REUTERS

INSTITUTE for the

STUDYof
JOURNALISM
REPORT
Media and Democratisation:
What is Known about the Role of Mass Media in
Transitions to Democracy
Nael Jebril, Vclav Stetka, Mathew Loveless
September 2013
Cover image REUTERS/Youssef Boudlal A man reads newspapers after the rst unconrmed results from Senegal's controversial presidential election
indicate a tight race between incumbent Abdoulaye Wade and former Prime Minister Macky Sall: newsstand in central Dakar, 27 February 2012.
Media and Democratisation Cover_Layout 1 10/09/2013 12:39 Page 2

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2.1 Media and InslilulionaI Change in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe: 'Lessons
lo be Learned'`
2.2 Mass Media and IoIilicaI AccounlabiIily in Lalin America
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3.1 Media Diffusion
3.2 IoIilicaI SociaIisalion
3.3 Nev Media
3.4 The ChaIIenge of AlliludinaI and ehaviouraI Research
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4.1 The ChaIIenge of Media and Democralisalion Research in lhe Arab
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This reorl exIores vhal is knovn aboul lhe roIes of lhe mass media in
lransilions lo democracy. Il offers a fundamenlaI overviev of lhinking
regarding democralisalion lhrough lhe media, and covers lhe ma|or vorks,
lheories, and lhemes reIevanl lo lhe sludy of mass media in lransilionaI
conlexls. Throughoul lhe reviev, ve exIore seIecled regions (i.e. CenlraI and
Iaslern Iuroe, Lalin America, and lhe Arab vorId) in more delaiI lo rovide
a comrehensive oulIook on revious vorks lhal aim lo undersland, exIain,
or redicl democralisalion rocesses (i.e. regime change, inslilulionaI change,
and democralic sociaIisalion) vilh reference lo lhe media. Our sludy aims lo
uncover a sufficienl basis for a lheory of mass media during democralisalion
lhrough revieving and aIigning exisling vork and emiricaI evidence on lhis
sub|ecl.
The reviev slarls by eIucidaling lhe olenliaI roIe of lhe media as a
democralising agenl. We lhen exIore lhe reIalionshi belveen media reform
and inslilulionaI change during democralisalion eriods, and move lo reviev
lhe Iileralure on lhe conlribulion of media lo inslilulion buiIding and due
erformance in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe. We conlinue lhe discussion on
lhe effecliveness of media for democralisalion by assessing lhe reIalionshi
belveen oIilicaI accounlabiIily and lhe accounlabiIily funclion of 'valchdog
|ournaIism' in Lalin America. This is foIIoved by a reviev of ma|or vorks
lhal Iook al lhe media as an insligalor lo or delerminanl of changes in
individuaIs' oIilicaI alliludes or behaviour during eriods of
democralisalion. Laler, ve discuss in delaiI lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe
media and change for democracy in lhe mosl recenl region of inleresl in lerms
of olenliaI democralisalion, lhe Arab vorId, and finaIIy, ve assess lhe
media's revoIulionary roIes in regime changes vilh arlicuIar focus on lhe
rising debale aboul lhe conneclion belveen sociaI media and lhe Arab Sring.
As ve address differenl slages and IeveIs of democralisalion, ve crilicaIIy
revisil and queslion some of lhe commonIy heId assumlions aboul lhe
reIalionshi belveen media reform and democralic lransformalions.
The foIIoving Iisl offers a summary of lrends and findings from lhe reviev:

A slale of lhe disciIine for lhe sludy of mass media and
democralisalion is difficuIl lo conslrucl as lhere is IillIe coherence
belveen lhe various lheorelicaI and anaIylicaI aroaches emIoyed.
IundamenlaIIy, lhe sludy of mass media in democralising counlries is
an exercise of a differenl quaIily lhan lhe sludy of mass media in
eslabIished democracies of lhe Wesl in vhich media sludies originaled,
lhe counlries and regions of democralisalion have a varying IeveI of
comarabiIily vilh one anolher.
There is very IillIe research vhich vouId exIore hov exaclIy lhe
media fuIfiI lheir normaliveIy ascribed roIe and conlribule lo
democralic inslilulion buiIding in lhe lransilion counlries. Il is oflen
difficuIl lo searale vhal is being cIaimed aboul lhe imacl of media
on lhe inslilulion-buiIding rocess from broader assessmenls of lheir
democralic quaIilies or conlribulion lo democralisalion in generaI. So
far, lhere has been very IillIe, if any, emiricaI research secificaIIy
designed lo verify lhese argumenls.
Il is uncIear vhelher lhe media are an agenl of democralic change and
consoIidalion or nol as lhe issue of vhelher lhe media Iead or foIIov
change for democracy is yel lo be resoIved. The evidence on lhe

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effeclive conlribulion of lhe media lo inslilulionaI change during lhe
consoIidalion hases of democralisalion, arlicuIarIy vilh resecl lo
enforcing oIilicaI accounlabiIily lhrough valchdog |ournaIism, is bolh
mixed and inconsislenl. This mighl refIecl lhe high normalive
execlalions by lhe research communily concerning media reform
vhich vas assumed lo simIy reIicale lhe eslabIished Weslern
modeIs.
Whereas mass media have oflen simIy been assumed lo Iay a
(genericaIIy) osilive roIe in democralic lransilion, arlicuIarIy for
cilizens of lransilionaI counlries, lhere is in facl IillIe evidence lhal fils
vilh lhis assumlion. The avaiIabIe evidence of bolh lhe broad and
secific over of mass media lo infIuence individuaIs faiIs lo
corresond cIearIy lo higher IeveIs of a rolo-democralic oIilicaI
cuIlure in non-democralic regimes. The scallered nalure of avaiIabIe
emiricaI evidence aIso Iimils ils abiIily lo iIIuminale concIusions aboul
lhe roIe of mass media in lhe rocess of democralisalion. Thus,
assuming a simIe and osilive reIalionshi belveen media reform
i.e. changes in lhe quanlily and quaIily of informalion sources and
enhanced freedom of exression on lhe one hand and successfuI
democralisalion on lhe olher hand can be misIeading.
Desile cIear and Ioud enlhusiasm aboul nev media's ossibIe roIes in
bringing aboul (democralic) lransilion or lransforming socielies, lhe
revoIulionary roIe of lhe 'nevesl' medium (i.e. lhe inlernel) has found
IillIe emiricaI suorl. The avaiIabIe evidence is soradic and
insufficienl lo inform a lheory of lhe mass media's roIe in oIilicaI
sociaIisalion during eriods of democralisalion. SimiIarIy, lhe ma|or
oulcomes from lhe debale regarding lhe conneclion belveen sociaI
media and lhe Arab Sring suggesl lhal sociaI media are nol slrong
enough lo cause revoIulions desile lheir conlribulion lo lhe ubIic
shere and nev forms of governance. Thal is, emiricaI evidence
rovides no slrong suorl for cIaims of significanl nev media imacl
on regime changes in lhe Arab vorId.

The findings suggesl lhe need for an induclive invesligalion lhal is
lheory-gcncraiing ralher lhan lheory-icsiing. In addilion, sludies shouId
exlend our knovIedge of lhe mechanisms of media effecls in non-Weslern
sellings, and enhance our underslanding of lhe dynamics of informalion
environmenls and audiences in lransilionaI conlexls. Iulure research viII
aIso need lo consider lhe veIocily and scoe of lhe lransformalion of
digilaI media environmenls. As far as oIicy-making is concerned, lhe
findings suggesl lhal lhe reIalionshi belveen inslilulionaI media reform
and democralisalion is far from simIe, and lhal lhere is a need lo consuIl
emiricaI evidence and consider sociaIisalion rocesses in fulure oIicies.


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SchoIars have differenl underslandings of democralisalion. This is mainIy
because lhere are various, lhough nol necessariIy conlradiclory, vays of
underslanding vhal democracy is (e.g. Schmiller and KarI, 1993). Defining
democracy can range from a minimaIisl requiremenl of free comelilive
eIeclions (e.g. Schumeler, 1943) lo definilions emhasising muIliIe forms of
arlicialion (see RozumiIovicz, 2002, for an overviev). Democralisalion can
be besl underslood as 'a comIex, Iong lerm, dynamic, and oen-ended
rocess, il consisls of rogress lovards a more ruIe-based, more consensuaI
and more arlicialory lye of oIilics' (Whilehead, 2002: 27). This requires
lvo dislincl aroaches.
The jirsi aroach focuses on lhe condilions lhal redale democralisalion,
seeking domeslic and inlernalionaI faclors lhal make il IikeIy for
democralisalion lo slarl and lo succeed (e.g. exIanalory and condilion-
focused). The scccn! one focuses on democralisalion rocesses, emhasising
lhe roximale causes ralher lhan Iong-lerm causes (e.g. descrilive and
silualion-orienled) (see Haerfer el aI., 2009, for an overviev, aIso Munck,
2007). In any case, democralic lransilion resenls a hybrid regime vhere
inslilulions of lhe oId regimes coexisl vilh lhose of lhe nev slale, and
aulhorilarians and democrals oflen share over (Shin, 1994), vhereas
democralic consoIidalion refers lo lhe chaIIenges of making nev democracies
secure (SchedIer, 1998). A ossibIe lhird aroach mighl refer lo asecls of
democracy in counlries vilh no immediale lhreal of breakdovn.
Currenl democralisalion lheory is cIoseIy Iinked vilh lhe earIy
modernisalion lheory vhich eslabIishes a lheorelicaI Iink belveen lhe IeveI of
deveIomenl of a given counlry and ils robabiIily of being democralic
(Lisel, 1959, Lerner, 1958). Il argues lhal, beyond cerlain lhreshoIds of
economic deveIomenl, socielies become loo comIex and sociaIIy mobiIised
lo be governed by aulhorilarian means (Hinnebusch, 2006: 374). The lhesis
lhal modernisalion favours democralisalion has been reealedIy chaIIenged.
Counler-argumenls have reIied on cases shoving a breakdovn of democralic
regimes in highIy modern counlries, and a conlinued exislence of vorkabIe
democracies in oor counlries (erg-SchIosser, 2007). Desile lhe chaIIenges,
Ienly of evidence in lhe Iileralure shovs lhal modernisalion does heI
democracies nol onIy survive (e.g. Irzevorski and Limongi, 1997), bul aIso
emerge (e.g. oix and Slokes, 2003, see DahI, 1971, for a discussion). As of
loday, lhe facl lhal modernisalion oerales in favour of democracy is beyond
serious doubl (WeIzeI, 2009: 81).
The Iileralure oinls lo many domeslic faclors in exIaining
democralisalion rocesses (arlies: Caoccia and ZibIall, 2010, inslilulionaI
faclors: Geddes, 1999, WeIzeI, 2009, civiI sociely: Whilehead, 2002).
Democralisalion Iileralure generaIIy lends lo dovnIay lhe roIe of
inlernalionaI faclors in democralisalion, bul as gIobaIisalion has made slales
more vuInerabIe lo lhe demands of lhe gIobaI forces, schoIars have slarled lo
ay more allenlion lo lhe infIuence of exlernaI variabIes (e.g. 'neighbourhood'
effecls: rinks and Coedge, 2006, diffusion: Hunlinglon, 1991). Hovever,
roonenls of lhe oIilicaI cuIlure lheory argue lhal mass beIiefs are of crilicaI
imorlance for a counlry's chances of becoming and remaining democralic.
They slale lhal inirinsic references for democracy, |usl Iike insiruncnia| ones,
do emerge under aulhorilarian regimes and lhal, vhen lhese references are
veak or absenl, eoIe may consider such regimes lo be democralic.
AccordingIy, lhe reIalionshi belveen modernisalion and democralisalion is
erceived lo be medialed by lhe emergence of emancialive beIiefs (see

5

WeIzeI and IngIeharl, 2006, 2009, for a discussion). Il is here lhal lhe mass
media have been recognised as a olenliaI bul infIuenliaI democralisalion
aclor since, unIike earIier inslances of democralisalion, lhe currenl gIobaI
vave of democracy lakes Iace in a media-saluraled environmenl (VoIlmer
and RovnsIey, 2009).


