UNIT 7

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS OPEN SYSTEMS PART 2 STEADY/UNSTEADY FLOW PROCESSES

Unit Structure 7. 7.# 7.2 7.+ O!er!ie" Le$rnin% O&'ecti!e( Intr)*ucti)n Ste$*,-./)" Pr)ce((e( 7.+.# 7.+.2 7.1 7.1.# 7.1.2 7.1.+ 7.5 7.6 7.7 Princi0/e ). C)n(er!$ti)n ). M$(( Princi0/e ). C)n(er!$ti)n ). Ener%, N)22/e( $n* Di..u(er( T3r)tt/in% De!ice( Tur&ine( $n* C)40re(()r(

Ste$*,-./)" En%ineerin% De!ice(

Un(te$*,-./)" Pr)ce((e( Su44$r, An("er( t) Acti!itie(

7.

O7ER7IEW

In Unit 6, we saw the application of the first law of thermodynamics to open systems in general after carrying out a mass balance (principle of conservation of energy). In this unit, we will show how the relation can be simplified by dealing with steady-flow engineering processes. The application of this simplified relation can enable rapid and easy analysis of steady flow engineering devices. brief introduction to unsteady flow devices will highlight the difficulties encountered in analysing such processes.

Unit 7

In order to be able to understand this unit comprehensively, a good grasp of the previous units is re"uired.

7.#

LEARNIN8 O9:ECTI7ES

#y the end of this unit, you will be able to do the following$ !. &. '. (. %efine steady-flow processes. pply the first law of thermodynamics to open systems. nalyse steady-flow engineering devices using the !st law of thermodynamics. )ompare steady-flow processes and unsteady-flow processes.

7.2

INTRODUCTION

The application of the first law of thermodynamics to open systems eventually leads to e*pressions that are very complicated to use and solve. To be able to analyse engineering devices, it is necessary to simplify the e"uation obtained from the principle of conservation of energy. +e start this unit by loo,ing at steady-flow processes and unsteady-flow processes. Then we will illustrate how the simplified relation obtained from the ! st law of thermodynamics can be used for the analysis of the main steady-flow engineering devices. -o..les and %iffusers, throttling devices, compressors and turbines are the engineering devices that we will use for demonstrating the application of the ! st law of thermodynamics to engineering devices. The unsteady-flow processes are also considered to show the difference with steady-flow processes.
Unit 7 &

7.+

STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES

In a control volume, it is ,nown that there is both mass flow and energy interaction between the system and its surroundings. The fluid may flow in the control volume, with its properties varying with time and location. mass and energy. In most engineering devices, the rate of flow of mass and energy is constant throughout the control surface (boundary of a control volume), that is, the device operates in a steady state. Under steady state, any property will have a fi*ed value at a particular location but will not vary with time. The fluid properties may change from point to point within the control volume but at any fi*ed point, they remain the same during the entire process. /ngineering devices wor,ing under steady state are called (te$*,-./)" *e!ice( and the thermodynamic processes involving steady-flow engineering devices are called (te$*,./)" 0r)ce((e(.
M$(( in
+ C 25 C C7 #5 C 2 C C7

The analysis of such systems will

eventually lead to complicated e"uations derived from the principle of conservation of

M$(( in
+ C 25 C

M$(( )ut

#5 C

M$(( )ut

Ti4e t)

Ti4e t

The most important characteristics of a steady-flow process are as follows$ no properties, whether intensive or e*tensive change with time. (i.e., !)/u4e; 4$(( $n* t)t$/ ener%, c)ntent remain constant). 0eat transfer and wor, interactions between system and surroundings do not change with time.
Unit 7 '

To be able to apply the first law of thermodynamics to steady-flow processes, we need to perform a mass and energy balance based on the principle of conservation of mass and energy respectively.

