Employment Commitment and Psychological Well-Being among Unemployed Men and Women Author(s): Mikael Nordenmark Source: Acta

Sociologica, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1999), pp. 135-146 Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4201133 . Accessed: 09/12/2013 12:11
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ACTA SOCIOLOGICA 1999

Employment Well-being Women

Commitment among Unemployed

and

Psychological Men and

Mikael

Nordenmark of Sociology, Ume? University, Sweden

Department

ABSTRACT and psychological This paper studies employment commitment well-being among a random sample of 3,500 unemployed men and women in Sweden. The study observes and if there are any significant commitment which factors govern levels of employment differences between unemployed men and women in this respect. The article also when analysing psychological to employment discusses the importance of commitment commitment As regards employment among both well-being among the unemployed. value of the former job, the men and women, the results emphasize the psychosocial and age. However, the results also indicate that age and activity level while unemployed to paid women's and men's levels of commitment situation affect family unemployed in different ways. Further, both unemployed men and women who are employment reasons have significantly for non-financial strongly motivated to find employment to higher risks of poor mental well-being than those with lower commitments employment. Finally, The results speak against the hypothesis that the high rates among certain categories of people are mainly a result of low unemployment motivation to be employed. Mikael Nordenmark, Department of Sociology, ? Scandinavian Sociological Association 1999 Umed University, SE-902 87 Umed, Sweden

1. Introduction In the industrial world, employment is a major source of material and personal satisfaction. makes possible a high economic Employment but it also generates a sense of standard, and social identity. The fact that community paid work, besides having economic value, also has psychosocial value has been established in the sociological and psychological unemployment research. Generally speaking, these studies show that unemployed people miss the time social contacts, status and identity, structure, in collective purposes and regular participation activity that a paid job usually provides (Jahoda 1982). According to Jahoda, being deprived of

the

functions of employment psychosocial most studies explains why unemployment indicate that the unemployed experience higher stress and harassment levels of depression, with the (Bakke 1933; employed compared et al. 1992; Chen et al. 1994; Colbj?rnsen Dew et al. 1991; Hammer 1993; Harding & Sewel 1992; Hayes & Nutman 1981; Jahoda et al. 1971; Korpi 1994; Leeflang et al. 1992; Liem & Liem 1988; Ols?n 1985; Schliebner & Peregoy 1994; Warr et al. 1988; Viinam?ki et al. 1993). with the high psychosocial Connected is the fact that the value of paid employment commitment to employment, or the non-financial motivation to be employed, has shown to be

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136 ACTA SOCIOLOGICA 1999

VOLUME 42

and employed strong among both unemployed & Halvorsen 1997; 1994; people (Gallie Vogler O'Brien & Feather 1974; Kaplan & Tausky 1990; Warr 1982). Warr (1982) and Gallie and found that unemployed Vogler (1994) people were more comactively seeking employment mitted to employment than those in paid work. O'Brien and Fether's (1990) However, study indicates that there is no significant difference as regards the level of non-financial employment motivation between the unemployed and those for whom employment is unsatisfactory. situaCompared to those in good employment tions, however, both of these groups are less committed to paid employment. In addition to studying to commitment paid work and the psychological consequences of unemployment, research has unemployment also focused on the relationship between these two factors (Jackson et al. 1983; Rowley & Feather Shamir 1987; 1986; Stafford et al. Underlind & Thuen Wiener & 1980; 1991; Muczyk 1987). Many studies indicate that the level of non-financial motivation to be employed affects well-being among the unemployed. High levels of employment commitment are related to poorer mental health, while weak commitment of unemmitigates the negative consequences ployment.