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The roIe of lhe media in lhe rocess of democralisalion has been grealIy
undereslimaled (e.g. RandaII, 1993), arlIy because lhe Iileralure on oIilicaI
science and communicalion is IargeIy fragmenled (Hackell and Zhao, 2005).
Sludies vhich have addressed lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe media and
oIilics in democralisalion conlexls usuaIIy have lvo ma|or concerns: (1)
democralisalion lhrough lhe media and (2) democralisalion of lhe media ilseIf
(Hackell and Zhao, 2005, see aIso SaIgado, 2009). Il is difficuIl lo idenlify a
direcl reIalionshi of cause and effecl belveen lhe media and democralisalion
as lhe avaiIabIe emiricaI evidence is anecdolaI and so cannol be sub|ecled lo
rigorous emiricaI lesling (see VoIlmer and RovnsIey, 2009). The media may
be vieved eilher as deendenl on sociely and mirroring ils conlours or as
rimary movers and mouIders (McQuaiI, 2005). Likevise, media freedom has
been erceived as an indicalor of democralic reform (see McConneII and
ecker, 2002), or as a recondilion for democralic inslilulions lo vork
roerIy (e.g. erman and Wilzner, 1997, DahI, 1989). Ior bolh media and
democralisalion schoIars, lhe mass media are regarded as one of lhe key
democralic inslilulions (Slreel, 2010, McQuaiI, 2000) vilaI in imroving lhe
quaIily of lhe eIecloraI syslem, oIilicaI arlies, arIiamenl, |udiciary, and
olher branches of lhe slale, even civiI sociely, and safeguarding lheir
democralic erformance.
In normalive media lheory, democralic oIilicaI slruclures are oflen
assumed lo recede lhe grovlh of media markels. This assumlion may nol
be accurale for some emerging democracies, bul lhe roosilion lhal
democracy infIuences lhe funclion of lhe media is a IausibIe one (e.g.
lhrough IegisIalion, roleclion, elc.). This is based on lhe Iong-slanding lheory
of media and democracy in vhich lhere are normalive execlalions regarding
lhe media ilseIf (e.g. normalive vaIues) as veII as regarding hov olher
inslilulions shouId lreal lhe media (e.g. slruclure). OveraII, freedom and
indeendence are lhe mosl universaIIy endorsed ideaI characlerislics of lhe
media.
1
The normalive funclions of lhe media are oflen based on lhe
characlerislics of reresenlalive or IiberaI democracies. These incIude serving
as (1) a forum encouraging IuraIislic debale aboul ubIic affairs, (2) a
guardian againsl lhe abuse of over, and (3) a mobiIising agenl encouraging
ubIic Iearning and arlicialion in lhe oIilicaI rocess (see Norris, 2000, for
a delaiIed overviev).
2

Thus, lransforming lhe media inlo fuIIy democralic inslilulions is a
chaIIenging lask mainIy because (1) lhe reIalionshi belveen governmenl and
lhe media is highIy ambivaIenl, (2) reformed media inslilulions viII sliII
relain eIemenls of lhe Iogic and conslrainls of lheir redecessors, and (3)
|ournaIisls in lhe nevIy lransformed media organisalions viII sliII hoId vaIues
lhal are rooled in lheir rofessionaI Iife under lhe oId regime (VoIlmer and
RovnsIey, 2009). This lransformalion is oflen achieved lhrough IiberaIisalion
of lhe media so lhal an ideaI media environmenl incIudes lvo media seclors:
a markel-Ied media seclor and a non-markel-seclor (RozumiIovicz, 2002). In
lransilionaI democracies, lhe guaranlee of communicalion freedoms is rareIy

1
These are oflen measured lhrough gIobaI annuaI indexes such as lhe Ireedom House Survey vhich Iooks al lhe
degree lo vhich each counlry ermils lhe free fIov of nevs and informalion considering lhe IegaI, oIilicaI, and
economic environmenls, or Reorlers vilhoul orders WorIdvide Iress Ireedom Index, vhich assesses lhe slale of
ress freedom based on vioIalions direclIy affecling |ournaIisls and nevs media, laking inlo accounl lhe IegaI
silualion and behaviour of slale aulhorilies.
2
Olher normalive vaIues lhal are highIy regarded vhere ubIic communicalion is concerned incIude equaIily,
diversily, lrulh and informalion quaIily, and sociaI order and soIidarily (McQuaiI, 2005).

7

disuled conslilulionaIIy and has been imIemenled in virluaIIy aII lransilion
counlries (VoIlmer and RovnsIey, 2009).
In democralising conlexls, lhe media lasks are generaIIy and usuaIIy
subsumed under lhe 'accounlabiIily roIe' vhich lhe media have been
normaliveIy ascribed as one of lheir main funclions in a democralic sociely
(Gurevilch and IumIer, 1990, Schudson, 1995, RandaII, 1998, ScammeI and
Semelko, 2000a, Norris, 2006, VoIlmer, 2006a). The nolion lhal lhe ress
shouId hoId lhe governmenl and oIilicaI eIiles accounlabIe lhal is,
ansverabIe lo lhe eIeclorale and sub|ecl lo evenluaI unishmenl in case of
vrongdoing is arlicuIarIy slrongIy rooled in lhe IiberaI, AngIo-American
lradilion of |ournaIism, assigning lhe ress lhe IabeI of lhe 'fourlh eslale' and
execling il lo acl as a 'valchdog', exosing lhe lransgressions of lhe ubIic
officiaIs and olher over hoIders vilhin lhe democralic syslem (Waisbord,
2000). In addilion lo eIeclions, lhe media are seen as inslrumenlaI for bolh lhe
main dimensions of oIilicaI accounlabiIily (see SchedIer, 1998, Whilehead,
2002), verlicaI (lhe abiIily of cilizens lo oversee aclions of lhe over hoIders)
as veII as horizonlaI (lhe syslem of 'checks and baIances' belveen slale
inslilulions, ubIic agencies, and branches of governmenl). SimIy, lhey serve
as a means for volers lo make decisions by disseminaling informalion aboul
governmenl aclions.
Hovever, as a chaIIenge lo IegisIalive democralisalion, emerging
democracies are lhoughl lo deveIo unique lyes of media syslems lhal differ
significanlIy from lhose in eslabIished democracies, and |ournaIislic
rofessionaIism is argued lo be embedded in lhe vider cuIluraI lradilions of a
given counlry and lo refIecl lhe needs and execlalions of audiences
(McConneII and ecker, 2002). This creales severaI and Iarger gas
belveen lhe 'ideaI' and lhe reaIily of |ournaIism lhan in eslabIished
democracies.
Thus, lhe roIe of lhe media in democralisalion can be besl underslood
and is examined here aIong lhe slages of oIilicaI lransformalion. In lhe re-
lransilion eriod, lhe media may Iay a vilnessing roIe, as veII as a
Iegilimising roIe for lhe changes laking Iace before lhe regime Ioses ils hoId
on over (ennell, 1998). Il may aIso exerl direcl ressure and conslilule an
acluaI 'lrigger' for democralisalion (RandaII, 1993). During lhe lransilion
eriod, lhe media may sel lhe agenda for oIilicaI debale, offer aIlernalive
inlerrelalions of lhe ongoing evenls, and creale suorl for emerging
oIilicaI arlies. WhiIe revious research suggesls lhal lhe media lend lo be
mosl suorlive of democracy in lhe earIy slages of democralisalion (RandaII,
1998), lheir erformance is vuInerabIe lo oIilicaI conlroI vhich manifesls
ilseIf in highIy oinionaled and oIilicised reorling during lransilion hases.
The media's roIe in lhe earIy slages of democralisalion can be very infIuenliaI
because of ils olenliaI imacl on oIilicaI decisions (SaIgado, 2009) and
oIilicaI orienlalions (Schmill-eck and VoIlmer, 2007). As far as lhe
consoIidalion hase is concerned, lhe media are execled lo suslain
democralic discourse and guard againsl backsIiding, vhelher inslilulionaI
decay or individuaI corrulion (RandaII, 1998), a roIe oflen chaIIenged by
groving cynicism and decIine of ubIic lrusl in |ournaIism.
More so lhan in eslabIished democracies, lhe dislinclion belveen IocaI and
gIobaI media offers an addilionaI insighl inlo lhe infIuence of lhe media on
lhe democralisalion rocess. The exansion in gIobaI communicalion during
lhe lhird vave of democralisalion has highIighled lhe roIe of lhe
'demonslralion effecl' by lhe inlernalionaI media, vhich enIighlens audiences
aboul lhe absence of oIilicaI freedom or economic affIuence in lheir Iives

8

(Hunlinglon, 1991). GIobaI media may aIso conlribule lo democralisalion by
direcling foreign oIilicaI eIiles and audiences lovards robIems in a
arlicuIar counlry (VoIlmer and RovnsIey, 2009) or by affecling lhe crealion
of foreign oIicies lhrough lhe so-caIIed 'CNN effecl' (Livingslon, 1997).
DomeslicaIIy, lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe grovlh of free media and lhe
rocess of democralisalion is considered lo be recirocaI. Once lhe
IiberaIisalion of lhe media has been achieved, democralic consoIidalion and
human deveIomenl are slrenglhened as |ournaIisls in indeendenl media
faciIilale grealer lransarency and accounlabiIily in governance lhrough
quaIily nevs reorling (Norris, 2009). This reIalionshi is refIecled in
mobiIisalion lheory vhich slales lhal muIliIying media roduces grealer
oorlunilies in lerms of accessibiIily for more oIilicaI engagemenl
(LoveIess, 2010). Al lhe consumlion IeveI, il is suggesled lhal, because of a
'virluous circIe', allenlion lo lhe nevs graduaIIy reinforces civic engagemenl,
|usl as civic engagemenl romls allenlion lo lhe nevs (Norris, 2000).
Hovever, lhere is very IillIe research exIoring hov exaclIy lhe media
fuIfiI lhis normaliveIy ascribed roIe and conlribule lo democralic inslilulion
buiIding in lhe lransilion counlries. The overviev of lhe reIevanl Iileralure
secificaIIy deaIing vilh media and democracy in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe
over lhe asl lvo decades (SIichaI, 1994, Corcoran and Ireslon, 1995,
Dovning, 1996, O'NeiI, 1997b, Sarks and Reading, 1998, Mughan and
Gunlher, 2000, a|omi-Lazar and Hegeds, 2001, Gross, 2002, Irice el aI.,
2002, Sksd and a|omi-Lazar, 2003b, IaIelz and }akubovicz, 2003,
}akubovicz, 2006, VoIlmer, 2006a, }akubovicz and Sksd, 2008, Dobek-
Oslrovska and GIovacki, 2008, Dyczok and Gaman-GoIulvina, 2009,
KIimkievicz, 2010, Dobek-Oslrovska el aI., 2010, Dovney and MiheI|, 2012,
Gross and }akubovicz, 2012b) suggesls lhal exisling schoIarshi lackIes lhe
queslion of lhe imacl of lhe media on oIilicaI accounlabiIily and
inslilulionaI reform during lhe democralisalion rocess mainIy indireclIy, and
rimariIy in lhe form of quaIilalive sludies using inlerrelive and hisloricaI
aroaches. This finding shouId nol be surrising given lhe scarcily of
emiricaI research on lhe reIalionshi belveen media and democralisalion in
CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe as veII as olher lransilion counlries in generaI,
vhich many of lhe above quoled aulhors exIicilIy admil and bemoan al lhe
same lime vilh onIy a IillIe change over lhe years. Ialrick O'NeiI's
observalion from 1997 lhal 've knov IillIe aboul lhe reIalionshi belveen
media reform and lhe formalion of slabIe democracy' (O'NeiI, 1997b: 3) is
echoed in mosl subsequenl voIumes, as is his crilicaI commenl lhal 'vhiIe
sludies of democralizalion recognize lhe imorlance of lhe media, fev have
gone beyond lhese basic assumlions lo sludy hov and vhy such inslilulions
may advance or imede democralizalion rocesses' (O'NeiI, 1997: 4).
3
Wriling
five years Ialer, KaroI }akubovicz noled lhal:

Tncrc is currcni|q nc unaniniiq in inc |iicraiurc cn inc rc|aiicnsnip
|ciuccn nass ccnnunicaiicns an! sccia| cnangc. Tnc issucs cj uncincr
nass nc!ia |ca! cr jc||cu cnangc, uncincr incq nirrcr cr ncu|! scciciq,

3
According lo O'NeiI, lhere is IillIe emiricaI schoIarshi on lhe roIe of lhe ress in lhe momenls of lransilion: 'Iven
vhere lhe roIe of lhe underground or oosilion ress is ciled as an imorlanl inslrumenl in lhe formalion of civiI
sociely and lhe undermining of undemocralic regimes, lhere is Iacking an eIaboralion of hov oen informalion
makes lhe lransilion from lhe oIilicaI margin lo become a cenlraI eIemenl of nev democracy. . . . There is a generaI
agreemenl among Weslern sociaI scienlisls lhal democracies deend on a free ress, hovever, sludies of lhe
inlerreIalionshi belveen lhe media and democracy have aid IillIe allenlion lo hov a free ress forms in nevIy
democralizing socielies' (O'NeiI, 1997a: 3).

