!"# %&'( )*&+,- .

/& 0/1#,2
Cender, 8epresenLaLlon, and Mlddle LasL ollLlcs ln 2011

Laura S[oberg
unlverslLy of llorlda

!onaLhon Whooley
unlverslLy of llorlda


3&'.45 ,/4 ./& 6+4'4+/,7 (84 ./& *&#9#,4'4+/, '4 4"# 0+96/,9+, :,4#&,'4+/,';
<#;'4+/,9 =/;;/>8+81? =/11#,49 @#;6/1# 4/ 9A/(#&-B8.;?#C8?






%(94&'645 A number of news arLlcles, news programs, and pundlLs have descrlbed Lhe
Arab Sprlng" as an "Arab Sprlng for Women" - pralslng a walve of gender llberaLlon
comlng wlLh Lhe sense of pollLlcal redress LhaL seems Lo be comlng ln waves across Lhe
Arab world." Cender equallLy has been a slgnlflcanL lssue ln Lhe soclal movemenLs of
Lhe Arab Sprlng," boLh ln Lhelr advocacy and ln Lhelr composlLlon. As women
demonsLraLors Look Lo Lhe sLreeLs and women reporLers accounLed for lL, prollferaLlng
accounLs Lold sLorles of Lhe modernlzaLlon of Lhe Arab world Lhrough Lhe bodles and Lhe
llves of lLs women. 1hls paper ls lnLeresLed ln explorlng a number of Lhe gendered
dlmenslons of Lhe Arab Sprlng." llrsL, followlng CynLhla Lnloe's curloslLy, lL asks "where
are Lhe women?" ln Lhe Arab Sprlng - as demonsLraLors, parlahs, marLyrs, careglvers,
and clLlzens, and how women's locaLlons ln Lhelr socleLles may be changlng wlLh or as a
resulL of Lhese pollLlcal changes. lL flnds Lwo dlsLlncL medla narraLlves of women's roles
ln Lhe Arab Sprlng," one whlch characLerlzes Lhe Arab Sprlng as gender-emanclpaLory
and anoLher whlch characLerlzes lL as gender-subordlnaLlng. 1o undersLand Lhls
dlssonance, followlng Splke eLerson and Anne 8unyan, Lhe remalnder of Lhe paper
looks aL Lhe Arab Sprlng Lhrough gendered lenses - asklng whaL quesLlons abouL gender
(and sex and race and culLure) are necessary Lo parLlcular scholarly, medla, and pop
culLure represenLaLlons of Lhe evenLs of Lhe Sprlng of 2011, boLh pro[ecLed ouLwards
from Lhe Arab world" and pro[ecLed onLo lL.




1

An arLlcle ln Lhe Aprll 26, 2011 lssue of 1be Notloo declared lL Lhe Arab Sprlng
for Women,"
1
suggesLlng LhaL Lhe malnsLream medla had overlooked" Lhe facL LhaL
women have been and ofLen remaln aL Lhe forefronL of Lhese proLesLs."
2
ClLlng
examples from 1unlsla, LgypL, and ?emen, Lhe arLlcle conLends LhaL women's bold
gesLures" should be Lhe sub[ecL of medla aLLenLlon, glven LhaL women could noL have
been more vlslble ln Lhe blg demonsLraLlons" and Lhls should ln lLself have been
news."
3
1he arLlcle goes on Lo suggesL LhaL Lhere are dangers Lo proLecLlng women's
galns," lncludlng mosL lmporLanLly LhaL Musllm fundamenLallsL movemenLs wlll
become more lnfluenLlal" and Lhey belleve LhaL women's rlghLs should noL be
expanded ln Lhe wake of Lhese pollLlcal upheavals."
4
8ecognlzlng LhaL Lhe Arab Sprlng
has proven an epochal perlod of acLlvlsm and change for women" where Lhe sheer
numbers of pollLlcally acLlve women" ls lmpresslve, Lhe arLlcle concludes LhaL before,
women could be marglnallzed aL wlll by Lhe dlcLaLors whenever Lhey made demands on
Lhe reglme. now, aL leasL, Lhey have a flghLlng chance."
3
1hls and number of oLher news
arLlcles, news programs, and pundlLs have descrlbed Lhe Arab Sprlng as an "Arab Sprlng
for Women" - pralslng a wave of gender llberaLlon comlng wlLh Lhe sense of pollLlcal
redress LhaL seems Lo be advanclng across Lhe Arab world. 1hese reporLs slgnlfy gender
equallLy as a slgnlflcanL lssue ln Lhe soclal movemenLs of Lhe Arab Sprlng, boLh ln Lhelr
advocacy and ln Lhelr composlLlon. As women demonsLraLors Look Lo Lhe sLreeLs and
women [ournallsLs reporL lL, prollferaLlng accounLs Lell sLorles of Lhe modernlzaLlon of
Lhe Arab world Lhrough Lhe bodles and Lhe llves of lLs women.

2
Shlrln Lbadl (Lhe 2003 nobel eace rlze Wlnner) publlshed a sLrlklng
counLernarraLlve ln Lhe Wall SLreeL !ournal, called A Warnlng for Women of Lhe Arab
Sprlng."
6
Argulng LhaL Sharlah law and women's rlghLs do noL have Lo be muLually
excluslve," Lbadl compares Lhe revoluLlons of Lhe Arab Sprlng Lo Lhe 1979 revoluLlon ln
lran, warnlng LhaL revoluLlonary men ofLen Lake advanLage of women's parLlclpaLlon
durlng Lhe movemenLs, buL Lhen neglecL Lhem ln consLrucLlng posL-revoluLlonary
orders.
7
She conLends LhaL Lhe Lrue 'Arab Sprlng' wlll only dawn when democracy Lakes
rooL ln counLrles LhaL have ousLed Lhelr dlcLaLorshlps, and when women ln Lhose
counLrles are allowed Lo Lake parL ln clvlc llfe."
8

lor decades, femlnlsL research has recognlzed Lhe lmporLance of dlscourses
abouL women ln Lhe maklng and flghLlng of conLemporary confllcLs. ln recenL years,
femlnlsL work has Lalked abouL Lhe sallence of savlng Afghan women from Afghan men
ln unlLed SLaLes (and even global) dlscourses abouL Lhe lnvaslon of and Lhen mlllLary
sLablllzaLlon of AfghanlsLan.
9
lL has looked Lhrough gendered lenses Lo see Lhe cruclal
role LhaL savlng !esslca Lynch played ln Lhe Amerlcan mlllLary operaLlon ln lraq.
10
lL has
seen women's bodles as cruclal Lo Lhe narraLlve [usLlfylng Amerlcan lnLervenLlon ln
Llbya.
11
Whlle sLrong women's rlghLs dlscourses have been presenL ln all of Lhose
sLorles, Lhe resulLs for women have been mlxed, aL besL. 1hose mlxed resulLs have been
parLly because women's rlghLs lssues are compllcaLed, and fraughL wlLh culLural and
Lemporal confllcL and conLexL. 8uL Lhey are also because women's rlghLs are belng
lnsLrumenLallzed, where lmages of women are coopLed lnLo publlc pollLlcal narraLlves Lo
achleve pollLlcal goals or as lenses Lhrough whlch Lo undersLand and [usLlfy pollLlcal

3
confllcLs. CrlLlcal analysls has suggesLed LhaL Lhe cross beLween mlllLarlsm, sLaLe
admlnlsLraLlon, and women's rlghLs has noL ofLen resulLed ln waLershed vlcLorles for
women.
12
lnsLead, Lhe sLorles have been read as slgnlflcanLly more compllcaLed, even
wlLhln expllclLly femlnlsL organlzaLlons (whlch no Arab Sprlng proLesL movemenLs have
been).
13

1hls paper ls lnLeresLed ln explorlng Lhe complex, llmlnal, dlfflculL space ln whlch
women relaLe Lo and wlLh Lhe Arab Sprlng," boLh ln Lerms of women's rlghLs on Lhe
ground" and ln Lerms of how Lhose sLorles are wlelded as parLs of pollLlcal narraLlves of
gender, race, class, rellglon, democracy, and WesLernlzaLlon. lL does so Lhrough (very
prellmlnary) exploraLlons of a number of Lhe gendered dlmenslons of Lhe Arab Sprlng.
llrsL, followlng CynLhla Lnloe's curloslLy, lL asks "where are Lhe women?" ln Lhe Arab
Sprlng - as demonsLraLors, parlahs, marLyrs, careglvers, and clLlzens, and how women's
locaLlons ln Lhelr socleLles may be changlng wlLh or as a resulL of Lhese pollLlcal
changes.
14
llndlng dlssonance among gender-emanclpaLory and gender-subordlnaLlve
accounLs of Lhe Arab Sprlng, Lhe remalnder of Lhe paper looks aL Lhe Arab Sprlng"
Lhrough gendered lenses
13
- asklng whaL quesLlons abouL gender (and sex and race and
culLure) are necessary Lo parLlcular scholarly, medla, and pop culLure represenLaLlons of
Lhe evenLs of Lhe Sprlng of 2011, boLh pro[ecLed ouLwards from Lhe Arab world and
pro[ecLed onLo lL.
!"# D%&'( )*&+,-E

1he Lerm Arab Sprlng has been applled Lo a serles of proLesLs launched by Lhe
self lmmolaLlon of a frulL vendor name Mohamed 8ouazlzl on uecember 17, 2010 ln Sldl

4
8ouzld, 1unlsla. Pls acL of self-lmmolaLlon has been alLernaLely debaLed, condemned
and valorlzed as creaLlng Lhe 1unlslan 8evolL referred Lo colloqulally ln Lhe WesLern
press as Lhe '!asmlne 8evoluLlon'. 1hls sparked 29 days of proLesL whlch effecLlvely
deposed Zlne el-Abldlne 8en All on !anuary 13, 2012. AfLer Lhls lnlLlal revoluLlon, acLors
ln nelghborlng LgypL, who had long been sLrlklng Lo achleve some modlcum of pollLlcal
freedom under Posnl Mubarak's rule, escalaLed Lhelr acLlons on !anuary 23
Lh
. SlLes llke
1ahrlr Square became focal polnLs for Lhe demonsLraLlons, whlch reverberaLed around
Lhe counLry Lo orL Sald and Alexandrla. Posnl Mubarak evenLually sLepped down on
lebruary 11, 2011.
lrom Lhere Lhe proLesLs become boLh more scaLLered and volaLlle. 1he earl
Square proLesLs ln 8ahraln clalmed Lhe llves of several hundred and were evenLually
suppressed by Lhe Culf CooperaLlon Councll (CCC) and Lhe Saudl CovernmenL ln
lebruary and March of 2011. A slmllar LacLlc was used ln ?emen by Lhe CCC buL agalnsL
Lhe Saleh governmenL raLher Lhan ln supporL of Lhe proLesLors. uemonsLraLlons and
assasslnaLlons ln Llbya sparked a Clvll War, whlch evenLually lncluded nA1C bomblng
ralds and Lhe vlgllanLe kllllng of Moamar Caddaffl on CcLober 20, 2011. 1he ongolng
breakdown ln Syrla, beglnnlng on !anuary 26, 2011 Lo daLe has clalmed Lhe llves of
Lhousands and has ylelded llLLle ln Lhe way of pollLlcal redress, lL ls perhaps Lhe mosL
proLracLed, bloody and dlre of Lhem all.
1hus, Lhe Arab Sprlng ls a problemaLlc concepL aL besL wlLh an uneven
appllcaLlon across naLlonal boundarles. WesLern academlcs seem almosL desperaLe Lo
label almosL anyLhlng LhaL looks llke a 'wave of democracy' LhaL may llberaLe Lhe Mlddle

