Research Method

1. Descriptive Qualitative Qualitative descriptive designs typically are an eclectic but reasonable c o m b i n a t i o n of sampling, and data representation techniques. Qualitative descriptive study is the method of choice when straight descriptions of phenomena are desired. Qualitative-descriptive method is a necessary precursor to quantitative research: you always need to operationalize variablesdefine them. Qualitative descriptive research (case studies) Ultimate goal is to improve practice. This presupposes a cause/effect relationship between behavior and outcome; however, this method will ONLY let you hypothesize about variables and describe them. Examples of Qualitative Descriptive Research Qualitative descriptive research involves a broad research question. For example, such a research question could be "the relationship between organised crime and politics in Italy." Getting a picture of this relationship might involve interviews with political leaders about the government's level of tolerance of the mafia. A case study of the process used by a school district to select a new superintendent is another example of qualitative descriptive research. Gathering Qualitative Descriptive Data Qualitative data is often gathered using field research. Field research involves selecting an event, condition or situation to study, and observing and interacting with the event, condition or situation in the field setting. Consider the example of the school district process for hiring a new superintendent. A field researcher selects this event, the hiring process and attends the site to observe the hiring process over a period of time. The field researcher takes detailed notes on the hiring process and may interview those involved in the hiring process (formally or informally). collection, analysis, and

2.

Hystorical Research Penelitian historis (historical research) adalah penelitian yang dimaksudkan untuk

merekonstruksi kondisi masa lampau secara objektif, sistematik, dan akurat. Melalui penelitian ini, bukti-bukti dikumpulkan, dievaluasi, dianalisis, dan disintesiskan. Selanjutnya, dirumuskan kesimpulan berdasarkan bukti-bukti itu. Adakalanya penelitian historis digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis tertentu. Misalnya, hipotesis mengenai dugaan adanya

kesamaan antara sejarah perkembangan keperawatan dari satu negara yang mengalami hegemoni penjajah yang sama. Contoh lain dari penelitian historis adalah studi tentang prosedur diagnosis dalam sistem pengobatan secara tradisional dan relevansinya dengan kenyataan proses diagnosis saat ini. Peneliti historis artifak, atau biasanya memperoleh data melalui verbal. Hasil penelitian catatan-catatan, artifakbiasanya berupa narasi

laporan-laporan

deskriptif (narative description) muncul pada rentang waktu

atau analisis terhadap peristiwa-peristiwa yang lama atau cukup lama di masa lampau.

3. Case Study

- Case Study atau studi kasus adalah rangkuman pengalaman pembelajaran (pengalaman
mengajar) yang ditulis oleh seorang guru/dosen dalam praktik pembelajaran mereka di kelas. Pengalaman tersebut memberikan contoh nyata tentang masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh guru pada saat mereka melaksanakan pembelajaran.

- Melalui pengkajian Case Study dalam pembelajaran dengan segala komponennya, para
guru dapat melakukan evaluasi diri (self evaluation), dapat memperbaiki dan sekaligus dapat meningkatkan praktik pembelajaran mereka di kelas.

- Case Study ditulis dalam bentuk narasi dan berisi pengalaman pembelajaran yang paling
berkesan yang Anda ingat karena kesuksesannya, kesulitan, atau pengalaman yang penuh problematika. A case study is an exploration of a bounded system or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context (Creswell, 1988, 61). Case study research is a qualitative research approach in which the investigator explore a bounded system (a case) or multiple bonuded systems (cases) over time through detailed, indepth data collection involving multiple source information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case-based themes (Creswell, 2007, 73). Case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what to be studied (Stake, 2005, 443). A case study is a problem to be studied, which will reveal an in-depth understanding of a case or bounded system, which involves understanding an event, activity, process, or one or more individuals (Creswell, 2002, 61).

