of head a r e lacking. I n more r e c e n t times such observ a t i o n s have been made by F r i t s c h ( r e f e r e n c e 13) a t t h e suggestion of Von k t & using , t h e same type of apparatus a s t h a t of Hopf and Fromm. The channel had a length of 200 centimeters, width of 15 centimeters and depth varying from 1 . 0 t o 3.5 centimeters. A two-dimensional condit i o n of flow e x i s t e d , t h e r e f o r e , along t h e s h o r t a x i s of symmetry. H e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e following types of w a l l s u r f ace :
1. smooth 2 . corrugated (wavy)

3. rough
I. ( f l o o r s , g l a s s p l a t e s with l i g h t c o r r u g a t i o n s )

4. rough
11. ( r i b b e d g l a s s )

5 . toothed (termed saw-toothed by From)

F r i t s c h found t h a t f o r t h e same depth of channel t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i bution (except f o r a. l a y e r adjacent t o t h e w a l l s ) i s congruent f o r a l l of t h e s e types of s u r f a c e s i f t h e l o s s of head i s t h e same. T e s t s i n a channel with extremely coarse roughness were made by Treer, ( r e f e r e n c e s 1 4 and 15) i n which he observed t h e r e s i s t a n c e as well a s t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . mom t h e s e t e s t s and from those of o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , he found t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n depends only upon t h e shearing s t r e s s , whether t h i s i s due t o v a r i a t i o n i n roughness o r i n t h e Reynolds number. The numerous and i n p a r t very painstaking t e s t s which a r e a v a i l a b l e at t h e p r e s e n t time cover many types of roughness, but a l l l i e w i t h i n a

very small range of Reynolds number. The purpose of t h e p r e s e n t invest i g a t i o n i s t o study t h e e f f e c t of coarse and f i n e roughnesses f o r a l l Reynolds numbers and t o determine t h e laws which a r e i n d i c a t e d . It was, t h e r e f o r e , necessary t o consider a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i v e roughness

r k

for

a wide range of Reynolds number and t o determine whether f o r t h i s conr s t a n t - t h a t i s , f o r geometrical s i m i l a r i t y , t h e value h = f ( ~ e ) i s k ' t h e same curve f o r pipes of d i f f e r e n t diameter. There was a l s o t h e r question whether f o r t h e same - t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r k : the and vary with t h e Reynolds number, and whether f o r a varying f k v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r a s s t a t e d by V. K&~I&II.
I wish here t o express my s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o my immedia.te s u p e r i o r , Professor Dr. L. P r a n d t l , who has a t a l l times aided m e by h i s valuable advice.

I. EXPERIMENT
1. Description of Test Apparatus

The apparatus shown i n f i g u r e 3 was used i n making t h e t e s t s . The same apparatus was employed i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of v e l o c i t i e s f o r t u r bulent flow i n smooth pipes. The d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e apparatus and measuring devices has been presented i n Forschungsheft 356 of t h e VDI. Only a b r i e f review w i l l be given here. Water was pumped by means of a c e n t r i f u g a l pump kp, driven by an e l e c t r i c motor em, from t h e supply canal vk, i n t o t h e water tank wk, t h e n through t h e t e s t pipe vr and i n t o t h e supply canal vk. This arrangement was employed i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n with medium and l a r g e values of Reynolds number. An overflow was used i n obtaining observations f o r small values of Reynolds number. The water flowed through t h e supply l i n e 2 2 , i n t o t h e open water tank wk, and a v e r t i c a l pipe s t r , connected with t h e tank, conducted t h e overflowing water over t h e t r a p and down through t h e overflow pipe f r . The flow i n t h e t e s t pipe could be t h r o t t l e d t o any d e s i r e d degree. A constant high p r e s s u r e i n t h e water t a n k wk was r e q u i r e d i n order t o a t t a i n t h e highest values of Reynolds number. Observations were made on:
1. l o s s of head 2 . v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e stream immediately a f t e r l e a v i n g

t h e t e s t pipe

3. d i s c h a r g e q u a n t i t y

4. temperature of t h e water
Three hooked t u b e s with l a t e r a l a p e r t u r e s were used t o measure t h e l o s s of head. These t u b e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n s e c t i o n I , 3 . The v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n was determined by means of a p i t o t t u b e w i t h 0 . 2 m i l l i m e t e r i n s i d e diameter, mounted i n t h e velocity-measuring d e v i c e gm, and a d j u s t a b l e b o t h h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y . The d i s charge f o r Reynolds numbers up t o 3 X 105 was measured i n a t a n k mb on t h e b a s i s of depth and t i m e . Larger d i s c h a r g e s were computed by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n curve. Temperature r e a d i n g s were t a k e n a t t h e o u t l e t of t h e v e l o c i t y - m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e gm. The t e s t p i p e s were drawn b r a s s p i p e s of c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n whose dimensions a r e g i v e n i n t a b l e 1. The d i a m e t e r s of t h e p i p e were determined from t h e weight of t h e water which could be c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p i p e w i t h c l o s e d ends and from t h e l e n g t h of t h e p i p e .

2 . F a b r i c a t i o n and Determination of Roughness S i m i l i t u d e r e q u i r e s t h a t i f mechanically s i m i l a r flow i s t o t a k e p l a c e i n two p i p e s t h e y must have a g e o m e t r i c a l l y s i m i l a r form and must have s i m i l a r w a l l s u r f a c e s . The f i r s t requirement i s met by t h e u s e of a c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n . The second requirement i s s a t i s f i e d by m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n s t a n t r a t i o of t h e p i p e r a d i u s r t o t h e d e p t h k of p r o j e c t i o n s . It was e s s e n t i a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s producing t h e roughness should be s i m i l a r . P r o f e s s o r D. Thoma's precedent of u s i n g sand f o r t h i s purpose was adopted. G r a i n s of uniform s i z e a r e r e q u i r e d t o produce uniform r o u ~ h n e s s throughout t h e p i p e . Ordinary b u i l d i n g sand was s i f t e d . Ln o r d e r t o o b t a i n a n average g r a i n s i z e of 0.8 m i l l i m e t e r diameter, f o r example, s i e v e s were employed having openings of 0.82- and 0 . 7 8 - m i l l i m e t e r diameter. A Z e i s s t h i c k n e s s gage was used t o o b t a i n t h e a c t u a l average g r a i n s i z e by t a k i n g a c t u a l measurements of t h e diameter of s e v e r a l hundred g r a i n s . These sand g r a i n s were spread on a. f l a t p l a t e . The d i a m e t e r s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s were t h e n measured w i t h t h e Z e i s s t h i c k n e s s gage (having a n accuracy of 0.001 mm) by s l i d i n g t h e p l a t e . For t h e c a s e c i t e d t h e a . r i t h m e t i c a 1 average was found t o be 0 . 8 m i l l i m e t e r .
A micro-photograph of uniform s i z e (0.8-mm d i a m e t e r ) g r a i n s a s reproduced i n f i g u r e 4 f u r n i s h e s some i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g g r a i n form. P r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s had i n d i c a t e d t h e manner i n which t h e p i p e s could be roughened w i t h sand. The p i p e p l a c e d i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n and with t h e lower end c l o s e d was f i l l e d w i t h a very t h i n Japanese l a c q u e r and t h e n emptied. A f t e r about 30 minutes, which i s a p e r i o d s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e d r y i n g of t h e l a c q u e r on t h e p i p e s u r f a c e t o t h e "tacky" s t a t e ,

t h e pipe wa.s f i l l e d with sand of a. c e r t a i n s i z e . The sand was t h e n allowed t o flow out a t t h e bottom. The p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s showed t h a t t h e d r y i n g which now f o l l o w s i s of grea,t importance f o r d u r a b i l i t y . A drying p e r i o d of two t o t h r e e weeks i s r e q u i r e d , depending upon t h e amount of moisture i n t h e a i r . A uniform d r a f t i n t h e p i p e , due t o an e l e c t r i c bulb placed a t t h e lower end, helped t o o b t a i n even d r y i n g . A f t e r t h i s drying, t h e pipe was r e f i l l e d w i t h l a c q u e r and a g a i n emptied, i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a b e t t e r adherence of t h e g r a i n s . There followed a n o t h e r d r y i n g p e r i o d of t h r e e t o f o u r weeks. A t each end of t h e p i p e , a l e n g t h of about 10 c e n t i m e t e r s was c u t o f f i n o r d e r t o prevent any p o s s i b l e decrease i n t h e end s e c t i o n s . A f t e r t h e trea.tment j u s t described t h e p i p e s were ready t o be measured. One of t h e c o n d i t i o n s c i t e d above i n d i c a t e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t g r a i n r s i z e s must be used f o r p i p e s of d i f f e r e n t diameter i f t h e r a t i o

E'

which i s t h e gage f o r s i m i l a r i t y of w a l l s u r f a c e , i s t o remain c o n s t a n t . Geometrical s i m i l a r i t y of t h e w a l l s u r f a c e r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e form of t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s s h a l l be unchanged and a l s o t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e roughening, which has hydrodynamical e f f e c t s , s h a l l remain cons t a n t . Figure 4 shows t h a t voids e x i s t between t h e gra.ins. The hydrodynamically e f f e c t i v e amount of p r o j e c t i o n k i s e q u a l t o t h e g r a i n s i z e . I n o r d e r t o determine whether t h e p r e v i o u s l y observed diameter of g r a i n s i s a c t u a l l y e f f e c t i v e , a f l a t p l a t e was coated w i t h t h i n Japanese l a c q u e r ( t h e n e c e s s a r y degree of t h i n n e s s was determined by p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s ) and roughened i n accordance w i t h t h e d e s c r i b e d procedure. The p r o j e c t i o n of t h e g r a i n s above t h e s u r f a c e was measured i n t h e manner a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d and it was found t h a t , f o r a d e f i n i t e degree of t h i n n e s s of t h e l a c q u e r , t h i s average p r o j e c t i o n agreed w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l measurements of the g r a i n s .

