6

METABOLISM: ENERGY AND E NZYMES

CHAPTER REVIEW
Living things cant exhibit any of the characteristics of life without a supply of energy. There are two energy laws that are basic to understanding energy-use patterns in organisms at the cellular level. The first law says that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can only be transferred or transformed. The second law states that a usable form of energy cannot be converted completely into another usable form. As a result of these laws, we know that the entropy of the universe is increasing and that only a constant input of energy maintains the organization of living things. Metabolism is all the reactions that occur in a cell. Only those reactions that result in a negative free energy differencethat is, the products have less usable energy than the reactantsoccur spontaneously. Such reactions, called exergonic reactions, release energy. Endergonic reactions, which require an input of energy, occur because it is possible to couple an exergonic process with an endergonic process. For example, glucose breakdown is an exergonic metabolic pathway that drives the buildup of many ATP molecules. These ATP molecules then supply energy for cellular work. Thus, ATP goes through a cycle in which it is constantly being built up from, and then broken down to ADP + P . A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions that proceed in an orderly, step-by-step manner. Each reaction has a specific enzyme that speeds the reaction by forming a complex with its substrates. Any environmental factor that affects the shape of a protein also affects the ability of an enzyme to do its job. (Many enzymes have cofactors or coenzymes that help them carry out a reaction.) Photosynthesis is a metabolic pathway in chloroplasts that transforms solar energy to the chemical energy within carbohydrates, and aerobic respiration, which is completed in mitochondria, is a metabolic pathway that transforms the energy of carbohydrates into that of ATP molecules. Eventually the energy within ATP molecules becomes heat. Therefore, the world of living things is dependent on a constant input of solar energy. Both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration make use of an electron transport system, in which electrons are transferred from one carrier to the next with the release of energy that is ultimately used to produce ATP molecules. The chemiosmotic hypothesis explains how the electron transport system produces ATP. The carriers of this system deposit hydrogen ions (H + ) on one side of a membrane. When the ions flow down an electrochemical gradient through an ATPase complex, ATP is formed from ADP and P.

S T U DY E X E R C I S E S
Study the text section by section as you answer the questions that follow.

6.1 ENERGY (P . 104)

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; energy can be changed from one form to another but there is always a loss of usable energy. 1. Indicate whether the following statements, related to the energy laws, are true (T) or false (F), and if the statements are false, change them to true statements: _____ a. The chemical energy of ATP cannot be transformed into any other type of energy such as kinetic energy. Rewrite: _____ b. A cell produces ATP and therefore cells do not obey the first law of thermodynamics. Rewrite:

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_____ c. Because energy transformations always result in a loss of usable energy, the entropy of the universe is increasing. Rewrite: _____ d. Because our society uses coal as an energy source, it is helping to decrease the entropy of the universe. Rewrite:

6.2 METABOLIC REACTIONS AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS (P . 106)

In cells the breakdown of ATP, which releases energy, can be coupled to reactions that require an input of energy. ATP goes through a cycle: energy from glucose breakdown drives ATP buildup and then ATP breakdown provides energy for cellular work. 2. Label each of the following as either an endergonic (EN) or an exergonic (EX) reaction: a. energy is released as the reaction occurs. b. energy is required to make the reaction go. c. reaction used by the body for muscle contraction and nerve conduction. d. ATP ADP + P . e. ADP + P ATP. 3. Label this diagram with the following terms: ATP ADP P +P
b.

a. c. d.

4. Label each of the following as pertaining to the left (L) or right (R) side of the diagram. Explain your choice. a. aerobic respiration. Explain: b. muscle contraction. Explain: c. active transport. Explain: 5. ATP is the common provides energy for
a. ______________of b. ______________

cells; when cells require energy, they spend ATP. ATP breakdown
c. ______________

work, such as synthesizing macromolecules;

d. ______________

work,

such as pumping substances across plasma membranes; and flagella. Because ATP breakdown is with minimal loss to the cell.
e. ______________

work, such as the beating of

to endergonic reactions, energy transformation occurs

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6.3 METABOLIC PATHWAYS

AND

ENZYMES (P . 108)

Cells have metabolic pathways in which every reaction has a specific enzyme. Enzymes speed reactions because they have an active site where a specific reaction occurs. Environmental factors like temperature and pH affect the activity of enzymes. Inhibition of enzymes is a common way for cells to control enzyme activity. Cofactors sometimes assist enzymes when chemical reactions occur in cells.

6. Consider the following diagram of a metabolic pathway: E1 A E2 B E3 C E4 D E5 E E6 F G

b. ______________.

AF are 7. Enzymes

a. ______________

and BG are

E 1 E 6 are

c. ______________.

