The English sentence Topics: 1. Simple sentence structure, clause types: Chapter 10 2.

Clause elements syntactically and semantically considered: Ch.10 3. Sentence types: Ch. 11 4. Subordination and pro !orms: Ch. 12 ". Ellipsis: Ch12 # $. Coordination and subordination: Ch 13 14 %. &ominal clauses: Ch. 1" '. (d)erbial clauses: Ch 1" 10. Theme and !ocus: Ch 1% Sentences are o! two main types: simple *one simple independent clause, each element is reali+ed by a phrase,, and multiple- a. compound *t.o or more coordinated clauses,, b. complex *one main clause and one or more elements are reali+ed by subordinate clauses such as a direct ob/ect or an ad)erbial,. Sophie had 0uit the /ob that she too1 only last .ee1. * the relati)e clause is part o! the &2, simple sentence She lost her /ob although she had worked hard.- ad)erbial subordinated to the main clause multiple, comple3. 4(567 C8(9SE T:2ES ;based on <E7= types 1. > must teach you something. S<6i6d 2. 2lease lea)e your pets outside. (d) *S, <Cd(pl 3. :ou appear rela3ed. S<Cs 4. That clo.n s.indled me. S<6d ". They all !ound me rather annoying. S<6dCo #. She is crying. S< $. 4y daughter is at school. S<(d) (mbiguity? Call me a .aiter @an idiot@. a. *S,<6i6d Call a .aiter !or me. , b. *S,< 6dCo. *61ay, you are a .aiter., Clause types *Sub/ect, )erb, Airect ob/ect, >ndirect 6b/ects, Sub/ect related and 6b/ect related complement, (d)erbial, 4 criteria are used to distinguish clause elements: a. !orm : !inite !orm? , &2? b. position c. syntactic !unction d. semantic !unction e.g. They told 4rs. Clinton. <s. They told lies. Mrs Clinton and lies are both &2s, so by !orm or by position they cannot be distinguished, they are di!!erent semantically and syntactically. (ccording to the S:&T(CT>C !unction, the clause elements are as !ollo.s: 1. Sub/ect *S,: present most o! the time * in imperati)es it is implied, 2. 6b/ect: direct , 6d )s indirect 6i. E.g. 2our me a drin1 )s 2our a drin1 !or me. Buir1 et al regard only the !irst one an indirect ob/ect, i.e., .hen the ob/ect !ollo.s the )erb immediately, .ithout a preposition *to or !or,. The latter *!or me, is called a

prepositional ob/ect. The di!!erence bet.een to and !or in prepositional ob/ects: C67 e3presses the intended recipients, .hile T6 e3presses the immediate recipient. 3. Complements: 4r. Clinton is a philanderer. ;current attribute, describing an already e3isting attribute *typically .ith copular )erbs,. >n contrast, 4r. Clinton has not become less popular. resulting attribute, e3presses a gradual change. 4. (d)erbials: the most di)erse group. Dandout: ad/uncts, dis/uncts, con/uncts. 4.b. 4etaphorical e3tension o! space relations: SheEs into drugs., These boo1s are o!! limits to students. *Buir1 Ch. 10.11 ; 10.1#, D(&A69T: (d/uncts, dis/uncts, con/uncts Airections: Con/uncts ser)e /oin the clause in .hich they appear to a preceding clause: they point bac1 to something already said. Ais/uncts are a loosely connected comment on the !orm or content o! the rest o! the clause. They can o!ten be paraphrased as !ollo.s: Seriously, he le!t. F > am serious in saying that he le!t. (d/uncts are more closely connected to the rest o! the clause: De tal1ed seriously. 9nderline each ad)erbial, and indicate .hether it is an ad/unct*(,, dis/uncts *A,, or con/uncts *C,. 1. (s !or scholarship, Gillie is a great success. 2. (ngela .ill conse0uently be the ne3t astronaut. 3. =y comparison, the mo)ie .as dull. 4. Con!identially, > hear the go)ernor is resigning. ". The go)ernor spo1e con!identially to the press. #. Heorge .aited until the programme ended. $. he .as ne)ertheless interested. %. >n particular, he reads science !iction. '. 2ossibly he is serious. 10. he canEt possibly be serious. 11. 6ther.ise, there is no .ay to reach 8ittle 7oc1. 12. S0uirrels are hiding nuts in the oa1 tree. 13. She casually mentioned her election to 2hi =eta Iappa. 14. She has rightly decided to see1 ad)ice. 1". Some ad)ised her rightly, other .rongly. 1#. They donEt li1e cauli!lo.er at all. 1$. She married un!ortunately. * made a poor choice, 1%. She married, un!ortunately. *should ha)e stayed single, 1'. Gill you lend me your boo1, please? 20. :ou should .rite the application in in1. 4egoldJs: !el)ette TamJs, e+t megcsinJltu1 egyKtt. 67AE7 6C C8(9SE E8E4E&T: relati)ely !i3ed but some !actors A6 inter)ene. Lcanonical .ord orderM: S<6*6,, declarati)e sentence .ord order. a. optional ad)erbials: >n any case, : medial ad)erbials: > .ould ne)er ha)e done that, or multi .ord ad)erbials, .hich occur clause !inally. b. Buestions c. 7elati)e clauses, .here the rel. pronoun precedes the sub/ect d. E3clamations: Do.NO GhatNO e. 2nd person imperati)e , sub/ect is implied but is not present