3. Measurement of S t a t i c P r e s s u r e Gradient
Measurement of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t d u r i n g flow i n smooth p i p e s i s u s u a l l y made by piezometer h o l e s i n t h e w a l l s of t h e p i p e . Marked e r r o r s r e s u l t , however, i f l o s s of head i n rough p i p e s i s determined i n t h i s sane manner. These a r e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v o r t i c e s which r e s u l t from flow around t h e p r o j e c t i o n s produce p r e s s u r e o r s u c t i o n , depending on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e a p e r t u r e . For t h i s reason t h e hooked tube was adopted f o r observing t h e s t a t l c p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t . T h i s t u b e had a r e c t a n g u l a r bend a s shown i n f i g u r e 5 and was mounted i n t h e t e s t p i p e s o t h a t t h e f r e e l e g was p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow. L a t e r a l openings o n l y were bored i n t h i s f r e e l e g . The o u t s i d e diamet e r d of t h e t u b e was 2 m i l l i m e t e r s . Other f e a t u r e s of t h e tube a r e i n agreement w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ( r e f e r e n c e 16) s e t up f o r t h e P r a n d t l p i t o t s t a t i c t u b e ( ~ t a u r o h r ) . The f r e e l e g was placed a.t a d i s t a n c e from t h e w a l l e q u a l t o 1 / 2 t h e r a d i u s of t h e t e s t p i p e . The

connecting l e g was bent a t an angle of about 60' i n t h e plane of t h e f r e e l e g i n order t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f r e e l e g might always be indicated. The bent tube was fastened i n t h e t e s t pipe by means of a s t u f f i n g box. Variation of t h e pressure readings i n a hooked tube with v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e tube r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow i s shown i n f i g u r e 6'. This f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o r r e c t readings a r e obtained only i f t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f r e e l e g d e v i a t e s not more than 7.5' from t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow. The introduction of t h e hooked tube i n t o t h e t e s t pipe r e s u l t s i n an increase of pressure drop due t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e tube. The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e two hooked tubes used i n measuring must be deducted from t h e observed pressure drop pl p2. The r e s i s t ance of t h e tube must t h e r e f o r e be known. This value was found by measuring t h e pressure drop h i n a smooth pipe i n terms of t h e d i s charge a t a constant temperature, f i r s t by using wall piezometer o r i f i c e s and t h e n by measuring t h e pressure drop h + a i n terms of t h e discharge a t t h e same temperature by means of a hooked tube. The increment a f o r equal discharges i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e hooked tubes. The c o r r e c t i o n curve f o r t h i s r e s i s t a n c e i s given i n f i g u r e 7.

It should be noted t h a t changes i n d i r e c t i o n of t h e tube r e s u l t both i n an e r r o r i n t h e pressure reading and i n an increase i n t h e r e s i s t a n c e due t o t h e tube. I f t h e corrected pressure drop pl - P2

is

divided by t h e observation l e n g t h 2 , ( d i s t a n c e between t h e holes i n t h e s i d e of t h e hooked t u b e s ) , t h e r e i s obtained t h e s t a t i c pressure gradient,

4. Preliminary Tests
A mixture of sieved sand and white lacquer i n a d e f i n i t e proportion was used t o f i l l a pipe closed a t t h e bottom, i n t h e manner of Professor D. Thoma ( r e f e r e n c e 17). The mixture was then allowed t o flow out a t t h e bottom. After a drying period of about two t o t h r e e weeks, prelimi n a r y t e s t s answered t h e question whether t h e hydrodynamically e f f e c t i v e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e roughening remained constant. The pressure drop was measured a t hourly i n t e r v a l s f o r a given Reynolds number f o r which t h e

This f i g u r e i s taken from t h e work of H. Kumbruch, c i t e d herein a s reference 16.

average v e l o c i t y u was about 20 m e t e r s p e r second. It was observed t h a t w i t h i n a few days t h e p r e s s u r e s l o p e developed a pronounced i n c r e a s e . A marked washing o f f of t h e l a c q u e r was i n d i c a t e d a t t h e same t i m e by d e p o s i t s on t h e bottom of t h e supply channel. Another o b j e c t i o n a b l e f e a t u r e was t h e p a r t i a l washing o u t of t h e sand. The i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i s accounted f o r by t h e i n c r e a s e i n p r o j e c t i o n of roughness due t o t h e washing o f f of t h e l a c q u e r . Theref o r e , t h e method of f a s t e n i n g t h e sand had t o be changed i n o r d e r t o i n s u r e t h e r e q u i r e d c o n d i t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e d u r i n g t h e t e s t p r o c e d u r e . The p r o j e c t i o n k of t h e roughness had t o remain c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e t e s t s and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e sand gra.ins on t h e w a l l s u r f a c e s had t o remain unchanged. Adhesion between sand g r a i n s was prevented by u s i n g a v e r y t h i n l a c q u e r . T h i s l a c q u e r formed a d i r e c t c o a t i n g on t h e w a l l and a l s o a c o v e r i n g on t h e g r a i n s no t h i c k e r t h a n t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e s e g r a i n s i n t o t h e l a c q u e r c o a t i n g of t h e w a l l . The o r i g i n a l form and s i z e of t h e g r a i n s remained unchanged. A d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n t h i s problem was t h e degree of t h i c k n e s s of t h e l a c q u e r which was v a r i e d by t h e a d d i t i o n of t u r p e n t i n e u n t i l t h e o r i g i n a l g r a i n s i z e remained unchanged. T e s t s made w i t h p i p e s w i t h o u t l a c q u e r r e c o a t i n g showed that t h e sand would wash o u t . The r e c o a . t i n g w i t h l a c q u e r was, t h e r e f o r e , adopted. I f o n l y a s h o r t p e r i o d of d r y i n g was used f o r b o t h c o a t s , t h e l a c q u e r was washed o f f . I f t h e f i r s t d r y i n g was s h o r t and t h e second long, t h e n a l l of t h e l a c q u e r was a l s o washed o f f . I f t h e f i r s t d r y i n g p e r i o d were l o n g and t h e second s h o r t , t h e r e would a l s o be some l o s s of sand. A c o n s t a n t c o n d i t i o n of roughness could be o b t a i n e d o n l y when each l a c q u e r c o a t i n g was d r i e d from t h r e e t o f o u r weeks. The a c c u r a c y of o b s e r v a t i o n s made w i t h t h e hooked t u b e was checked by c o n n e c t i n g t h e t u b e t h r o u g h a manometer t o a w a l l piezometer o r i f i c e a t t h e same sect i o n of t h e pipe. Both c o n n e c t i o n s should show t h e same p r e s s u r e i n a smooth p i p e , t h a t i s , t h e manometer r e a d i n g must be z e r o . Hooked t u b e s checked i n t h i s manner were used f o r t a k i n g p r i n c i p a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . was made. d V e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s were observed f o r t h e l a r g e s t r e l a t i v e roughness k ratio - 1 The v e l o c i t y a t v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s y from t h e s u r f a c e r 15 was determined f o r Reynolds numbers of Re = 20 x lo3, 70 x lo3, and F i n a l l y , a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e approach l e n g t h
4

150 x 1 03 a t v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s from t h e e n t r a n c e

-. d
X

T h i s was e f f e c t e d

by c u t t i n g o f f p o r t i o n s of t h e t e s t p i p e . T e s t s show t h a t changes i n t h e approach l e n g t h have small e f f e c t on t h e Reynolds number. The approach l e n g t h i s somewhat s h o r t e r t h a n t h a t f o r smooth p i p e s , (fig. 8). The approach l e n g t h
%

40

= 50

was used a s f o r smooth p i p e s .

11. EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS

1. Law of R e s i s t a n c e

The r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r t h e formula:

X f o r f l o w i n t h e p i p e s i s e x p r e s s e d by

i n which e t e r , and

*
dx

i s t h e p r e s s u r e drop p e r u n i t of l e n g t h , d i s t h e diamii2 = p F , t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e of t h e average flow

v e l o c i t y E and p i s t h e d e n s i t y . An e x t e n s i v e t e s t program w i t h a range of Re = 600 t o Re = lo6 f o r t h e Reynolds number was c a r r i e d o u t , m d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r t o t h e Reynolds number was s t u d ' e d f o r p i p e s of v a r i o u s roughnesses. Six d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s of r e l a t i v e roughness were used, w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e roughness

k determined
r
r of t h e p i p e .

by t h e r a t i o of t h e average p r o j e c t i o n

t o the radius

I n e v a l u a t i n g t h e t e s t d a t a it seemed a d v i s a b l e t o use i n s t e a d of k r t h e r e l a t i v e roughness - i t s r e c i p r o c a l F i g u r e 9 shows t o a r' k' l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r t o t h e Reynolds number f o r t h e r e c i p r o c a l v a l u e s

- o f t h e s i x r e l a t i v e roughnesses k

1-

t e s t e d and f o r a smooth p i p e ( s e e t a b l e s 2 t o 7 ) . The bottom curve i s f o r t h e smooth p i p e . If t h e curve f o r X = f ( ~ e ) i s s t u d i e d f o r a given r e l a t i v e roughness, t h e n it must be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h r e e p o r t i o n s o r ranges. Within t h e f i r s t range, t h a t of low Reynolds numbers, t h e roughr n e s s had no e f f e c t on t h e r e s i s t a n c e , and f o r all v a l u e s of - t h e

curve X = f ( ~ e ) c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e curve f o r t h e smooth p i p e . T h i s range i n c l u d e s a l l laminar flow and some t u r b u l e n t flow. The p o r t i o n of t u r b u l e n t flow included i n c r e a s e s a s t h e r e l a t i v e roughness d e c r e a s e s . A s l o n g a s laminar flow e x i s t s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r may be e x p r e s s e d as :