4. Etnography Research Etnografi merupakan studi yang sangat mendalam tentang perilaku yang terjadi secara alami di sebuah budaya atau sebuah kelompok sosial tertentu untuk memahami sebuah budaya tertentu dari sisi pandang pelakunya. Para ahli menyebutnya sebagai penelitian lapangan, karena memang dilaksanakan di lapangan dalam latar alami. Peneliti mengamati perilaku seseorang atau kelompok sebagaimana apa adanya. Data diperoleh dari observasi sangat mendalam sehingga memerlukan waktu berlamalama di lapangan, wawancara dengan anggota kelompok budaya secara mendalam, mempelajari dokumen atau artifak secara jeli. Tidak seperti jenis penelitian kualitatif yang lain dimana lazimnya data dianalisis setelah selesai pengumpulan data di lapangan, data penelitian etnografi dianalisis di lapangan sesuai konteks atau situasi yang terjadi pada saat data dikumpulkan. Penelitian etnografi bersifat antropologis karena akar-akar metodologinya dari antropologi. Para ahli pendidikan bisa menggunakan etnografi untuk meneliti tentang pendidikan di sekolah-sekolah pinggiran atau sekolah-sekolah di tengah-tengah kota.

5. Content Analysis Research Content Analysis is described as the scientific study of content of communication. It is the study of the content with reference to the meanings, contexts and intentions contained in messages. Broadly content analysis may be seen as a method where the content of the message forms the basis for drawing inferences and conclusions about the content (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1976). According to Berelson (1952) content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication. Holsti (1968) says that it is any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics of messages. Kerlinger (1986) defined content analysis as a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective, and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables.

6. Action Research

Kemmis state that action research is form of self-reflective enquire undertaken by participants in social situation in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own practices, their understanding of this practices and the situations in which practices are carried out.

Dave Ebbutt state that action research is about the systematic study of participants by means of their own practical action and by means of their own reflection upon the efforts of those actions.

7. Classroom Action Research

CAR is a series of procedures, a group of activity and piece of descriptive research carried out by a teacher in the classroom in order to improve aspects of the teaching or to evaluate the success or appropriacy of certain activities and procedures, without changing the phenomenon under investigation.

From the definition above, also can be identified the special features characteristic of actions research stated by Kemmis and Mc Tagart ((in Esti Ismawati: 1988) are collective and reflective, and collaborative, critical, and do by active participant.

To reach the goal of research, classroom action research done in four steps they are planning, action, observation, and reflection.

8. R & D Research Educational Research and development (R & D) is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The steps of this process are usually referred to as the R & D cycle, which consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be developed, developing the products based on these findings, field testing it in the setting where it will be used eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the filed-testing stage. In more rigorous programs of R&D, this cycle is repeated until the field-test data indicate that the product meets its behaviorally defined objectives. Penelitian dan (Research and Pengembangan Development) adalah atau Research and Development (R&D) metode penelitian yang adalah suatu proses digunakan untuk atau langkah-langkah untuk mengembangkan menghasilkan produk suatu produk baru, tertentu, dan menguji atau menyempurnakan keefektifan produk produk yang telah ada, yang dapat tersebut(Sugiono,2011) dipertanggungjawabkan .Produk tersebut tidak selalu berbentuk benda atau perangkat keras (hardware), seperti buku,modul, alat bantu pembelajaran di kelas atau di laboratorium, tetapi bisa juga perangkatlunak (software),

seperti program komputer untuk pengolahan data, pembelajaran di kelas,perpustakaan atau laboratorium, ataupun model-model pendidikan, pembelajaran, pelatihan,bimbingan, evaluasi, manajemen, dll. Strategi R & D banyak digunakan untuk mengembangan model- model: desain atau perencanaan pembelajaran proses atau pelaksanaan pembelajaran evaluasi pembelajaran dan model-model program pembelajaran. Penelitian dan pengembangan juga banyak digunakan untuk mengembangkan bahan ajaran, media pembelajar-an serta manajemen pembelajaran