!. >n!ormational highlighting: mo)es elements !rom their normal position, e.g. Dere comes 4r P. g. Shorter element .ill precede longer one: She told him clearly .hat she thought o! him,. (d)erbial precedes long ob/ect. h. The )erb is !ollo.ed by the longer part: ( petition .as circulated as1ing !or a longer lunch brea1. asking for acts as a postmodi!ier o! the sub/ect, but the short )erb inter)enes. Stylistically, this is the pre!erred )ersion. ----------------------------------------------------------------". SE4(&T>C roles o! clause elements: E)ery clause describes a situation .ith participants in it. These participants are entities reali+ed by concrete or abstract &2s. 1. Semantic role associated .ith the sub/ect a. She is cutting her nails. ; the sub/ect has the (HE&T><E role: this is the most typical role o! the sub/ect, usually an animate being, causing or instigating the happening denoted by the )erb. b. the (CCECTEA role o! the participant: the most typical semantic role o! the direct ob/ect- , She sold her car last week. ; the car does not cause the happening, rather, it undergoes the actions, it is a!!ected by it. c. recipient participant: most typical role o! the indirect ob/ect: We bought her a bike. The recipient participant, tends to be an animate being passi)ely implicated by the happening. There is a distinction , on a semantic le)el, bet.een the recipient role*F recei)er, and the intended recipient @bene!iciary role: They sent me some money for my daughter. d. The role o! the attribute:. This is a typical semantic role o! sub/ect and ob/ect complements. There are two classifications: 1. current s resulting attributes. (nd 2. identification s characteri!ation. E.g. " am your friend. sub/ect and sub/ect complement are identical, Ghile in She is #uiet, characteri+ation ta1es place. --------------------------------------------------------------------------#. SE4(&T>C 768ES 6C TDE S9=5ECT 1.agenti)e ; typical role 2. The flood and the landslide destroyed entire )illages. role o! external causer or forceF un.itting, inanimate causer o! the action@ an e)ent 3. $ stone 1illed him. role o! instrument he .as 1illed .ith a stone ; an inanimate entity .hich an agent uses to per!orm an action. C6&T7(ST: h e .as 1illed by a stone accidental death 4. %e !ell o!! his horse. ; affected role, no causation, no instigation o! the action. Typical .ith intrans. <erbs: this is .hat happens to sy. ". >deally, students should bene!it !rom these lectures. ; role o! recipient& experiencer. With erbs ' ha e( own( possess( benefit. )ifference between loo1 at and see, listen to and hear.*** #. +udapest lies on the t.o ban1s o! the ri)er Aanube. ;role o! positioner. ,specially with erbs like lie, stand, sit( li)e( and with certain transiti e erbs like carry, 1eep, hold, .ear. $ % '. This room holds 100 people. ' locati e role -ondon used to be !oggy. 8ocati)e The .orman "n asion too1 place in 10##. e enti e role. 9sually deri)ed !rom )erbs *in)ade, Tomorro. is my birthday. ; temporal role . 10. prop >T sub/ect role: little or no semantic content: no participant, the sub/ect !unction is occupied by >T.