T h i s i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n f i g u r e 9 by a s t r a i g h t l i n e of s l o p e 1:l. Within t h e f i r s t p o r t i o n of t u r b u l e n t flow i n smooth p i p e s f o r a Reynolds numb e r up t o about Re =

lo5

t h e B l a s i u s R e s i s t a n c e Law ( r e f e r e n c e

18)

hol'

NACA

TM 1292

T h i s i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f i g u r e by a s t r a i g h t l i n e of s l o p e 1:4. The c r i t i c a l Reynolds number f o r a l l d e g r e e s of r e l a t i v e rollghne s s o c c u r s a t about t h e same p o s i t i o n a s f o r t h e smooth p i p e , t h a t i s , between 2160 and 2500. Within t h e second range, which w i l l be termed t h e t r a n s i t i o n range, t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e roughness becomes n o t i c e a b l e i n an i n c r e a s i n g degree; t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r X i n c r e a s e s w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number. T h i s t r a n s i t i o n range i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r depends upon t h e Reynolds number a s w e l l a s upon t h e r e l a t i v e roughness. Within t h e t h i r d range t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r i s independent of t h e Reynolds number and t h e c u r v e s X = f ( R e ) become p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis. T h i s i s t h e range w i t h i n which t h e q u a d r a t i c l a w of resistance obtains. The t h r e e r a n g e s of t h e c u r v e s X = f ( ~ e )may be p h y s i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o l l o w s . I n t h e f i r s t range t h e t h i c k n e s s 6 of t h e l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r , which i s known t o d e c r e a s e w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number, i s s t i l l l a r g e r t h a n t h e average p r o j e c t i o n ( 6 > k ) . T h e r e f o r e energy l o s s e s due t o roughness a r e no g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e f o r t h e smooth plpe

I n t h e second range t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e boundary l a y e r i s of t h e same magnitude as t h e average p r o j e c t i o n ( 6 Z k ) . I n d i v i d u a l p r o j e c t i o n s extend through t h e boundary l a y e r and cause v o r t i c e s which produce an a d d i t i o n a l l o s s of energy. As t h e Reynolds number i n c r e a s e s , an i n c r e a s i n g number of p r o j e c t i o n s p a s s through t h e l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r because of t h e r e d u c t i o n i n i t s t h i c k n e s s . The a d d i t i o n a l e n e r g y l o s s t h a n becomes g r e a t e r a s t h e Reynolds number i n c r e a s e s . T h i s i s e x p r e s s e d by t h e r i s e of t h e c u r v e s h = f ( ~ e )w i t h i n t h i s r a n g e . F i n a l l y , i n t h e t h i r d range t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e boundary l a y e r h a s become s o s m a l l t h a t a l l p r o j e c t i o n s e x t e n d t h r o u g h i t . The e n e r g y l o s s due t o t h e v o r t i c e s h a s now a t t a i n e d a c o n s t a n t v a l u e and a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e Reynolds number no l o n g e r i n c r e a s e s t h e r e s i s t a n c e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e t h i r d range a r e v e r y s i m p l e . Here t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r i s independent of t h e Reynolds number and depends only upon t h e r e l a t i v e roughness. T h i s dependency may be e x p r e s s e d by t h e formula

In o r d e r t o check t h i s formula e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e value

fi

was p l o t t e d

and it was found t h a t through t h e s e p o i n t s k t h e r e could be passed a l i n e

i n f i g u r e 10 against l o g

The e n t i r e f i e l d of Reynolds numbers i n v e s t i g a t e d was covered by p l o t t i n g t h e term

r v*k a g a i n s t l o g 7. This term i s p a r t i c u l a r l y 6 k s u i t a b l e dimensionally s i n c e it h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s f o r c o n d i t i o n s

1 2 log -

along t h e s u r f a c e . be used i n s t e a d of tion.

The more convenient value

v*k log v '

might k a s may be seen from t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a -

l o g Re

6-

log

From t h e formula f o r t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r

and t h e f r i c t i o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s T~ f a c t o r X may be obtained. I n accordance w i t h t h e requirements of e q u i l i b r i u n : f o r a f l u i d c y l i n d e r of l e n g t h dx and r a d i u s r,

o r from e q u a t i o n (1)

i n which

v,

r o =E is

the f r i c t i o n velocity.

There r e s u l t s

and

log(Re fi) - log T k

10~(~.66

y)
r l o g i;

log From equation

V*k

= const

l o g ( ~ G) e

(5) t h e r e i s obtained:
1 f-x
2 log - =

r k

1.74

It i s evident then t h a t t h e magnitude of

constant wi-thin t h e region of t h e quadratic law of r e s i s t a n c e but within t h e other regions i s v a r i a b l e depending on t h e Reynolds number. The preceding explains why t h e value log(Re fl) - l o g - was used a s

r k

t h e a b s c i s s a i n s t e a d of l o g ( ~ e fi) as was done f o r t h e smooth pipe. Equation (58) may now be w r i t t e n i n t h e form
1 fi

2 log

r
k

f log ) k : v

There occurs here, a s t h e determining f a c t o r , t h e dimensionless term

which i s t o be expected from t h e viewpoint of dimensional a n a l y s i s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p

-6

2 log

r k

f log

( "

a s determined experimentally i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 1 (see tables 2 t o 7) f o r f i v e degrees of r e l a t i v e roughness. The s i x t h degree of r e l a t i v e roughness was not included because i n t h a t t h e assumption of geometrical s i m i l a r i t y probably did not e x i s t . It i s evident t h a t a smooth curve may be passed through all t h e p l o t t e d p o i n t s . The range I i n which t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s unaffected by t h e roughness and i n which a l l pipes have a behavior s i m i l a r t o t h a t of a smooth pipe i s expressed i n t h i s diagram ( f i g . 11) by t h e equation

1 -

2 log k =

0.8 + 2 l o g

(9)

i n which t h e value of a f h n c t i o n f i s determined by e q u a t i o n 8. The f a c t t h a t t h e t e s t p o i n t s l i e below t h i s range i s due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of v i s c o s i t y which i s s t i l l p r e s e n t f o r t h e s e s m a l l Reynolds numbers. This i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e law expressed i n e q u a t i o n 3 i s not e x a c t l y f u l 1 by f i l l e d . The t r a n s i t i o n range, range 11, i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n f i g u r e 1 a curve which a t f i r s t r i s e s , t h e n has a c o n s t a n t value, and f i n a l l y drops. The curves t o be used i n l a t e r computations w i l l be approximated by t h r e e s t r a i g h t l i n e s not shown ( r e f e r e n c e s 19 and 20) i n f i g u r e 11. The range covered by t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e , range 111, i n t h i s diagram l i e s above l o g v*k = 1.83 and corresponds t o e q u a t i o n ( 5 a ) . These l i n e s may be expressed by e q u a t i o n s of t h e form
1 -

J X

r 2 l o g j;

b log

v k

v
v k % i n t h e following

i n which t h e c o n s t a n t s manner :

and

vary with

4 ' x-

2 log:=

v k 1118 + 1.13 l o g L

for

0.55 = l o g * -

<

v k < 0.85 v -

for

0.85

v*" log -5 v

1.15

2.81

0.588 l o g v*k

for

v*k 1.15 < 1 : 1.83 - log 7 -

It i s c l e a r t h a t f o r each s t r a i g h t l i n e

(a

b log

*
v

2 log

L
k

2. Velocity Distribution Observations on v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s were made f o r p i p e s with diameters of 2.5 c e n t i m e t e r s , 5 c e n t i m e t e r s , and 10 c e n t i m e t e r s , w i t h Reynolds numbers between lo4 and 106 ( s e e t a b l e s 8 t o 1 3 ) . Since t h e

v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s were symmetrical, only one-half t h e curve had t o be considered i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t e s t d a t a . A dimensionless equation of t h e form

was s e l e c t e d t o show t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h t h e r value Ln t h i s e q u a t i o n U i s t h e maximum v e l o c i t y , and u i s t h e k' v e l o c i t y a t any p o i n t y d i s t a n t from t h e w a l l i n a p i p e of r a d i u s r . This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 2 f o r a smooth p i p e and f o r such v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t v a r i o u s degrees of r e l a t i v e roughness a s l i e w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e . This f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s t h e r e l a t i v e roughness i n c r e a s e s , t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n assumes a more p o i n t e d form. Our e a r l i e r t e s t s w i t h t h e smooth p i p e have shown, however, t h a t a s t h e Reynolds number i n c r e a s e s t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n assumes a more b l u n t form.
A very simple law f o r t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n rough p i p e s i s u obtained from t h e f o l l o w i n g p l o t t i n g . The dimensionless v e l o c i t y -

i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 3 p l o t t e d a g a i n s t velocity,"

. r

The term

v*

v* i s the "friction

v,

a s p r e v i o u s l y introduced.

This f i g u r e indicates

t h a t i n t h e r e g i o n s away from t h e w a l l t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r . I f , i n accordance w i t h Von ~ a ' m ' n , t h e p l o t t i n g i s f o r u - u = f ( f ) , t h e s i m i l a r curves merge t o form a s i n g l e curve ( f i g . 1 7 ) . v* The v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t degrees of r e l a t i v e roughn e s s a l s o merge t o almost a s i n g l e curve i f t h e dimensionless term --

i s plotted against

log

5.