3
LasL, llke qlosoost 'llberaLed' LasLern Lurope from Lhe SovleL unlon ln Lhe laLe 1980's.
16

Cne ls even more skepLlcal as Lhe flrsL dlssemlnaLlon of Lhe concepL occurred durlng an
aborLlve 'Arab Sprlng' ln 2006. undlLs and pollLlclans were qulck Lo declare Lhe
cascadlng effecLs LhaL were posslble Lhrough peaceful demonsLraLlons: soclallsL
proLesLors ln LgypL, who were qulckly and effecLlvely suppressed by Lhe Mubarak
reglme, Lo Lhe 'successful' expulslon of Syrlan forces from Lebanese borders, and all Loo
qulck Lo manlcally declare Arabs unable Lo make lasLlng galns Loward democracy when
Lhe movemenLs falled.
17

8eyond Lhe slmple facL, LhaL Lhe namlng of a Lhlng and Lhe achlevlng of an
ob[ecLlve, especlally one as problemaLlc as unlversal rlghLs, suffrage, or gender equallLy,
are aL besL lncredlbly dlfferenL and problemaLlc proposlLlons. 1he acLual process and
resulLs of Lhls movemenL ln Lhe Mlddle LasL wlll noL be even, nor wlll Lhey achleve whaL
Lhe WesL mlghL 'deslre' ln Lhe Mlddle LasL. As noLed by Shlrln Llbadl, 1he 'Arab Sprlng'
ls noL an accuraLe descrlpLlon of Lhe popular uprlslngs LhaL have Laken place ln Lhe
Musllm counLrles of norLh Afrlca. 1he fall of a dlcLaLor does noL mean democracy."
18

1he Arab Sprlng ls someLhlng beLween a WesLern asplraLlon for safe and sLable
democraLlc LhroughouL Lhe Mlddle LasL and a rheLorlcal assumpLlon used by
dlslnLeresLed parLles Lo label someLhlng Lhey do noL wlsh Lo accuraLely undersLand. 1he
nuLs and bolLs of acLual llberaLlon, whaLever LhaL may look llke, for women wlll be a
socleLal negoLlaLlon based on Lhe local, naLlonal or reglonal hlsLorlcal Lrends. ln
summary, Lhe Arab Sprlng ls noL one Lhlng, lL ls a mulLlLude of dlfferenL proLesLs LhaL
comblne labor and human rlghLs, rellglous and socleLal acLors LhaL run across Lhe

6
specLrum of class and gender.
0"#&# '&# 4"# 0/1#,2
FG


1hls secLlon ldenLlfles Lwo domlnanL narraLlves ln answer Lo Lhe quesLlon where are
Lhe women?" ln conLemporary medla and pollLlcal accounLs of Lhe Arab Sprlng." 1he
flrsL ls Lhe narraLlve of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as a waLershed momenL for women's and
gender rlghLs ln Lhe Arab world whlch slgnlfles and ls slgnlfled by Lhe success of
(wesLern) llberal democraLlc LranslLlons. 1he second ls Lhe narraLlve of Lhe Arab Sprlng"
as changlng llLLle lf anyLhlng for Arab women, and poLenLlally belng a neL negaLlve ln
Lerms of women's rlghLs and women's quallLy of llfe. 1hls narraLlve assoclaLes (lack of)
progress on women's rlghLs wlLh lncompleLeness of an ldeallzed democraLlc LradlLlon.
1hls secLlon dlscusses Lhe conLenLs and prevalence of boLh narraLlves before analyzlng
Lhem Lo look for answers Lo Lhe quesLlons of where Lhe women are.
1be Atob 5ptloq os CeoJet-mooclpototy

Cne group of accounLs of where women were ln Lhe Arab Sprlng saw boLh
women's vlslblllLy ln Lhe Arab Sprlng movemenLs and Lhe mulLlple roles LhaL women
played ln Lhose proLesLs as a success sLory, and ofLen presenLed women's parLlclpaLlon
as noL only evldence of Lhe lmprovemenLs whlch Lhe Arab Sprlng was Lo usher ln for
women buL also of a general democraLlzaLlon and llberallzaLlon LhaL Lhe movemenL was
Lo brlng abouL. lor example, one accounL says LhaL women's presence more Lhan
doubled ln Lhe LgypLlan proLesLs ln 2011 compared Lo pasL proLesLs:
An unprecedenLed number of LgypLlan women parLlclpaLed ln 1uesday's anLl-
governmenL proLesLs. Chada Shahbandar, an acLlvlsL wlLh Lhe LgypLlan
CrganlzaLlon for Puman 8lghLs, esLlmaLed Lhe crowd downLown Lo be 20
percenL female. CLher esLlmaLes were as hlgh as 30 percenL. ln pasL proLesLs, Lhe

7
female presence would rarely rlse Lo 10 percenL.
20


uet 5pleqel reporLed, celebraLlng LhaL women proLesLed alongslde men on Avenue
Pablb 8ourgulba ln 1unls and on 1ahrlr Square ln Calro."
21
1he recognlLlon LhaL women
Lurned ouL Lo Lhe demonsLraLlons ln large numbers ls ofLen accompanled by elLher
personal narraLlves or demonsLraLlve evldence LhaL Lhe women who were presenL
played an lmporLanL or aL leasL agenLlal role. lor example, an cooomlst arLlcle reporLs
Lhe sLory of (female) LgypLlan acLlvlsL Asmaa Mahfouz, who explalns LhaL Lhere was no
dlfference beLween men and women" slnce ALL of us were Lhere, Lhrowlng sLones,
movlng dead bodles."
22
Whlle Mahfouz noLed LhaL some men Lold her Lo geL ouL of Lhe
way," she also saw LhaL oLhers held up umbrellas Lo proLecL her."
23
1hls, ln MaLhleu
von 8ohr's words, conveyed a new lmage of Arab youLh and Arab women" whlch
resonaLed ln lmporLanL ways.
24

arL of Lhls new lmage characLerlzes Lhe Arab Sprlng as foughL ln whole or ln parL
of behalf of women who were sufferlng before lL. lor example, ln coverage and
characLerlzaLlons of Lhe Llbyan uprlslngs, Lhe quesLlon of Lhe Caddafl reglme's abuse of
women became a cruclal rally cry agalnsL Lhe sLaLus quo dlcLaLorshlp. ln an AssoclaLed
ress arLlcle LlLled Pundreds of Women 8eporL 8apes by Caddafl lorces," lL ls alleged
LhaL Lhe reglme pollLlclzed rape, where Lhe woman l spoke Lo say Lhey belleve Lhey
were raped because Lhelr husbands and broLhers were flghLlng Caddafl."
23
Cne sLory
became parLlcularly promlnenL, LhaL of lman al-Cbeldl, who:
bursL lnLo a 1rlpoll hoLel full of forelgn [ournallsLs voclferously declarlng LhaL she
had been raped by members of Llbya's securlLy forces. She had been ln a car
wlLh her broLher-ln-law when Lhey were sLopped aL a checkpolnL ln Lhe Llbyan
caplLal. When her accenL beLrayed her easLern Llbyan rooLs, securlLy forces

8
demanded Lo see her ldenLlLy card. When Lhey learned she was from Lhe clLy of
1obruk, where anLlreglme proLesLs helped spark Lhe ongolng rebelllon lasL
monLh, she was deLalned. '1hey even defecaLed on me and urlnaLed on me,'
she crled as hoLel sLaff and governmenL mlnders franLlcally soughL Lo whlsk her
away. Moussa lbrahlm, a Llbyan governmenL spokesman, was qulck Lo dlsmlss al-
Cbeldl's sLory, saylng 'Lhls glrl ls a prosLlLuLe.'
26


A LreaLlng physlclan for women rape vlcLlms called on forelgn and domesLlc help Lo
Lhrow llghL on whaL ls really happenlng ln Llbya and flghL Lo brlng [usLlce for Lhese
women."
27
A slmllar approach was Laken when vlrglnlLy LesLs" of proLesLors ln LgypL
made Lhe news durlng Lhe proLesLs, where pollce arresLed women proLesLors and
performed lnvaslve LesLs of sexual purlLy.
28
CuLrage abouL Lhese LesLs was used ln Lhe
medla as fodder Lo supporL Lhe [usLlce of Lhe proLesLers' cause agalnsL Lhe sLandlng
governmenL of LgypL.
Some accounLs go so far as Lo characLerlze lL noL as Lhe Arab Sprlng" fot
women, buL as Lhe Arab Sprlng" of women, conLendlng LhaL women's parLlclpaLlon
acLually galvanlzed Lhe movemenLs Lo have Lhe far-reachlng effecLs LhaL Lhey ulLlmaLely
dld. Cne accounL frames women as cenLral Lo each of Lhe ma[or Arab Sprlng
movemenLs:
none of Lhe uprlslngs ln Lhe Arab counLrles would have been posslble wlLhouL
Lhe parLlclpaLlon of women. 1hey were among Lhe flrsL Lo proLesL aL Lhe earl
8oundabouL ln 8ahraln, Lhey organlzed women's proLesLs ln Syrla, Lhey were
parL of Lhe Llbyan uprlslng from Lhe sLarL, and a ?emenl acLlvlsL was one of Lhe
wlnners of Lhe nobel eace rlze Lhls year.
29


Lven Shlrln Lbadl, whose vlew of women's galns ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" ls mlxed aL
besL, suggesLs LhaL ln Lhe popular uprlslngs ln Lhese counLrles, women played a
promlnenL role, and wlLhouL Lhe presence of women, vlcLory would noL have been
posslble."
30


9

lmages of women as acLlvlsLs and as proLesLors prollferaLed on Lhe lnLerneL,
parLlcularly on soclal medla slLes llke lacebook and 1wlLLer. 1hls was aL leasL ln parL
because of a sense of ldenLlfylng Lhe proLesLors as llke us" because we saw gender
dlverslLy. newspapers and oLher LradlLlonal medla followed sulL, where 1he many
phoLographers ln Calro and 1unls senL Lhelr edlLorlal offlces lmages of aLLracLlve women
Laklng parL ln Lhe revoluLlon."
31
As MaLhleu von 8ohr accounLs LhaL ldenLlflcaLlon led Lo
Lhls popularlLy:
eople ln Lhe WesL recognlzed Lhemselves ln Lhe faces of Lhe young female
proLesLers, and Lhey were pleased LhaL people ln Lhese counLrles were noL as
dlfferenL as many had prevlously belleved. 1he cerLalnLy LhaL Arabs were
lncompaLlble wlLh democracy was desLroyed, as well as Lhe cllche of Lhe Arab
woman as a passlve, oppressed belng.
32


AccounLs llke Lhls assoclaLe women's rlghLs wlLh democracy and WesLern-ness, and
Lherefore wlLh people who are Lo be ldenLlfled wlLh and LreaLed as equals. 8aLher Lhan
eraslng Lhe CrlenLallsm of Lhe WesLern gaze Lowards Lhe Arab world,
33
Lhese narraLlves
effecLlvely solve" Lhe dlfferences beLween Lhe WesLern and Arab worlds by showlng
LhaL Lhe Arab world has come around Lo Lhe WesLern world's ways of LreaLlng women.
34