>t is getting chilly@ late. >tEs a long .ay to =udapest. =9T: It .as great disappointment to see you again. ;anticipatory >T, a grammatical de)ice, not the same as 2762 >T. ----------------------------------------------------------------------SE4(&T>C 768ES 6C TDE A>7ECT 6=5ECT 1. $ffected participant: De sold his car. &o causation, the participant is other.ise a!!ected by action 2. locati e ob/ect, .ith )erbs li1e walk( swim( pass( /ump( turn( lea e( reach( climb usually fulfil this role. i. The horse /umped the !ence. passi)e: The !ence .as /umped only ob/ects can be turned into sub/ects o! passi)es. Ge can al.ays pro)ide a preposition .hich e3presses place@location. ii. 0b/ect of extent' %e walked a mile no passi e 3. 1esultant or effected ob/ect: paint a portrait, .rite a letterQthe re!erent e3ists only by )irtue o! the acti)ity indicated by the )erb. Ai!!erence bet.een (!!ected and E!!ected ob/ect: sell a portrait, send a letter already e3isting ob/ects 4. cognate ob/ects' They li)ed a cat-and-dog li!e . They do not e3press an independent participant, they are morphologically and semantically related to the )erb. They are usually modi!ied. Can be trans!ormed into S < (d) *e.g. De died miserably De died a miserable death,. ". e enti e ob/ect' They argued for hours. 2 they had an argument . Corm o! a de)erbal noun.>nstead o! S <, S < Re)enti)e ob/ect. 3. instrumental ob/ect' %e nodded his head 45with his head67 (CCECTEA >&A>7ECT 6&5ECT most typical semantic role : recipient. Gith )erbs li1e make, do, give, take. E.g. She ga e the door three kicks. $lso( They ga e the car a push. The car- a!!ected by the action. Buestion: ? She ga)e three 1ic1s to the door? &6. The a!!ected indirect ob/ect cannot normally be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase. =(S>C E&H8>SD SE&TE&CE ST79CT97ES (. 7EA9CT>6&@(==7E<>(T>6& : pro !orms and ellipsis =. EP2(&S>6&@E8(=(7(T>6&: C667A>&(T>6& <S S9=67A>&(T>6& 7eduction is a grammatical principle .hereby the structure o! the sentence is shortened *to a)oid redundancy o! e3pression,. The conditions !or reduction and e3pansion are similar: a. .e need some clauses .hich share some common ground b. they ha)e to share the same structure c. there must be repetition o! certain .ords: there must be some common le3ical content. >., Reduction: in semantic and pragmatic terms. >t is means o! a)oiding redundancy o! e3pression. Synta3 is responsible !or permitting certain 1inds o! reduction. 4oti)ation !or reduction: pre!erence !or economy * Lreduce as much as possibleM, clarity e.g. They may get married e)entually but > donE thin1 they should.@ they should do so. Cocus on !resh in!ormation. E.g Da)e you !ed the cat? ; &ot yet. *F> ha)e @not@ !ed the cat ; 1no.n in!ormation, OOO7eduction must be a)oided .hen it leads to ambiguity.

2ro !orm substitution: .e need an antecedent *Mgoing be!oreM,, .hich re!ers to the pro !orm.The bond bet.een the pro !orm and its antecedent can be o! t.o di!!erent 1inds: a. substitution and b, co re!erence *F bond bet.een t.o items .hich re!er to the same thing,. E.g. Some of the kids hurt themsel es. Cor substitution: Cran1 got a scholarship this year and 5ane got one last year. 6&E replaces the re!erent, but the t.o are not co ro!erential. b. Test o! substitution: .e must be able to replace Lsome o! the 1idsM .ithout a change in the meaning: Do.e)er, Some o! the 1ids hurt some o! the 1ids G>88 result in a change in meaning. Comple3 pro !orms: )o it( do so( do that 4substitutes !or predicates o! predications7 "T' same action by same person is described S0 same general type of action( not necessarily carried out by the same person T%$T' surprise is expressed. ,8,1C"S,S' 1.,. Close Workbook 939-93: ----------------------------------------------------------------------E88>2S>S grammatical omission )erbatim reco)erability: the actual .ord*s, .hose meaning is implied but ob)iously omitted is reco)erable Criteria !or ellipsis: 1. the ellipted .ords are precisely reco)erable. She canE sing and she .onEt @S>&H@ tonight. 2. the elliptical construction is grammatically de!ecti)e: :ou can phone me tonight i! you .ishN *Fto phone me , 3. Ino.ing no Crench, N not ellipsis. (!ter inserting the missing .ords, .e get a grammatical sentence Rsince > .as 1no.ing no CrenchN 4. the missing .ords are te3tually reco)erable: She gi)es !reely to charities. *Ghat? ; money, ". the e3act match criterion: the missing .ords are present in the te3t in e3actly the same !orm. There is a gradient o! ellipsis, sometimes not all " criteria are met. Elaboration: D:26T(P>S *Fa hierarchical arrangement bet.een t.o or more coordinated clauses, , )s 2(7(T(P>S *Frelationship bet.een t.o or more coordinated clauses is e0ual,. Coordination: T.o main types: a. syndeticF .ith o)ert signals o! coordination *but, and, or,, b. asyndetic: no o)ert signals o! coordination. *FMunlin1edM,. Coordinating con/unctions are lin1ing .ords. E.g. 4rs P sold s.eets, chocolates, and to!!ee apples ; (&A closes do.n the list 4rs. P sold s.eets, chocolates, to!!ee applesN. this is an open list, these items are /ust e3amples. Der !irst and handsome husband ; paratactic relationship bet.een !irst and handsome =9T Der !irst handsome husband: handsome 0uali!ies husband( first 0uali!ies handsome husband- hierachical& hypotactic relationship. Tag 0uestions: e0ual arrangement.