It may be seen t h a t a l l t h e observed p o i n t s

"*

a g r e e very w e l l with t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e , o n l y however f o r t h o s e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s which come w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e ( f i g . 1 4 ) . T h i s l i n e has t h e e q u a t i o n

-v*

8.48

+ 5.75

log
k

A + B log
k

Following t h e method of P r a n d t l ( r e f e r e n c e 21) i n o b t a i n i n g a u n i v e r s a l law of v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n smooth p i p e s t h e r e i s used h e r e a dimensionless d i s t a n c e from t h e w a l l equation f o r v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n

7 = y

V* v

t o obtain the universal

v*

rp

5.5 + 5.75 l o g

l )

(14)

If the relationship c p = f ( 1 o g 7 ) i s now p l o t t e d f o r rough p i p e s , f i g u r e s l 5 ( a ) t o l 5 ( f ) a r e o b t a i n e d , which i n e v e r y c a s e y i e l d a s t r a i g h t l i n e f o r t h e dimensionless v e l o c i t y . Each f i g u r e corresponds t o a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i v e roughness and t o t h e s e v e r a l Reynolds numbers recorded; r f i g u r e 1 5 ( a ) corresponds t o t h e s m a l l e s t roughness i; = 507, f i g u r e 1 5 ( b ) t o t h e n e x t t o s m a l l e s t , e t c . There i s furthermore shown on e v e r y f i g u r e t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e smooth p i p e a s given by e q u a t i o n 1 4 . The o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s l y i n g on t h i s s t r a i g h t l i n e were o b t a i n e d n o t i n a smooth p i p e b u t i n a rough p i p e a t such a small Reynolds number t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e roughness i s n o t n o t i c e a b l e . These s t r a i g h t l i n e s f o r a g i v e n r e l a t i v e roughness s h i f t with an i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number t o a p o s i t i o n p a r a l l e l t o t h a t of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e f o r t h e smooth p i p e . A c a r e f u l s t u d y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e s t p o i n t s shows t h a t t h o s e n e a r t h e w a l l ( s m a l l v a l u e s of l o g 7 ) a s w e l l a s t h o s e n e a r t h e a x i s ( l a r g e v a l u e s of l o g q ) l i e s l i g h t l y above t h e l i n e . The term A a s i n d i c a t e d by e q u a t i o n (13) has a c o n s t a n t value i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e . In t h e t r a n s i t i o n u2r r e g i o n s I and 11, however, A depends upon t h e Reynolds number Re = , ' I k and on t h e r e l a t i v e roughness i n such a manner t h a t A e s s e n t i a l l y depends o n l y on t h e product From e q u a t i o n ( 6 b ) Re

k fi r

i n accordance w i t h e q u a t i o n ( 7 a ) .

so t h a t

There may t h e n be o b t a i n e d a n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e form

u - 5.75 v*

log

r
k

f log

V )

I n o r d e r t o determine t h e magnitude of A f o r e a c h v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n u curve, t h e t e r m - 5.75 l o g was o b t a i n e d from f i g u r e s 1 5 ( a ) t o 1 5 ( e )

v*

f o r e v e r y t e s t p o i n t of each v e l o c i t y curve and was p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of

z. r

From t h e p l o t t e d r e s u l t t h e v a l u e of

was determined f o r t h e

NACA TM 1292

17

v e l o c i t y curve under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . P a r t i c u l a r c a r e must be used i n t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n at medium d i s t a n c e s from t h e w a l l , s i n c e , on t h e one hand, t h e value of y c m o t be a c c u r a t e l y obtained f o r p o i n t s near t h e w a l l , and furthermore t h e v i s c o s i t y has a n o t i c e a b l e i n f l u e n c e h e r e , and on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e g u l a r d e v i a t i o n always occurs f o r p o i n t s n e a r t h e a x i s . The value of A a s found i n t h i s manner f o r a l l v e l o c i t y c u r v e s was t h e n p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of l o a v*k 7 ( see f i g . 1 6 ) . The form i s Yery s i m i l a r t o t h e curve f o r r v*k 2 log - against log 7 t h e r e s i s t a n c e law o b t a i n e d by p l o t t i n g
A

of curve

a s a f u n c t i o n of

log

*
v

from e q u a t i o n ( 8 ) .

6-

A n a l y t i c a l proof of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p may be obtained by t h e same method a s t h a t used f o r t h e smooth p i p e ( r e f e r e n c e s 5 and 2 1 ) . I n accordance w i t h e q u a t i o n ( 1 3 )

o r , i f t h i s e q u a t i o n i s w r i t t e n f o r t h e p i p e axis, t h a t i s , u = U, y = r :

From t h e e q u a t i o n t h e term

u - u

---

- f r

t h e r e may be obtained by i n t e g r a t i o n

u -Ti-v*
If u - u - i s p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of v*

(174

GY,
pv*

t h e r e s u l t w i l l be

Then, from e q u a t i o n ( 1 7 a )

ii

(17b)

and from e q u a t i o n (6b) t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of r e s i s t a n c e and t h e average v e l o c i t y u i s found from

S u b s t i t u t i n g e q u a t i o n ( 1 8 ) i n t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 7 b ) and d i v i d i n g by

v,

and t h e n from e q u a t i o n ( 1 6 b )
2.83 -

A + B log r - - D
k

o r with

5.75

The d e s i r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e law of r e s i s t a n c e i s g i v e n i n e q u a t i o n s ( 1 5 ) and ( l o b ) . I t may be expressed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form

F i g u r e 1 6 c o n t a i n s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e v a l u e s of A computed from t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s by e q u a t i o n ( I ? ) ,t h e computed v a l u e s o b t a i n e d from t h e law of r e s i s t a n c e by e q u a t i o n ( 1 9 b ) . The agreement between t h e v a l u e s of A determined by t h e s e two methods i s s a t i s f a c t o r y . By t h e same method as i n f i g u r e 1 1 , t h e curve A may be r e p r e s e n t e d v*k a s a f u n c t i o n sf I c y - Within t h e range of t h e law of r e s i s t a n c e v . where t h e efi'ec.1 3f vi:;cos: t y i s n o t y e t p r e s e n t t h e law f o r smooth p i p e s a p p l i e s , :!.lit :s ,
0

log

-v- k -22-

c,.:')

v*k 5.5 + 5.75 l o g T

(=a)

The transition r e g i o n from tilt- 1 ~ t wcf r e s i s t a n c e of t h e smooth p i p e t o t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e of :,he rough p i p e may be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e zones:

I . 0.85 5 l o g
111. 1.15

*<
v
-

1.15

A
A

9-38
11.5 - 1 . 6 2 l o g v*k

(21~)

log

v k

< 1.83
-

(2ld)

and w i t h i n t h e zone of t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e : v*k log v >

1.83

These e x p r e s s i o n s d e s c r i b e w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y t h e laws o f v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and of r e s i s t a n c e f o r p i p e s w i t h w a l l s roughened i n t h e manner h e r e c o n s i d e r e d . F i n a l l y , it w i l l be shown b r i e f l y t h a t t h e Von & K equation f o r t h e velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n (reference 2)

d e r i v e d a n a l y t i c a l l y on t h e b a s i s of h i s h y p o t h e s i s of s i m i l a r i t y , a g r e e s w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . The term K i s a u n i v e r s a l c o n s t a n t o b t a i n e d from t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . Ln f i g u r e 17, t h e curve drawn through t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p o i n t s a g r e e s almost e x a c t l y w i t h t h e curve f o r t h i s e q u a t i o n . With v e r y l a r g e Reynolds numbers where t h e i n f l u e n c e of v i s c o s i t y i s v e r y s l i g h t t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o Von Karman's t r e a t m e n t do n o t depend upon t h e ty-pe of w a l l s u r f a c e nor upon t h e Reynolds number. Good agreement w i t h K = 0 . 3 6 i s o b t a i n e d between e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s f o r such v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n up t o t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e w a l l . It may be concluded from t h i s t h a t a t a d e f i n i t e i n t e r v a l y, from t h e w a l l , t h e t y p e of flow and t h e momentum change a r e independent of t h e t y p e of w a l l s u r f a c e . I n order t o include those observation p o i n t s f o r v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u u - u t i o n s which a r e n e a r t h e w a l l t h e term - was e v a l u a t e d from t h e v* u n i v e r s a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 ) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: I f e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 ) i s w r i t t e n f o r t h e maximum v e l o c i t y by l e t t i n g u = U and y = r , t h e n
U = 5.5 + 5.75

log

v*

v r t

If e q u a t i o n

(14) i s

s u b t r a c t e d from t h i s e q u a t i o n , t h e r e i s o b t a i n e d u - u --

v*

5.75 l o g

r y

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve of Von K&TI& which a g r e e s w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t a k e n n e a r t h e w a l l o n l y i f a d i f f e r e n t v a l u e of K i s used, t h e above e q u a t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s d e s c r i b e s t h e e n t i r e range between t h e s u r f a c e and t h e a x i s of t h e p i p e . It i s of

i n t e r e s t t o c o n s i d e r f o r comparison t h e e q u a t i o n which Darcy ( r e f e r e n c e 6 ) obtained i n 1855, on t h e b a s i s of c a r e f u l measurements. H i s e q u a t i o n f o r v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n t h e n o t a t i o n of t h i s a r t i c l e , i s u - -- u v*

-

5.08jl -

z)

312

I n f i g u r e 17, e q u a t i o n ( 2 3 ) i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a f u l l l i n e and equat i o n ( 2 4 ) by a d o t t e d l i n e . The Darcy curve shows good agreement except f o r p o i n t s near t h e w a l l where were f o r
L < 0.35.

This imperfection of t h e

Darcy formula i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s n e a r e s t t h e w a l l Up t o t h i s l i m i t t h e agreement of e q u a t i o n ( 2 4 ) with = 0.33. r t h e observed d a t a i s very good.