Many of Lhe sLorles LhaL celebraLe women's agency ln Lhe Arab Sprlng Lell sLorles of
women's agency nexL Lo explanaLlons abouL Lhe gender Lroubles of Lhe Arab world ln
recenL Llmes. 1be cooomlst, for example, [uxLaposes Mahfouz's vlcLory wlLh an lmplled
remlnder of Lhe 'bad old days,' where ln 2002, Lhe flrsL Arab Puman uevelopmenL
8eporL clLed Lhe lack of women's rlghLs as one of Lhree facLors LhaL mosL hampered Lhe
reglon's progress."
33
AnoLher accounL noLes LhaL Lhe comblned effecLs of soclal medla

10
and youLhful opLlmlsm" have glven women a promlnence ln Lhe Arab uprlslngs LhaL
Lhey haven'L had ln Lhe pasL" becoose LradlLlonal Arab leadershlp ls a male affalr."
36

Mlchael 8ubln's accounL of gender progresslvlsm ln Lhe Llbyan revoluLlon ldenLlfles
Llbya as an exLreme case, argulng LhaL lL ls perhaps ln Llbya where Lhe WesL
37
should
be mosL concerned abouL Lhe pllghL of women" because of a Lreacherous hlsLory of
women's rlghLs, where:
lnfused Lhrough Lhe laLe Llbyan leader Muammar Caddafl's pollLlcal Lheory was
boLh raclsm and mlsogyny. Llbyan Leachers have lndocLrlnaLed Lwo generaLlons
of Llbyan youLh wlLh quoLaLlons from 1be Cteeo 8ook whlch referred Lo women
as Lhe feebler sex."
38


Such accounLs slmulLaneously celebraLe Lhe vlcLory of women's roles ln Lhe proLesL
whlle condemnlng Lhe prevlous sex oppresslon ln Lhe Arab world. 1hey play lnLo
progresslvlsL narraLlves of Lhe modernlzaLlon of Lhe Arab world, ln parL Lhrough and on
Lhe slgnlflcaLlons of women's bodles.
39

A cruclal parL of Lhose progresslvlsL narraLlves ls Lhe suggesLlon LhaL women's
parLlclpaLlon ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" proLesLs ls a slgnlfler of greaLer galns Lo be had and
consolldaLed. Accordlngly, a number of news accounLs and acLlvlsLs have suggesLed LhaL
lL mlghL be relaLlvely slmple or sLralghL-forward Lo LranslaLe Lhe galns LhaL women
experlenced by belng allowed Lo parLlclpaLe ln (and acLually parLlclpaLlng ln) Lhe Arab
Sprlng" movemenL. lor example, 8euLers quoLed Abdelwahad 8adl (Lhe resldenL of Lhe
lnLer-arllamenLary unlon) as suggesLlng LhaL counLrles ln LranslLlon can very
effecLlvely Lake advanLage of reforms Lo guaranLee sLrong parLlclpaLlon of women ln
pollLlcs."
40


11
Some accounLs Lake Lhese galns as someLhlng LhaL can be easlly obLalned, whlle
oLhers see Lhem as more dlfflculL and even poLenLlally requlrlng Lhe asslsLance of
ouLslde acLors, such as WesLern governmenLs and nCCs. 1be cooomlst accounLs for
women's rlghLs proLesLs as largely moLlvaLed by acLors ouLslde of Lhe Arab Sprlng,"
explalnlng LhaL Lhose clamourlng for change ln LgypL and 1unlsla Loday are mosLly nCC
workers, campalgners, lawyers, academlcs, and pollLlclans" buL LhaL Lo Lhelr volces
have been added Lhose of women proLesLers who came ouL ln Lhelr Lens of Lhousands
and demanded an end Lo Lhe old way of llfe."
41
lnsLead of Lalklng abouL domesLlc
moLlvaLlon Lo lnclude women ln pollLlcs, some of Lhese accounLs use Lerms llke maklng
sure LhaL Lhe new governmenLs of LgypL and 1unlsla are made aware of women aL Lhe
ouLseL," lmplylng LhaL Lhe lncluslon of women speclflcally (and perhaps democraLlzaLlon
generally) are llkely rellanL on sLaLes and organlzaLlons wlLh poslLlve gender pracLlces
servlng Lo demonsLraLe Lhose pracLlces Lo new, Arab democracles."
42
CLher accounLs
credlL nCCs for Lhe progress LhaL has been made for women Lled Lo Arab Sprlng"
democraLlzaLlon movemenLs. ln Moushlra khaLLab's words (former LgypLlan mlnlsLer of
famlly and populaLlon, women's nCCs played a crlLlcal role ln pushlng Lhe 1unlslan
governmenL Lo llfL key reservaLlons Lo Lhe ConvenLlon on Lhe LllmlnaLlon of All lorms of
ulscrlmlnaLlon agalnsL Women (CLuAW)--Lhe flrsL counLry ln Lhe reglon Lo do so."
43

1be Atob 5ptloq os CeoJet-ltoblemotlc

1hough narraLlves celebraLlng women's successes ln Lhe Arab Sprlng"
domlnaLed early medla accounLs of gender and parLlclpaLlon ln Lhe movemenLs, more
skepLlcal accounLs emerged as Lhe movemenLs consolldaLed lnLo governmenLs and

12
began Lhe Lenuous process of Lhe bulldlng of sLaLes and governmenLs. Some accounLs
Lalk abouL Lhe Arab Sprlng" revoluLlonary movemenLs as represenLlng elLher llmlLed
galns for women or poLenLlal rlsks vls a vls women's sLaLus prevlous Lo Lhe revoluLlonary
movemenLs. Mlrrorlng dlscourses abouL Lhe poLenLlal gender-based fears abouL Saddam
Pusseln's replacemenLs ln lraq,
44
Lhese accounLs wonder lf Lhe new, democraLlc"
governmenLs ln Lhe Arab world wlll be more conservaLlve on gender lssues Lhan Lhe
dlcLaLorshlps LhaL Lhey replace, and express concerns for Lhe excluslvlLy and vlolence
wlLh whlch Lhose democraLlc governmenLs are belng lnsLalled and supporLed.
lor example, slgnlflcanL aLLenLlon has been pald Lo Lhe poLenLlally negaLlve
lmpllcaLlons for women of Lhe elecLoral vlcLorles of Lhe Musllm 8roLherhood Lakeover ln
LgypL, explalnlng Lhe (relaLlve) gender-llberalness of Lhe Mubarak reglme.
43
1he
Mubarak reglme had a naLlonal Councll of Women, headed by Lhe former flrsL lady,
Suzanne Mubarak. 1haL councll was Lasked wlLh looklng ouL for women's needs and
women's rlghLs ln evolvlng LgypLlan socleLy. AL Lhe same Llme LhaL lL had some lmpacL
one women's llves, Lhe naLlonal Councll of Women was assoclaLed wlLh Lhe Mubarak
reglme as well as wlLh a seL of values Lo whlch mosL LgypLlans dld noL ascrlbe.
46
ln
Amlna al-8endary's (women's rlghLs acLlvlsL and college professor) words, Lhe old
reglme approprlaLed Lhe lssue of women's rlghLs" whlch creaLed a blas agalnsL
afflrmaLlve work for women's lssues afLer LhaL reglme was overLhrown, where
women's rlghLs .suffer because of Lhelr percelved assoclaLlon wlLh presldenL Posnl
Mubarak's reglme."
47
1hls blas has, ln Lhls accounL, LranslaLed Lo slgnlflcanL problems
for women, perhaps even more severe Lhan under Lhe Mubarak dlcLaLorshlp, slnce

13
leglslaLlve vlcLorles by Lhe Councll have been aLLacked, alLhough Lhey were Lhe
achlevemenLs of decades-long sLruggle by femlnlsLs."
48
arLlcularly aL rlsk, accordlng Lo
Lhls accounL, are so-called personal sLaLus laws," such as laws permlLLlng women Lo flle
for dlvorce.
49
1hls and oLher accounLs are concerned wlLh Lhe poLenLlal for Lhe reLurn of
more conservaLlve noLlons of gender ln posL-Arab Sprlng" counLrles. ln Lhe words of
one accounL, aL Llmes of greaL change and as conservaLlve forces appear Lo be growlng
ln sLrengLh, lL ls vlLal LhaL sLeps are Laken Lo esLabllsh and proLecL equal rlghLs beLween
men and women."
30

lor example, Lhe lnLernaLlonal lederaLlon for Puman 8lghLs suggesLs LhaL
recenL hlsLory palnfully remlnds us LhaL Lhe masslve occupaLlon of publlc space by
women durlng revoluLlons, ln no way guaranLees Lhelr role ln Lhe pollLlcal bodles of Lhe
reglmes LhaL follow."
31
lnsLead, Lhe lederaLlon conLlnues, alLhough Lhe slLuaLlon of
women varles across Lhe reglon, LhreaLs Lo Lhelr human rlghLs converge .[where[
women are confronLlng aLLempLs Lo exclude Lhem from publlc llfe."
32
AmnesLy
lnLernaLlonal has expressed concerns abouL Lhe llLLle poslLlve lmprovemenL LhaL Lhe
uprlslngs ln Lhe Mlddle LasL has broughL Lo women."
33
Lvldence of excluslon ls used Lo
supporL Lhls polnL:
ln LgypL, Lhere were no women ln Lhe Lwo commlLLees appolnLed Lo drafL Lhe
new consLlLuLlon. A new law abollshed measures guaranLeelng women mlnlmum
represenLaLlon ln parllamenL and women galned only 2 of seaLs ln Lhe recenL
elecLlons. ln Llbya, Lhe elecLoral law adopLed by Lhe naLlonal 1ranslLlonal Councll
ln !anuary 2012 conLalns no quoLa for Lhe represenLaLlon of women ln elecLed
bodles. ln Morocco, a law adopLed ln CcLober 2011 esLabllshed a quoLa of only
13 and ln 1unlsla Lhe 41-member governmenL nomlnaLed ln uecember 2011
conLalns only 3 women.
34



14
1he resulLs of Lhe recenL LgypLlan elecLlon counLs LgypLlan women as unlucky," where
Lhey saw Lhe parllamenLary quoLa sysLem from Lhe Posnl Mubarak era abollshed and
female represenLaLlon reduced from 64 seaLs Lo [usL flve" meanlng LhaL LgypL sLands
above oLher Arab Sprlng counLrles ln lmplemenLlng regresslve measures LhaL hamper
women's represenLaLlon ln governmenL."
33
A 8euLers reporL suggesLs LhaL
opporLunlLles from Lhe Arab Sprlng Lo boosL Lhe low numbers of women ln parllamenLs
are belng mlssed."
36

ln facL, several accounLs Lalk abouL Lhe Arab Sprlng" as neL harmful for women.
Paleh Lsfandlarl suggesLs LhaL once Lhe .reglmes fell, Lhe old barrlers of segregaLlon
wenL up. Women were harassed, beaLen, and chased ouL of publlc spaces."
37
Wldney
8rown, a represenLaLlve of AmnesLy lnLernaLlonal, suggesLs LhaL women ln LgypL had
Lo face dlscrlmlnaLlon and sLronger pressure economlc wlse durlng and afLer Lhe
revoluLlon" whlch ls only geLLlng worse, glven LhaL as new governmenLs exLend Lhelr
grlp, we can see LhaL, as clLlzens, women remaln flrmly ln Lhe second class."
38
Accordlng
Lo Moushlra kaLLeb, Lhe Lraln of change has noL only lefL Lhem [women] behlnd, buL
has ln facL Lurned agalnsL Lhem .dormanL conservaLlve value sysLems are belng
manlpulaLed by a rellglous dlscourse LhaL denles women Lhelr rlghLs."
39
A New otk
1lmes sLory quoLes Lhe head of Lhe AssoclaLlon for uevelopmenL and LnhancemenL of
Women ln LgypL as saylng LhaL Lhe producL afLer Lhe revoluLlon ls agalnsL women."
60