9

an! uncincr incq sncu|! |c ccnccpiua|izc! as agcnis cj sccia| cnangc cr cj
inc siaius quc arc qci ic |c rcsc|tc!. (jaku|cuicz, 2002. 203)

In lheir concIusion lo lhe voIume vhich remains one of lhe mosl exIicil
allemls lo discuss lhe reIalionshi belveen media reform and
democralisalion, Monroe I. Irice and eala RozumiIovicz confess lhal, al lhe
end of lheir quesl, lhe direclion of causaIily is no cIearer lhan before:

Our Hc|q Grai| cj inquirq nas intc|tc! !cicrnining uncincr incrc is a
causa| cjjcci |ciuccn |i|cra|izc! nc!ia an! a !cnccraiic scciciq, an! as
nappcns in ncsi rc|igicus scarcncs, rcacning a jina| !csiinaiicn is c|usitc.
Hcu can uc ic|| uncincr, as is sc ui!c|q assunc!, nc!ia rcjcrn is a
ncccssarq ccn!iiicn cj !cnccraiizaiicn, cr raincr, uncincr jrcc an!
in!cpcn!cni nc!ia arc ncrc|q aiiraciitc, supcr|, an! ctcn jusiijqing
prc!ucis cj an a|rca!q |i|cra|izc! scciciq? Occs nc!ia rcjcrn prcncic
!cnccraiizaiicn cr is inc cxisicncc cj nca|inq an! in!cpcn!cni nc!ia
ncrc|q a ccnscqucncc cr sign cj a scciciq inai is a|rca!q cn inc uaq icuar!
grcaicr !cnccraiic praciicc? (Pricc an! |czuni|cuicz, 2002. 254)

The edilors admil lhal, based on lhe case sludies incIuded in lhe voIume,
4


nc gran! inccrq cr ctcrunc|ning ccnc|usicn can |c !raun. |j inc casc siu!ics
i||usiraic anqining, ii is inai inc rc|aiicnsnip |ciuccn nc!ia rcjcrn an!
pc|iiica| iransiiicn is |csi ccnsi!crc! as rciai|, nci unc|csa|c, as narrcu an!
junciicna| raincr inan !ranaiic an! ctcrarcning. (Pricc an! |czuni|cuicz,
2002. 254)

Seven years Ialer, Marla Dyczok comIained lhal 'lhere is very IillIe
lheorelicaI Iileralure on media and democralizalion' (2009: 31) and slressed
lhal 'lhe cenlraI queslion vhich needs lo be addressed and lheorized is
vhelher a free and indeendenl media is an agenl of democralic change and
consoIidalion or nol' (2009: 32), highIighling lhereby lhe Iack of unambiguous
oulcomes from revious sludies regarding lhis cruciaI issue.

2.1 Mc!ia an! |nsiiiuiicna| Cnangc in Ccnira| an! |asicrn |urcpc.
Icsscns ic |c Icarnc!?
One of lhe main reasons lo focus on lhe counlries of CenlraI and Iaslern
Iuroe (CII) vhen examining lhe roIes of media in lhe rocess of
democralisalion Iies in lhe facl lhal lhis region, al Ieasl for ils mosl arl, can
be considered lo reresenl a more or Iess 'comIele' case of democralisalion.
We have vilnessed lhe beginning, middIe, and end of lransilion as many of
lhe counlries of lhis region have nol onIy moved avay from aulhorilarianism
lovards democracy bul have succeeded in doing so (e.g. vilh membershi in
lhe Iuroean Union). UnIike olher regions of scallered (Africa), ereluaI
(Lalin America), or ossibIy burgeoning (MiddIe Iasl) democralisalion, CII
aIIovs us lo examine lhe roIes lhal lhe mass media have Iayed in lhe
successes or faiIures of lransilion. AddilionaIIy, lhis region has received
enormous academic allenlion, roviding us vilh bolh delh and breadlh of

4
The voIume conlains chalers aboul media reform and aboul democralisalion in counlries as diverse as China,
Uzbekislan, Indonesia, osnia-Hercegovina, }ordan, Ukraine, Uganda, India, IoIand, and Uruguay.

10

knovIedge in vhich lo embed invesligalions of lhe comIex rocess of
inslilulionaI reform, oIilicaI sociaIisalion, and lhe roIe of lhe media.
The facl lhal more lhan lvo decades afler lhe beginning of lransilion in
CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe, lhe very queslion aboul lhe conlribulion of lhe
media lo lhe rocess of democralisalion remains very much unansvered or
ansvered in a vay vhich is far from unequivocaI couId ossibIy aIso be
allribuled lo lhe shifl in research orienlalion of a Iarge arl of CII media
schoIarshi in lhe course of lhe Iasl decade. WhiIe many of lhe sludies
ubIished in lhe 1990s and around lhe lurn of lhe cenlury have decIared, al
Ieasl on lhe aer, democralisalion as one of lhe cenlraI loics, lheir
successors from lhe mid-2000s onvards are characlerised by a more syslemic
aroach and comaralive erseclive, oflen direclIy insired by HaIIin and
Mancini's (2004) seminaI book on comaralive media and oIilics (see in
arlicuIar }akubovicz and Sksd, 2008, Dobek-Oslrovska and GIovacki,
2008, Dobek-Oslrovska el aI., 2010, Dovney and MiheI|, 2012) and discussing
arlicuIar asecls of media syslem lransformalion in lhe conlexl of broader
rocesses of Iuroeanisalion and gIobaIisalion (Czeek el aI., 2009,
KIimkievicz, 2010). AIlhough indisensabIe conlribulions lo our
underslanding of lhe lransformalion and recenl chaIIenges of lhe CII media
syslems, lhese schoIarIy oululs rareIy (vilh nolabIe excelions, see
}akubovicz, 2012) engage vilh lhe acluaI Iink belveen media and
inslilulionaI reform, or democralisalion in a broader erseclive.
Wilh so fev sludies direclIy lackIing lhis loic (and even fever suorling
lheir argumenls vilh emiricaI evidence), il is oflen difficuIl lo searale vhal
is being cIaimed aboul lhe imacl of lhe media on lhe inslilulion-buiIding
rocess from broader assessmenls of lheir democralic quaIilies or
conlribulion lo democralisalion in generaI. Wilhin lhis broader framevork,
lhe revaiIing oinion among media schoIars has cerlainIy been crilicaI,
oinling lo such characlerislics of lhe CII nevs media as Iov inslilulionaI
aulonomy, high oIilicaI araIIeIism, Iov (and furlher decIining)
rofessionaIisalion, as veII as increasing labIoidisalion of media conlenl (see
e.g. }akubovicz and Sksd, 2008, Dobek-Oslrovska and GIovacki, 2008,
ZieIonka and Mancini, 2011, Gross and }akubovicz, 2012a), vhich are aII
quaIilies regarded as unfavourabIe for lhe deveIomenl and firm
eslabIishmenl of |ournaIism's accounlabiIily roIe. Summarising lhis discourse,
Kalrin VoIlmer noled lhal:

inc nc!ia in nanq ncu !cnccracics cjicn sccn ic |ack inc qua|iiics inai
ucu|! qua|ijq incn jcr p|aqing a kcq rc|c in prcnciing acccunia|i|iiq an!
inc|usitc pc|iiics. Tncq arc jrcqucni|q criiicizc! jcr rcnaining icc c|csc ic
pc|iiica| pcucr nc|!crs ic |c a||c ic aci as cjjcciitc uaicn!cgs, pc|iiica|
rcpcriing is rcgar!c! as icc cpinicnaic! ic prcti!c |a|ancc! gaickccping,
uni|c ccnncrcia| prcssurcs cn ncus cctcragc cjicn cnccuragc an
ctcrcnpnasis cn inc iritia| an! pcpu|ar ai inc cxpcnsc cj scricus an!
susiainc! aiicniicn ic inicrnaiicna| ajjairs an! ccnp|cx issucs cn inc
pc|icq agcn!a. (Vc|incr, 2009. 1378)

Raid commerciaIisalion of lhe media afler 1990 has been one of lhe mosl
frequenlIy quoled reasons for lhe aarenlIy fIaved democralic erformance
of lhe media in lhe CII counlries, arlicuIarIy in lhose vhere rivalisalion of
lhe nevs media seclor look Iace al an earIy slage and lo a grealer exlenl
(Sarks and Reading, 1998, Lauk, 2008, aIcyliene, 2009). Il has been
reealedIy oinled oul lhough again moslIy on a lheorelicaI IeveI lhal,

11

vhiIe lhe end of censorshi, lhe diminishing of direcl oIilicaI conlroI, and
lhe overaII IuraIisalion of lhe media seclor crealed condilions for lhe media
lo effecliveIy aid lhe democralisalion rocess and lhe crealion of lhe
democralic ubIic shere, lhe simuIlaneous rocess of reIacemenl of
ideoIogicaI conlroI vilh markel-driven imeralives has quickIy made lhe goaI
of serving lhe ubIic inleresl secondary lo lhe search for rofil.
5

SliII, nol aII aulhors share such a negalive erseclive on lhe deveIomenl
of lhe media's democralic roIes in lhe region. Revieving lhe firsl decade afler
lransilion, Ieler Gross sees cerlain osilive effecls of lhe media on lhe
democralisalion rocess in osl-Communisl Iaslern Iuroe, even if lhe very
nolion of 'effecl' is sIighlIy reIalivised:

|j uc acccpi Si|tc Icnaris prcpcsiiicn inai nc!ia cjjccis sncu|! |c
cxaninc! in icrns cj inc c|inaic incq crcaic, raincr inan incir !ircci
inpaci, an arguncni can |c na!c inai inc |asicrn |urcpcan nc!ia natc
pcsiiitc|q ccniri|uic! ic inc iransjcrnaiicn, !cspiic incir ncgaiitc si!c
cjjccis. (Grcss, 2002. 1645)

As one of lhe mosl imorlanl achievemenls of lhe media, Gross quoles 'lhe
crealion of a ubIic cIimale of comelilion belveen a vide range of
comelilors for oIilicaI and economic over or for cuIluraI redominance'
(2002: 165). Anolher osilive effecl can be seen, according lo him, in lhe
media's informalive roIe, since 'lhe media aIso broughl lo lhe fore nev issues,
nev arlies, nev Ieaders, and olenliaI Ieaders, nev ideas and ossibiIilies,
and conlribuled lo lhe crealion of varied nev nongovernmenlaI grous,
vhich is lo say, civiI sociely' (Gross, 2002: 165). His osilion can be read as
suorling a nolion lhal lhe media faciIilale, ralher lhan direclIy slimuIale,
lhe eslabIishmenl of democralic inslilulions:

Tnc |asicrn |urcpcan nc!ias ncsi signijicani ccniri|uiicn ic inc iniiia|
pnascs cj !cnccraiizaiicn in 19892000 nas inus |ccn ic scrtc as
cxanp|cs cj an! ccn!uiis jcr inc ncu|q atai|a||c pc|iiica|, cccncnic, an!
cu|iura| cpiicns, cn inc cnc nan!, an! as jaci|iiaicrs cj pc|iiica|, narkci,
an! cu|iura| ccnpciiiicn, cn inc cincr. (Grcss, 2002. 167)

Indeed, Gross slresses lhal lhe imacl of lhe media has lo be assessed in a
broader conlexl, as 'olher inslilulions and faclors are roving far more cenlraI
lo democralisalion lhan lhe media, vhich viII conlinue lo serve as imorlanl
ad|uncls lo lhe lransilion from Communism and lhe lransformalion lo
democracy', and concIudes by oenIy dismissing lhe idea lhal lhe media can
lhemseIves drive lhe democralisalion rocess, as he uls il, 've can secuIale
lhal democralizalion lhrough lhe media is highIy imrobabIe, if nol oulrighl
imossibIe' (Gross, 2002: 171).
6

The nolion of lhe media as 'ad|uncls lo lhe lransilion' ralher lhan agenls of
change has been shared by olher aulhors, highIighling lhe inlerdeendence of
arlicuIar aclors of lhe oIilicaI rocess (}akubovicz, 2006, VoIlmer, 2006b)

5
AnaIysing lhe SIovenian daiIy ress earIy in lhe 1990s, Kosir (1993: 1236) concIuded lhal mosl slories cIaiming lo be
invesligalive reorling mereIy crealed scandaIs lhal did nol serve lhe ubIic inleresl. The commerciaIisalion of mass
media had 'broughl aboul lhe lrend of invesligalive |ournaIism al any cosl' (Kosir, 1994: 16). Since lhen a number of
SIovenian media schoIars have oinled oul lhal lhere is aImosl no reaI invesligalive reorling in lhe SIovenian
media, aIlhough many |ournaIisls cIaim lo engage in il (Zdovc and Kovacic, 2007: 523).
6
This slalemenl is convergenl vilh Ieler Gross's earIier lhoughls, as reresenled by lhe foIIoving: 'We in lhe Wesl
vere vrong in assuming lhal lhe media viII heI eslabIish democracy. Indeendenl, imarliaI, rofessionaI media
are exressions of veII enlrenched democralic socielies and funclion in lheir suorl. They cannol be sonlaneousIy
crealed in a sociely in lransilion lo heI lhal lransilion' (Gross, 1998: 10, quoled in Dyczok, 2009: 32).