3. Exponential Law
Even though t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s adequately d e s c r i b e d by e q u a t i o n ( 1 3 ) o r e q u a t i o n ( 2 3 ) , it i s sometimes convenient t o have a n e x p o n e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n which may be used a s an approximation. P r a n d t l from a dimensional approach concluded from t h e B l a s i u s l a w of r e s i s t a n c e t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y u n e a r t h e w a l l during t u r b u l e n t flow v a r i e s w i t h t h e 117 power of t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e w a l l , ( r e f e r e n c e s 22, 23, and 24), that is u = ay117 (25)

i n which a i s a c o n s t a n t f o r each v e l o c i t y curve. It i s t o be emphas i z e d t h a t t h e exponent 117 h o l d s only f o r smooth p i p e s i n t h e range of t h e B l a s i u s l a w ( u p t o H e = l o ? ) , b u t t h a t f o r l a r g e r Reynolds numbers it d e c r e a s e s , a s shown by our e a r l i e r o b s e r v a t i o n s , ( r e f e r e n c e s 5 and 25) t o 1/10. The s i t u a t i o n i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t i n t h e c a s e of rough p i p e s ; h e r e w i t h i n t h e range of our e x p e r h e n t s t h e exponent f o r an i n c r e a s i n g r e l a t i v e roughness i n c r e a s e s from 1 / 7 t o 1 / 4 . Equation ( 2 5 ) may be w r i t t e n i n another form i f t h e v e l o c i t y and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e w a l l a r e made dimensionless by using t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y v,:

i n which, according t o e q u a t i o n (25), n = 117. log 9 = log C + n log q

Then

I f l o g 9 i s p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i d n of l o g 7 t h e r e r e s u l t s a s t r a i g h t l i n e with slope n . This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown i n f i g u r e 18 f o r various degrees of r e l a t i v e roughness and a l s o f o r a v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a smooth pipe. A l l of t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r rough p i p e s shown i n t h i s f i g u r e l i e w i t h i n t h e range of t h e quadratic law of r e s i s t a n c e . It i s evident from t h e f i g u r e t h a t w i t h i n t h e range of r e l a t i v e roughness i n v e s t i g a t e d here t h e exponent n i n c r e a s e s from 0.133 t o 0.238. From t h e recorded curve f o r t h e smooth pipe n = 0.116. I n order t o determine t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e exponent n with t h e Reynolds number f o r a f i x e d r e l a t i v e roughness, t h e value of l o g g, a s a f u n c t i o n of l o g 7 has been determined f o r various Reynolds numbers and f o r a r e l a t i v e r roughness - = 126. The change of slope of t h e l i n e was found t o be k very s l i g h t with v a r i a t i o n s of Reynolds number: The s m a l l e s t recorded values of Reynolds number l i e w i t h i n t h e region defined a s range I of t h e r e s i s t a n c e law where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of r e s i s t a n c e )I i s t h e same a s f o r a smooth pipe; t h e next l a r g e r Reynolds numbers l i e i n range I1 ( t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n ) , and t h e l a r g e s t i n range I11 ( q u a d r a t i c l a w of r e s i s t a n c e ) . Figure 18 shows t h a t p o i n t s on t h e pipe a x i s d e v i a t e from t h e l o c a t i o n s obtained by t h e exponential law.

4. P r a n d t l ' s Mixing Length

The well-known expression of P r a n d t l ( r e f e r e n c e s 1, 26, 27, and 28) f o r t h e t u r b u l e n t shearing s t r e s s i s :

The determination of t h e mixing l e n g t h from t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s may be e a s i l y c a r r i e d out by means of equation ( 2 7 a ) . By rearrangement:

The shearing s t r e s s shearing s t r e s s T~

a t any point i s i n l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e a t t h e wall;

In t h e computation of t h e v a r i a t i o n of mixing length with t h e d i s t a n c e

from t h e w a l l by equation ( 2 7 b ) , t h e value of

d"
dy

was found g r a p h i c a l l y

from t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

T h i s i s somewhat d i f f i c u l t i n t h e du v i c i n i t y of t h e p i p e a x i s s i n c e t h e r e t h e v a l u e s of b o t h Z- and P dy a r e very s m a l l . The procedure n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n t h e v a l u e of 1 as a c c u r a t e l y a s p o s s i b l e h a s been d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n a p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e (reference 5 ) .

The dimensionless mixing l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n a r r i v e d a t i n t h i s manner f o r l a r g e Reynolds numbers l y i n g w i t h i n t h e range of t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e has been p l o t t e d i n f i g u r e 19. The curve shown i s t h a t o b t a i n e d from o b s e r v a t i o n s on smooth p i p e s , e x p r e s s e d according t o F'randtl i n t h e form:

There e x i s t s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e same mixing l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n i n rough

a s i n smooth p i p e s . T h i s f a c t l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e mechanics of t u r b u l e n c e , e x c e p t f o r a t h i n l a y e r a t t h e w a l l , a r e independent of t h e t y p e of w a l l s u r f a c e . I n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t i n a compact form t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e mixing l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h t h e Reynolds number and w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e roughness, t h e r e i s p l o t t e d i n f i g u r e 20 t h e t e r m term log 1
=

log

against the

log

w. Each of v

t h e c u r v e s drawn from t h e t o p t o t h e

bottom of t h e f i g u r e corresponds t o a given Reynolds number which i s 2 has i t s l a r g e s t v a l u e s n e a r t h e i n d i c a t e d a s a parameter. S i n c e Y w a l l s , t h e p o i n t s f o r t h a t r e g i o n a r e i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e f i g u r e and p o i n t s n e a r t h e p i p e a x i s a r e i n t h e lower p a r t . The c u r v e s drawn
-

from l e f t t o r i g h t connect p o i n t s of e q u a l z-value. These c u r v e s a r e r p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s f o r Reynolds numbers and d e g r e e s of r e l a t i v e roughness a t which t h e v i s c o s i t y h a s no i n f l u e n c e . T h i s h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n does n o t o b t a i n f o r low Reynolds numbers and f o r low d e g r e e s of r e l a t i v e roughness; t h e r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t of v i s c o s i t y i n such r a n g e s . The f a c t i s a g a i n borne o u t by f i g u r e s 1 9 and 20 t h a t f o r high Reynolds numbers where v i s c o s i t y has no i n f l u e n c e t h e mixing l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e r e f o r e t h e mechanics of t u r b u l e n c e a r e independent of the Reynolds number and of t h e r e l a t i v e roughness.

5 , R e l a t i o n s h i p between Average and Maximum V e l o c i t i e s

From e q u a t i o n (16b) :

t h e n from e q u a t i o n (17b):

i n which B i s a c o n s t a n t ( B = 5.75) f o r all Reynolds numbers and f o r a l l degrees of r e l a t i v e roughness, while A i s c o n s t a n t o n l y w i t h i n t h e v*k range of t h e q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e and v a r i e s w i t h outside of t h a t range, and p by e q u a t i o n ( 1 6 ~ ) ; h a s t h e value 3.75. I f equation ( 3 0 ) i s divided

B log

r T;

Previous s t u d y has shown t h a t i n accordance w i t h e q u a t i o n s ( 2 1 a ) t o

i s a f u n c t i o n of v*k. Then f o r a f i x e d value of v r t h e r e l a t i v e roughness - t h e r e i s obtained from e q u a t i o n ( 3 1 ) t h e k relationship;

( 2 1 e ) t h e term
A

This e x p r e s s i o n i s shown i n f i g u r e 21 w i t h each curve r e p r e s e n t i n g a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e roughness. The curves have been computed from equat i o n ( 3 1 ) and t h e p o i n t s ( t a b l e s 2 t o 7) a r e experimental o b s e r v a t i o n s .

SUMMARY
T h i s study d e a l s with t h e t u r b u l e n t flow of f l u i d s i n rough p i p e s w i t h v a r i o u s degrees of r e l a t i v e roughness

k
r

( i n which

i s the

average p r o j e c t i o n of t h e roughening and r i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e p i p e ) . The requirements of s i m i l i t u d e have been met by u s i n g t e s t p i p e s which were g e o m e t r i c a l l y s i m i l a r i n form ( i n c l u d i n g t h e roughening). The roughness was obtained by sand g r a i n s cemented t o t h e w a l l s . These had an a p p r o x h a t e l y similar form and a corresponding diameter
k.

If

k -

i s t h e same f o r two p i p e s , t h e p i p e s a r e g e o m e t r i c a l l y s i m i l a r w i t h geometrically similar wall surfaces.

There remained t o be determined whether i n t h e s e two pipes f o r a given Reynolds number t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r X would be t h e same and whether t h e f u n c t i o n X = f ( R e ) would y i e l d a smooth curve. There was f u r t h e r t o be determined whether t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u k t i o n s f o r pipes with equal r e l a t i v e roughness - a r e s i m i l a r and how r they vary with t h e Reynolds number. The measurements show t h a t t h e r e i s a c t u a l l y a f u n c t i o n X = f ( ~ e ) . The v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r a given r e l a t i v e roughness show a very s l i g h t dependence on t h e Reynolds number, but on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e form of t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s more pronouncedly dependent on t h e r e l a t i v e roughness. As t h e r e l a t i v e roughness increases, t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n assumes a more pointed form. A study of t h e question whether t h e exponential law of P r a n d t l a l s o applied t o rough p i p e s showed t h a t v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s may be expressed by an exponential l a w of t h e form u = uyn i n which t h e value of n i n c r e a s e s from 0.133 t o 0.238, a s t h e r e l a t i v e roughness i n c r e a s e s . Experimental d a t a were obtained f o r six d i f f e r e n t degress of r e l a t i v e roughness with Reynolds numbers ranging from Re = 104 t o 106 If flow conditions a r e considered divided i n t o t h r e e ranges, t h e observat i o n s i n d i c a t e d t h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e l a w of r e s i s t a n c e i n each range.