2. Employment and women

commitment

among

men

There has been a lively debate within the social sciences whether the psychosocial regarding value of a paid job, and therefore also levels of commitment to employment, differs between men and women. Most of the studies that compare men and women in terms of employment commitment find that men in general are are more committed to employment than women de Vaus & McAllister (Bielby 1992; Hakim 1995; 1991; 1989; 1991, Harpaz Halvorsen 1997; Lorence 1987; Warr 1982). The higher psychosocial value of employment among men is also shown by most of the older & College Komarovsky (Jahoda et al. 1971; 1973) as well as some of the newer unemployment studies (Harding & Sewel 1992; Viinam?ki et al. 1993), that men have implying to the greater difficulty adapting unemployment situation than do women. These results have been explained by the fact that women usually have less qualified jobs and, even today, have been socialized to be strongly engaged in work

that is connected to the home, and therefore do not miss the psychosocial functions of employment as much as men do. However, there are also studies indicating that unemployment nowadays affects men and in similar ways (Dew et al. 1991; women Ensminger & Celentano 1990; Leana & Feldman 1991; Leeflang et al. 1992; McGhee & Fryer 1995; Warr et al. 1988). 1989; Nordenmark and Underlind and Thuen Chen et al. (1994) demonstrate that unemployed women (1991) and higher degrees of depression experience than men do. It is possible that anxiety women today suffer from unemunemployed in a ployment way similar to men because their need for a paid job is just as strong. psychosocial This hypothesis is confirmed by some that women are at least as studies indicating as are men when the committed to employment social context is constant 1995; (Ellingsaeter Kaufman & Fetters 1980; Lacy et al. 1983; Rowe & Snizek Underlind & Thuen 1995; and Bielby (1992) (1995) 1991). Ellingsaeter that the non-financial to motivation conclude have paid work is determined by both job and family factors for both women and men. Hakim and Halvorsen (1997) argue that part(1991) is more common time work, which among commitment. Warr women, lowers employment (1982) points out that both single men and women are more motivated to have paid work than are married men and women. The main in these studies for this new explanation similarity in women's and men's non-financial to be employed is that the role of motivation housewife is no longer a conceivable alternative for women. to employment In addition, some also argue that 'male' and 'female' cannot be analysed as two separate Instead, they argue homogeneous categories. that a certain social position can have different meanings for men and women. Thus, men's and to be employed must be women's commitment studied in the light of social context. Lorence and Nordenmark show, for (1995) (1987) that older men are more committed instance, to paid work than women of the same ages. However, among younger people, the nonto be employed tends to financial motivation be even stronger for women than for men. it can be In light of the above discussion, commitassumed that the level of employment men and women is ment among unemployed determined mainly by two factors. First, there between the psychoseems to be a connection and the commitsocial value of employment

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Commitmentand PsychologicalWell-being 137 Employment ment to paid work. Those who have pleasant motivation jobs also have a strong non-financial It follows that unemployed to be employed. people who have had stimulating and social jobs also miss employment more than those who have more instrumental or money-oriented attitudes to their former jobs. Secondly, unemployed people who are engaged in meaningful unconnected to paid employment, activities hobbies and other sparesuch as housework, are better adapted, and have time activities, than those weaker employment commitment, with who find it harder to replace employment other activities. These hypotheses are assumed to be valid for both men and women. The first and main aim of this study is to our understanding of which factors deepen the commitment to employment govern men and women by analysamong unemployed the ing following questions: Is there a connecbetween the level of tion employment variables measuring the psychocommitment, social value of the former job and the value of activities? Are there are any non-employment significant differences between men and women in these respects? Do age, family situation and variables influence the comother background mitment to employment? Do these variables have different meanings for men and women? The second aim of the article is to discuss of commitment to employment the importance when analysing well-being psychological men and women by analysamong unemployed ing the relationship between these two things. Is to employment related to strong commitment health? Is weak relatively poor psychological associated with better health commitment men and women? among unemployed 3. Data The results of this study are based on a field Unemployment study called 'LUP' (Long-term of 1996, a random Project). At the beginning was drawn from sample of 3,500 unemployed Labour Market Boards, the sothe Swedish called 'H?NDEL' register. H?NDEL consists of information the concerning respondents' status from 1992 until 1996. labour-market were asked questions about The respondents social commitment, well-being, employment networks, job-search activity, spare-time activof etc. The strength situation, ity, economic H?NDEL is that it consists of both register and subjective data. The interviews were conducted 74 per cent of those contacted by telephone; Only 7 per cent of responded to the questions. the fall-off was caused by a refusal to take part in the investigation. The rest of the fall-off was due to factors such as people having unpubnot residing in lished numbers, telephone etc. Sweden at the time of the investigation, that Thirty per cent of the 2,590 respondents were registered as unemployed answered, at the that they were now time of the interview, and were therefore excluded from employed, the study.