12

vhich infIuence each olher in lheir democralic roIes. Quoling Morris and
Waisbord, Marla Dyczok summarises lhal 'lhere seems lo be an emerging
consensus on lhe facl lhal aradoxicaIIy, lhe media's abiIily lo uhoId
democralic accounlabiIily evenluaIIy deends on lhe degree lo vhich oIilicaI
inslilulions have adoled democralic slruclures and rocedures' (Morris
and Waisbord, 2001, quoled in Dyczok, 2009: 32). SimiIarIy, KaroI }akubovicz
laIks aboul a modeI of 'non-equivaIenl or asymmelricaI inlerdeendence'
belveen socio-oIilicaI faclors and media syslems, in vhich sociaI condilions,
incIuding sociaI change, creale condilions for or lrigger media aclion lo
infIuence sociely (}akubovicz, 2006: 5, see aIso }akubovicz, 2012).
As noled above, so far lhere has been very IillIe, if any, emiricaI research
secificaIIy designed lo verify lhese argumenls. The case sludy by Slelka
(2013), Iooking al lhe achievemenls of invesligalive |ournaIism in lhe Czech
ReubIic, rovides some suorl for lhe inlerdeendency modeI, as il argues
lhal lhe fighl againsl corrulion, lo be successfuI, has lo be a |oinl efforl of
various accounlabiIily inslilulions, incIuding civiI sociely, lhe |udiciary, and
lhe roseculion aulhorilies, as media ressure ilseIf may nol be enough lo
enforce accounlabiIily and safeguard syslemic changes tis-a-tis lhe issue of
oIilicaI corrulion (Slelka, 2013).

2.2 Mass Mc!ia an! Pc|iiica| Acccunia|i|iiq in Iaiin Ancrica
AIlhough lhe concIusions from sludies of CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe are
Iimiled by lheir smaII scoe, lhey are very much in Iine vilh lhose made by
SiIvio Waisbord (2000) vhen assessing lhe accounlabiIily funclion of
'valchdog |ournaIism' in Lalin America, vhere according lo him lhis genre
has significanlIy gained in rominence in lhe Iasl couIe of decades. Draving
on emiricaI examIes of ubIic scandaIs from severaI counlries of lhis
conlinenl, incIuding raziI, CoIombia, Ieru, or Argenlina, he argues lhal
'accounlabiIily hinges on lhe combined aclions of a nelvork of inslilulions
ralher lhan on lhe soIilary aclions of one organizalion' (Waisbord, 2000: 229).
Hovever, even vilhin lhese Iimils, lhe roIe of lhe ress is indisensabIe in
exosing issues vhich eilher lhe slale vanls lo kee secrel or vhich invoIve
corrulion of ubIic officiaIs. In lhose scandaIs he revievs in his book, 'lhe
ress has unqueslionabIy heIed lo raise accounlabiIily by ubIicizing
informalion and aclions lhal resuIled in lhroving lhe rascaIs oul, vhelher
lhrough lhe resignalion or lhe voling oul of individuaIs susecled or charged
of corrulion' (Waisbord, 2000: 240). Iar from ascribing Lalin American
valchdog |ournaIism an aII-overfuI slalus, Waisbord is neverlheIess nol
nearIy as essimislic concerning ils raclicaI effecls as are many CenlraI and
Iaslern Iuroean media exerls and |ournaIisls, as vas reveaIed by a recenl
sludy (Slelka and rnebring, 2012). As he summarises:

| natc arguc! inai nuckraking !ccs nci c|ininaic ccrrupiicn |ui raiscs
auarcncss a|cui iis cxisicncc. |i !ccs nci crcaic acccunia|i|iiq |ui a!!s
cjjcris ic a ncrc tigi|ani scciciq. |i !ccs nci nakc pcucr-nc|!crs
rcspcnsi||c jcr incir nis!cc!s |ui jcrccs incn ic gitc ansucrs jcr incir
acis. . . . |i !ccs nci natc a|| inc ansucrs ic inc nanq !cjiciis cj
ccnicnpcrarq Scuin Ancrican !cnccracics |ui can pcini incn cui.
(Wais|cr!, 2000. 250)

Waisbord's 'cauliousIy olimislic' erseclive aboul lhe imacl of Lalin
American media on oIilicaI accounlabiIily has been shared by olher schoIars

13

vriling on lhis region. According lo SheiIa CoroneI, Lalin America reresenls
'erhas lhe mosl inslruclive case' of lhe valchdog roIe of media, as il is
'videIy acknovIedged lhal suslained invesligalive reorling on corrulion,
human righls vioIalions and olher forms of vrongdoing has heIed buiId a
cuIlure of accounlabiIily in governmenl and slrenglhened lhe fIedgIing
democracies of lhe conlinenl' (CoroneI, 2003: 9).
7
SmuIovilz and Ieruzzolli
(2000) argue lhal 'lhe slale of accounlabiIily in Lalin America is nol as bIeak
as mosl of lhe Iileralure vouId suggesl', since 'in severaI Lalin American
counlries, lhe media are Iaying a cenlraI roIe in exosing abuses and keeing
governmenls in check' (SmuIovilz and Ieruzzolli, 2000: 154), nol |usl by
damaging lhe oIilicaI cailaI and reulalion of ubIic officiaIs bul,
subsequenlIy, aIso by lriggering 'rocedures in courls or oversighl agencies
lhal evenluaIIy Iead lo IegaI sanclions' (SmuIovilz and Ieruzzolli, 2000: 151).
Taking a differenl erseclive on lhe conlribulion of media lo accounlabiIily,
Mauro Iorlo (2012) has shovn lhal changes in raziI's Iargesl leIevision
nelvork (TV GIobo) since lhe faII of lhe aulhorilarian regime in 1985 nameIy
grealer rofessionaIisalion and deveIomenl of crilicaI reorling 'forced lhe
chief execulives lo adal lheir communicalion slralegies, vilh comIex
obIigalions for lhe quaIily of sociaI accounlabiIily' (Iorlo, 2012: 43). In his
vords:

Cnangcs ai TV G|c|c ccniri|uic! ic inprctc inc pcrjcrnancc cj c|cciicns
as nccnanisns cj tcriica| acccunia|i|iiq. . . . Ocspiic iis ira!iiicna|
!cjcrcncc ic prcsi!cniia| auincriiq, inc risc cj a ncrc asscriitc an!
in!cpcn!cni nc!c| cj jcurna|isn ai TV G|c|c cnnancc! nccnanisns cj
acccunia|i|iiq inai ccniri|uic ic |inii prcsi!cniia| pcucr. Tnus, inc
cpcning cj TV G|c|c nas sircngincnc! inc sccia| acccunia|i|iiq junciicn cj
ic|ctisicn. (Pcric, 2012. 170)

Sharing Iorlo's crilicism regarding lhe Iack of sludies direclIy Iinking lhe
deveIomenl of mass media and democracy,
8
bul focusing on ubIic service
media inslead, CaroIina Malos (2012) in her comrehensive sludy on lhe
conneclions belveen media and oIilics in Lalin America arrived al lhe
concIusion lhal, 'in sile of lhe chaIIenges lhey face regarding oIilicaI
ressures and lhe Iack of Iarge audiences, lhe ubIic media in raziI, and in
many Lalin American counlries do have a olenliaI lo be a force for change
and lo conlribule lo lhe beller rovision of quaIily debale' (Malos, 2012: 240).
The sludy by }uIiel Iinlo (2008) on valchdog |ournaIism in Argenlina has,
hovever, orlrayed lhe currenl slale of lhis genre in a Iess olimislic Iighl,
observing (based on conlenl anaIysis) lhal, afler lvo decades of being arl of
lhe mainslream, 'valchdog ress had Iosl ils bile by 2005', vhich, in aulhor's
oinion, vas caused by lhe economic crisis as veII as by lhe changing
organisalionaI cuIlure of lhe nevs media, favouring cororale inleresls (Iinlo,
2008: 751). This lrend of graduaI diminishing and veakening of invesligalive

7
Demonslraling lhe imacl of invesligalive |ournaIism on oIilicaI accounlabiIily in Lalin America, SheiIa CoroneI
gives examIes of severaI residenls vho vere removed from office, incIuding Iernando CoIIor de MeIIo of raziI in
1992, CarIos Andres Ierez of VenezueIa in 1993, AbdaIa ucaram of Icuador in 1997, and AIberlo Iu|imori in 2000,
aII of vhom had lo sle dovn 'due in Iarge measure lo invesligalive reorling on lheir comIicily in corrul deaIs'
(CoroneI, 2003: 10).
8
According lo Mauro Iorlo, 'lhe roIe of medialing rocesses of democralisalion has become a significanl sub|ecl of
academic inquiry. Yel mosl sludies on lhe loic do nol offer a cIear oeralionaIisalion of lhe concel of democracy
and oflen faiI lo anaIyse lhe Iinkages belveen oIilicaI inslilulions, civiI sociely and lhe mass media' (Iorlo, 2012: 35).
CaroIina Malos raises a simiIar oinl vhen saying lhal 'lhe media have been cIoseIy connecled lo democralisalion
rocess lhroughoul lhe vorId, from lhe Iaslern Iuroean revoIulions of 1989 lo lhe rise lo over of YeIlsin in Russia
. . . The conlesled issue is hov reciseIy lhis effecl lakes Iace, and vhelher lhe infIuence is more indirecl and sublIe'
(Malos, 2012: 174).

14

|ournaIism never arlicuIarIy slrong lo begin vilh, as has aIready been
oinled oul has been observed in many CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe as veII,
eseciaIIy since lhe beginning of lhe economic crisis in 2007/8 vhich ul nevs
media organisalions under unrecedenled ressure and resuIled oflen in lhe
lrimming of invesligalive dearlmenls (Rudusa, 2010, SaIovaara and
}uzefovics, 2012, Slelka and rnebring, 2012). Such lendencies, reveaIing lhe
fragiIily of lhe nevs media as an inslilulion vhose erformance is lighlIy
deendenl on exlernaI economic condilions, furlher underscore lhe necessily
lo examine |ournaIism's roIe in foslering lhe democralisalion rocess vilhin
lhe broader socielaI and economic framevork of consoIidaling democracies.
Thus, lhe chaIIenges of inslilulionaI research reveaI bolh lhe reIalive
scarcily of research roviding an unequivocaI ansver regarding lhis issue
(arlicuIarIy in conlexl of CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe), as veII as some
chaIIenges for lhis aroach in generaI (i.e. dala coIIeclion in Lalin America).
One of lhe mosl obvious concerns lhe facl lhal lhe media lhemseIves are
counled among lhe key inslilulions of democracy (McQuaiI, 2000), vhich
means lhey loo need lo be 'democralised' before lhey can be reasonabIy
execled lo conlribule lo democralising olher inslilulions. This is indeed
refIecled in lhe schoIarshi, vhich noles lhal revious vaIues and ersonneI
can survive in nevIy lransformed media organisalions (VoIlmer and
RovnsIey, 2009). In olher vords, lhe normalive execlalions for lhe
democralic erformance of lhe media, IargeIy derived from lhe characlerislics
of Weslern IiberaI democracies vhere democralic oIilicaI slruclures
hisloricaIIy recede lhe grovlh of mass media, have oflen nol been fuIfiIIed,
as lhe vasl ma|orily of lhe Iileralure ciled agrees. The rocess of IiberaIisalion
of media from slale and arly conlroI has been seen as lhe basic recondilion
for lhe media lo become a roer forum for IuraIislic ubIic debale and lo
faciIilale grealer lransarency and accounlabiIily in governance lhrough
quaIily nevs reorling (Norris, 2009), hovever lhe rocesses of
commerciaIisalion and labIoidisalion of conlenl vhich quickIy foIIoved lhe
grovlh of media markels in lhe nevIy democralising counlries have been
vieved as obscuring and al Ieasl arlIy inhibiling lhe democralic roIes lhe
free media vere enlrusled by normalive media lheory.
9

ased on lhe revieved Iileralure, one mighl IausibIy argue lhal lhe
conlribulion of lhe media lo democralisalion mighl veII be al ils slrongesl
during regime change incIuding mobiIisalion againsl lhe oId regime. In Ialer
slages of democralic consoIidalion, lhe media gel oflen valered dovn by
markel ressures as veII as by (nevIy emerging) oIilicaI conslrainls.
Quoling lhe Iandmark 1984 residenliaI eIeclions in raziI vhere TV GIobo
aIIegedIy Iayed a 'calaIylic roIe' in ending lhe ruIe of lhe miIilary |unla (see
Guimaraes and AmaraI, 1988), Vicky RandaII argues lhal il is lhese kind of
occasions (rare as lhey mighl be) lhal reresenl lhe high oinl of lhe media's
roIe in lhe democralisalion rocess, vhich lhen gels graduaIIy veaker as lhe
oIilicaI syslem becomes more consoIidaled:

Tnc nc!ia icn! ic |c ncsi suppcriitc cj !cnccracq ai a pariicu|ar pc|iiica|
ccnjunciurc, uncn incq arc incnsc|tcs cncrging jrcn pc|iiica| ccnirc|, arc
sircng|q i!cniijic! uiin inc prcccss cj !cnccraiizaiicn an!, ncrcctcr,
|cncjii jrcn inc pu||ics cncrncus nungcr jcr ncus an! jcr pc|iiica|
cnangc. Ai an car|icr siagc, incir ccniri|uiicn ui|| inctiia||q |c ncrc

9
Some schoIars conlend lhal lhe media, by being overcrilicaI and excessiveIy negalive, may Iead lo oIilicaI cynicism
and lhe erosion of fragiIe governmenls lhal are slruggIing for Iegilimacy (VoIlmer and RovnsIey, 2009, see aIso
ennell, 1998).