I n range I f o r s m a l l Reynolds numbers the r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r i s t h e same f o r rough a s f o r smooth p i p e s . The p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e roughening l i e e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e laminar l a y e r f o r t h i s range. .
In range I1 ( t r a n s i t i o n range) an i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r was observed f o r an increasing Reynolds number. The t h i c k n e s s of t h e laminar l a y e r i s here of t h e same order of magnitude a s t h a t of t h e projections.

I n range I11 t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r i s independent of t h e Reynolds number ( q u a d r a t i c law of r e s i s t a n c e ) . Here a l l t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e roughening extend through t h e laminar l a y e r and t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r X i s expressed by t h e simple formula
= .L

( 1 . 7 1 1+

2 log

I f a s i n g l e expression i s d e s i r e d t o describe t h e r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r f o r a l l ranges, t h e n f o r a l l of t h e t e s t d a t a plotted against

(log

y)

i n which

jV*

g}

(k-

2 l o g i; r,

may be

The r e s u l t i n g general

expression is:

(
i n which t h e values of ranges

b log b

v*k + V

2 l o g j3

rj

and

are d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t

The v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s given by t h e g e n e r a l expression;

i n which B = 5.75 and A = 8.48 w i t h i n t h e region of t h e q u a d r a t i c v k law of r e s i s t a n c e , and i n t h e o t h e r r e g i o n s depends a l s o upon

+.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w and t h e law of r e s i s t a n c e i s found t o be:

i n which t i o n law

3.75

a s determined from t h e Von

K&IEUI

velocity distribu-

I n t e g r a t i o n of t h e preceding equation y i e l d s ;

and from t h i s , by means - of t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n law, t h e r a t i o of t h e average v e l o c i t y u t o t h e maximum v e l o c i t y U may be p l o t t e d v*k a g a i n s t 7. F i n a l l y , t h e P r a n d t l mixing l e n g t h formula

was used t o o b t a i n t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e mixing l e n g t h 2 with t h e d i s t a n c e y from t h e w a l l . The following empirical equation r e s u l t e d :

This empirical equation i s a p p l i c a b l e 0 4 y t o l a r g e Reynolds numbers and t o t h e e n t i r e range of t h e quadratic l a w of r e s i s t a n c e , where v i s c o s i t y has no influence

Translated by A. A. Brielmaier Washington University S t . Louis, Missouri April, 1937

REFERENCES

1. Prandt;, L . : Turbulenz und i h r e h t s t e h u n g . Tokyo-Vortrag 1929, J . Aeronaut. Res. I n s t . , Tokyo Imperial University, N r . 65, 1930.
2. Von K&&, Th. : Mechanische jihnlichkeit und Turbulenz. Ggttinger Nachr., Math.-Phys. Klasse 1930 und Verh. d. 3. i n t e r n . Kongr. f . techn. Mech., Stockholm 1930 ( ~ t o k h o l m 1931), Bd. 1. (Available M 611. ) a s NACA T 3. Nlkuradse, J. : Widerstandsgesetz und Geschwindigkeitsverteilung von turbulenten Wasserstrijmungen i n g l a t t e n und rauhen Rohren. Verh. d. 3. i n t e r n . Kongr. f . techn. Mech., Stockholm 1930 (stockholm 1931) Bd. 1, p. 239.

4. P r a n d t l , L .

i n Rohren und l&gs P l a t t e n . : Zur turbulenten str;mung Ergeb. d . Aerodyn. Versuchsanst. zu ~ Z t t i n g e n , 4. L i e f . , 1932, p . 18. VDI-Forsch.-Heft 356, 1932.

3. N i h r a d s e , J .: G e s e t d s s i g k e i t e n der t u r b u l e n t e n ~tr0"mungi n g l a t t e n
Rohren.

6. Darcy, H.

: Recherche3 e r g r i m e n t a l e s r e l a t i v e s au mouvement de 1'eau d a n $ l e s tuyaux. Memoires a llAcademie d. Sciences de 1 ' I n s t i t u t e imperial de France, Bd. 15, 1858, p. 141.

7. Bazin, H . :

m l r i e n S e s n o u w l l e s s u r l a d i s t r i b u t a t i o n des v i t e s s e s 1'Academic d. Sciences de 1' I n s t i t u t e dans l e s tuyaux, Memoires de France, I3d. 32, N r . 6, 1902.

8. v. Mises, R . :
B. G . Teubner

Elemente der technischen Hydrodynamik.

Leipzig,

1914.
Proc. Roy. Soc.

9. Stanton, T . E . : The Mechanical Viscosity of F l u i d s . London ( A ) , Bd. 85, 1911, p. 366.

I I

d Rohren verschiedenen 10. S c h i l l e r , L . : Uber den ~ t r g m u n ~ s w i d e r s t a nvon Querschnitts und Rauhigkeitsgrades. Z. angew. Math. Mech., Rd. 3, 1923, P. 2. 1 1 , Hopf, L.: Die Messung der hydraulischen Rauhigkeit. Math. Mech. Bd. 3, 1923, p. 329. n rauhen Rohren. 12. Fromm, K. : ~ t r b ' m u n ~ s w i d e r s t a nid Mech. Bd. 3, 1923, p. 339.

Z. angew.

Z. angew. Math.

Fritsch, W.: 1928, P .

Geschwindigkeitsverteilung i n Rinnen.

Der E i n f l u s s der Wandrauhigkeit auf d i e t u r b u l e n t e Z . angew. Math. Mech. Bd.

8,

199

Treer, M . F. : Der Widerstandsbeiwert b e i turbulenten str6'mungen durch rauhe angle. Phys. Z . Bd. 9, 1929, p. 539. Treer, M. F : Die Geschwindigkeit s v e r t e ilungen b e i gradlinigen turbulenten str&mungen. Phys. Z. Bd. 9, 1929, p. 542. Kumbruch, H. : Messung strzmender Luft m i t t e l s ~ t a u ~ e r g t e n . Forsch.-Arb. 1ng.-Wes. Heft 240, B e r l i n 1921. ( ~ v a i l a b l e as NACA T M 302.) Hoffmann, A. : Der Verlust i n 90~-~ohrkrijmmern m i t gleichbleibendem Kreisquerschnitt. M i t t . hydraul. I n s t . T . H. M;inchen, published by D. Thoma, Heft 3, 1929, p. 55. in en Blasius, 8 . : Das jihalichkeitsgesetz b e i ~ e i b u n ~ s v o r ~ k ~ 1 G s s i ~ k e i t e nForsch.-Arb. . 1ng.-Wes. Heft 131, B e r l i n 1913. Prandtl, L . : Reibungswiderstand. Hydrodynamische Probleme des S c h i f f s a n t r i e b s . Published by G. Kempf and E . F s r s t e r 1932, p. Prandtl, L . : Neuere Ergebnisse der Turbulenzforschung. Z . VDI Bd. N r . 5,-1933, p . 105. ( ~ v a i l a b l e a s NACA TM 720.)

87.

77,

Prandtl, L . : Zur turbulenten StrGrnung i n Rohren und langs P l a t t e n . Ergebn Aerodyn. Versuchsanstalt. ~ S t t i n g e n ,4. L i e f , 1932, p. 18. Frandtl, L . : Ergebnisse der Aerodyn. Versuchsanstalt G t t i n g e n , 3. L i e f , 1327, p . 1. Von & K ,: Th : Uber laminare und t u r b u l e n t e Reibung. Z. angew. a s NACA Math. Mech. Bd. 1, N r . 4, 1921, p. 233. ( ~ v a i l a b l e TM 1092. ) Nikuradse, J . : Untersuchungen Gber d i e Geschwindigkeitsverteilung i n turbulenten ~tr6mungen. Forsch.-Arb. 1ng.-Wes. Heft 281, B e r l i n 1926. ,* Nikuradse, J. : Uber t u r b u l e n t e ~asserstr6mungeni n geraden Rohren b e i sehr grossen Reynoldsschen Zahlen. Vortrag a. d. Geb. d. Aerodyn. u verw. Geb., Aachen 1929, published by A. G i l l e s , L. Hopf, and Th. V. Berlin, J . Springer 1930, p . 63.

Ir

an,

Prandtl, J . : Bericht Gber Untersuchungen zur ausgebildeten Turbulenz. Z . angew Math. Mech. Bd. 5 , N r . 2, 1925, p. 136. (~vailable a s .NACA TM 1231.)

NACA T M 1292

29

27. P r a n d t l , L . : B e r i c h t i h e r neuere Turbulenzforschung. Probleme, B e r l i n , VDI-Verlag 1926, p. 1. 28. P r a n d t l , L . : h e r a u s g e b i l d e t e Turbulenz f . t e c h n . Mech., ~ G r i c h 1927.