4. Variables Commitment

and method

to employment and psychological were measured the 'Work well-being using Scale' (WIS) and the 'General Involvement Health Questionnaire' (GHQ), respectively. The that require response for the two statements scales are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Statements from two scales provided to unemployedrespondents. Work Involvement Scale (WIS) Having a job is very important to you Even if you won a great deal of money you would continue to work You hate to be unemployed You quickly get very bored if you have no work to do The most important things that happen to you involve work General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) You have lost much sleep due to worry You feel that you are playing a useful part in things You feel capable of making decisions about things You feel constantly under strain You feel that you can not overcome your difficulties You are able to concentrate on whatever you are doing You are able to face up to your problems You feel unhappy and depressed You have been losing confidence in yourself You are thinking of yourself as a worthless person You feel reasonably happy, all things considered You are able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities

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138 ACTASOCIOLOGICA 1999 Table 2. Employment commitment by function of employment (per cent). WIS score Very important functions of employment Money Meaningful activity Work-mates Reputation and respect ? <10 35 41 43 25 243 11-15 33 55 58 29 333 16-18 39 64 65 36 404 19+ 33 73 65 43 720 ?

VOLUME 42

Total 35 63 60 36 1,700

0.001 0.001 0.001

The WIS was developed by Warr et al. (1979) to measure subjective work orientation. The purpose of the scale is to measure in what sense paid work in general is a central part of life. In this version, the WIS scale consists of five statements about the importance of employment, in very broad terms, for the unemployed. The answers have been summarized into an additive index ranging from 0-20; the higher the score, the higher the employment commitment. The dependent variable 'GHQ' is also an additive index, which in this study consists of twelve statements concerning general health and experience The of day-to-day activities. had 60 measure 1972) original (Goldberg items, but the GHQ has been reduced to versions 30, 20 and 12 items in several containing studies. The index ranges from 0-36; the higher the score, the lower The the well-being. for the 12reliability and validity coefficients item GHQ scale and the WIS scale have been shown to be high (Banks et al. 1980; Warr et al. 1979). is The function of former employment determined in two questions. The first evaluates the importance of money, the activity itself and work-mates. The second question measures the in life by asking centrality of the employment the respondents if, and to what extent, they were employed just before they became unemare that those who had ployed. The assumptions social jobs are more motivated to be stimulating, in paid work than those who have engaged instrumental attitudes to their former jobs, and that unemployed people who have previous have a stronger experience of paid employment commitment than those who have employment never experienced To what paid employment. person has managed to degree the unemployed find other meaningful activities is examined in two questions levels in concerning activity general and one question exploring the function of housework. The between relationship employment

commitment, psychological well-being and the variables is measured dependent by 'Multiple Classification Analyses' (MCA). This method generates some useful statistics. The Eta coeffimeasures the cient bivariate correlation and dependent varibetween the independent ables, while the Beta coefficient is a measure of variable when the effect of the independent for other variables. The controlling higher the value, the stronger the effect. The mean value for each category on the WIS and GHQ is also Another advantage with the MCA determined. is that it is possible to calculate method interaction effects between independent variables.