15

rcsiricic! |ui ic inc cxicni inai incq cjjcr a|icrnaiitc acccunis cj sccia|
an! pc|iiica| rca|iiq an! ctcn inai incq !rau pccp|c inic a scnsc cj snarc!
pu||ic spacc, incq can |c sccn as nc|ping ic patc inc uaq jcr
!cnccraiizaiicn. As inc prcccss cj iransiiicn apprcacncs inc ccnsc|i!aiicn
siagc, inc nc!ias ccniri|uiicn |cccncs ncrc cquitcca|. Wncn !cpritc! cj
siaic jinancia| suppcri an! jacing a pu||ic uncsc ncus appciiic nas |ccn
||unic! |q grcuing cqnicisn, incq incrcasing|q |cccnc prcq ic inc
prcssurcs cj ccnncrcia| surtita|. (|an!a||, 1998. 245)

NeverlheIess, lhe above quoled examIes of research from Lalin America
suggesl lhal lhere is al Ieasl some evidence of an effeclive conlribulion of
media lo inslilulionaI change during lhe consoIidalion hases of
democralisalion as veII, arlicuIarIy vilh resecl lo enforcing oIilicaI
accounlabiIily lhrough valchdog |ournaIism, vhich is somelhing lhe research
from CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe does nol quile araIIeI. Hovever, il is aIso
ossibIe lhal lhe overvheImingIy scelicaI assessmenl of lhe imacl of media
on lhe buiIding and due erformance of democralic inslilulions in lhe CII
region mighl refIecl lhe high normalive execlalions concerning media
reform vhich vas assumed lo simIy reIicale lhe eslabIished Weslern
modeIs (}akubovicz, 2006, SIichaI, 2001).
10
Here, lhe somevhal differenl
evaIualion by Ieler Gross (2002) has lo be menlioned, in vhich he
characlerises lhe evoIulion of media in lhe CII region as 'unerfecl', as
oosed lo lhe more common lerm 'imerfecl', suggesling a ossibiIily of
furlher imrovemenl unliI lhe envisaged 'erfecl' slale is achieved, according
lo Gross, such a goaI can never be accomIished, and shouId lherefore nol be
used as a measure for lhe assessmenl of media's democralic erformance
(Gross, 2002: 169).

10
The conlexl in vhich any lransilion lo democracy lakes Iace is considered highIy saIienl for any reform Ian
(erman, 2008).

16

JC 70&& 7%5,0 0#5 =$$,$+5,#08 0#5 >%90-,"+108 !90#:% 5+1,#:
;%/"*10$,&0$,"#
The democralisalion Iileralure resls on inslilulionaI foundalions, yel fuII
democralisalion is nol reaIised unIess cilizens undergo sociaIisalion lo nev
vaIues, alliludes, and behaviour norms of democralic cuIlure (AImond and
Verba 1963, Iulnam, 1993). Given lhe subslanliaI body of vork lhal has
demonslraled mass media's infIuence on cilizens' oIilicaI alliludes (Lerner,
1958, Iye, 1958, McCombs and Shav, 1972, Iallerson and McCIure, 1976,
Iallerson, 1980, DeIIeur and aII-Rokeach, 1982, Iyengar el aI., 1982,
Ioslman, 1986, Iyengar and Kinder, 1987, McQuaiI, 1987, Iage el aI., 1987,
Ian, 1988, Inlman, 1989, rody, 1991, Iage and Shairo, 1992, Ioslman and
Iovers, 1992, ZaIIer, 1992, 1996, arleIs, 1993, Iyengar, 1994, IumIer and
Gurevilch, 1995, IaIIovs, 1997, Norris, 1997, DaIlon el aI., 1998, Nevlon, 1999,
Iulnam, 2000, Schmill-eck, 2003), il is nol unreasonabIe lo lhink lhal lhe
mass media Iay an imorlanl roIe in oIilicaI sociaIisalion for lhe cilizens of
counlries undergoing democralisalion. There are lvo reasons lo execl lhis.
One, lhe lheory of media deendency osils lhal, as lurmoiI and eriods of
lransilions exisl, cilizens are more IikeIy lo lurn lo lhe media as a source of
reassurance and informalion. In lurn, lhey are more highIy sub|ecl lo lhe
effecls of media in conlrasl lo a 'normaI' eriod in slabIe socielies (aII-
Rokeach and DeIIeur, 1976, LoveIess, 2008). VoIlmer and Schmill-eck (2006)
offer lvo ralionaIes for lhis execlalion: (a) democralisalion is a highIy
oIilicaIIy charged environmenl and so (b) lhere is an increased IeveI of
uncerlainly associaled vilh lhal eriod. ArguabIy, lhis Iaces heavier
informalionaI requiremenls on individuaIs and, among lhe severaI sources of
informalion from vhich lhey can choose (arlies, sociaI nelvorks, inicr a|ia),
lhe mass media are an obvious choice.
11
This lheory of media deendency
Ieads us aIso lo lhe concIusion lhal lhis heighlened media use (and lhus
effecls) viII subside as counlries reach cerlain IeveIs of oIilicaI slabiIily and
lhus lo media lheories derived from and designed for slabIe, modern
democralic socielies.
A second reason lo execl lhe mass media can Iay a saIienl roIe in
democralising counlries, Iess ragmalicaIIy and more normaliveIy, is lhal lhe
requiremenls of democracy incIude cerlain habils, beIiefs, alliludes, and
vaIues (AImond and Verba, 1963, DahI, 1989, Diamond, 1993) and lhe roIe of
lhe media can rovide insighl inlo lhe deveIomenl of a democralic civiI
sociely and individuaI oIilicaI deveIomenl. The resonsibiIilies of
democralic cilizenshi, vhiIe erhas generaIIy considered Iess acule in
slabIe democracies, are heighlened in lhe chaolic rocess of democralisalion,
in vhich lhe sociaIisalion rocess is disruled or Iimiled and aII inslilulions of
oIilics, economics, and sociely are in a slale of fIux. Media are caabIe of
roducing changes in vaIues, alliludes, and behaviours congruenl vilh
democralic cilizenshi (see lhe beginning of lhis seclion). Thus, 'media can
Iay an inslrumenlaI roIe in resociaIizalion and modernizalion by leaching a
nev vay of arlicialing in oIilics and socioeconomic Iife and by
encouraging nev individuaI and nalionaI asiralions' (Gross, 2002: 90).

11
In lhe case of lhe osl-Communisl slales, lhe assumed media naively of cilizens of democralising counlries is a
fIimsy assumlion al besl. These vievers are arguabIy ideoIogicaIIy savvy in being abIe lo dislinguish vhal
consliluled acluaI nevs from roaganda in Communisl media oulIels. Comared lo many Weslern vievers, lhey
are IikeIy lo be much more highIy adel al recognizing roaganda and lhus being resislanl lo ils ersuasion.
Comare lhis lo Manaev's argumenl (1991) lhal, under condilions of 'monoroaganda' (i.e. mass media are
managed by a singIe socio-oIilicaI grou, in his case, lhe arly eIile in lhe former Soviel Union), mere disagreemenl
vilh lhe media is a source for democralisalion.

17

The Iileralure on oIilicaI sociaIisalion in counlries lransilioning lo
democracy has focused on changes in individuaIs' vaIues, alliludes, and
behaviours lhal emerge from lheir sociaI Iocalions (socio-economic slalus,
Lisel, 1959) and socio-oIilicaI redisosilions (MishIer and Rose, 1995, 1997,
Rohrschneider, 1999), as veII as inslilulionaI exosure and evaIualion (Ivans
and WhilefieId, 1995, Anderson and GuiIIory, 1997, Rohrschneider, 1999,
WaIdron-Moore, 1999).
12
Hovever, lhere are very fev vorks lhal incIude lhe
mass media as significanl delerminanls of vaIue, alliludinaI, or behaviouraI
change. Ior lhe mosl arl, media research in lransilionaI counlries has IargeIy
allended lo lhe comIex rocesses of IiberaIisalion and rivalisalion of media
inslilulions in non-Weslern regions via lhe remaking of media ovnershi,
media IegisIalion, economic freedom, inicr a|ia.
Desile lhis omission in sludies of oIilicaI sociaIisalion, mass media have
aIso oflen simIy been assumed lo Iay a (genericaIIy) osilive roIe in
democralic lransilion, arlicuIarIy for cilizens of lransilionaI counlries. This is
IargeIy redicaled on lhe varielies of a 'free ress lheory' vhich aIigns a free
and IuraI ress vilh a free and democralic sociely (McQuaiI, 1987, aIso
arleIs, 1993, Svanson and Mancini, 1996, Schmill-eck, 1998, Norris, 2000,
Mulz and Marlin, 2001, Habermas, 1995). In olher vords, lhe mass media can
be considered a osilive conlribulion lo democralic oIilicaI cuIlure, and lhus
democracy, assuming lhal lhe media are IegisIaliveIy rolecled from undue
oIilicaI and economic ressure, oerale in a comelilive markel, reserve lhe
righls of |ournaIisls, and are free from conlroI by oIilicaI aclors.
13
Yel,
hovever salisfying and reassuring lhis may sound, lhere is in facl IillIe
evidence lhal fils vilh lhis assumlion. WhiIe emiricaI vork does exisl, il
does so in a scallered manner, lhe sum of vhich Iimils ils abiIily lo iIIuminale
concIusions aboul lhe roIe of lhe mass media in lhe rocess of
democralisalion as il affecls individuaIs in lhese counlries/regions.
Why are lhe findings scallered and Iimiled` The grealesl Iimilalion is lhal,
unIike lhe eslabIished democracies of lhe Wesl in vhich media sludies
originaled, lhe counlries and regions of democralisalion have a varying IeveI
of comarabiIily vilh one anolher. As such, lhere is an unsurrising and
resuIlanl Iack of coherence in aroach. Given lhe number of aroaches and
broad findings of media effecls in lhe Wesl, vork in lransilionaI counlries
oflen slarl in differenl Iaces, emhasising IocaI/regionaI media allribules
vhelher inslilulionaI or cuIluraI. As one simIe examIe, vhereas some
regions of democralisalion have lhe hysicaI infraslruclure of modern media
(e.g. lhe former Soviel Union), olhers do nol (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa). This
infIuences hov lhe mass media can funclion, lhus reslricling hov mass media
can be sludied and lheir effecls on individuaIs underslood. Second, lhe
regions in vhich democralisalion or lransilion have laken Iace have IillIe of
lhe roughIy simiIar cuIluraI, hisloricaI, oIilicaI, economic, and sociaI rofiIes
lhal many of lhe counlries in lhe Wesl comaraliveIy share (and from vhere
media lheories IargeIy originale).
14
This is an obvious Iimilalion lo lhe uliIily
of exisling lheory and, in con|unclion vilh lhe firsl oinl, undermines
allemls al buiIding coherence across regions of lransilion. IinaIIy, al lhe
research end, lhe scallered nalure of comaralive media vork is moslIy a

12
These cilalions refer lo CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe as an examIe of a deveIoed democralisalion Iileralure. This is
done for simIicily nol reference.
13
In lhese 'free' media environmenls, individuaIs have beller choices among media from vhich lhey can make beller
and more efficienl use of media.
14
This incIudes lhe socielaI differences belveen lhe Wesl and lhe resl of lhe vorId in regards lo lhe Iong-slanding,
highIy sociaIIy embedded reIalionshi belveen 'free media' and individuaIs found onIy in lhe Wesl.

18

funclion of a Iack of dala, vhelher quanlilalive or quaIilalive, in lransilioning
counlries.
Here, ve resenl an overviev of some of lhe vork done lhal Iooks al lhe
media as an insligalor or delerminanl of changes in individuaIs' oIilicaI
alliludes or behaviour during eriods of democralisalion. To be cIear, ve
cannol incIude every vork lhal louches on lhe mass media and have aimed lo
idenlify vorks lhal examine lhe direcl Iink belveen individuaIs' exosure lo
lhe mass media and subsequenl alliludinaI or behaviouraI changes during
democralisalion (lhis incIudes lhe more infrequenl sludies of democralic
alliludes resenl in aulhorilarian regimes). WhiIe ve drav examIes from lhe
MiddIe Iasl, CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe, and Lalin America (and eIsevhere),
ve slriclIy Iimil our survey lo vorks in vhich mass media are invesligaled as
calaIysls lo individuaI-IeveI oIilicaI sociaIisalion in democralising
counlries.
15

We begin vilh sludies on lhe diffusion hyolhesis and re-lransilionaI
infIuence of lhe media and move lo lhe mass media's roIe in foslering suorl
for democralisalion and democracy. We lhen Iook al sludies on lhe mass
media as sources of informalion and generic democralic vaIues and
behaviours. We concIude vilh lhe shifl vilhin lhis sub-fieId from lhe
lradilionaI media lo nev media and hov lhese sludies may augmenl our
underslanding of lhe roIe of mass media in eriods of democralisalion.
3.1 Mc!ia Oijjusicn
Ior socielies in lransilion, Lerner argues lhal 'veslern media', in as much as il
diffuses inlo lransilionaI counlries, raises execlalions and asiralions,
videning horizons, uIlimaleIy enabIing eoIe lo vanl beller aIlernalives for
lhemseIves (1958, see aIso Iye, 1958, Lisel, 1959, Schramm, 1964,
Hunlinglon, 1991). He argues lhal, in non-Weslern counlries (arlicuIarIy
ones lhal are modernising), lhe media leach eoIe arlicialion by
resenling lhem vilh choices among nev ideas, silualions, and oinions
(Lerner, 1958).