CLhers Lalk abouL Lhe Arab Sprlng" movemenL as lLself causlng or belng
responslble dlrecLly for Lhe abuse of women. lor example, conLroverslal femlnlsL flgure
8obln Morgan
61
Lells a sLory of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as [usL anoLher slLe of vlolence agalnsL

13
women.
62
She suggesLs gender lnequallLy among parLlclpanLs aL every sLep of Lhe
proLesLs, from llnes Lo cross checkpolnLs Lo arresLs and ball-ouLs.
63
She conLends LhaL
men - proLesLers as well as pollce - sexually harassed women so severely durlng Lhe
proLesLs LhaL few women demonsLraLed."
64
A cbtlstloo 5cleoce Mooltot accounL of Lhe
1ahrlr Square proLesLs on lnLernaLlonal Women's uay ln 2011 descrlbes Lhe democraLlc
proLesLers as hosLlle Lowards women, suggesLlng LhaL:
almosL lmmedlaLely, Lhey were ouLnumbered and beseL upon by men who
gaLhered. Some of Lhe men were from Lhe proLesLers' encampmenL ln Lhe
mlddle of Lhe square. uozens of women engaged ln argumenLs wlLh Lhe men,
who sald LhaL women had enough rlghLs already . Some of Lhe men were pollLe,
many were aggresslve. ..Co home, go wash cloLhes," yelled some of Lhe
men..Suddenly, Lhe men declded Lhe women had been Lhere long enough.
?elllng, Lhey rushed aggresslvely upon Lhe proLesL, pushlng vlolenLly Lhrough Lhe
rows of women.
63


Concerns abouL Lhe ways LhaL proLesLers LreaLed women have been susLalned as
crlLlques of Lhe new governmenLs LhaL are belng bullL ln Lhe wake of he success of Lhe
proLesL. lor example, unlLed SLaLes SecreLary of SLaLe Pllary CllnLon suggesLed LhaL
women were harassed, arresLed, LorLured, and oLherwlse lll-LreaLed ln gender-speclflc
ways" whlch lncluded pollce harassmenL and belng Lurned over Lo relaLlves for
conLrol," LorLure, and someLlmes execuLlon durlng Lhe proLesLs.
66
1he SLaLe
ueparLmenL suggesLs LhaL many of Lhese pracLlces conLlnue as Lhe new governmenL
consolldaLes power. ln Lhe face of Lhe apparenL occurrence of Lhese aLroclLles, CllnLon
condemned Lhe new governmenL of LgypL on accounL of women's slLuaLlon, argulng
LhaL Lhls sysLemaLlc degradaLlon of LgypLlan women dlshonors Lhe revoluLlon,
dlsgraces Lhe sLaLe and lLs unlform, and ls noL worLhy of a greaL people."
67


16
Cender lssues ln Lhe Arab Sprlng revoluLlons have garnered a falr amounL of
medla aLLenLlon. lor example, recenLly, a courL of Lhe new governmenL of LgypL
acqulLLed Lhe docLor who performed Lhe LesLs, sldlng wlLh mlllLary offlclals who sald
LhaL Lhe LesLs were conducLed Lo preclude accusaLlons LhaL soldlers had vlolaLed women
ln Lhelr cusLody."
68
1he plalnLlff ln Lhe clvll lawsulL agalnsL Lhe mlllLary suggesLed LhaL lL
was LgypL's honor LhaL was vlolaLed," buL several accounLs argue LhaL Lhls ls buL one of
many harblngers LhaL Lhe new governmenLs of Arab Sprlng" counLrles mlghL be as
dangerous Lo women's rlghLs as Lhe old dlcLaLorshlps, lf noL more so.
69

1hls sorL of accounL of Lhe Arab Sprlng ls noL llmlLed Lo sLorles focused on LgypL.
ln a uet 5pleqel sLory abouL 1unlsla, a 1unlslan female blogger who has foughL for
women's rlghLs and agalnsL censorshlp slnce 2007" saw llLLle hope" afLer Lhe
revoluLlon, and was quoLed as saylng Loday, we have a new baLLle [for women's rlghLs]
.and lLs noL golng Lhe rlghL way."
70
ln many accounLs, 1unlsla (noL unllke lraq a decade
ago) ls descrlbed as a sLaLe wlLh a LradlLlon of gender progresslvlsm LhaL ls belng
LhreaLened. Whlle Pablb 8ourgulba, Lhe foundlng faLher of Lhe modern 1unlslan sLaLe
. ouLlawed polygamy, granLed women equal dlvorce rlghLs, and legallzed aborLlons"
and Zlne el-Abldlne 8en All, 1unlsla's Loppled dlcLaLor, conLlnued 8ourgulba's work,"
many descrlbe Lhe fuLure as bleak ln comparlson.
71

Concerns abouL Lhe bleakness of women's fuLures are ofLen llnked Lo quesLlon of
wheLher or noL Lhe Arab Sprlng" has succeeded ln lLs democraLlzlng goals ln Lhese
narraLlves LhaL are more pesslmlsLlc abouL women's slLuaLlon afLer Lhe revoluLlons. lor
example, acLlvlsLs llke Shlrln Lbadl, Lle advances ln women's rlghLs LhaL have noL

17
happened yeL Lo progress ln Lhe Arab world. Lbadl suggesLs LhaL only when women
achleve Lhelr rlghLs can we say LhaL Lhe 'Arab Sprlng' has commenced" such LhaL Arab
women wlll noL allow a culLure of paLrlarchy Lo once agaln Lrample Lhelr rlghLs."
72

lmmanuel WallersLeln suggesLs LhaL women are Lhe Arab Sprlng" forgoLLen peoples"
who are Lold LhaL Lhelr concerns, Lhelr complalnLs, and Lhelr demands were secondary
and had Lo be posLponed unLll some oLher prlmary concerns were resolved."
73
Whlle
WallersLeln Lalks abouL lL ln Lerms of greaLer soclal dynamlcs, a sLory ln 1be cooomlst
Lalks abouL Lhls as a falllng of democracy, where women's rlghLs have yeL Lo become an
lssue LhaL moves Lhe general publlc."
74
CLhers see Lhe sLalllng on women's rlghLs of
Lhese new reglmes as less apaLhy and more lnsldlousness, argulng LhaL organlzaLlons
llke LgypL's Musllm 8roLherhood are acLlvely looklng Lo puL women lnslde a box lnslde
Lhe home."
73

wbete ote tbe womeo lo tbe Atob 5ptloq?
1he mulLlpllclLy of roles LhaL (real, embodled) women acLually played ln Lhe
Arab Sprlng" have been sLreamllned and plgeonholed ln boLh of Lhese narraLlves. 1he
vlcLorlous, progresslvlsL narraLlve suggesLs LhaL women's roles were largely lf noL
excluslvely as fronLllne proLesLers, whose demands lncluded boLh democracy and
women's rlghLs. 1he pesslmlsLlc narraLlve casLs women as vlcLlms of Lhe consolldaLlon of
Lhe movemenL, where Lhelr rlghLs, Lhelr volces, and Lhelr opLlons are belng qulckly
relegaLed back" lnLo Lhe prlvaLe sphere of an Arab world whlch ls consldered (ofLen
monollLhlcally) hypermascullne and lnsenslLlve Lo women and gender concerns.

18
8esearch shows LhaL Lhe real expetleoces of women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" were
slgnlflcanLly more dlverse, boLh ln Lerms of Lhe day-Lo-day llfe and ln Lerms of pollLlcal
slgnlflcance.
76
Some Arab Sprlng" women were peace acLlvlsLs, llke Lhe beLLer known
women aL Creenham Common
77
or of Lhe Women's lnLernaLlonal League for eace and
lreedom.
78
CLhers supporLed provlded domesLlc and economy-susLalnlng servlces for
proLesLors, much llke Lhe Amerlcan World War ll lcon 8osle Lhe 8lveLer.
79
SLlll oLhers
provlded loglsLlcal supporL and healLh care Lo proLesLors, comparable Lo Clara 8arLon
and Lhe 8ed Cross.
80
SLlll oLhers were acLlve parLlclpanLs ln aglLaLlng for reglme
change.
81
1hose acLlvlsLs were proLesLers, buL Lhey were also marLyrs,
82
pollLlcal
candldaLes,
83
and bloggers
84
ln servlce of Lhe cause of seeklng democraLlc change.
8uL noL all women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" were for" Lhe changes LhaL Lhe
democracy proLesLors advocaLed elLher.
83
ln facL, a number of conservaLlve" women
have expressed concern LhaL a gender rlghLs llberallzaLlon LhaL mlghL happen as a resulL
of or concurrenL wlLh democraLlzaLlon ls a problem, argulng LhaL belng granLed 'Loo
many' rlghLs conLravene rellglon and soclal norms."
86
1hese women, argulng LhaL work
cannoL lnLerfere wlLh women's mlsslon, whlch ls flrsL Lo ralse chlldren and Lake care of
Lhe home," ob[ecL Lo gender-llberal pollcles and celebraLe some of Lhe reLurns Lo
LradlLlonallsm LhaL have come wlLh some of Lhe posL-revoluLlonary governmenLs ln Lhe
Arab world.
87

Women had as many dlfferenL experlences of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as Lhey dld
poslLlons on and roles ln lL. llrsL, lL ls well-documenLed LhaL Llmes of confllcL and
pollLlcal upheaval have gender-dlfferenLlal effecLs. Lspeclally ln Lhe Arab Sprlng"

19
movemenLs where slgnlflcanL mlllLary vlolence has occurred, and even ln Lhose where lL
dld noL, women have llveJ Lhe upheaval. lamllles are ofLen separaLed as lndlvlduals are
arresLed, ln[ured, kllled, or become lnvolved ln revoluLlonary movemenLs.
88
WlLhln Lhe
famlly, each member assumes addlLlonal burdens as Lhe normal dlvlslon of labor ls
overLurned.
89
PealLh also deLerloraLes as lndlvlduals lack access Lo healLh care due Lo
lncreased volume, a decllne ln Lhe number of avallable docLors, and a lack of access Lo
medlclnes and oLher supplles, whlch ls ofLen felL ln sex-dlfferenLlaLed ways.
90
Cnce
socleLy's normal lnsLlLuLlons have been desLroyed by war or cease Lo funcLlon, Lhen
pollLlcs, culLure, producLlon, and proLecLlon come Lo be deflned by mlllLarlzaLlon, whlch
enLrenches values assoclaLed wlLh mascullnlLles.
91
Pousehold or domesLlc economles"
characLerlzed by a dlvlslon of labor LhaL ls based on sex are also parL of Lhe way ln whlch
famlly unlLs cope wlLh crlsls.
92
1he obsLacles LhaL women would normally face ln Lerms
of gender roles become compounded ln llghL of Lhe dlsrupLlon Lo Lhe lnfrasLrucLure.
1hose dlsrupLlons do noL end when Lhe governmenL LranslLlons from a
dlcLaLorshlp Lo a democracy, or when Lhe flghLlng on Lhe ground sLops. lnsLead, Lhe
soclal fabrlc of Arab Sprlng" socleLles are noL auLomaLlcally healed or resLored. ln some
of Lhe more severe cases, lnfrasLrucLures remaln damaged, famllles remaln devasLaLed
and grlevlng, combaLanLs remaln LraumaLlzed, and weapons and vlolence remaln
avallable. ln some of Lhe places where LranslLlons were smooLher, masslve pollLlcal and
economlc lnsecurlLy sLlll remalns.
93