5. The psychosocial employment

meaning

of

The WIS, as stated earlier, was developed to measure subjective motivation to be employed, or, in Warr et al.'s (1979:130) words, 'the extent to which a person wants to be engaged in work'. What does this definition really mean? between Table 2, which shows the relationship the functions the WIS and questions concerning of paid work in general, provides an indication. The results show that the WIS is a of the psychosocial of measurement meaning not the economic meaning. There employment, between employwas no significant connection and the statement, 'the ment commitment All the other stateis money very important'. related to ments proved to be significantly commitment. Among those with employment to paid work, 73,65, a very strong commitment and 43 per cent emphasized the activity, the coand the status, that workers, respectively, is that a provides. The conclusion employment that high score on the WIS scale indicates is important because it provides employment social contact, meaningful activity, status and identity. These are basically the same functions

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EmploymentCommitmentand PsychologicalWell-being 139 that Jahoda (1982) focuses on in her theory of the psychosocial functions of employment. Thus, the WIS can be seen as a rough measureof ment of Jahoda's functions psychosocial employment. The last column in Table 2 shows that for most respondents, social contact and the meaningful activity that employment provides were very important. Sixty per cent of the unemthat co-workers are very ployed responded that and 63 per cent emphasized important, offers meaningful employment activity. These figures should be compared with the responses to the first statement in Table 2. A mere 35 per cent of respondents reported that the money is very important, which shows that employment is not only a question of money. commitment when controlling for employment the more subjective factors related to nonfinancial job motivation. Those with instrumental attitudes towards their former jobs were less motivated to work than those who had valued the activity and community with associated their jobs. This result may indicate that persons who work primarily for the sake of money fulfil their psychosocial needs activities through other than employment. In addition, those who have never been employed have relatively of employment commitment. high degrees Those who fell into this category and the student category were mainly young people. The data provide an indication of the level of non-financial motivation to be engaged in paid work among youth at this early stage of the analysis. The variables measuring to what degree the unemployed manage to replace employment with other activities appear to be strongly with commitment correlated to employment. Table 3 indicates that the unemployed who were able to replace paid work with alternative activities and found it easy to make the time pass had relatively low levels of non-financial The results also show a strong job motivation. to relationship between the level of commitment and the level of commitment housework to Those who assert that housework employment. as employment are much is not as stimulating more committed to having paid work than those who tell us that housework is as stimulating as This supports the idea that unememployment. ployed people who can fulfil their latent needs activities unconnected to through meaningful are less committed to paid employemployment ment than those who have problems finding activities. alternative, stimulating Columns three to six in Table 3 compare women and men. It is clear that the relationship variables on employbetween the independent is nearly the same for both. ment commitment This speaks for the notion that the value of and former employment non-employment the level of comactivities strongly influences mitment to a paid job among both men and there are some notable women. However, differences. For example, former male students are much more strongly committed to employment for non-financial reasons than female women who have never students. Unemployed have notably nonbeen employed stronger to be engaged in paid financial commitments work than men in the same situation. To sum up Table 3, the results clearly

6. Factors governing commitment among women

employment unemployed

men

and

This section investigates factors of great importance for unemployed men's and women's to be engaged in paid work. When willingness levels of employment commitment comparing between men and women, the results indicate that men have a somewhat stronsignificantly than women do (p = ger work commitment 0.05). The average score on the WIS scale is 16.1 for men and 15.6 for women, which the hypothesis that men generally supports value of paid work appreciate the psychosocial more than women do. Two central factors in the level of employment commitment among unemployed men and women are their experiences of their former jobs and to what degree they to replace employment with other manage activities. meaningful The first two columns in Table 3 show that former job experiences among the unemployed, are relevant to the non-financial motivation to be engaged in paid work. The bivariate effect of the variable measuring what the respondents were doing before the unemployment just that those who were period began indicates housewives and part-time workers were less committed to being employed in paid work than those who had been employed full-time. Accordingly, unemployed people previously working full-time were also more strongly committed to have paid employment. Even those who were had relatively students strong employment commitments. However, there was no significant relationship this variable and between

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140 ACTASOCIOLOGICA 1999 Table 3. MCA analysis. Factors that govern employment commitment among unemployedmen and women. Mean score on WIS All (Eta) Value of former employment Labour-market situation before unemployment Worked full-time Worked part-time Student Housewife Most important function of the former job Money Meaningful activity Work-mates Never employed Value of non-employment activities Ability to find meaningful activities Very easy Quite easy Neither easy nor hard Quite hard Very hard Hard to make time pass Yes Sometimes No Housework is as stimulating as employment Disagree Partially disagree Neither agree nor disagree Partially agree Agree p R2 * (Beta) (Eta) Women (Beta) (Eta) Men