7.+.# Princi0/e ). C)n(er!$ti)n ). M$((

#y the principle of conservation of mass and if there is no mass accumulation mcv 1 2,

it follows that the total amount of mass entering the system is e"ual to the total amount of mass leaving it, that is, the total amount of mass contained in the control volume does not change with time, as described in the first characteristic of steady flow devices. 3or general steady-flow Thermodynamics system with several inlets and e*its, we can write as per the e"uation of conservation of mass developed in Unit 6 e"uation &$

Total mass entering )4 per unit time

=
m
e

Total mass leaving )4 per unit time

(,g5s)

E<u$ti)n 7.#

+e will, in our case, be faced with most engineering devices that have only one inlet and one e*it. The e"uation for the conservation of mass will thus simplify to

m! = m &

where m ! mass flow rate at inlet ( kg / s ) and m & mass flow rate at exit ( kg / s )

E<u$ti)n 7.2

s already stated in the previous unit, the mass flow rate is given by the e"uation$
m = Vav A .

+e can therefore write the continuity e"uation

Unit 7 (

mi

!4 ! av

= & 4& av

C7
&

me

where $

- density of fluid (,g5m')

4av - average velocity in flow direction (m5s) and -cross-sectional area normal to flow direction (m&).

7.+.2 Princi0/e ). C)n(er!$ti)n ). Ener%,

s already described in Unit 6 and stated again in the characteristics of steady flow processes, the total energy content remains constant6 that is, provided there is no accumulation of energy, the total rate of flow of all energy streams entering the control volume is e"ual to the total rate of flow of energy streams leaving the control volume. +e can thus write that$

Total energy crossing the boundary as 9 and + per unit time Q W

Total energy leaving )4 with mass per unit time

Total energy entering into )4 with mass per unit time

e e

i i

+e can e*pand the above e*pression so as to include more familiar terms from e"uation 6.7 from$
& & ve vi Q W = m e he + + gz e m i hi + + gz i & &

E<u$ti)n 7.+

for each e*it

for each inlet

#y applying the principle of conservation of mass and assuming that we are dealing with engineering devices with a single entry and single e*it$

Unit 7

me = mi = m

nd the above e"uation reduces to$

& v & vi e + m( gz e gz i ) Q W = m( he hi ) + m & &

= m( h + k .e + p.e )

;n a unit mass basis

< " = 3 > ?.e > 0.e

,=5,g

E<u$ti)n 7.1

The previous e"uation represents the application of the first law of Thermodynamics to open systems, more specifically to steady-flow processes. If, for e*ample, we assume that the change in ,inetic energy and the change in potential energy is negligible, then the e"uation will simplify to$

< " = 3

(,=5,g)

E<u$ti)n 7.5

<ou should remember that q represents any heat transfer to or from the system. If the system is adiabatic, then " 1 2. Self-Assessment Question: )omment on any analogy that is apparent between the first law e*pression for closed systems from e"uation (.6 and 7.8.

3or control volume systems, the volume remains constant and the e*pression p4 1 2. The flow wor, is already ta,en into account by the property enthalpy. The w in the
Unit 7 6

e"uation 7.8 will thus refer to shaft wor, and electrical wor, as many steady-flow engineering devices such as turbines and compressors transmit power through a shaft or through electrical wires. <ou will also recall from Unit 8 that the property enthalpy can be determined in three ways. !. &. '. Acti!it, # +hat are the characteristics of a steady-flow process> 3rom steam tables. #y integrating the e*pression of )p in terms of T. #y averaging )p between two fi*ed temperatures.

7.1

STEADY FLOW EN8INEERIN8 DE7ICES

+e will now consider a few e*amples of steady flow engineering devices li,e no..les and diffusers, throttling devices, turbines and compressors. It should be remembered that many engineering devices operate under the same conditions for long periods of time.

7.1.# N)22/e( $n* Di..u(er(

no..le is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the e*pense of pressure and can be represented by 3igure 7.!$-

Unit 7

v!

v&

v& ?? v!

Fi%ure 7.#@ N)22/e diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid at the e*pense of its ,inetic energy. It can be schematically illustrated by 3igure 7.&$

v!

v&

v& @@ v!