1he quesLlon of wheLher Lhe Arab Sprlng" was and/or wlll be good for women"
(as lf Lhere were such a monollLhlc Lhlng) ls far from resolved. Cn a pracLlcal level,

20
assumlng we could know whaL lL would mean for Lhe Arab Sprlng" Lo be good for
women," Lhe one Lhlng LhaL mosL accounLs of Lhe movemenLs and gender agree on ls
LhaL lL ls Loo early Lo Lell how women's rlghLs wlll ulLlmaLely fare ln Lhe long Lerm."
94

Whlle many Lhlnk LhaL Lhe neL negaLlve of Lhe Arab Sprlng for women ls enLrenched,
93

74 of a female audlence aL a uoha debaLe abouL Lhe lssue argued LhaL women wlll noL
be worse off as a resulL of Lhe changes sweeplng Lhe reglon."
96
Searchlng for Lhe
women" ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" flnds many dlfferenL lnsLanLlaLlons of women and
femlnlnlLy, and as many lf noL more dlfferenL slgnlflcaLlons of whaL women mean, be lL
Lo Lhe movemenLs Lhemselves, Lo Lhe sLaLes experlenclng LranslLlons, or Lo Lhe
(WesLern, llberal) democraLlc pro[ecL. 1hls dlverslLy, Lhen, ls boLh llveJ and tepteseoteJ,
and mlghL (or could or should) be made sense of ln boLh conLexLs. 1he nexL secLlon
explores Lhe deploymenLs of women and femlnlnlLy ln Lhe Arab Sprlng narraLlves
Lhrough Lhe lenses of a narraLlve approach Lo lemlnlsL SecurlLy SLudles
97
Lo undersLand
Lhe pollLlcs of polltlclzloq femlnlnlLy ln and around Lhe Arab Sprlng."
3+96/8&9#9 /. 0/1#, ',C 4"# D%&'( )*&+,-E 4"&/8-" H#,C#& I#,9#9

arslng and undersLandlng Lhe gendered narraLlves of whaL happens Lo women
ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" ls more compllcaLed Lhan readlng Lhe news sLorles or dolng
quanLlLaLlve crlLlcal dlscourse analysls Lo undersLand Lhe frequency or relaLlonshlp of
Lerms. 1hls ls because, as we dlscussed ln Lhe flrsL secLlon of Lhe paper, Lhere are noL
only dlfferenL narraLlves of whaL happened/happens Lo women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng," Lhe
Lwo domlnanL narraLlves are ln mosL ways dlameLrlcally opposed ln Lhelr undersLandlng
of how women are relaLed Lo, and relaLe Lo, Lhe Arab Sprlng." Whlle some reporLs

21
conLalned elemenLs of boLh narraLlves, mosL sLuck Lo one or Lhe oLher, elLher declarlng
Lhe Arab Sprlng" generally good for women or generally bad for women. 1hls secLlon
looks aL Lhose narraLlves ln Lwo ways: Lhrough Lhe lenses of slgnlflcaLlon Lo undersLand
Lhelr descrlpLlve elemenLs and Lhrough Lhe lenses of narraLlves Lo undersLand how Lhey
LogeLher form a common, and coherenL, ldea, abouL women, gender, and democracy.
lollowlng Annlck Wlbben, lL Lakes a femlnlsL narraLlve approach" Lo soclal lnqulry,
looklng Lo use narraLologlcal Lools Lo undersLand Lhe meanlngs of narraLlves lnLended
as an lnLervenLlon LhaL challenges Lhe pollLlcs of securlLy and Lhe meanlngs for securlLy
leglLlmlzed ln exlsLlng pracLlces."
98

Accompllshlng such a Lask requlres an undersLandlng noL only of whaL a
narraLlve ls, buL also how a narraLlve funcLlons Lo Lransform an ob[ecL lnLo a slgn, or an
ob[ecL of consumpLlon. ln !ean 8audrllllard's undersLandlng:
ln order Lo become an ob[ecL of consumpLlon, Lhe ob[ecL musL become a slgn,
LhaL ls, ln some way lL musL become exLernal Lo a relaLlon whlch lL now only
slgnlfles, slgned arblLrarlly and non-coherenLly Lo Lhls concreLe relaLlon, yeL
obLalnlng lLs coherence, and consequenLly lLs meanlng, from an absLracL and
sysLemaLlc relaLlon Lo all oLher ob[ecL-slgns.
99


Clven Lhe lnflnlLe lnformaLlon ln Lhe world and humans' llmlLed Llme and
cognlLlve capaclLy, our comprehenslon of even Lhe parLs of Lhe world we "know" ls
based on abbrevlaLlons, meLaphors, and lnherlLed concepLlons.
100
ln Lhls undersLandlng,
narraLlve, lf only Lemporarlly, flxes meanlng."
101
ln such a slLuaLlon, our undersLandlngs
of Lhe world around us are ofLen based on shorLhand and second-hand accounLs. 1hese
accounLs are noL random, buL are ofLen sLrucLured by a Lheme whlch warranLs Lhelr
Lelllng and a punchllne" whlch underscores Lhelr lmporLance. MaarLen Pa[er has called

22
Lhese accounLs sLory-llnes," whlch are narraLlves on soclal reallLy Lhough whlch
elemenLs from many dlfferenL domalns are comblned and LhaL provlde acLors wlLh a seL
of symbollc references LhaL suggesL a common undersLandlng."
102
lL ls Lhese seLs of
symbollc references LhaL besLow sLory-llnes wlLh common meanlng and enable Lhelr
accepLance and lnLerpreLaLlon by dlverse acLors wlLh dlverse pollLlcal, soclal, and
economlc poslLlons and lnLeresLs. 1hese seLs of symbollc references have been
ldenLlfled as slgnlflcaLlons," lndlcaLlng Lhe producLlon of slgns, whlch some organlze
lnLo LexL (medlum), sLory (presenLaLlon), and fabula (conLenL).
103
As Lhe passage from
8audrlllard LhaL opens Lhls secLlon explalns, slgnlflcaLlon ls a key process on Lhe road Lo
publlc consumpLlon of lnformaLlon. Cb[ecLs' slgnlflcaLlon provldes Lhem wlLh coherence,
meanlng, and relaLlonal value.
104
1he process of asslgnlng Lhls meanlng, however, ls noL
sLandard, random, or apollLlcal.
103
lnsLead, Pa[er explalns, sLory-llnes are pollLlcal
devlces LhaL allow Lhe overcomlng of fragmenLaLlon and Lhe achlevemenL of dlscurslve
closure."
106

SlgnlflcaLlon, Lhen, ls Lhe (lnLenLlonal or unlnLenLlonal) Lelllng of a coherenL sLory
wlLh wlde accepLablllLy Lo manufacLure commonallLy and produce a deslred reacLlon. As
CeerLz explalns, analysls, Lhen, Lhe sorLlng ouL Lhe sLrucLures of slgnlflcaLlon."
107

8ecause Lhe sLrucLures of slgnlflcaLlon of women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" are noL unlfled or
unldlrecLlonal, Lhls sorLlng ouL ls noL a llnear process. lnsLead, sLrucLures of slgnlflcaLlon
beLween Lhe Arab Sprlng," Lhe Arab world," and Lhe WesL" show whaL Poml 8habha
Lerms amblvalence," nelLher Lhe compleLe accepLance nor Lhe compleLe re[ecLlon of
Lhe ldenLlLy of Lhe oLher.
108
As such, Lhe dlscurslve resulL ls some sorL of melLlng poL"

23
where noLhlng acLually melLs-lL ls hybrldlLy beLween Lhe acLor (here, al Caeda) and lLs
CLhers." 1he self (and exLernal) slgnlflcaLlons of women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" are
relaLlonal. As !ohn Pall argues, '[a]cLual lnqulrles' depend on bybtlJ pracLlces LhaL
lnvolve exLra-loglcal medlaLlons and formaLlve dlscourses employed lo telotloo to one
anoLher."
109
1hese exLra-loglcal medlaLlons lnclude emoLlon, culLural conLexL, gender
percepLlons, and oLher soclally consLlLuLed acLlons and reacLlons. Clven Lhls complexlLy
and hybrldlLy of meanlng of Lhe sLory-llnes around women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng," Lhe
meLhod by whlch Lhe sLory-llnes are analyzed and deconsLrucLed musL also be complex.
We use hermeneuLlc deconsLrucLlon Lo look for expllclL and hldden meanlngs ln
sLory-llnes abouL women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" and read Lhem Lhrough Lhelr conLexLs ln
local and global pollLlcs. As Pall explalns lL, betmeoeotlc Jecoosttoctloo balances Lhe
power of deconsLrucLlon Lo unmask hldden meanlng wlLh Lhe lnLerpreLlve power of
hermeneuLlcs Lo ldenLlfy coherenL meanlng ln culLural conLexL."
110
ln employlng
hermeneuLlc deconsLrucLlon Lo analyze Lhe slgnlflcaLlon of al Caeda wlves, Lhls arLlcle ls
fundamenLally concerned wlLh analyzlng opaque as well as LransparenL sLrucLural
relaLlonshlps of domlnance, dlscrlmlnaLlon, power, and conLrol as manlfesLed ln
knowledge" and asplres Lo lnvesLlgaLe crlLlcally soclal lnequallLy as lL ls expressed,
slgnaled, consLlLuLed, leglLlmlzed, and so on by language use."
111

1hls crlLlcal lnvesLlgaLlon, Lhen, emphaslzes Lhree parLs of Lhe slgnlflcaLlon
process. lL deals wlLh Lhe characLerlzaLlons of women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" by examlnlng
Lhe sLory-llnes' meanlngs on face. lL analyzes Lhelr descrlpLlons, predlcaLlons, and
commonly produced Lhemes Lo broadly address Lhe quesLlon: whaL ls a woman ln Lhe

24
Arab Sprlng slgnlfled as? Second, lL addresses Lhe performance of and reacLlon Lo LhaL
uLLerance ln a speclflc personal, culLural, and relaLlonal conLexL. 1hls conLexLual" vlew
ls necessary because Lhe dlscourses LhaL ldenLlfy and asslgn roles Lo women ln Lhe Arab
Sprlng" are cross-culLural, and dlfferenL conLexLs asslgn dlfferenL meanlngs Lo slmllar
concepLs. ulscourse analysls LhaL does noL pay aLLenLlon Lo conLexL Lakes for granLed
an ob[ecL domaln whlch ls ln facL Lhe producL of a complex seL of soclal, hlsLorlcal, and
pollLlcal condlLlons of formaLlon."
112
ln such an analysls, Lhe pollLlcal confllcL ls hldden
ln Lhe quesLlon of whaL deflnlLlon ls glven Lo Lhe problem, whlch aspecLs of soclal reallLy
are lncluded and whlch are lefL undlscussed."
113
1hlrd, Lhls analysls glves aLLenLlon Lo
Lhe recepLlon of Lhe dlscourse. A dlscourse ls consumed only Lo Lhe degree LhaL lL ls
reacLed Lo-a dlscourse consLrucLlng a role for women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" does noL
affecL elLher women's llves or global pollLlcs unLll lL ls accepLed and/or acLed upon. 1he
dlscourse lLself ls a consLrucLlng move, buL Lhe consLrucLlon occurs lf and only lf Lhe
audlence reacLs Lo Lhe sLory-llne as such.
114