VOLUME 42

(Beta)

(0.12) 15.92 14.86 16.64 13.68 (0.19) 14.52 16.01 16.63 17.12 (0.37) 13.09 16.15 17.62 17.88 18.80 (0.22) 18.66 17.10 15.23 (0.43) 17.63 15.70 15.42 13.76 11.66

(0.06 n.s.) 16.00 15.32 15.70 14.89 (0.13***) 14.89 15.96 16.65 16.40 (0.25***) 13.98 16.11 17.09 16.91 17.50 (0.07**) 16.94 16.09 15.66 (0.34***) 17.29 15.62 15.34 14.21 12.61 1552 0.283

(0.13) 15.52 14.84 16.56 13.68 (0.19) 14.17 15.28 16.30 17.05 (0.38) 12.88 15.64 17.64 17.90 18.28 (0.26) 18.63 17.23 14.78 (0.44) 17.35 15.83 15.69 13.76 10.66

(0.08 n.s.) 15.73 15.47 14.83 14.49 (0.13*) 14.63 15.37 15.78 16.75 (0.25***) 13.79 15.56 17.17 16.95 17.09 (0.09*) 16.42 16.08 15.24 (0.35***) 16.92 15.85 14.95 14.24 11.58 715 0.290

(0.09) 16.15 14.92 16.72 (0.22) 14.69 16.75 16.97 17.19 (0.37) 13.55 16.60 17.59 17.56 19.01 (0.19) 18.68 17.00 15.63 (0.43) 17.81 15.55 15.16 13.97 12.42

(0.08 n.s.) 16.14 15.04 16.71 (0.17***) 15.35 16.55 17.35 15.75 (0.26***) 14.08 16.59 17.10 16.93 17.71 (0.08*) 17.47 16.15 15.99 (0.35***) 17.55 15.33 15.58 14.19 13.32 837 0.296

** = 0.01, *** = 0.001, n.s. = not significant. ? ? ? = 0.05,

indicate that the experiences of former jobs, and men and especially to what extent unemployed women have been successful in replacing paid with other activities, strongly employment influence the commitment to employment. Those who have had stimulating jobs and find it hard to replace them with meaningful activities also have high levels of commitment to paid work, compared to those who had more attitudes to their jobs and find it instrumental situation. easier to adapt to the unemployment some argue that As previously mentioned, single men and women are more motivated to be employed than unemployed people who have cohabitants. However, as shown earlier, some social also indicate that a certain studies

position can have a different meaning for men and women. In addition, higher employment commitment among men has proved to be valid only for the older age categories. between Table 4 shows the relationship and the background commitment employment variables mentioned above, when controlling for the the variables that (in Table 3) measured value of the former job and the value of The to employment. not connected activities A in four model is done First, steps. analysis between employment measures the connection variand different background commitment ? models ables for all the unemployed. Secondly, between commitand E show the relationship to paid work and the background ment

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Commitmentand PsychologicalWell-being 141 Employment Table 4. MCA analysis. Employment commitment among unemployed women and men according to different background vanables. Controllingfor value of former work and non-employment activities. Mean score on WIS (Beta). All Model A Sex Female Male Family situation Cohabiting + children Cohabiting Single + children Single Age 18-25 26-30 31-40 41-50 51-66 Citizenship Scandinavian Non-Scandinavian Unemployment duration <3 months 3-6 months 6 months-1 year 1-2 years 2 yearsHEducation Handicap Re-employment expectations Unemployment in district In labour-market program ? (0.07**) 15.52 16.18 (0.05) 15.96 15.93 16.44 15.62 (0.20***) 16.88 16.32 16.10 15.91 14.08 (0.15***) 15.66 18.10 (0.07 n.s.) 16.12 15.81 15.29 15.77 16.16 n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. 1659 0.071 Model ? Women Model C Model D Model E Men Model F Model G

(0.10*) (0.10*) 15.07 15.94 16.48 15.72 (0.24***) (0.25***) 16.95 16.26 15.69 15.18 13.41 (0.14***) (0.14***) 15.44 17.96 (0.12*) (0.10 n.s.) 15.73 15.71 14.60 16.27 15.90 n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. 765 0.120

(0.03 n.s.)