Hydraulische

Verh. 2. i n t e r n . Kongr

TABLE 1
D l M E N S I O N S O F T E S T PIPES

d = i n s i d e diameter

2,

= outlet l e n g t h
= t o t a l length

2 ,

= approach l e n g t h

l 1 = measuring l e n g t h I

If = r e l a t i v e t o t a l length d

LII

= measuring l e n g t h

I1

ii cm/s

v cm2/s

2 dyn/cm3
0.000351 .000574 .00084O .ooog75 .000966 .001525 .00167 .001g5 .00230 .ooegl .00285 .00347 .00372 .00410 .00496 .oogg7 .00718 .00878 ,01087 .01085 .01255 .01378 ,01515
.0202

log Re log(l00 A )
r/k =

1 -n

2 log

r/k

log

v& 2 83 7 Jst

507 logr/k=2.705 0.51 .64 -79 .86 .88 1.05 1.06 1.16 1.17 1.24 1.31 1.41 1.48 1.52 1.62 1.65 1.74 1.79 1.86 1.89 1.90 1.92 1.93
2 .OO

k=O.Olcm 15.45 0.0118 20.2 .0118 25.0 .0118 .0118 27.3 .0118 27.3 34.4 .0118 36.8 .0118 40.4 44.0 .0118 46.4 .0118 50.0 .0118 .0118 55.9 .on8 58.5 61.8 .0118 69.0 .0118 76.0 .0118 .0118 84.4 94.0 .0118 .0118 103.5 106.0 .ox= 114.0 .0112 119.8 .0112 126 .0112 .0116 147 162 .0116 184 .0116 201 .0116 .0116 217 .0116 223 .0116 234 248 .on6 .0120 287 .ox20 325 .0120 375 412 .0120 .0118 445 481 .0118 .0120 516 .0118 551 .0118 607 602 .0105 .0105 655 .0105 720 .009l 798 .OOgl 845 .0086 835 .0086 779 840 .0086 4.114 4.230 4.322 4.362 4.362 4.462 4.491 4.532 4.568 4.591 4.623 4.672 4.690 4.716 4.763 4.806 4.851 4.898 4.940 4.973 5.009 5.025 5.049 5.100 5.143 5.199 5.236 5.270 5.281 5.303 5.326 5.377 5.430 5.493 5.534 5.574 5.608 5.630 5.668 5.709 5.756 5.792 5.833 5.940 5.965 5.929 5.954 5.987

d=9.94cm 0.456 .438 .417 .407 .403 .381 ,380 .366 .365 .356 .347 .333 .324 .320 .307 .303 .292 .286 .278 .274 .274 .272 ,270 .262 .260 .255 .253 .255 .253 .250 .252 .255 .253 .258 .260 .262 .290 .272 .272 .272 .278 .279 .283 .286 .288 .289 .288 .286

0.000
.OOO

.083 .117 .114 .212 236 .267

.PO

1/

.0245 .0314 .0372 .0435 .0458 .0501 .0565 .0760 -0975 .I310 .1585 .1850 .2320 ,2560 .2920 .35b .3520 ,4190 .5100 .634o .7100 .5400 .6050 .7000

2.02 2.05 2.07 2.06 2.07

2.10

2.08 2.06 2.07 2.03

2.01

2.00 1.95 1.96 1.92 1 .gl 1.87 1.85 1.82 1.80 1.78 1.77 1.78 1.79
k =

.322 .348 .391 ,407 .428 .470 .508 .549 .593 .638 .661 .694 .713 .733 .781 .829 .878 .g19 .944 .959 .971 1.004 1.053 1.107 1.172 1.214 1.255 1.303 1.317 1.352 1.394 1.446 1.483 1.525 1.633 1.659 1.623 1.648 1.680

4.95 5.35 5.75 5.95 6.02 6.48 6.55 6.80 6.87 7.05 7.25 7.50 7.72 7.85 8.05 8.08 8.45 8.58 8.78 8.85 8.89 8.95 8.97 9.17 9.25 9.29 9.36 9.35 9.36 9.45 9.42 9.35 9.36 9.25 9.19 9.15 9.05 8.95 8.95 8.93 8.83 8.75 8.67 8.63 8.55 8.51 8.55 8.57

0.815 .819 .824 .825 .824 .825 .830 .829 .832 .832 .834 .836 .835 ,838 .839 ,842 ,841 .844 .843 ,845
.848

.845 .847 .846 .847 .849 .847 .849 .849 .846 .851 .847 .84g .849 .846 .848 .845 .848 .846 .848 .845 .846 .844 .846 .843 .844 .845 .845

u = average velocity

2
Re

=
=

kinematic viscosity pressure gradient Reynolds number velocity

average projection of roughness

=

vY

"friction1' velocity

= -ij- =

Ud

d = 2r = diameter of pipe q = dynamic pressure f o r average d d X = 2= resistance factor

r0 = p = U =

shearing s t r e s s a t w a l l density maximum velocity 5.75 l o g ; - /3

ax

ii */s

v cm2/s

2 dyn/cm3

log R e log(100 A )

1 --

2.83 - C v*k 2 log r/k log --;.

fi

' I U

k =

0.02 c m

d =

9.94 c m
I

log r / k 2.02 2.10 2.12 2.12 2.05 1.94 1.84 1.80 1.76 1-75 1.71 1.72 1.72
k =

2.401 9.25 9 . 9.53 9.53 9.30 9.02 8.75 8.64 8.50 8.49 8.37 8.42 8.40 0.836 .840 .839 .840 .838 .830 .806 .832 .831 .831 -831 .830 .841

i i = average velocity V = kinematic viscosity 9 = pressure gradient

dx

0.769 .884 ,966 1.146 1.272 1.458 1.692 1.782 1.881 1.919 1.964 2.004 2.000 * average projection

of roughness

, v

@="frictionn velocity

Re =

id 7 = Reynolds number

d = 2 r = diameter of pipe q = dynamic pressure for average velocity

1=

resistance factor

To = shearing stress a t w a l l o = density U = maximum velocity c = 5.75 log r - p

TABLE 4

ii

= average velocity

V =

kinematic viscosity

average projection of roughness

= pressure gradient

v, =

@ = 'friction"
-

velocity

= Reynolds nrrmber Re = d = 2r = diameter of pipe Y = dynamic pressure for average velocity

X =

2$

To = shearing stress at v a n p = density u = m8xlIau.m velocity C = 5.75 log11 @

= resistance factor

ii cm/s

cm2/s

2 dyi/cm3

log Re

log(100 X )

1 Q

2 log r/k

log

$-

v k

\ l i ;

-C

r/k = 60 k = 0.02 cm d = 2.434 cm log r/k

=

1.78

k = 0.08 cm

9.8 cm

log r/k

1.78

8 = V =

average velocity kinematic viscosity

k = average projection of roughness

v ,
=

2 dx
Re d

= ufrictionv velocity

= pressure gradient
= =

= Reynolds number 2r = diameter of pipe q = dynsmic pressure for average velocity x = 9 = resistance factor

= shearing stress at wall

p =

density

a P

U = maximum velocity C = 5.75 log;- 0

i i cm/s

v ca/s

2 ayn/a3

log Re

log(100 L)

-2

log r/k

log

a 5

k = 0.16 c m

d = 9.64 cm

log r/k = 1.486

u = average velocity V = kinematic viscosity

iid Re = = Remolds number d = 2r = diameter of pipe y = dynamic pressure for average velocity d d = resistance f a c t o r X =

k = average projection of roughness

ax

pressure gradient

= "friction" velocity

ro = shearillg s t r e s s a t 4 1 P = density U = maxirrmm velocity

g,

5.75

log;

-p

B cm/s

v cm2/s

3 dyn/cm3
0.00995 .01260 .01505 .01920 .02392 .02g50 .o3600 .04220 .0439 .0526 .0559 .0695 .0767 .lo97 .1192 ,1370 .1526 ,1765 .1930 .2147 .2280 .282 .364 .493 .580 .goo 1.350 1.680 1.776 2.540 2.982 3.611 4.019 5.100 5.809 7.900

log Re

log(100 X) r/k = 1 5

6-

2 log r/k

log

2.83 - c
B

fi

k=0.08cm 30.8 34.5 37.4 42.0 46.6 51.0 56.0 60.6 61.2 66.4 69.4 77.0 80.0 95.0 99.5 105.0 1 1 1 . 5 . ll8.0 124.0 131.0 133.4 149.0 169.0 196.5 214 266 325 364 375 647 484 532 560 640 675 788 0.0126 .0126 .ou6 .0126 .0=6 .0123
.OE~

d=2.412cm 0.696 .699 .707 .712 .717 .730 .734 .736 .744 .751 .740 .744 .754 .760 .756 .769 .763 .778 .772 .772 .782 .785 .780 .781 .777 .780 .781 .7TT .776 .779 ,781 .780 .781 ,778 .781 .779 d=4.82cm 0.775 .777 .778 .780 .781 .777 ,775 .778 .780 .779 ,777 .775 .778 .783 ,784 .777 .780 .778 .775 .780 .780 .777 .781 .778 ,780 .784 .781 .777 .778 .780 .780 .777 .778 ,780

logr/k=1.176 2.14 2.13 2.09 2.06 2.04 1.97 1.94 1.94 1.90 1.87 1.92 1.92 1.85 1.82 1.81~ 1.78 1.80 1.74 1.77 1.77 1.72 1.74 1.73 1.72 1.75 1.73 1.72 1.74 1.75 1.73 1.72 1.72 1.71 1.74 1.72 1.73 logr/k=1.176 1.75 1.75 1.73 1.72 1.72 1.75 1.75 1.73 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.73 1.72 1.71 1.74 1.73 1.73 1.75 1.72 1.73 1.75 1.72 1.74 1.73 1.71 1.73 1.75 1.74 1.73 1.72 1.74 1.74 1.73 1.899 1'957 1.998 2.055 2.144 2.210 2.300 2.327 2.391 2.409 2.460 2.464 2.555 2.599 2.618 2.677 2.695 2.767 2.816 2.870 2.906 2.914 2.976 3.030 3.073 3.152 3.293 3.338 3.417 3.475 3.255 3.314 3.387 3.446 8.59 8.54 8.53 8.52 8.55 8.59 8.54 8.51 8.54 8.59 8.54 8.49 8.47 8.53 8.54 8.54 8.59 8.51 8.54 8.55 8.51 8.54 8.51 8.47 8.51 8.55 8.54 8.54 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.54 0.756 .755 .756 .758 .755 .757 .757 ,755 .755 .754 .756 .754 .755 .755 .756 .755 .757 .756 .758 .755 .758 .755 .755 .752 .754 .753 .755 .756 .754 .750 .755 .756 .758 .754 1.188 1.239 1.276 1.317 1.377 1.435 1.477 1.511 1.520 1.572 1.619 1.641 1.718 1.737 1.767 1.791 1.822 1.841 1.865 1.884 1.924 1.979 2.049 2.087 2.184 2.278 2.322 2.342 2.422 2.458 2.500 2.566 2.608 2.636 2.746 9.69 9.66 9.57 9.46 9.40 9.23 9.14 9.13 9.03 9.06 9.06 8.89 8.80 8.85 8.69 8.74 8.54 8.64 8.64 8.49 8.54 8.53 8.52 8.56 8.54 8.52 8.55 8.58 8.54 8.52 8.51 8.46 8.54 8.52 8.54 0.772 -772 .767 775 .769 .765 .765 -767 .763 .760 .764 .765 .760 .756 .761 .758 .759 .757 .756 .758 .755 .755 .758 .755 .756 .756 ,753 .755 .756 .756 .754 .754 .752 .756 .756 .755