8eadlng Lhe Lwo narraLlves of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as gender-emanclpaLory and as
poLenLlally gender-oppresslve nexL Lo each oLher ln Lhls conLexL lnsplres asklng
quesLlons llke whaL Lhose narraLlves slgnlfy, where Lhey dlverge, and where Lhey agree.
Cne of Lhe pollLlcal condlLlons of Lhe formaLlon of boLh narraLlves ls Lhe locaLlon of
women's rlghLs progresslveness (or backwardness) wlLh sLaLe reglme Lype and sLaLe
governmenL, where Lhe form of governmenL of a sLaLe and Lhe sLaLus of governmenL of
LhaL sLaLe ls seen as a slgnlfler of Lhe sLaLe's llkellhood Lo LreaL women well, and Lhe
good LreaLmenL of women ls seen as an lndlcaLor of Lhe exlsLence and success of oLher

23
progresslve pollLlcal lnsLlLuLlons or values. arLlcularly, whaL boLh narraLlves share ls Lhe
assoclaLlon beLween secularlsm (parLlcularly secular separaLlon of lslamlc rellglon and
sLaLe), (llberal) democracy, and women's emanclpaLlon, where gender rlghLs serve as a
baromeLer for Lhe genulneness of boLh democraLlc and secularlsL efforLs. uslng gender
rlghLs as a llLmus LesL for a cerLaln vlew of success" of Lhe Arab Sprlng" ls a double-
edged sword aL besL, where women are used as a proxy for oLher values, and one's vlew
on Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of Lhose oLher values affecLs how one reads Lhe slLuaLlon of
women.
1he slgnlflcaLlon of Lhe narraLlve of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as gender-emanclpaLory ls
LhaL Lhe old Arab world" of dlcLaLors wlLhouL democraLlc process was backwards and of
less value (generally or for women) Lhan democraLlc reglmes would be. lL furLher
slgnlfles LhaL proLecLlng women lncludes ln whole or ln parL means proLecLlng Lhem
from lslamlc governance and lslamlc governmenLs, lmplylng LhaL a llberal, secularlsL
model of democraLlc reglmes are beLLer for gender. Many of Lhe accounLs LhaL
consLlLuLe Lhe narraLlve of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as gender-emanclpaLory also sLrongly lmply
a model where Lhe Arab world" follows Lhe WesL Lo secularlsm, democracy, and
women's rlghLs. 1hen, Lhe woman-as-proLesLor becomes an ob[ecL and a slgn, where
Lhe ob[ecLlflcaLlon ls a female body demonsLrably havlng crossed Lhe (presumed lslamlc-
only) publlc/prlvaLe dlvlde percelved Lo be bullL on sex llnes and Lhe slgnlflcaLlon of
women's presence ls Lhe vlcLory of a seL of pollLlcal values assoclaLed wlLh gender
equallLy (lf noL, or lf secondarlly, gender equallLy lLself).

26
Many of Lhe same ob[ecLlflcaLlons and slgnlflcaLlons can be found ln Lhe
narraLlve of Lhe Arab Sprlng" as a rlsk Lo women. ln Lhls narraLlve, Lhe Arab Sprlng" ls
less successful because lL has noL LranslaLed galns ln democracy Lo secularlsm and/or
women's rlghLs, and ls Lherefore noL acLually, genulnely, or meanlngfully more
democraLlc. ln addlLlon Lo Lhls general assoclaLlon of Lhe backwardness of Lhe abuse of
women and Lhe backwardness of pollLlcs, Lhere ls a sLrong a dlfferenLlaLlon beLween Lhe
good old boy" Arab dlcLaLors, percelved Lo have besLowed rlghLs on women volunLarlly
lf lnsLrumenLally, and Lhe new, hypermascullne, conservaLlve revoluLlonarles, who are
framed Lo have a prlnclpled ob[ecLlon Lo Lhe falr and equal LreaLmenL of women. Age,
sexuallLy, and mysLery go lnLo Lhe bulldlng of Lhe new Arab democraL as scarler Lhan Lhe
old Arab dlcLaLor, Lhough nelLher meeL Lhe crlLerla lmpllclL ln Lhe ldeallzed sLaLe LhaL
provldes Lhe ldeallzed LreaLmenL of women.

=/,6;89+/,

Asklng where are Lhe women?" ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" leads Lo Lwo compllcaLed
sLorles of women's emanclpaLlon and women's sub[ugaLlon LhaL have odd Lenslons and
odd commonallLles. 1hese can be analyzed ln Lerms of women's bodles, Lhelr presences,
and Lhelr experlences (as well as men's gendered experlences) Lhrough a gendered
organlzaLlons analyLlcal framework. ln Lerms of narraLlve slgnlflcaLlons, however, Lhe
sLorles geL more compllcaLed, drawlng llnes beLween Lhose who see Lhe Arab Sprlng"
as belng (perhaps ln lukuyama's Lerms) nearer Lo Lhe ldeal-Lyplcal WesLern llberal
democraLlc model (and Lhereby Lhe end of hlsLory") and Lhose who see lL as a
fundamenLally pollLlcally regresslvlsL movemenL. WhaL boLh sldes" have ln common ls

27
an lmpllclL endorsemenL of Lhe prlvllleglng of WesLern, llberal models of democracy and
(ln Ldward Sald's Lerms) an CrlenLallsL gaze Lowards Lhe Arab oLher." All of Lhese
dlfferenL pollLlcal ouLlooks on, and pollLlcs of, Lhe Arab Sprlng vary slgnlflcanLly - buL
each ls lnscrlbed on Lhe lmages, dlscourses, and bodles of Lhe women LhaL femlnlsL
dlscourses look for ln Lhe Arab Sprlng" buL flnd blurred ln lLs many gender-
approprlaLlng slgnlflcaLlons.
1hls ls a prellmlnary work. 1he laLer verslons wlll be more sophlsLlcaLed
LheoreLlcally, lnclude quanLlLaLlve crlLlcal dlscourse analysls, and geL Lo know Lhe
organlzaLlons lL ls analyzlng as gendered organlzaLlons beLLer. 1haL sald, wlLh all of Lhose
shorLcomlngs, lL ls a pro[ecL whlch was sLarLed Lo explore LhaL Lhe lmage of Lhe Arab
Sprlng" woman proLesLer meoos, boLh aL Lhe Llme of Lhe revoluLlons and as Lhose
vlcLorlous ln Lhose resoluLlons look Lo parLlclpaLe ln normal soclal and pollLlcal llfe. lL has
done so, we conLend, flrsL and foremosL by undersLandlng Lhe complexlLy of Lhe
poslLlon of women and Lhe use of gender Lropes ln Lhe Arab Sprlng," and secondly by
showlng Lhe many ways ln whlch narraLlves abouL women are maps for narraLlves abouL
parLlcular values and rules LhaL domlnaLe (lmperlal) pollLlcal dlscourses among sLaLes.

1
!uan Cole and Shahln Cole, An Arab Sprlng for Women" 1he naLlon, Aprll 26, 2011.
Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.LhenaLlon.com/arLlcle/160179/arab-sprlng-women
2
lbld.
3
lbld.
4
lbld.
3
lbld.
6
uennls Mansfleld, Arab Sprlng? 8eally for whom? noL for women"
ueoolsMoosflelJ.com, March 14, 2012, Accessed: March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.dennlsmansfleld.com/buslness/2012/03/arab-sprlng-really-for-whom-noL-
for-women.hLml

28

7
lbld.
8
lbld.
9
lor an example of work LhaL blLes Lhls crlLlque, see, e.g., !ean LlshLaln's Iost wot
Aqolost 1ettot, 8aslc 8ooks, 2003, lor femlnlsL analyses, see Mlrlam Cooke's Cender
and SepLember 11" 5lqos, 28(1) 2002, Laura Shepherd's velled 8eferences:
ConsLrucLlons of Cender ln Lhe uS-led ALLack on AfghanlsLan osL-9/11, lotetootloool
lemlolst Iootool of lolltlcs,8(1) 2006.
10
Laura S[oberg, Agency, MlllLarlzed lemlnlnlLy, and Lnemy CLhers" lotetootloool
lemlolst jootool of lolltlcs 9(1), 2007, !ennlfer Lobasz, 1he Woman ln erll and Lhe
8ulned Woman," ln Iootool of womeo, lolltlcs, ooJ lollcy, 29(3) (2008).
11
See dlscusslon ln ChapLers 9 and 10 of Laura S[oberg's CeoJetloq Clobol coofllct.
1owotJs o lemlolst 1beoty of wot, (new ?ork: Columbla unlverslLy ress, 2012).
12
CaLherlne Macklnnon, Ate womeo nomoo? (new ?ork: 8elknap ress, 2006).
13
lor a dlscusslon on gender dynamlcs ln expllclLly femlnlsL revoluLlonary movemenLs,
see Mlranda Alllson, womeo ooJ lolltlcol vloleoce. lemole combotoots lo tboo-
Notloool coofllct, (LondonL 8ouLledge, 2009). Laura S[oberg and Caron CenLry,
Cenderlng Women's 1errorlsm ln PlsLorlcal erspecLlve," ln womeo, CeoJet, ooJ
1ettotlsm, (ALhens: unlverslLy of Ceorgla ress) (2009) (re: Lhe Shlnlng aLh)
14
CynLhla Lnloe, 8ooooos, 8eocbes, 8oses. Mokloq lemlolst 5eose of lotetootloool
lolltlcs, 8erkele: unlverslLy of Callfornla ress, 1990.
13
Splke eLerson and Anne Slsson 8unyan, Clobol CeoJet lssoes, 3
rd
edlLlon (WesLvlew
ress, 2009).
16
Cheryl 8enard, 8eflecLlons on Women ln Lhe Arab Sprlng", MlJJle ost ltoqtom.
wooJtow wllsoo ceotet lotetootloool ceotet fot 5cbolots, March 8, 2012. Accessed
March 19, 2012, Avallable aL: hLLp://www.wllsoncenLer.org/arLlcle/reflecLlons-women-
Lhe-arab-sprlng-womenL28099s-volces-around-Lhe-world
17
naLhan 8rown and Amr Pamzawy, Arab Sprlng lever", 1be Notloool lotetest,
Sep/CcLober 2007.
18
Shlrln Lbadl, ultectot, MlJJle ost ltoqtom, 8eflecLlons on Women ln Lhe Arab
Sprlng", MlJJle ost ltoqtom. wooJtow wllsoo ceotet lotetootloool ceotet fot
5cbolots, March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.wllsoncenLer.org/arLlcle/reflecLlons-women-Lhe-arab-sprlng-
womenL28099s-volces-around-Lhe-world
19
A laLer verslon of Lhls paper wlll formallze Lhls as quanLlLaLlve crlLlcal dlscourse
analysls, Lhls descrlpLlon ls a placeholder ln Lhls early drafL.
20
!enna kra[eskl, 1aklng lL Lo Lhe SLreeLs: LgypLlan Women roLesL Lhe CovernmenL
Alongslde Lhe Men ?eL lew lmages of Women", 1be Oplolooess of tbe wotlJ, !anuary
31, 2011. Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://oplnlonessofLheworld.com/2011/01/31/egypLlan-women-Lake-Lo-Lhe-sLreeLs-
alongslde-Lhe-men-Lo-proLesL-Lhe-governmenL/
21
MaLhleu von 8ohr, lreedoms aL 8lsk: Arab Women llghL Lo uefend Lhelr 8lghLs", uet
5pleqel, november 29, 2011 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.splegel.de/lnLernaLlonal/world/0,1318,800447,00.hLml