A is a
b. ______________

d. ______________

for the first enzyme and B is the product. the energy of activation. What is the energy of activation?

a. ______________

8. Label this diagram using the following terms: active site enzyme (used more than once) enzyme-substrate complex products substrate

b. _________

f. __________

a.

c. __________

d. _________________

e. ___________

9. Use letters only (rather than a diagram) to show the reaction in question 8.

a. b. _______________________

Is the reaction shown in question 8 a synthetic reaction or a degradative reaction? How do you know? The enzyme-substrate complex and the reaction occur at the
d. ______________

c. ____________________________________________________________________________

site of the enzyme. What is the

e.

significance of using the label enzyme twice in the diagram? It shows that

_________________________
f.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________ Why are enzymes named for their substrates (e.g., maltase speeds the breakdown of maltose)? 10. Complete each statement with the term increases or decreases. Raising the temperature generally Boiling an enzyme drastically
a. ______________

____________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________ the rate of an enzymatic reaction.

c. ______________

b. ______________

the rate of the reaction. the rate of the reaction. the availability of an enzyme for its normal substrate.
e. ______________.

Changing the pH toward the optimum pH for an enzyme Introducing a competitive inhibitor
d. ______________

Due to feedback inhibition, the affinity of the active site for the substrate 11. Enzymes have helpers called
a. ______________,

which

b.

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6.4 METABOLIC PATHWAYS (P . 112)

AND

OXIDATION-REDUCTION

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are oxidation-reduction pathways that allow a flow of energy through all living things. 12. Oxidation is defined as the a. __________ ( gain/loss ) of electrons and reduction is defined as the b. __________ ( gain/loss ) of electrons. In living things, hydrogen ions often accompany electrons. Therefore, in living things, oxidation is the c. _______ of d. __________ atoms and reduction is the e. __________ of f. __________ atoms. 13. An overall equation for photosynthesis, a metabolic pathway in plant cells, is 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Energy
Carbon dioxide Water

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
Glucose Oxygen

14. An overall equation of aerobic cellular respiration is C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2

Glucose Oxygen

6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Energy
Carbon dioxide Water
c. ______________

In this equation reduced to

a. ______________ is

oxidized and b. ______________ is released to the air. molecules.

is

d. ______________,

a low-energy molecule. The oxidation of glucose makes energy available for

the production of

e. ______________

15. There are two coenzymes of oxidation-reduction in cells. a. ______________ is the coenzyme active during photosynthesis, and b. ______________ is the coenzyme active during aerobic cellular respiration. 16. Show that there is a cycling of matter by completing this diagram using these terms: H 2 O and CO 2 (used twice), O 2 and C 6 H 12 O 6

a.

chloroplasts

b.

mitochondria

c.

cycling

17. Show that there is a flow of energy through living things by completing this diagram using these terms: heat, ATP, solar energy, glucose.
a.

chloroplasts produce b. (in plants)

mitochondria produce c. (in all organisms)

d.

CHAPTER TEST
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Do not refer to the text when taking this test. 1. The useful energy conversion in photosynthesis is a. chemical to solar. b. heat to mechanical. c. mechanical to heat. d. solar to chemical. 2. Any energy transformation involves the loss of some energy as a. electricity. b. heat. c. light. d. motion.

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3. In the enzymatically controlled chemical reaction A B + C, A is the a. cofactor. b. enzyme. c. product. d. substrate. 4. An enzyme, functioning best at a pH of 3, is in a neutral solution at a temperature of 40C. Its activity will increase by a. decreasing the amount of substrate. b. denaturing the enzyme. c. increasing the temperature 10 more degrees. d. making the pH more acidic. 5. In the reaction A + B C, the reaction rate may slow down through feedback inhibition by a. increasing the concentration of A. b. increasing the concentration of B. c. increasing the concentration of C. d. decreasing the concentration of B. 6. The energy laws a. account for why energy does not cycle. b. say that some loss of energy always accompanies transformation. c. say that energy can be made available to living things. d. All of these are correct. 7. In a metabolic pathway, A B C D E a. A, B, C, and D are substrates. b. B, C, D, and E are products. c. each reaction requires its own enzyme. d. All of these are correct. 8. The enzyme-substrate complex a. indicates that an enzyme has denatured. b. accounts for why enzymes lower the energy of activation. c. is nonspecific. d. All of these are correct. 9. The tendency for an ordered system to become spontaneously disordered is called a. thermodynamics. b. entropy. c. activation. d. energy conversion. 10. A coupled reaction occurs when energy released from a(n) ______________ reaction is used to drive a(n) ______________ reaction. a. endergonic; exergonic b. breakdown; exergonic c. exergonic; endergonic d. chemical; mechanical 11. NAD + and FAD are a. dehydrogenases. b. proteins. c. coenzymes. d. Both a and c are correct. 12. Reduction has occurred a. when electrons are lost. b. When C 6 H 12 O 6 becomes CO 2 .