.0123 .0123 .0123 ,0123 .0123 .0123 .0123 .0123 .012 3 .0123 .ole3 .0123 .0123 .0121 .0123 .0123 .0122 .0121 .0121 .0120 .0120 .0118 .on7 .o n 7 .On7 .0108 .0108 .0108 .00g8

3.770 3.820 3.855 3.905 3.955 4.000 4.041 4.076 4.079 4.114 4.133 4.179 4.196 4.270 4.290 4.314 4.340 4.366 4.386 4.410 4.425 4.466 4.520 4.590 4.630 4.725 4.811 4.865 4.885 4.965 5.000 5.042 5.098 5.155 5.179 5.285

k=0.16cm 75.5 86.5 95.0 108.0 128.5 150.0 184.0 193.5 212 218 246 248 254 280 291 337 350 406 456 512 556 568 652 750 834 996 1018 1135 1360 1520 976 1130 1342 1526
V = =

0.0132 .0132 .0132 .0132 .0128 .0128 .0127 .0126 .0120 ,0118 .0118 .0118 ,0098 .0098 ,0098 .0098 .0098 ,0096 .0096 ,0096 ,0096 .0096 ,0096 ,0098 ,0098 .0098 .0072 .0072 .0072 .0072 .0076 .0076 .0076 .0076

2.91 3.82 4.60 5.96 8.42 11.50 17.30 19.10 23.00 24.2 30.9 31.4 33.0 40.0 43.2 58.0 62.5 84.0 106.0 134.0 158.0 165.0 217.0 287.0 355.0 506.0 530.0 657.0 944.'0 1180.0 497.0 652.0 918.0 1190.0

4.440 4.500 4.540 4.596 4.685 4.722 4.845 4.869 4.929 4.949 5.002 5.005 5.097 5.139 5.156 5.220 5.236 5.310 5.360 5.410 5 .'446 5.455 5.515 5.567 5.613 5.690 5.834 5.882 5.959 6.008 5.793 3.857 5.930 5.987

kinematic viscosity pressure gradient B d Re = = Reynolds number d = 2r = diameter of pipe B = dynamic pressure for average velocity A = = resistance factor

ii = average n l o c i t y

k = average projection of roug&ss

v ,
T,

=
=

$j "frictionn velocity
=

shearing s t r e s s a t w a l l p = density U = maximum velocity C = 5.75 l o g ; B

0.936 9.52
1

1 303

1.53 9 .O
I

1.686 8.68
u cm/s

9.28

dY
dy

cm/s

dU
dy

u cm/s

dy
-----

dy

98.0 150 6 5 180 190 201 208 220 2 30 237 242.5 247.5 251.0 2 . 254.5 254.8 255.0
u
=
= =

---- -- 265.0 ----- 2 225 364 520 585 116 402 306 573 69 432 625 178 50 458 1129 652 36 487 90 689 29.3 ) 505 72 719 20.8 531 758 51 15.9552 38.7788 13.1 568 31.8 812 26.2 832 1 0 . 8 581 21.4 848 8.75591 17.0 861 7.01600 11.6 871 4.74 608 2.93611.2 7 . 3 875 2.08 611.6 5.2 876 ------ 612.0 ----- 877
7

523 -----608 1022 670 526 2 309 761 222 803 153 lo1 832 119 84 874 72 64 55 912 52.5 45 940 43.6 37 960 30 978 35.5 24 28.4 992 16.5 1003 19.2 10.2 1008 12.0 7.31 1010 8.7 843 444 256 182 128

-----

1011

------

y
Re

G = d =

v e l o c i t y a t any p o i n t distance from w a l l iid = Reynolds number average v e l o c i t y diameter of pipe kinematic v i s c o s i t y

v*

1 To \jy =

"friction" velocity

-r0 =
p = k =

r k

shearing s t r e s s a t wall density average p r o j e c t i o n of roughness r e l a t i v e roughness

u = v e l o c i t y a t any p o i n t y = distance from w a l l Re =

nd =

v+
T~

"friction" velocity
=

Reynolds number

i i

= average v e l o c i t y d = diameter of pipe v = kinematic v i s c o s i t y

shearing s t r e s s a t w a l l p = density k = average p r o j e c t i o n of roughness

- = r e l a t i v e roughness k

TABLE 10

u = v e l o c i t y a t any point
y = distance from wall

v ,
T~

=
= = =
-

"friction" velocity

iid Re = v = Reynolds number u = average v e l o c i t y d diameter of pipe v : kinematic v i s c o s i t y

.
k -

' k

shearing s t r e s s a t w a l l density average p r o j e c t i o n of roughness r e l a t i v e roughness

TABLE 1 1

r
0

d cm u cm/s 102~ cm2/s 10-3 R e v* v*k log v

u = v e l o c i t y a t any point d i s t a n c e from w a l l y = ud = Reynolds number Re =

v,
T,

IT - \lp
0

"friction" velocity

=
=

ii
d

=
= =

average v e l o c i t y diameter of pipe kine mat:^ v i s c o s i t y

p =

shearing s t r e s s a t w a l l density average p r o j e c t i o n of roughness

E .P

2
P

- r e l a t i v e roughness

u '
ro

I U

TABLE
r/k = d c m

12

30.6
t-' 1 0 u 3 1 0

u cm/s 102 v cm2/s

10-3 Re

v*
log

v&

u = velocity a t any point y = distance from w a l l Re=-=

= average v e l o c i t y d = diameter of pipe v = kinematic v i s c o s i t y

v,

= "friction" velocity

uyd

Reynolds number

rO = shearing s t r e s s a t wall p = density k = average projection of roughness - - r e l a t i v e roughness k

d c m
ii cm/s 1 0 2 ~m * / s

10-3 Re v* ' v& log v

u = v e l o c i t y a t any point y = d i s t a n c e from w a l l iid Re = y = Reynolds number ii = average v e l o c i t y d = diameter of pipe v = kinematic v i s c o s i t y

v, =
To
=

d z P =

= i = -

"friction" velocity

shearing stl-ess a t wall p = density k = average projection of roughness = r e l a t i v e roughness

%
3=-

!2
\O
C-' rO

r u

Figure 1.- Relation between the resistance factor ~r

h 2

and the Reynolds number for surface roughness.

(The numbers on the curves indicate the test results of various investigators.)

Figure 2.-

&lation between the resistance factor

and the Reynolds number for surface corrugation 2 (The numbers on the curves indicate the test results of various investigators.)
1). =

A -

Figure 3.-

Test apparatus. em
=

electric motor

kp = centrifugal pump

vk = supply canal
wk = water tank

vr = zl = str = fr = ft =

test pipe supply line vertical pipe overflow pipe trap

h = outlet valve z r = feed line mb = measuring tank gm = velocity measuring device ksv = safety valve on water tank sbl = gate valve between wk and kp

sb2 gl

= =

gate valve between wk and z r baffles for equalizing flow

Figure 4,- MicropBotograph of sand grains which produce uniform roughness, (Magnified about 20 times)

NACA

TM 1292

Figure 5.-

Hooked tube f o r measuring static and observation point is

y between wan

/nc/inafion fo word f /ow d/recfjon

Figure 6.-

Variation of readings with direction of hooked tube.

NACA TM 1292

Figure 7. - Correction curve for determining static pressure.

a
h

isresistanceofhookedtube is resistance of smooth pipe

= 15 and Figure 8.- Velocity distribution with 5 = 40 and 5 = 50 for d d k Re = 150 lo3 ( y is distance between wall and observation point).

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.2

3.4

3 . 6 38

4.0

4,2

4.4

4.6 4.8

50

52

54

56

58

6 . 0

Figure 9.-

Relation between log(100h) and log Re.

l.0

/.2

/.4

1.6

/.8

2.4

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

Figure 10. - Relation between

fl

and l o g z k'

Figure 11.- Relation between

( 1 - 2 log c)
fl
k

and (log v*k

).

NACA T M 1292

Figure 12. - Relation between 2 and y within the region of the quadratic U r law of resistance.

Figure 13.- Relationhetween 2 and 41.

V*

-8
Figure 14.-

/.2

/.6

2.0
and log

Relation between -?? v*

$.

Figure 15. - Relation between 2 and log

v*

ll.

10

/.4

43

2.2

2.6

30

34

3 . 8

4.2

46

Figure 15.- Continued.

NACA TM 1292

Figure 15.-

Concluded.

.2. .4

.6

.8

LO

12

/.4

1.6

18
=

2.0

2.2
5.75 log

2.4

2 . 6 2.8
3.75

3.0

32

Figure 16.-

Relation between

- 5.75 log
k

2*83 G

r. +
k

NACA TM 1292

Figure 17.-

Relation between

E ) and (:).
v*

Figure 18.- Relation between log cp and log 7 f o r various degrees of roughness.

Figure 19. - Relation between L and

for large Reynolds numbers.

Figure 20.-

Relationbetween log 10-

( ;)

and log q.

Figure 21. - Relation between

and log

v*k

. v