29

22
ln LgypL and 1unlsla women are boLh hopeful and fearful abouL whaL Lhe Arab
revoluLlons mlghL mean for Lhem", 1be cooomlst, CcLober 13, 2011, Accessed March
19, 2012.
23
lbld.
24
MaLhleu von 8ohr, lreedoms aL 8lsk: Arab Women llghL Lo uefend Lhelr 8lghLs", uet
5pleqel, november 29, 2011 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.splegel.de/lnLernaLlonal/world/0,1318,800447,00.hLml
23
AssoclaLed ress, Pundreds of Women 8eporL 8apes by Caddafl forces", Al Atoblyo,
May 28, 2011. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLps://www.google.com/search?q=Pundreds+of+women+reporL+rapes+by+Caddafl+f
orces&le=uLf-8&oe=uLf-8&aq=L&rls=org.mozllla:en-uS:offlclal&cllenL=flrefox-a
26
SLeven SoLloff, 1he 8ape of lman al-Cbeldl: 1he Llbyan 8eglme's CLher Crlsls" 1lme,
March 29, 2011, Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.Llme.com/Llme/world/arLlcle/0,8399,2062007,00.hLml#lxzz1pb4eWz8d
27
AssoclaLed ress, Pundreds of Women 8eporL 8apes by Caddafl forces", Al Atoblyo,
May 28, 2011. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLps://www.google.com/search?q=Pundreds+of+women+reporL+rapes+by+Caddafl+f
orces&le=uLf-8&oe=uLf-8&aq=L&rls=org.mozllla:en-uS:offlclal&cllenL=flrefox-a
28
Pablba Mohsen, WhaL made her go Lhere? Samlra lbrahlm and LgypL's vlrglnlLy LesL
Lrlal, Al !azeera Lngllsh.com, March 16, 2012. Accessed: March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.al[azeera.com/lndepLh/oplnlon/2012/03/2012316133129201830.hLml, u.
arvaz, LgypL's femlnlsLs prepare for a long baLLle", Al Iozeeto oqllsb.com. Accessed
March 19, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.al[azeera.com/lndepLh/feaLures/2012/01/2012117113738961894.hLml
29
MaLhleu von 8ohr, lreedoms aL 8lsk: Arab Women llghL Lo uefend Lhelr 8lghLs", uet
5pleqel, november 29, 2011 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.splegel.de/lnLernaLlonal/world/0,1318,800447,00.hLml
30
ln Paleh Lsfandlarl, ultectot, MlJJle ost ltoqtom, 8eflecLlons on Women ln Lhe
Arab Sprlng", MlJJle ost ltoqtom. wooJtow wllsoo ceotet lotetootloool ceotet fot
5cbolots, March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.wllsoncenLer.org/arLlcle/reflecLlons-women-Lhe-arab-sprlng-
womenL28099s-volces-around-Lhe-world
31
MaLhleu von 8ohr, lreedoms aL 8lsk: Arab Women llghL Lo uefend Lhelr 8lghLs", uet
5pleqel, november 29, 2011 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.splegel.de/lnLernaLlonal/world/0,1318,800447,00.hLml
32
MaLhleu von 8ohr, lreedoms aL 8lsk: Arab Women llghL Lo uefend Lhelr 8lghLs", uet
5pleqel, november 29, 2011 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.splegel.de/lnLernaLlonal/world/0,1318,800447,00.hLml
33
Ldward Sald, Otleotollsm, new ?ork: vlnLage 8ooks, 1979.
34
noL endorslng elLher Lhe separaLlon beLween worlds" or Lhe prlvlleglng of WesLern
lnLerpreLaLlons of women's rlghLs.
33
lbld.

30

36
8odger Shanahan, Women and Lhe Arab Sprlng pL. 1", CcLober 6, 2011 Accessed
March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.lowylnLerpreLer.org/posL/2011/10/12/Women-ln-Lhe-Arab-Sprlng-
28parL-229.aspx
37
As lf Lhe WesL were a monollLhlc enLlLy wlLh slmllar lnLeresLs by deflnlLlon
38
Mlchael 8ubln, WhaL Wlll Lhe Arab Sprlng Mean for Women?", commeototy
Moqozloe, CcLober 31, 2011. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.commenLarymagazlne.com/2011/10/31/arab-sprlng-women/
39
e.g., lukuyama, 1be oJ of nlstoty ooJ tbe lost Moo (and hls more recenL wrlLlngs
abandonlng Lhe end of hlsLory" narraLlve because of conLlnulng confllcL ln/wlLh Lhe
Mlddle LasL)
40
8euLers. lewer women ln parllamenLs afLer Arab Sprlng - sLudy", Arablan 8uslness
news, March 8, 2012.Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.arablanbuslness.com/fewer-women-ln-parllamenLs-afLer-arab-sprlng-
sLudy-448949.hLml8
41
ln LgypL and 1unlsla women are boLh hopeful and fearful abouL whaL Lhe Arab
revoluLlons mlghL mean for Lhem", 1be cooomlst, CcLober 13, 2011, Accessed March
19, 2012. 1hls also lmpllcaLes Lhe progresslvlsL narraLlves dlscussed above.
42
lbld.
43
lsobel Coleman, Why Lhe Arab Sprlng Pasn'L 8een 8eLLer for Women", 1be Atlootlc,
March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.LheaLlanLlc.com/lnLernaLlonal/archlve/2012/03/why-Lhe-arab-sprlng-hasnL-
been-beLLer-for-women/234130/
44
urude uahlerup, CeoJet Oootos. A key to poollty
43
Al, Women on Lhe back fooL ln Lhe Arab Sprlng", Al Atoblyo News, March 7, 2012.
Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://engllsh.alarablya.neL/arLlcles/2012/03/07/199129.hLml
46
lbld.
47
lbld.
48
lbld.
49
lbld.
30
Women and Lhe Arab Sprlng: 1aklng Lhelr place?", March 7, 2012. Accessed March
19, 2012, Avallable aL: hLLp://arabwomensprlng.fldh.neL/lndex.php?LlLle=Maln_age
31
lbld.
32
lbld.
33
Mlddle LasL and norLh Afrlca: roLesL and represslon seL Lo conLlnue ln 2012",
Amoesty lotetootloool.otq, !anuary 9, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012.
Avallable aL: hLLp://www.amnesLy.org/en/news/mlddle-easL-and-norLh-afrlca-proLesL-
and-represslon-seL-conLlnue-2012-2012-01-09
34
Women and Lhe Arab Sprlng: 1aklng Lhelr place?", March 7, 2012. Accessed March 19,
2012, Avallable aL: hLLp://arabwomensprlng.fldh.neL/lndex.php?LlLle=Maln_age
33
8ob L. Wagner, Arab Sprlng democracy: A wln for women?: 1hey geL more of a volce
ln 1unlsla, Llbya, buL LgypL seems Lo be marchlng backwards." March 8, 2012. Accessed

31

March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.[posL.com/MlddleLasL/ArLlcle.aspx?ld=260978&8=83
36
8euLers. lewer women ln parllamenLs afLer Arab Sprlng - sLudy", Arablan 8uslness
news, March 8, 2012.Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.arablanbuslness.com/fewer-women-ln-parllamenLs-afLer-arab-sprlng-
sLudy-448949.hLml8
37
Paleh Lsfandlarl, ultectot, MlJJle ost ltoqtom, 8eflecLlons on Women ln Lhe Arab
Sprlng", MlJJle ost ltoqtom. wooJtow wllsoo ceotet lotetootloool ceotet fot
5cbolots, March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.wllsoncenLer.org/arLlcle/reflecLlons-women-Lhe-arab-sprlng-
womenL28099s-volces-around-Lhe-world
38
Wldney 8rown, Cplnlon: Why men have leL women down posL Arab Sprlng",
cNN.com, March 12 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.cnn.com/2012/03/08/world/measL/wldney-brown-lnslde-mlddleeasL/
39
lsobel Coleman, Why Lhe Arab Sprlng Pasn'L 8een 8eLLer for Women", 1be Atlootlc,
March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.LheaLlanLlc.com/lnLernaLlonal/archlve/2012/03/why-Lhe-arab-sprlng-hasnL-
been-beLLer-for-women/234130/
60
8ana l. Swels, Arab Sprlng lalls Lo Allay Women's AnxleLles", New otk 1lmes,
March 7, 2012 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2012/03/08/world/mlddleeasL/arab-sprlng-falls-Lo-allay-
womens-anxleLles.hLml?_r=1&pagewanLed=prlnL
61
CrlLlqued for her gendered vlews on Lerrorlsm ln Laura S[oberg and Caron CenLry,
Motbets, Moostets, wbotes, (new ?ork: Zed 8ooks,)(2008)
62
8obln Morgan, Women of Lhe Arab Sprlng", Ms Sprlng 2011 Accessed: March 19,
2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.msmagazlne.com/sprlng2011/womenofLhearabsprlng.asp
63
lbld.
64
lbld.
63
krlsLen Chlck, ln LgypL's 1ahrlr Square, women aLLacked aL rally on lnLernaLlonal
Women's uay", cbtlstloo 5cleoce Mooltot, March 8, 2011, Accessed March 19, 2012,
Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.csmonlLor.com/World/Mlddle-LasL/2011/0308/ln-LgypL-s-1ahrlr-Square-
women-aLLacked-aL-rally-on-lnLernaLlonal-Women-s-uay
66
LgypL's MlllLary MasLers", Jltotlol loqe. lotetootloool netolJ 1tlbooe, uecember 20,
2011. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2011/12/21/oplnlon/egypLs-mlllLary-masLers.hLml?_r=1
67
lbld.
68
uavld u. klrkpaLrlck, LgypLlan MlllLary CourL AcqulLs uocLor Accused of erformlng
'vlrglnlLy 1esLs'" New otk 1lmes, March 11, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable
aL: hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2012/03/12/world/mlddleeasL/egypLlan-courL-acqulLs-
docLor-accused-performlng-vlrglnlLy-LesLs.hLml