(0.19***)

(0.05 n.s.)

(0.09 n.s.)

(0.11*) 16.79 15.90 15.24 15.68 (0.18***) 16.67 16.58 16.41 16.38 14.56 (0.14)***) 15.86 18.08 (0.10 n.s.) 16.40 16.00 16.16 15.18 16.38 n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. 894 0.086

(0.11*)

(0.12**)

(0.17***)

(0.13**)

(0.14***)

(0.09**)

(0.09 n.s.) (0.07 n.s.)

739 0.127

712 0.329

860 0.123

835 0.340

* = 0.05, ** = *** = 0.001, n.s. = not ? ? 0.01, ? significant. Models C and F controlling for variables measuring value of former work. Models D and G controlling for variables measuring value of former work and those measuring value of nonemployment activities.

variables

for women and men, respectively. Thirdly, models C and F indicate the association between the dependent and independent variables among women and men, when controlling for the value of the former employment. Finally, models D and G show the relationship between employment commitment and different variables for women and men background separately, when holding both the value of the former job and the activity level while unemployed constant. Model A, in Table 4, indicates that men in general are more committed to paid work than women are, even when controlling for other variables. does independent Family situation

a significant effect on the level of commitment when employment studying women and men together. However, the MCA indicates that there is a significant interaction effect between sex and family situation, which is later analysed in models ? and E. Furthermore, youths have a stronger nonfinancial motivation to be employed than people in the older age categories, and non-Scandinavians have a stronger employment commitment than Scandinavians. Time spent unemployed is not linearly related to non-financial employment motivation. This indicates that the length of the unemployment period does not affect, nor is it caused by, the level of employment not have

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142 ACTASOCIOLOGICA 1999

VOLUME 42 and commitment to employment among men and women, when controlling for the variables the value of former employment. As measuring Model C shows, there is a slight weakening of the relationship between unemployment duration and the non-financial to paid motivation work among women. However, unemployed when concentrating on the other background variables, the beta values in Models C and F indicate that the value of the former job does not significantly weaken the relationship to employment commitment. When controlling for both factors connected to former employment and the value of other activities in Models D and G, the beta values are considerably weakened, especially for women. Concerning family situation and citito employment comzenship, the relationship mitment turns out to be non-significant in Model D. This indicates that the strong commitment to employment among single females with and non-Scandinavian children females is mainly due to difficulty replacing employment with housework and/or other meaningful activities. The effect of age decreases from 0.25 to 0.19 among women when controlling for the the activity level while variables measuring unemployed. Among men, Model G shows that the value of non-employment-related activity weakens the correlation between non-financial and the variables job motivation age and However, concerning citizenship. family situation, the beta value remains at the same level, to which indicates that the strong commitment paid work among cohabiting men with children living at home is not caused by the variables the activity level while unemployed. measuring Finally, Table 4 shows that R2 increases from 0.12 to 0.33 for women (Models ? and D) and from 0.09 to 0.34 for men (Models E and the importance of G), which again highlights the value of the former job and activities not when analysing connected to paid employment commitment among the unememployment ployed. In conclusion, the variables that measure the value of activities not connected to employetc., explain ment, such as hobbies, housework, to a large extent the variation in non-financial to be engaged in paid work. Those motivation who find it hard to replace the latent functions for instance, youths in general of employment, women in particular) and single (and young mothers with children, are also strongly comwhile those who mitted to paid employment, value of succeed in replacing the psychosocial