Semantic di!!erence bet.een coordination and subordination: a. She !ell out .it her husband and le!t him ne. in!o in both elements b. Since she !ell out .ith her husband, she le!t him. The since clause carries bac1ground @old in!o and the main clause carries ne. in!ormation. 2 types o! coordination o! noun phrases: a. combinatory F the con/oins !unction Lin combinationM .ith respect to the rest o! the clause: eg. 5ohn and 4ary ma1e a pleasant couple *LtogetherM, b. segregatory, e.g. 5ohn and 4ary 1no. the ans.er. ; not together ambiguity: 5ohn and 4ary .on a pri+e. Together? Separately? Indicators of segregatory meaning: bothNand, each, *n,eitherN*n,or, respecti)ely, apiece. ? ? They sell manual and electric type.riters. They sell salmon and cucumber sand.iches. >ndian and Chinese tea @?s@ smell@ smells?@ totally di!!erent. 7ed and .hite cabbage is@are?@ use!ul ingredients o! a salad. De sells old and )aluable boo1s. Combinatory interpretation: a. /oint participation, b. mutual , c. unitary participation *la. and order, S9=67A>&(T>6& ( subordinate clause can be do.ngraded to a sub clausal unit, e.g a prep. 2hrase: >Ell ha)e le!t by 3 o;cock. ;>Ell ha)e le!t by the time you come home. The same subord. clause can enter a number o! relationships. 3 main types o! clauses: a. !inite: the )erb element is !inite b. non !inite: in!initi)e, >&H clauses, c. )erbless, e.g. Ghether right or .rong, he decided to 0uit. Cormal indicators o! subordination: 1. subordinators *although, because,as, such that,no sooner than, etc., (S may ha)e more than one semantic !unction : time, cause, proportional meaning. 2. 6ther indicators o! subordination: .h elements, relati)e pronoun TD(T, in)ersion, absence o! a !inite )erb. Syntactic !unctions o! subordinate clauses: 4atch the types to the syntactic !unctions in the !ollo.ing subordinate clauses: sub/ect, sub/ect complement, direct ob/ect, indirect ob/ect, ob/ect complement, ad/ecti)al complementation, ad)erbial, apposition *restricti)e )s non restricti)e,, post modi!ier, non !inite subordinate clause, >. 1. > .as shoc1ed to hear about your accident. 2. > ha)e al.ays 1no.n him to be a !raud. 3. >! you ans.er .hoe)er replied to your ad, it .ill ta1e ages. 4. 6ne more danger o! your promotion .ill be that that youSll spend e)en more time a.ay !rom your !amily. ". Do. she can collect so many recipes ama+es me. #. he still doesnEt 1no. .hether he should get married. $. (lthough he tries his best, he doesnEt seem to succeed. %. >t all depends on .hat you .ant to do. '. &obody !illed out the 0uestionnaire that > had circulated.

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1. :our idea, that drin1ing .ater should be !luoridated, needs loo1ing at. 2. > .as astonished that so !e. o! the students sho.ed up. 3. > understood that he .as only trying to help. 4. That he spreads gossip out o! spite no longer bothers anyone. ". 4y suspicion .as that the authorities had long been a.are o! the problem. 4atch the syntactic !unctions .ith the nominal clauses: 1. :ou can call me .hate)er you li1e. 2. Ghat > need is a good nightEs sleep. 3. Aecember is .hen .e usually ha)e sno.. 4. > .ill gi)e .hoe)er !i3es my .ashing machine " 000 CTs. ". > .ill ma1e up the entire e3am: .hat > ha)e told you in the lectures and .hat you .ill ha)e to read !rom Buir1 et al. #. > .as 0uite clear on .hich o! them > .ould support. $. :ou should contact .hoe)er made this reser)ation !or you. %. :ou .ill ha)e to put up .ith .hoe)er you choose as a spouse.

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