32

69
uavld u. klrkpaLrlck, LgypLlan MlllLary CourL AcqulLs uocLor Accused of erformlng
'vlrglnlLy 1esLs'" New otk 1lmes, March 11, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable
aL: hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2012/03/12/world/mlddleeasL/egypLlan-courL-acqulLs-
docLor-accused-performlng-vlrglnlLy-LesLs.hLml
70
Anna 8elmann, Women's 8lghLs: Could Cermany Learn from 1unlsla?", uet 5pleqel,
March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012.
bttp.//www.spleqel.Je/lotetootloool/wotlJ/0,1518,820157,00.btml
71
ln LgypL and 1unlsla women are boLh hopeful and fearful abouL whaL Lhe Arab
revoluLlons mlghL mean for Lhem", 1be cooomlst, CcLober 13, 2011, Accessed March
19, 2012
72
CuoLed ln Paleh Lsfandlarl, ultectot, MlJJle ost ltoqtom, 8eflecLlons on Women ln
Lhe Arab Sprlng", MlJJle ost ltoqtom. wooJtow wllsoo ceotet lotetootloool ceotet fot
5cbolots, March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.wllsoncenLer.org/arLlcle/reflecLlons-women-Lhe-arab-sprlng-
womenL28099s-volces-around-Lhe-world
73
lmmanuel WallersLeln, 1he conLradlcLlons of Lhe Arab Sprlng", Al Iozeeto- oqllsb,
november 14, 2011. Accessed: March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.al[azeera.com/lndepLh/oplnlon/2011
/11/20111111101711339134.hLml#.12eCM8L3f4k.facebook
74
ln LgypL and 1unlsla women are boLh hopeful and fearful abouL whaL Lhe Arab
revoluLlons mlghL mean for Lhem", 1be cooomlst, CcLober 13, 2011, Accessed March
19, 2012
73
!osh uzleza, AfLer Lhe Arab Sprlng, Are LgypL's Women Loslng Cround?", 1be uolly
8eost, March 9, 2012, Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.LhedallybeasL.com/arLlcles/2012/03/09/afLer-Lhe-arab-sprlng-are-egypL-s-
women-loslng-ground.hLml
76
A laLer drafL of Lhls paper wlll have Lhe resulLs of our lnLervlew and blographlcal
narraLlve work, buL daLa collecLlon ls noL done for Lhls early drafL
77
8eLh !unor and kaLrlna Powse, Cteeobom commoo womeos leoce comp. A nlstoty
of Noo-vloleot keslsteoce (n?: Worklng ress, 1993)
78
CerLrude 8ussey and MargareL 1lms, womeos lotetootloool leoqoe fot leoce ooJ
lteeJom, 1915-1965. A kecotJ of llfty eots wotk (n?: Allen and unwln, 1963), CaLla
ConforLlnl, lmaglnaLlve ldenLlflcaLlon: lemlnlsL CrlLlcal MeLhodology ln Lhe Women's
lnLernaLlonal League for eace and lreedom," lbu ulssettotloo, uolvetslty of 5ootbeto
collfotolo (2009)
79
enny Colman, kosle tbe klvltet. womeo wotkloq oo tbe nome ltoot lo wotlJ wot ll
(n?: Crown ubllshers, 1998)
80
Clara 8arLon, 1be keJ ctoss lo leoce ooJ wot (WashlngLon, u.C.: PlsLorlcal ress,
1898)
81
See, e.g., LlllsabeLh Addls, valerla 8usso, and Loranza SebesLa, womeo 5ollJets.
lmoqes ooJ keolltles (n?: SL. MarLln's ress, 1994), Crna Sasson-Levy, lemlnlsm and
MlllLary Cender racLlces: lsraell Women Soldlers ln 'Mascullne' 8oles," 5ocloloqlcol
lopolty 73(3) (2003): 440-63.

33

82
lemale MarLyrs Ponored ln ?emen," uollyMotloo.com, november 19, 2011.
Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.dallymoLlon.com/vldeo/xmfl4m_female-marLyrs-honored-ln-yemen_news,
Cpenlng Sesslon", 1be New Atob womoo lotom, March 22, 2012. Accessed March 19,
2012, Avallable aL: hLLp://www.nawforum.com/evenLs/nAWl/3/proflle/launchlng
83
aLrlcla MonLemurrl, 8oLhalna kamel, LgypL's 1sL female presldenLlal candldaLe,
brlngs message Lo u-M", uettolt ltee ltess, March 4, 2012, Accessed March 19, 2012.
Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.freep.com/arLlcle/20120304/lLA1u8LS01/203040337/8oLhalna-kamel-
LgypL-s-1sL-female-presldenLlal-candldaLe-brlngs-message-Lo-u-M
84
LllzabeLh llock, Syrlan women [oln proLesL fronLllnes as acLlvlsLs reporL women
massacre," wosbloqtoo lost.com March 12, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable
aL:
hLLp://www.washlngLonposL.com/blogs/blogposL/posL/syrlan-women-chlldren-kllled-
ln-homs-acLlvlsLs-say-women-[oln-fronLllnes-of-
proLesL/2012/03/12/glCAdLnC78_blog.hLml
83
Al, Women on Lhe back fooL ln Lhe Arab Sprlng", Al Atoblyo News, March 7, 2012.
Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:
hLLp://engllsh.alarablya.neL/arLlcles/2012/03/07/199129.hLml
86
lbld.
87
lbld.
88
See Lrlc Werker, 8efugee Camp Lconomles," Iootool of kefoqee 5toJles 20(3) (2007):
462-80
89
CfLen, wars' unseen lmpacLs lnclude Lhlngs LhaL seem Lrlvlal buL are lncredlble
lnLerrupLlons Lo people's llves, llke consLralnlng work commuLes, forclng aLLenLlon Lo
remedlal economles raLher Lhan developlng lndusLrles, and renderlng famllles wlLhouL
places Lo llve as Lhey look for work.
90
Mlchael !. 1oole and 8onald !. Waldman, 8efugees and lnLernally ulsplaced ersons:
War, Punger, and ubllc PealLh," IAMA. 1be Iootool of tbe Ametlcoo MeJlcol
Assoclotloo 270(3): 600-603.
91
CynLhla Lnloe, Mooeovets. 1be lotetootloool lolltlcs of Mllltotlzloq womeo's llves
(8erkeley: unlverslLy of Callfornla ress, 2000).
92
lbld., see also Mlchael L. 8urLon and uouglas 8. WhlLe, Sexual ulvlslon of Labor ln
AgrlculLure," Ametlcoo Aotbtopoloqlst 86(3) (1984): 368-83. lor example, agrlculLural
economles are organlzed on sexual dlvlslons of labor - see Cary S. 8ecker, Puman
CaplLal, LfforL, and Lhe Sexual ulvlslon of Labor," Iootool of lobot cooomlcs 3(1) (1983):
S33-S38.
93
Alexls Arleff, ollLlcal 1ranslLlon ln 1unlsla", cooqtessloool keseotcb 5etvlce,
uecember 16, 2011. Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/8S21666.pdf
94
lsobel Coleman, Why Lhe Arab Sprlng Pasn'L 8een 8eLLer for Women", 1be Atlootlc,
March 8, 2012. Accessed March 19, 2012, Avallable aL:

34

hLLp://www.LheaLlanLlc.com/lnLernaLlonal/archlve/2012/03/why-Lhe-arab-sprlng-hasnL-
been-beLLer-for-women/234130/
93
Mahnaz Afkhaml, 1esLlmony 1o 1he SenaLe lorelgn 8elaLlons SubcommlLLee on
lnLernaLlonal CperaLlon and CrganlzaLlons, Puman 8lghLs, uemocracy, and Clobal
Women's lssues and SubcommlLLee on near LasLern and SouLh CenLral Asla Affalrs,"
womeos leotoloq lottoetsblp, november 2, 2011.,
96
8ana l. Swels, Arab Sprlng lalls Lo Allay Women's AnxleLles", New otk 1lmes,
March 7, 2012 Accessed March 19, 2012. Avallable aL:
hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2012/03/08/world/mlddleeasL/arab-sprlng-falls-Lo-allay-
womens-anxleLles.hLml?_r=1&pagewanLed=prlnL
97
used Annlck Wlbben's Lerms, ln lemlolst 5ecotlty 5toJles. A Nottotlve Apptoocb,
(London: 1aylor and lrancls: 2011)
98
Annlck Wlbben, lemlolst 5ecotlty 5toJles. A Nottotlve Apptoocb
99
!ean 8audrlllard, 5electeJ wtltloqs, ed. W. osLer (London: ollLy, 2001), 134.
100
An ln-depLh exploraLlon of Lhe dlscourse Lheory behlnd Lhls polnL ls lnapproprlaLe
here, buL Lhe concepL ls derlved from ?uen loong khong, Aooloqles ot wot. koteo,
Moolcb, uleo 8leo lbo, ooJ tbe vletoom ueclsloos of 1965 (rlnceLon, n!: rlnceLon
unlverslLy ress, 1992), Ceorge Lakoff and Mark !ohnson, Metopbots we llve 8y
(Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago ress, 1980), Lva leder klLLay, Metopbot. lts coqloltlve
lotce ooJ lloqolstlc 5ttoctote (Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 1990), and lerre
8ordleu, looqooqe ooJ 5ymbollc lowet, Lrans. Clno 8aymond and MaLLhew Adamson
(Cambrldge, MA: Parvard unlverslLy ress, 1991).
101
Wlbben, lemlolst 5ecotlty 5toJles. A Nottotlve Apptoocb
102
MaarLen Pa[er, 1be lolltlcs of ovltoomeotol ulscootse. coloqlcol MoJetolzotloo
ooJ tbe lollcy ltocess (Cxford: Clarendon ress, 1993), 62, for dlscusslon of LexL, medla,
and fabula, see Wlbben, lemlolst 5ecotlty 5toJles. A Nottotlve Apptoocb, clLlng 8al
103
Cllfford CeerLz, 1be lotetptetotloo of coltotes (new ?ork: 8aslc 8ooks, 1973), see also
Charles Wllllam Morrls, 5lqolflcotloo ooJ 5lqolflcooce. A 5toJy lo tbe kelotloos of 5lqos
ooJ voloes (Cambrldge, MA: Ml1 ress, 1964), Mlchel loucaulL, 1he Sub[ecL and
ower," ctltlcol lopolty, vol. 8, no. 4 (1982): 777-793, !ean 8audrlllard, 5ymbollc
xcbooqe ooJ ueotb, Lrans. laln PamllLon CranL (London: Sage, 1993), and !acques
uerrlda, wtltloq ooJ ulffeteoce, Lrans. Alan 8ass (Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago ress,
1980).
104
8audrlllard, 5electeJ wtltloqs, 134.
103
!urgen Pabermas, koowleJqe ooJ nomoo lotetests (8osLon: 8eacon ress, 1968).
106
Pa[er, 1be lolltlcs of ovltoomeotol ulscootse, 62.
107
CeerLz, 1be lotetptetotloo of coltotes, 9.
108
Poml 8habha, Slgns 1aken for Wonders: CuesLlons of Amblvalence and AuLhorlLy
under a 1ree CuLslde uelhl, May 1817," lrom 8habham, locotloo of coltote (London:
8ouLledge, 1994).
109
!ohn 8. Pall, coltotes of lopolty. ltom plstemoloqy to ulscootse lo 5ocloblstotlcol
keseotcb (Cambrldge: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress, 1999), 3.
110
lbld., 8.

33

111
CllberL Welss and 8uLh Wodak, eds., ctltlcol ulscootse Aoolysls. 1beoty ooJ
lotetJlsclpllootlty (London: algrave Macmlllan, 2002), 13.
112
8ordleu, looqooqe ooJ 5ymbollc lowet, 3.
113
Pa[er, 1be lolltlcs of ovltoomeotol ulscourse, 43.
114
1hls derlvaLlon comes from 8arry 8uzan, Cle Waever, and !aap de Wllde's
undersLandlng of securlLlzlng dlscourses and securlLlzaLlon ln 5ecotlty. A New
ltomewotk fot Aoolysls (8oulder, CC: Lynne 8lenner ubllshers, 1998), 23.