Tnis !ijjusicn cj !cnccracq tia nass nc!ia rcsis cn inc nciicn inai cu|iura|
injcrnaiicn is cn|c!!c! in |rca!casis, in iurn iransniiiing ncrnaiitc
pc|iiica| an! sccia| ta|ucs cj inc |rca!casiing ccunirq ic inc iargci ccunirq,
arguc! incn ic in|uc ccnsuncrs uiin sircngcr aiiacnncnis ic incsc ta|ucs.
(Ictc|css, 2009. 119, scc a|sc Yi|naz, 2009)

Thus, in lransilionaI counlries, ve vouId execl lo see democralic alliludes
correIaled vilh a high (or al Ieasl disroorlionale) consumlion of Weslern
broadcasls and rinl media.
Diffusion as a source of individuaI oIilicaI deveIomenl is al lhe core of
many lheories of democralisalion, yel schoIars generaIIy use lhe lerm
abslraclIy, deferring lo an inlernalionaI zciigcisi of democracy, demonslralion,
and occasionaIIy inlernalionaI ressure (arlicuIarIy over issues such as
human righls or ideoIogicaI congruency, Lisel, 1960, Hunlinglon, 1991,
rallon and Van de WaIIe, 1997, Linz and Slean, 1996, Mainvaring, 2000).
The secific rocess of diffusion, hovever, is generaIIy Iefl underdeveIoed,
Ieaving us vilh lhe execlalion lhal cilizens vho consume grealer amounls of
inlernalionaI (i.e. secificaIIy Weslern) media vouId be more IikeIy lo be

15
There are vorks incIuded here in vhich lhe counlries under invesligalion are nol slriclIy democralising. Hovever,
lhey have demonslraled inslilulionaI inslabiIily in lhe recenl asl and lhus suggesl lransilion olenliaI (eilher
lovards or avay from democracy) and are lhus incIuded.

19

exosed lo lhe imIicil cuIluraI norms of an eslabIished democralic sociely
and lherefore manifesl higher IeveIs of democralic alliludes (Iuchs and
RoIIer, 1994).
16

So, vhal evidence is lhere` Desile lhe aIIusion lo inlernalionaI media
diffusion as a source of individuaI oIilicaI deveIomenl in many lheories of
democralisalion, lhere is, succinclIy, very IillIe. Rohrschneider (1999) argued
lhal vaIues can diffuse from Wesl lo Iasl bul rovides onIy an indirecl lesl of
diffusion, arguing lhal if democralic alliludes did nol emerge lhrough direcl
arlicialion vilh nev democralic inslilulions, individuaIs' exosure lo
inlernalionaI media musl be lhe exIanalion. Olhers have lried a more direcl
aroach. Kern (2011), using recenlIy reIeased survey dala in Iasl and Wesl
Germany, finds no evidence lhal leIevision from Wesl Germany affecled lhe
sread or inlensily of rolesls in 1989. Using Ialer survey dala in five CenlraI
and Iaslern Iuroean counlries, LoveIess (2009) finds no evidence lhal
inlernalionaI media consumlion of lhe cilizens in lhese counlries
corresonded lo higher IeveIs of democralic vaIues lhan lhose vho did nol. In
one case, lhe former Iasl Germany, research shovs lhal individuaIs exosed
lo inlernalionaI media (in lhis case, Wesl German leIevision) exhibiled bolh a
higher Iife salisfaclion in and regime suorl for Iasl Germany (Kern and
HainueIIer, 2009). In olher vords, ralher lhan absorbing lhe vaIues of lhe
sending counlry, lhey simIy used il as enlerlainmenl. As vilh olher regions,
foreign media can be idenlified as a source of informalion, for examIe, for
lhe MiddIe Iasl in lhe re-an-Arab saleIIile TV eriod (Ghareeb, 2000), yel
faiI lo reveaI consislenl evidence of having cuIlivaled ro-democralic
alliludes in cilizens desile scallered evidence (for lhe 'Arab Sring' see
Khamis and Vaughn, 2012).
Iarl of lhe diffusion argumenl has resled on lhe nolion lhal, in Iieu of
cuIluraI exorlalion, informalionaI lechnoIogies and democracy (i.e. freedom)
are reIaled inasmuch as lhe means of communicalion are decenlraIised and
easiIy avaiIabIe (}enkins and Thorburn, 2003). De IIeur (1970) argued lhal lhe
diffusion of lhe media musl incIude lhe diffusion of media lechnoIogy, a
difficuIl hurdIe in Iesser deveIoed counlries. This is nol a alh-deendenl
argumenl vhere media freedom equaIs oIilicaI freedom: il deends vhal is
done vilh lhem (de SoIa IooI, 1983, Innis, 1950). In congruence vilh lhis
lechnoIogicaI aroach, more sohislicaled slalislicaI anaIysis has roduced
lhe emiricaI finding lhal communicalion lechnoIogies are in facl necessary
bul nol sufficienl lo iniliale democralisalion (Groshek, 2011). Groshek (2011)
aIso shovs lhal, in lhis lechnoIogicaI delerminism frame, media diffusion has
a causaI effecl (Granger-causaIily) on lransilions lo democracy, in counlries
vhere lhe media served more informalion funclions or vhere socio-oIilicaI
inslabiIily IeveIs vere higher. His concIusion is lhal diffusion' may be
revoIulionary ralher lhan inslruclive of oIilicaI sociaIisalion. Hovever, lhis
again reIies on lhe lradilionaI media or rinl and broadcasl. Never
lechnoIogies of olenliaI revoIulion have resenled researchers vilh myriad
nev direclions, vhich are laken u furlher beIov.
If lradilionaI media have seemingIy roduced IillIe in lerms of fomenling
democralisalion, vhal lhen of lhe uses of lhe media lo inni|ii democralisalion
(a negalive lake on lhe lilIe of lhis aer)` AIlhough lhere is evidence lhal lhe
mass media can slimuIale anli-regime aclivilies in quasi-aulhorilarian
socielies (e.g. Hong Kong osl-handover, see Chan and Lee, 2007), some ask

16
This is nol lo say lhal Weslern media reresenl lhe acme of media ob|eclivily and Iay lhe roIe of a ure
markelIace of ideas, bul lhal, in comaralive lerms, lhey have cerlainIy had a Ionger record of allemling lo achieve
and raclise lhese normalive goaIs.

20

vhelher lhe Communisl media are in|uring lhemseIves or have a gri on
eoIe's vievs (e.g. aboul corrulion, see Zhu el aI., 2012, for examIes from
lhe former Soviel Union, see Hokins, 1970). In lhe secificaIIy Chinese
examIe, Slockmann and GaIIagher (2011) find lhal lhe media are used by
aulhorilarian Ieaders lo boIsler Iegilimacy by roagandising cilizens'
exeriences in lhe IegaI syslem. Iurlher, unIike Soviel Communism, Chinese
roangandisers suIy messages lhal nol onIy adhere lo inslilulionaI
conslrainls bul aIso meel lhe somevhal deveIoed consumerisl demands of
lhe Chinese audience, aIlhough olhers do find lhal lhe (slale) nevs media in
China have negalive effecls on eoIe's alliludes lovards oIilicaI
inslilulions, foslering dislrusl in governmenl (Chen and Shi, 2001). There is
lherefore evidence of lhe over of lhe mass media lo infIuence individuaIs,
yel lhis faiIs lo corresond cIearIy lo higher IeveIs of a rolo-democralic
oIilicaI cuIlure in non-democralic regimes.
3.2 Pc|iiica| Sccia|isaiicn
As oinled oul above, lhe inslilulionaI lransformalion of counlries moving
avay from aulhorilarianism is insufficienl for democralisalion. The 'Iearning'
of democracy, or cilizens' democralic oIilicaI sociaIisalion, is required lo
cemenl changes in lhe 'ruIes of lhe game'. Cilizens vho rofess and raclise
democralic oIilicaI vaIues as veII as olhers in lheir sociely are more IikeIy lo
adhere lo and uIlimaleIy embody lhese vaIues as lransilion conlinues. This
conslilules a congruenl oIilicaI cuIlure lo democracy and lhus a bullress lo
democralic consoIidalion. The sludy of oIilicaI sociaIisalion during eriods
of lransilion refers lo vhelher and/or hov much cilizens exhibiled suorl
for democracy (or al Ieasl lhe lransilion), generic democralic oIilicaI alliludes
(e.g. efficacy, lrusl, loIerance), or behaviours (e.g. voling, mobiIisalion). Iev
advocale lhal lhe mass media are lhe onIy or even lhe rimary mechanism
for oIilicaI sociaIisalion in democralising counlries. Hovever, given cilizens'
Iimiled firsl-hand exerience of oIilics, lhe mass media are mosl IikeIy lo be
lhe redominanl source from vhich individuaIs deveIo oIilicaI
underslanding (Schmill-eck, 1998, Mulz, 1992).
Ior lhe earIy eriod of democralic lransilion in Iaslern Iuroe Semelko
and VaIkenburg (1998) find lhal individuaIs in Iasl Germany vho aid iniliaI
allenlion lo oIilicaI nevs disIayed higher IeveIs of inlernaI efficacy,
aIlhough lhis decIined sleadiIy over lhis eriod (19913), Wesl Germans
disIayed simiIar if sleadier allenlion.
17
SimiIarIy, VoIlmer and Schmill-eck
(2006) find evidence for slrong media effecls (via media deendency) in
democralising counlries (Hungary, uIgaria, Uruguay, and ChiIe) and
exIicilIy Iink lhese media consumlion behaviours lo oIilicaI knovIedge,
oIilicaI arlicialion, lhe evaIualion of oIilicaI arlies, and references for
democralic oIilicaI order. Iurlher, as avareness of lhe oIilicaI vorId
requires galhering informalion (Iye, 1962, AImond and Verba, 1963), mass
media can serve as a cIear informalionaI source. LoveIess (2008) has shovn
slrong 'informalion-seeking' media behaviour in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe
as cilizens of nev democracies urosiveIy use lhe media lo oblain oIilicaI
informalion and lhis allern of media use is eseciaIIy ronounced in nev
democracies lhal have nol roceeded very far in lhe rocess of democralic
consoIidalion. In addilion, lhis 'informalion-seeking' has osilive effecls on
individuaIs' deveIomenl of inlernaI oIilicaI efficacy (LoveIess, 2010).

17
AIlhough lheir measure of 'allenliveness' vas Iess direclIy a media variabIe lhan allenliveness lo lhe combined
usage of leIevision nevs and nevsaer (Semelko and VaIkenburg, 1998: 200).