commitment If this had among the unemployed. been the case, we would have expected more negative attitudes toward employment among the long-term than among those unemployed who had been unemployed time. a shorter However, this hypothesis needs to be studied in more detail in investigations based on longitudinal data sets. When studying women and men separately, as in Models ? and E, there are some the interesting gender differences concerning variables circumstances'. 'age' and 'family with children living at home Single women and cohabiting men with children have espemotivation to be cially strong non-financial men are so committed to employed. Why when the need for housework is employment greatest, usually when one has a family, is hard to tell. It can be an effect of being the family which is usually a male role, or a breadwinner, for avoiding burdensome household strategy chores that causes the willingness to be engaged in paid work among men living in nuclear families. One can also see that single men with children for some reason appreciate the psychosocial value of paid work less than women in the same situation do. However, it must also be noted that this study included only 21 divorced men with children living with them. Therefore these results must be more thoroughly tested in further studies. In contrast to men, women who live with partners and children have the lowest levels of employment commitment. Models ? and E indicate that Furthermore, there is a clear gap between age categories women. The results show that the among women in the study actually have youngest the highest scores on the WIS, even when them to the men, and the older comparing women are least committed to paid work. For men, the generation gap is not as apparent. It is true that the members of the oldest category have the weakest commitment to paid employeven but the overall ment, men, among between relationship age and employment is not as strong as for women. commitment If the psychosocial value of former employment and the value of activities not connected in to employment the variations explains the unemcommitment employment among ployed, then the relationship between the backand the non-financial variables ground motivation to be employed should be much weaker when controlling for the independent variables in Table 3. Models C and F analyse the correlations variables between the background

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EmploymentCommitmentand PsychologicalWell-being 143 in for example, older persons employment, and women in older particular) general (and have relawith children, women cohabiting commitment. tively low levels of employment These results verify those in Table 3, which indicated that the value of non-employment to the commitment activity mainly explains The only employment among the unemployed. variable connected to employment commitment both and even when men women, among for activity level while unemployed, controlling is age. function High

Psychosocial Low

Economic function

Fig. 1. The psychosocial and economic functions of work by mean score on the GHQ.

7. Employment psychological

commitment well-being

and model, which can be used when analysing the between the psychosocial and relationship of paid work and the risk functions economic In Figure 1, this of poor mental well-being. is described by dividing the variables connection commit'economic situation' and 'employment and then relating ment' into two categories them to the mean on the GHQ. The pattern speaks for itself. The unemployed who managed to replace the psychosocial and economic needs in ways other than by (the cell in which the ecopaid employment functions of paid work nomic and psychosocial are low) have the lowest scores on the GHQ, which means that they feel quite well mentally. In both this and Strandh's (1996) study, in people in older age categories unemployed general, and older women in particular, were in this group. On shown to be over-represented the other hand, unemployed people who miss and psychosofor both economic employment cial reasons (the cell in which the economic and of paid work are high) functions psychosocial This health. have poorer mental generally scale more a mean on the with GHQ group, than six points higher than the group preby immiviously described, is over-represented grants, younger persons and single mothers.

Strandh (1996) shows, in a study based on the same data set used in this study, that economic situation is important when studying the causes of psychological well-being among the unemthat Strandh variables identifies the ployed. structure economic situation and shows that it is primarily the poorly educated, immigrants, single parents and youths that have marginal economic situations and therefore are at risk of having poor mental well-being. As previously mentioned, Jahoda (1982) of argues that lack of the latent functions in to the economic addition employment, the mental illness among causes situation, This study has indicated that the unemployed. of WIS scale is in some sense a measurement If Jahothese latent functions of employment. da's theory is relevant, then there should exist a commitment, relationship between employment wellmeasured by the WIS, and psychological when the even measured GHQ, being, by for the economic situation. Table 5 controlling examines this relationship. to The results show that commitment with is associated well-being employment both men and women, even when among controlling for economic situation. Unemployed people who score high on the WIS scale also have significantly higher scores on the GHQ to those with lower scores on the compared WIS. This means that a high level of employis related to poorer mental ment commitment the results from this and health. Thus, that both Strandh's (1996) study indicate and psychosocial factors affect the economic of the unemployed. well-being psychological These are the same factors that, in another were of great imporstudy by Aberg (1995), tance for job-search activity. Aberg developed a

8. Concluding

discussion

in This study has shown that the unemployed for psychosocial miss employment general reasons. The results support Jahoda's (1982) theory about the latent functions of paid work, which states that unemployed people miss the status social and time contact, structure, in collective identity, as well as the participation purposes and regular activity, that employment

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1999 144 ACTASOCIOLOGICA Table 5. MCA analysis. Psychological well-being by employment commitment and economic situation.