Fi%ure 7.2@ Di..u(er s can be seen from the definitions, no..les and diffusers perform opposite tas,s and are widely used in roc,ets and spacecrafts. +e can analyse the application of the first law of Thermodynamics to no..les and diffusers. To recall, the application of the first law of Thermodynamics to the general open systems was seen in Aection 7.'.& to be e"ual to < " = 3 > ?.e > 0.e E<u$ti)n 7.6

In the case of no..les and diffusers, a few simplifications will apply$

"

The rate of heat transfer is usually negligible between the system (i.e
B

Unit 7

diffuser or no..le) and the surroundings even if the system is not

insulated5adiabatic. +e will hence assume that " 1 2 -o shaft wor, and no electric wor, are involved in no..les and diffusers and hence w 1 2. 3low wor, is ta,en into account in the

p.e $

enthalpy term. In most cases, the fluid flowing through a diffuser or no..le does not e*perience any change in elevation and hence p.e 12.

The above e"uation will thus simplify to

Fh = F,.e

E<u$ti)n 7.7

-ote$ The above e"uation is valid only if assumptions5simplifications are made as above for
"

, w and p.e.

Acti!it, 2 (a) ir at !22) and B2 ,Ca enters the diffuser of a Det engine steadily with a velocity of &22 m5s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 2.(m &. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared to the inlet velocity. %etermine the$ (i) mass flow rate of the air, (ii) temperature of the air leaving the diffuser. (b) Ateam at &82 psia and 72223 steadily enters a no..le whose inlet area is 2.& ft&. The mass flow rate of the steam through the no..le is !2 lbm5s. Ateam leaves the no..le at &22 psia with a velocity of E22 ft5s. The heat losses from the no..le per unit mass of the steam are estimated to be !.& #tu5lbm. %etermine (i) the inlet velocity, (ii) the e*it temperature of steam.

7.1.2 T3r)tt/in% De!ice(

Unit 7

Throttling devices are flow resisting devices that cause an appreciable drop in the pressure in a line through which a fluid flows$
T3r)tt/in% 7$/!e

Fi%ure 7.+@ T3r)ttin% 7$/!e The pressure drop in throttling valves is usually accompanied by an appreciable decrease in temperature and thus these engineering devices find useful applications in refrigeration and air-conditioning. A nu4&er ). $((u40ti)n( $re u(u$//, 4$*e () $( t) (i40/i., t3e .ir(t /$" e<u$ti)n .)r t3r)tt/in% *e!ice(@ !. &. '. " - rate of heat transfer is usually 1 2. no wor, is done, so w 1 2. assuming change in potential energy is negligible, p.e 1 2.
q w = h + k .e + p.e 2 2 = h + k .e + 2 h = ke h& h! = v!& v&& & &

(.

The velocities are usually small, so that ,e is also small and can be neglected 32=3# E<u$ti)n 7.A

The enthalpy of the fluid at the inlet is e"ual to the enthalpy of the fluid at the e*it. Acti!it, + Gefrigerant-!& enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated li"uid at 2.B HCa and is throttled to a pressure of 2.!& HCa. %etermine the "uality of the refrigerant at the final state and the temperature drop during the process.

7.1.+ Tur&ine( $n* C)40re(()r(

Unit 7 !2

turbine is a device in which wor, is developed or produced as a result of a fluid flowing through a set of blades attached to a shaft free to rotate. Turbines are widely used in steam power plants and aircraft engines. The turbine can be represented by 3igure 7.($

Fi%ure 7.1@ Tur&ine If we assume that the changes in ,inetic and potential energies are negligible and that the system is well insulated, then the e*pression for the !st law simplifies as$
q w = h+ k .e + p .e 2 w = h 2 2

w- represents the power output (or wor, developed5produced). It is a positive "uantity as wor, is done &, the fluid. -w 1 h& Ih! " = 3#-32 E<u$ti)n 7.B

)ompressors as well as pumps and fans are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid. +or, is applied to these devices from an e*ternal source through a rotating shaft. Thus the wor, term for compressors is negative as wor, is done )n gas.
Unit 7 !!