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

c. When O 2 becomes H 2 O. d. when heat is given off. e. when ADP becomes ATP. Chloroplasts a. take in CO 2 . b. give off H 2 O. c. pass on solar energy. d. occur in all living things. e. Both a and c are correct. ATP is used for a. chemical work. b. transport work. c. mechanical work. d. All of these are correct. NAD and NADP a. are found only in plants. b. do not participate in metabolic reactions. c. are coenzymes of oxidation-reduction. d. carry hydrogen atoms. e. Both c and d are correct. Which statement is NOT correct about enzymes? a. They usually end in the suffix -ase. b. They catalyze only one reaction. c. They increase the energy of activation. d. They bind temporarily with the substrate. Which of these is NOT expected to increase the rate of an enzymatic reaction? a. add more enzyme b. remove inhibitions c. boil rapidly d. adjust the pH to optimum level Which of these accurately represents a flow of energy from the sun? a. Plants take in solar energy and use it to oxidize glucose, which is used by mitochondria to produce ATP. b. Mitochondria break down glucose to ATP, which is returned to plants to produce glucose. c. Plants take in solar energy and use it to transport water up stems so that water is available to all animals. d. Plants take in solar energy and use it to reduce carbon dioxide so that glucose is made available to animals. e. Both plants and animals make and use ATP. Since energy does not cycle, animal cells a. require a continuing source of glucose. b. are dependent on plant cells. c. must produce ATP nonstop. d. All of these are correct. Synthetic reactions a. require the participation of ATP. b. do not require enzymes. c. are represented by S + E ES P. d. are coupled directly to glucose breakdown.

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THOUGHT QUESTIONS
Answer in complete sentences. 21. Why couldnt life exist without a continual supply of solar energy?

22. Why are enzymes absolutely necessary to the continued existence of a cell?

Test Results: ______ Number right 22 = ______ 100 = ______ %

ANSWER KEY
STUDY EXERCISES
1. a. F The chemical energy of ATP can be transformed into other types of energy such as kinetic energy (muscle contraction). b. F Cells transform the energy of glucose breakdown into ATP molecules and they do obey the first law of thermodynamics. c. T d. F Because our society uses coal as an energy source, it is increasing the entropy of the universe. 2. a. EX b. EN c. EX d. EX e. EN 3. a. +P b. ATP c. P d. ADP 4. a. L, because during aerobic respiration the chemical energy within a glucose molecule is converted to the chemical energy within ATP. b. R, because when muscles contract, the chemical energy within ATP is converted to the kinetic energy of muscle contraction. c. R, because when active transport occurs, the energy released by ATP breakdown is used to pump a molecule across the plasma membrane. 5. a. energy currency b. chemical c. transport d. mechanical e. coupled 6. a. reactants b. products c. enzymes d. substrate 7. a. lower b. energy that must be added to cause molecules to react with one another. 8. a. active site b. substrate c. enzyme d. enzyme-substrate complex e. enzyme f. products 9. a. E + S ES E + P b. degradative c. The reactant is broken down. d. active e. the enzyme is not broken down and can be used over and over again. f. Enzymes are specific to their substrates. 10. a. increases b. decreases c. increases d. decreases e. decreases 11. a. coenzymes b. help enzymes function. 12. a. loss b. gain c. loss d. hydrogen e. gain f. hydrogen 13. a. water b. oxygen c. carbon dioxide d. glucose e. sun 14. a. glucose b. carbon dioxide c. oxygen d. water e. ATP 15. a. NADP b. NAD 16. a. H 2 O and CO 2 b. O 2 and C 6 H 12 O 6 c. H 2 O and CO 2 17. a. solar energy b. glucose c. ATP d. heat

CHAPTER TEST
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. c 6. d 7. d 8. b 9. b 10. c 11. d 12. c 13. a 14. d 15. e 16. c 17. c 18. c 19. d 20. a 21. When chloroplasts carry on photosynthesis, solar energy is converted to the energy of carbohydrates; and when mitochondria complete aerobic respiration, the energy stored in carbohydrates is converted to energy temporarily held by ATP. The energy released by ATP breakdown is used by the cell to do various types of work, and eventually it becomes nonusable heat. 22. Enzymes are absolutely essential for the existence of a cell because they lower the energy of activation of a reaction, thereby requiring less heat to bring about the reaction. At high temperatures, proteins would denature.

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