42 VOLUME

Psychological well-being, mean score on GHQ (Beta) All Work involvement <10 11-15 16-18 19+ Economic situation Marginal economic situation Minor difficulties Making ends meet easily Making ends meet very easily p R2 'p = 0.001. (0.21*" 5.48 7.19 7.69 9.46 (0.34**< 11.18 8.34 5.32 4.50 1615 0.187 Women (0.22***; 5.67 8.07 8.45 10.19 (0.33***; 11.99 8.86 5.45 5.18 741 0.194 Men (0.22***) 5.30 6.24 7.08 8.90 (0.33***) 10.45 7.85 5.25 4.16 874 0.185

provides. However, the results also indicate that the psychosocial meaning of paid work varies within the unemployed group. First of all, when commitment among measuring employment men and women using the WIS unemployed scale, one can see that the variable connected to situation showed that the former labour-market those with instrumental attitudes to their former to be engaged in paid jobs are less motivated than those valued the activity who employment that their former jobs provided. and community also show The results that the variables measuring the extent to which the unemployed of in replacing the latent functions succeed to central are activities with other employment Those commitment. the degree of employment who managed to fill their time with meaningful to activities had relatively weak commitments failed to the that work; replace unemployed paid had functions of employment the psychosocial to be motivation non-financial very strong These results are valid for both employed. women and men. However, the results also indicate that the varies commitment level of employment in women and men between unemployed Men in older social similar age positions. categories are more committed to employment but among of similar women than ages, to have seem women stronger younger persons, motivation to be employed than non-financial the variable 'family men have. Furthermore, situation' indicates that, among women, those with children have the weakest, and cohabiting the strongest, with children single people to a paid job. For men the situation commitment

is reversed. These results point to the importance of social context when studying employment commitment among men and women. does not fulfil the same First, employment who have often for older women, functions been entirely responsible for the household and have therefore been working at home for longer periods of their lives, and young women, who have been raised in a more 'equal spirit'. This is even more study indicates that employment women than it is for for younger important younger men. Secondly, the results show that a certain family situation means different things the for men and women, at least concerning to a paid job. level of commitment to is connected commitment Employment men and women well-being among unemployed situation. for economic even when controlling Those with high scores on the WIS scale have higher risks of poor mental wellsignificantly with lower nonbeing than the unemployed motivation. Furthermore, financial employment people that manage to fulfil both unemployed and economic needs in ways other psychosocial feel quite well in paid employment than that miss the while unemployed mentally, and psychosofor both economic employment have poorer mental cial reasons generally health. This study is also interesting in light of the debate in Sweden and ongoing unemployment The labour-market countries. other Western measures that have been put forward have in economic aimed at strengthening general in paid work. The to be engaged incentives hope is that these incentives will motivate the

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EmploymentCommitmentand PsychologicalWell-being 145 to search for jobs more energetiunemployed cally, and thus in the long term the unemployment rate will be lower. This study has shown that there are also psychosocial incentives for in addition to economic incentives. employment An interesting point here is that people in in this study that unemployment categories miss paid work for psychosocial reasons are those in the same categories that in Strandh's have marginal economic situastudy (1996) tions (for example, non-Scandinavians, youths and single mothers). Clearly these people have both economic and psychosocial incentives for level However, the unemployment employment. is relatively in these high among people in Sweden (SCB 1997). These facts categories that people are speak against the hypothesis because they are poorly motivated unemployed to be engaged in paid work. 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