)ompressors can be represented schematically by 3igure 7.8$

C)40re (()r

Fi%ure 7.5@ C)40re(()r Ji,e we have done in the previous cases, we can analyse the device and simplify the !st law of Thermodynamics by ma,ing a few assumptions$ !. &. If we neglect the changes in ,inetic and potential energy, If we assume that the system is adiabatic,

then the e"uation simplifies as

q w = h+ k .e + p .e 2 w = h 2 2

In the case of compressors, w represents the power input or wor, consumed. It is a negative "uantity as wor, is done on the fluid. -(w) 1 h " = 3#-32 E<u$ti)n 7.#

Unit 7

!&

Cumps also operate in the same manner e*cept that the wor,ing fluid is a li"uid instead of a gas. Acti!it, 1 (a) ir at !22 ,Ca and &B2 K is compressed steadily to 622,Ca and (22 K. The mass flow rate of the air is 2.2& ,g5s and a heat loss of !6 ,=5,g occurs during the process. (b) ssuming the changes in ,inetic and potential energies are negligible, determine the necessary power input to the compressor. The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 8 H+, and the inlet and e*it conditions of the steam are as indicated below$
T! 1 (222) L! 1 !2m 4! 1 82ms-! C! 1 & HCa

L& 1 6m M& 1 E2N 4& 1 !B2ms-! C& 1 !8,Ca

(i) (ii) (iii)

)ompare the magnitudes of h, ,.e, and p.e. %etermine the wor, done per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine. )alculate the mass flow rate of the steam.

7.5

UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES

Unit 7

!'

Unsteady-flow processes refer to processes in which there are changes within the control volume with time. e*amples include The charging of rigid vessels from supply lines The discharging of a fluid from pressurised vessels. Auch processes are also ,nown as transient-flow processes and

The principle of conservation of mass can be applied to unsteady-flow processes. In this case, the amount of mass within the control volume changes during the interval t and the following e*pression can be written down.

Total mass entering )4 during t

Total mass leaving )4 during t

-et change in mass within )4 during t

m m
At inlet

i i

m m
exit

e e

= =

m cv
&

(m m )
final initial

! cv

If no mass enters the )4$ mi 1 2 If no mass leaves the )4$ me 1 2 If the )4 is initially evacuated$ m! 1 2 Aimilarly, the principle of conservation of energy can be applied to unsteady-flow processes. )ontrary to steady-flow processes, the energy content of a )4 changes with time and the e*pression obtained$
" w + i e = / cv

Unit 7

!(

or

Total energy crossing boundary as heat and wor, during t

Total energy transported by mass into )4 during t

Total energy transported by mass out of )4 during t

net change in energy during t

s it can be noted, the e*pressions in the case of unsteady flow processes are more complicated than in the case of steady-flow processes.

7.6

SUMMARY

The application of the principle of conservation of mass and energy to open systems consisting of steady-flow processes only has enabled us to obtain a number of important and essential relations as given below$

m = Vav A

(,=5s)

principle of conservation of mass

and
principle of conservation of energy on a unit mass basis

< " = 3 > ?e > 0e

(,=5,g)

+e have also seen how the e"uations above can be used for the analysis of steady-flow engineering devices li,e no..les and diffusers, throttling devices, turbines and compressors. Jastly, a brief introduction has been made in the case of unsteady flow processes so as to show the difficulty that can be faced when analysing such devices. In the ne*t unit, we introduce the second law of Thermodynamics which together with the first law constitutes Thermodynamics.

Unit 7

!8

7.7

ANSWERS TO ACTI7ITIES

Acti!it, # -o properties, whether intensive or e*tensive change with time. (i.e., volume, mass and total energy content remain constant). 0eat transfer and wor, interactions between system and surroundings do not change with time.

Acti!it, 2 (a) (i) (ii) (b) (i) (ii) 7B.E ,g5s &E.E2) (2.& m5s '8!2)

Acti!it, + 2.'' T1-8B.(B2). Acti!it, 1 (a) (b) (ii) (iii) -&.7'7 ,+ (i) -BB8.B7 ,= 8.7( ,g5s !(.E8 ,=5,g -2.2'E& ,=5,g B72.E8 ,=5,g

Unit 7

!6

Unit 7

!7