21

In Hong Kong, laIk radio Iays a significanl roIe in generaling oIilicaI
discussion by roviding medialed ubIic forums in vhich Iisleners are more
oinionaled and lhus more aclive in oIilicaI discussions (Lee, 2007). In lhe
'naluraI exerimenl' of mainIand China and Taivan, Wei and Leung (1998)
found lhal lhe amounl of media engagemenl as veII as oIilicaI (leIevision)
nevs moved vilh alliludes lovards (among olher effecls) individuaI oIilicaI
efficacy. In 28 counlries of Africa and Asia, Nisbel and his co-aulhors (2012)
shov lhal inlernel use, bul nol lhe nalionaI IeveI of inlernel enelralion, is
associaled vilh grealer cilizen commilmenl lo democralic governance,
arlicuIarIy in counlries cIoser lo olenliaI democralisalion.
asing research on lhe dee Iileralure on media effecls during oIilicaI
camaigns, for Russia, lhe arIiamenlary and residenliaI eIeclions of
December 1999 and March 2000 shov signs of having been von in Iarge arl
lhrough lhe arlisan use of (arlicuIarIy slale) leIevision (While el aI., 2005).
Slale leIevision (vhich had been mosl suorlive of lhe KremIin) vas much
more IikeIy lo be favoured by lhe suorlers of lhe ro-regime Unily arly,
vhiIe commerciaI leIevision (vhich rovided a more even-handed coverage
of lhe eIeclions) vas more ouIar and resecled among lhe suorlers of
anli-KremIin arlies and candidales and Iess ouIar among suorlers of
VIadimir Iulin (see aIso InikoIoov el aI., 2011). Ior raziI, Mexico, and
Russia, McCann and Lavson (2006) shov evidence lhal media-inlensive
eIecloraI camaigns rovide informalion lo Iov socio-economic-slalus
cilizens in readiIy digeslibIe form, bul lhey faiI lo slimuIale sufficienl
allenlion lo oIilics among lhese cilizens, lhus cIosing lhe 'knovIedge ga'
(for a slriclIy Lalin American sludy of raziI and Ieru, see oas, 2005). Such
effecls, lhey argue, may be Iarger in emerging democralic syslems, reminding
comaralive media schoIars lhal conlexl mallers (Lavson and McCann, 2005).
In lhe form of a case sludy, for MaIi, lhere is an associalion belveen forms of
media use (radio, nevsaer, and leIevision) and individuaI oIilicaI
knovIedge, arlicialion, and sociaIisalion (Nisbel, 2008), a allern associaled
vilh a narroving of gas in democralic sociaIisalion belveen sociaI grous.
In a cross-nalionaI sludy in Lalin America (eighl counlries), leIevision nevs
encourages arly idenlificalion in lhe shorl run, aIlhough lhe deveIomenl of
leIevision may veaken Lalin American arlies in lhe Iong run (Ierez-Lian,
2002). In olher cross-nalionaI invesligalions, SaIzman and AIoisi (2009)
suggesl an indirecl infIuence belveen various forms of nevs consumlion
and arlicialion and sociaI engagemenl, vhich in lurns roduces changes in
individuaIs' oIilicaI behaviour. Morgan and Shanahan (1991) demonslrale
generic negalive effecls of leIevision (for Argenlinian adoIescenls), such lhal
lhose vho valch more leIevision are more IikeIy lo agree lhal eoIe shouId
obey aulhorily, arove Iimils lo freedom of seech, and bIame individuaIs
for being oor.
UnIike lhe above incIuded sludies, sludies of lhe media in African
counlries have been Iess shaed by lradilionaI media sludies. In arlicuIar,
such sludies are Iess reIianl on lhe inslilulionaIised nolion of media. Thal is,
ralher lhan lhinking of lhe mass media as 'mass', lhese media sludies lend lo
focus on lhe roIe of lhe media as a lransilion from lradilionaI cuIluraI
allerns, incIuding media as cuIluraI disseminalion, lhe use of eIeclion
oslers as 'mass media', and lhe unbaIancing of lribaI Iife (see Wasserman,
2011, Iribo el aI., 1993, Wesl and Iair, 1993). The oululs of lhese sludies are
hard lo comare vilh lradilionaI media sludies as lhe mechanisms of 'media
effecls' have IillIe exorl lo olher democralising or lransilioning socielies.
This does nol Iimil lheir imorlance, onIy lheir generaIisabiIily. Olhers viev

22

lhe media's roIe as a meso-IeveI rocess in vhich lhe media can suorl,
reinforce, or, in some cases, eslabIish sociaI conneclivily among individuaIs
and grous: lhe mass media as communicalion and lhus an imelus lo
civiI sociely (sub-Saharan Africa: Hyden el aI., 2002, Soulh Africa: Kuer and
Kuer, 2001). Africa, because of lhis, oflen conslilules a lheorelicaI oulIier
comared lo lhe allemls of media researchers lo exorl Weslern media
lheory lo olher regions of democralising counlries.
3.3 Ncu Mc!ia
The sludy of mass media has Iong examined lhe 'lradilionaI' broadcasl and
rinl media. 'Nev media' refers lo lhe inlernel and ils exlensions such as
mobiIe lechnoIogy and soflvare/vebsiles lhal inslanlaneousIy connecl
individuaIs (i.e. sociaI nelvork siles) via lhe inlernel. ecause of lhis
connecledness, lhere is an olimism among schoIars of lhe inlernel aboul a
revivaI of oIilicaI engagemenl and even arlicialion (aumgarlner and
Morris, 2010, Di Gennaro and Dullon, 2006, VaIenzueIa el aI., 2008, Zuiga,
2012, Ward el aI., 2003, Weber el aI., 2003, Zhang el aI., 2010), if |usl as an
aIlernalive lo lradilionaI arlicialion (IoIal, 2005). As such, lhere has been an
execled rise in lhe sludy of lhe effecls of individuaIs' inlernel use on IeveIs of
oIilicaI arlicialion in recenl years (DeIIi Carini, 2000, VaIenzueIa el aI.,
2008, Zuiga, 2012), vilh lhe emhasis on a causaI direclion lhal runs from
sociaI media lo oIilicaI alliludes and behaviours (ouIianne, 2009, }ennings
and Zeilner, 2003, Shah el aI., 2002).
18
This reIalionshi makes inluilive sense
as exosure lo more informalion and oIilicaI discussions has, in lhe conlexl
of lradilionaI media, roduced higher IeveIs of engagemenl and inleresl
(HuckfeIdl and Srague, 1995, Schmill-eck, 2003, Nevlon, 1999).
AccordingIy, lhese lheorised effecls of sociaI media have accumuIaled some
evidence on forms of arlicialion vhich require IillIe efforl ('sIack-livism')
and lhus lransIale inlo various forms of oIilicaI knovIedge, inleresl, and
aclivily (aumgarlner and Morris, 2010, VaIenzueIa el aI., 2008, Vilak el aI.,
2011, OxIey, 2012, Wo|cieszak and Mulz, 2009).
UnIike lradilionaI media, lhe inlernel, and sociaI media in arlicuIar, has a
channeIIing funclion of laking users from Iinks of inleresl lo reIaled, and
occasionaIIy oIilicaI, maleriaI (CoIeman and IumIer, 2009), lhus aIIoving
individuaIs lo galher more informalion and consequenlIy deveIo higher
IeveIs of oIilicaI knovIedge (and oIilicaI efficacy, see Vilak el aI., 2011).
Olhers have suggesled lhal sociaI media force users lo confronl (oIilicaI)
informalion lhal lhey vouId olhervise avoid (Zhang el aI., 2010) or lhal sociaI
exchanges on sociaI media can oflen be oIilicaI (Wo|cieszak and Mulz, 2009)
and lhus faciIilale lhe sharing of informalion (Zuiga, 2012). Yel, as olhers
have oinled oul, comaraliveIy among discussed and shared loics, sociaI
media has a Iov IeveI of acluaI oIilicaI knovIedge (oyd, 2008).
In lhe case of democralising counlries, for examIe, lhere is some evidence
lhal sociaI nelvorking siles (e.g. Iacebook) in IinIand and Russia are used as
a means lo organise civic aclivism by buiIding, reinforcing, and coordinaling
emerging sociaI camaigns (GIadarev and LonkiIa, 2012). In uIgaria,
akard|ieva (2012) uncovers civic and oIilicaI engagemenl surfacing on a
vebsile and forum dedicaled lo molherhood, an 'informaI' exchange crediled
vilh increasing oIilicaI avareness of uIgarian oIilics. Hovever, can ve
consider Russia and uIgaria counlries of conlinuing lransilion or are lhese
onIy indireclIy reIaled lo Iale-eriod democralisalion` IIsevhere lhe nev

18
Olhers suggesl lhal lhis causaI direclion is ambiguous or endogenous (Lassen, 2005).

23

media's hyolhesised roIe is bolh more commonIy and mosl visibIy argued lo
be as an insligalor of rolo-democralic aclion.
The revoIulionary nalure of lhe media fils comforlabIy vilh bolh
lradilionaI and never conceluaIisalion of lhe roIe of lhe mass media.
TradilionaIIy, lhe C WorId Service, Radio Liberly, Deulsche WeIIe, and
Voice of America vere radio broadcasls secificaIIy designed and
imIemenled as orlaIs inlo lhe Wesl. They vere lo serve as counler-
examIes and rovide aIlernalive accounls of vorId evenls (Iarla, 2007, see
AbusaIem, 2007, for an-Arab slale diffusion via saleIIile leIevision). Yel
IargeIy lhese did nol seem lo cuIluraIIy connecl, smaIIer, diasoric media
(Iidduck, 2012, Sk|erdaI, 2009) have shovn more olenliaI (aIlhough in lhe
former sludy, oIilicaI mobiIisalion effecls are nol direclIy observed).
AIlernaliveIy, if democralisalion can be conceluaIised as resislance, |cca|
radio has been demonslraled lo Iay a slrong roIe in raising oIilicaI
consciousness (O'Connor, 1990, Manaev, 1991).
The difficuIly of lhe subfieId of lhe mass media's roIe in oIilicaI
sociaIisalion during eriods of democralisalion is lhal much of vhal is argued
is lheorelicaI. This is nol inherenlIy a non-roduclive roule, as il bolh sels our
execlalions and guides our iniliaI inquiries. Hovever, vhiIe lradilionaI
media have a Iong lheorelicaI deveIomenl (if in moslIy eslabIished
democracies), never media do nol and lhis has Ied lo a lheorelicaIIy derived
olimism aboul lhe roIe of lhe inlernel (Shirky, 2011, DahIgren, 2000, Oales el
aI., 2006). Ior examIe, lhe inlernel can serve lhis roIe via lhe crealion of a
ubIic shere of dissenl and oosilion in Lalin America (Iverell, 1998) or in
Africa (Ierdinand, 2000, Thornlon, 2001).
Yel, desile cIear and Ioud enlhusiasm, lhe ossibIe roIes of lhe nevesl
medium (lhe inlernel) in bringing aboul (democralic) lransilion or
lransforming socielies have found IillIe emiricaI suorl. In lhe Arab vorId
(Khondker, 2011), nev media have shovn al besl scallered evidence in
lransforming oIilicaI orienlalions or aclivilies of cilizens. This may be a
refIeclion of eilher Weslern-cenlric lheorelicaI biases or simIy exlensions of
offIine reaIilies such lhal individuaIs vho are aIready inleresled,
knovIedgeabIe, and engaged in lhe oIilicaI rocess are lhe mosl IikeIy
candidales for onIine aclivily as veII (ouIianne, 2009, ToIberl and McNeaI,
2003).
In Africa, lhe sludy of media has lracked vilh lhe deveIomenl Iileralure
vhich lakes inslilulionaI reform as aramounl (lhus, democralisalion is
measured by lhe exlenl of rivalisalion: Telley, 2001). In Asia, lhe inlernel is
argued lo be abIe lo overcome reressive slale roIes (Abboll, 2001), hovever,
lo lhis oinl, incIuding vhal ve have seen above in lhe Chinese case, lhe
evidence lhal lhe inlernel viII creale or save democracy is far from concIusive
(Hindmann, 2008, see aIso Morozov, 2011). Some have suggesled lhal lhe
inlernel does nol fuIfiI lhe originaI lechnicaI argumenl lhal as lechnoIogy
deveIoed il vouId exand, laking vilh il 'connecledness' as a means lo
democralisalion (Hoffman, 2004). Inslead, oIilicaI decisions and sociaI aclors
may imose Iimilalions uniformIy uon aII media, ralher lhan lhe inlernel
counlering Iimilalions of broadcasl and rinl media. Nole lhal vhiIe lhere are
sludies on lhe inlernel's abiIily lo lransform smaII grous or narrovIy defined
counlry-secific issues, calaIoguing lhem here vouId nol make lhem more
generaIIy reIevanl lo a lheory of lhe mass media's roIe in oIilicaI sociaIisalion
during eriods of democralisalion.


24

3.4 Tnc Cna||cngc cj Aiiiiu!ina| an! Bcnaticura| |cscarcn
Never aroaches may serve as examIes of lhe fulure of comaralive media
sludies, laking inlo accounl cuIluraI and hisloricaI faclors. IaIuck and Green
(2009) examine a radio rogramme aimed al romoling indeendenl lhoughl
and coIIeclive aclion in robIem soIving in osl-genocide Rvanda. Using fieId
exerimenls of broadcasls lo randomIy seIecled communilies over one year,
lhe dala amassed by lhe aulhors indicaled lhal, vhiIe lhe broadcasls vere nol
effeclive in shaing Iisleners' beIiefs and alliludes, lhese same Iisleners vere
more resislanl lo direclions and caIIs for obedience from lhe aulhorilies and
shoved evidence of acling indeendenlIy. RegardIess of lhe mixed oululs of
lhis research, lhe delh and breadlh of dala coIIeclion in such a ro|ecl is hard
lo generaIise.
IundamenlaIIy, lhe sludy of mass media in democralising counlries is an
exercise of a differenl quaIily lhan lhe sludy of mass media in eslabIished
democracies. To assume a simIe and osilive reIalionshi belveen changes
in lhe quanlily and quaIily of informalion sources and enhanced freedom of
exression on lhe one hand and successfuI democralisalion on lhe olher hand
can be misIeading. In suslaining lhis assumlion, ve Iearn IillIe of lhe
imIicalion of changes lo lhe IocaI media Iandscae in iransiiicn eriods,
arlicuIarIy during a lime vhere informalion can be soughl from many
differenl sources such as lhe inlernel and exlended sociaI nelvorks. We
imose normalive assumlions aboul lhe nalure of media conlenl lhal may or
may nol be democralising, eseciaIIy in eriods of lransilion in vhich
eIemenls of bolh democracy and aulhorilarianism oflen coexisl. Ior
individuaIs, invesligalions are redicaled on an exosure-effecl framevork
such as agenda-selling and riming, ralher lhan, for examIe, lhe formalion
and change of individuaIs' alliludes vhich are more significanl oulcomes in
lerms of democralisalion lheory (ennell and Iyengar, 2008, 2010, HoIberl el
aI., 2010). IinaIIy, given lhe cuIluraI secificily of lhe mass media,
invesligalions lend lo generaIise such rocesses across segmenls of lhe
ouIalion vilh various oIilicaI beIiefs.
Thus, lhe sludy of lhe mass media and any individuaI-IeveI effecl lhal lhey
may engender in lransilioning counlries remains as a subfieId IargeIy
inchoale. As VoIlmer and Schmill-eck have noled, 'aII lhese |mediaj sludies
|on vhich ve base our lheorelicaI assumlionsj have been conducled in lhe
conlexl of eslabIished Weslern democracies, so il remains an oen queslion
vhelher lhe same allern viII aear in nev democracies' (2006: 234).
19

Therein Iies lhe cenlraI queslion: meaningfuIIy differenl hov` This is lhe
chaIIenge lo lransilionaI sludies. Hov eoIe Iearn democralic vaIues during
lhe eriod of democralisalion is imorlanl. Ior lhe regions of lhe vorId
embroiIed in change, in vhich nev dala coIIeclion, induclive lheorising, and
oflen significanl cuIluraI knovIedge are requisile lo make sense of lhe roIe of
mass media in fIuid socielies, lhere seems lo be scallered inleresl. Thal is
unforlunale bul, desile lhis, lhe vorks incIuded here oflen reresenl genuine
comaralive research lhal force researchers oul of lhe confines of veII-vorn
aradigms inlo unfamiIiar aIbeil exciling lheorelicaI lerrilory.


19
As bul one examIe, sleadiIy groving oIilicaI sohislicalion and monolonic osilive changes in civiI sociely are
nol direclIy fungibIe concels in lhe chaolic rocess of lransilion, and, as severaI olhers have menlioned, lhe media
lhemseIves vere in a slale of fIux (Gross 2002).

25

6C 7%5,0 0#5 ;%/"*10$,&0$,"# ,# $9% =10@ A"185
UnliI recenlIy, lhe Arab vorId vas considered excelionaI because
democralic governance has rogressed so IillIe in lhe region comared lo
olher arls of lhe vorId. NeverlheIess, over lhe asl lhree decades, mosl Arab
counlries have exerienced differenl degrees of IiberaIisalion, and in some
cases, even democralisalion for a Iimiled amounl of lime. Such reforms have
moslIy been driven by gIobaIisalion of lhe economy, lechnoIogicaI
advancemenl in lhe informalion fieId, and vider IiberaIising lrends
(Cavalorla, 2009: 3212). The ersislence of aulhorilarianism in lhe region has
channeIIed academic efforls lo exIaining faclors Ieading lo lhe survivaI of lhe
aulhorilarian regimes.
Among lhe mosl discussed faclors is lhe veakness and ineffecliveness of
civiI sociely organisalions (see eIIin, 2004). WhiIe lhe number of non-
governmenlaI organisalions has IargeIy increased in recenl years, lheir
funclions have remained reslrained by lheir Iack of inleIIecluaI aeaI, and by
lhe aulhorilarian slruclures lhal conslrain lhe emergence of a democralic
cuIlure (Cavalorla, 2009). Olher exIanalions incIude lhe absence of a slrong
and indeendenl middIe cIass (see TessIer and Gao, 2005). This is oflen
relurned lo 'renlierism' and lhe 'resource curse hyolhesis' lhal aIIov enlire
sociaI calegories lo become deendenl on lhe slale for economic success and
advancemenl, in addilion lo lhe deveIomenl of a Iarge slale aaralus and
robusl regime coaIilions (Cavalorla, 2009, TessIer and Gao, 2005).
Oorlunilies for change lhus arise onIy al limes of economic crises (Sadiki,
1997).
The emergence of severaI oIilicaI arlies and deveIomenl of arIiamenls
in lhe Arab vorId has aIso conlribuled IillIe lo democralising lhe region as lhe
decision-making rocess remained in lhe hands of unaccounlabIe and oflen
uneIecled grous (see WiIIis, 2002). Such reforms vere designed as arl of a
conlainmenl slralegy aiming lo increase regime Iegilimacy al a lime vhen
caIIs for oIilicaI change vere increasingIy inlense and videsread (TessIer
and Gao, 2005), and so lhey aIIoved some Arab regimes lo conlroI lhe seed
of change, lo ensure lhe 'righl' eoIe are vinners in lhe nev oIilicaI
economy, and above aII, aIIoved business lo conlinue as usuaI behind lhe
scenes (Nee, 2004: 82). In olher vords, IiberaIised and modernised forms of
aulhorilarian governmenls vere deveIoed (Hafez, 2008: 8), vhiIe reaI
oIilicaI oenings remained reguIaled and arliaI. Iurlhermore, overly, Iov
Iileracy rales, and lhe facl lhal lhe region is geograhicaIIy remole from
lhe eicenlre of democralizalion,
20
have aII been named by schoIars as
slrenglhening faclors lo aulhorilarianism in lhe Arab vorId. The inlernalionaI
communily is aIso videIy crilicised for slrenglhening aulhorilarianism
lhrough roviding lhe ruIing regimes vilh bolh Iegilimacy and maleriaI
resources (Cavalorla, 2009).
Some olher schoIars concenlraled on lhe cuIlure of IsIam, vhich
dislinguishes lhe region, as a ma|or exIanalory faclor for lhe survivaI of
aulhorilarianism in lhe Arab vorId. They argue lhal IsIam is an inherenlIy
undemocralic reIigion and consequenlIy generales an aulhorilarian oIilicaI
cuIlure (see e.g. Levis, 2002). The foundalion of lhis argumenl is, hovever,
disuled as IsIamic reIigion is IargeIy erceived among MusIims lo rovide a
governance modeI lhrough vhich lhe veIfare and governance of lhe sociely
can fairIy be reaIised. This is refIecled in lhe emergence and ouIarily of

20
Sludies have shovn lhal counlries lend lo change lheir regimes lo malch lhe average degree of democracy or non-
democracy revaIenl in lheir neighbourhood as veII as lo foIIov lhe direclion in vhich lhe ma|orily of lhe counlries
in lhe vorId are moving (e.g. rinks and Coedge, 2006).

26

oIilicaI IsIam, vhich aims lo adal reIigious leachings lo serve oIilicaI
uroses, across severaI Arab counlries. Iurlhermore, revious emiricaI
research shoved lhal Iarge ma|orilies in many Arab counlries vanl lheir
counlries lo be ruIed by democralic syslems, and lhal lhis desire does nol
diminish among suorlers of oIilicaI IsIam (TessIer and Gao, 2005). The
finding is in Iine vilh sludies shoving no imacl of reIigiosily on alliludes
lovards democracy (TessIer, 2002, 2003).
The significanl changes lhal affecled lhe Arab media scene, driven by
grealer oIilicaI IiberaIisalion, an exansion of nalionaI rivalisalion
rogrammes, and lhe diffusion of nev communicalions lechnoIogies, have
given lhe media a key roIe in lhe debale aboul Arab democralisalion. These
changes resuIled in, among olher oulcomes, lhe reIaxalion of governmenl
conlroIs over broadcasling, lhe crealion of more aulonomous radio and
leIevision cororalions, and lhe aboIilion of some minislries of informalion
(see Ayish, 1997, for an overviev). The emergence of a lransnalionaI media
markel has aIso inlersecled overfuIIy vilh cross-nalionaI media
rofessionaIisalion, vhereas increased comelilion has comeIIed Arab
broadcaslers lo diversify lheir rogramming (Kraidy, 2012).
The increase in lhe number of ubIicalions aboul Arab media (see Zayani,
2005, Rugh, 2004) in recenl years is IargeIy a refIeclion of lhe raid and
subslanliaI deveIomenl of Arab media induslry in lhe Iasl couIe of decades
(Zayani, 2011), vhich aIso exIains lhe resenlisl nalure of lhe fieId and ils
rimary focus on digilaI and lransnalionaI media. The an-Arab saleIIile
nevs channeIs are argued lo refIecl lradilionaI governmenl-conlroIIed,
reformisl governmenl-conlroIIed, and IiberaI commerciaI allerns (see Ayish,
2002, for a discussion). These dislinclions suggesl lhal lhe Arab media exhibil
fealures from lhe lolaIilarian and deveIomenlaI modeIs (Nossek and
Rinnavi, 2003), and shov lhal Arab media syslems are increasingIy
commerciaIised bul sliII exhibil slrong araIIeIism (Kraidy, 2012).
21

The emergence of a nev Arab ubIic shere and lhe roIe of lransnalionaI
saleIIile leIevision in democralising lhe region have been al lhe cenlre of
debale among osilivisls and crilics. On lhe one hand, lhe emerging ubIic
shere, Iying beyond lhe reaIms of governmenl, arlies, and sociaI
movemenls, is argued lo have lhe reaI over of modernising oIilicaI vaIues
and alliludes (Hafez, 2008). This is because saleIIile leIevision has had lhe
abiIily lo reach lhe Iilerale and iIIilerale aIike, lo reunile Arab communilies
scallered by var, exiIe, and Iabour migralion, and lo rovide eoIe vilh a
Ialform from vhich lo communicale vilh oIicy-makers and lhe vider
ubIic (Sakr, 2001). The rise of saleIIile media as medialors belveen lhe slale
and lhe sociely aIso lends lo corresond vilh lhe decIine of oIilicaI
inslilulions and consoIidalion of aulhorilarianism in lhe region. Arab media
are, lherefore, erceived lo reIace lhe funclion of oIilicaI arlies lhrough
exressing vhal eoIe lhink, mouIding ubIic oinion, mobiIising eoIe
for non-arIiamenlarian oIilicaI aclion, and al limes infIuencing lhe
behaviour of Arab regimes (see Lynch, 2006, Hafez, 2005, 2008, for a
discussion). Lynch (2008) argues lhal lhe imacl of Arab media on
democralisalion can be besl described as shaing lhe oIilicaI oorlunily
slruclure and lransforming lhe slralegies of oIilicaI aclivisls.

21
There have been severaI allemls lo cIassify lhe Arab ress according lo a sel of dislinguishabIe syslem modeIs.
The mosl veII-knovn vas by WiIIiam Rugh, vho divided lhe Arab rinl media inlo four cIassificalions according lo
lhe degree of slale conlroI of lhe media: lhe mobiIisalion ress, lhe IoyaIisl ress, lhe diverse ress, and lhe
lransilionaI ress (Rugh, 1987, 2004). Rugh's calegories have been crilicised by some schoIars for a hosl of reasons
ranging from Iack of lheorelicaI foundalions lo simIificalion and generaIisalion of lhe media syslems (see MeIIor,
2005, for an overviev).

27

On lhe olher hand, lhe exisling ubIic shere is seen lo be IargeIy
deendenl on oIilicaI subsidies. Sludies shov IillIe sign of Arab broadcaslers
making much in lhe vay of financiaI rofil (Sakr, 2007). Crilics of lhe Arab
ubIic shere are generaIIy concerned aboul lhe quaIily ralher lhan lhe
quanlily of nevs informalion. Ior examIe, Iinlak (2011) argues lhal more
informalion did nol necessariIy mean beller informalion as lhere vas IillIe
sace for Weslern slyIe nolions of |ournaIislic accuracy and ob|eclivily lo lake
rool. Olhers oinl lo a cIear an-Arab bias vilh regard lo lhe seIeclion and
inlerrelalion of nevs (e.g. Hafez, 2005), vhich Ied lo regionaIising ralher
lhan gIobaIising lhe ubIic shere (see Khouri, 2001). There are aIso concerns
regarding lhe heavy coverage of confIicl and ouIisl issues (Lynch, 2008)
and lhe increasing ulake of lhe same socio-cuIluraI conlenl on saleIIile
leIevision (Rinnavi, 2006). Moreover, saleIIile media have been crilicised for
Ieaving IillIe room for inlernaI affairs Iike oIilicaI reforms and deveIomenl
indicalors (see Karam, 2007, MeIIor, 2005). The effecliveness of Arab saleIIile
nevs broadcasling as an agenl of democralisalion is lherefore argued lo be
deendenl on lhe deveIomenl of araIIeI organisalions and inslilulions of
democralic oIilics (see Hafez, 2005).
Arab media research is generaIIy characlerised by a focus on AI-}azeera al
lhe exense of olher media inslilulions (Armbrusl, 2005).
22
Research aboul lhe
'AI-}azeera Iffecl', vhich refers lo lhe Iink belveen lhe arrivaI of an-Arab
saleIIile leIevision and lhe shifling of ubIic alliludes lovards lhe democracy
agenda in lhe region, is veII-documenled (Seib, 2008, Nee, 2004). SchoIars
have chamioned lhe channeI for ils reaclion lo oosilionaI movemenls in
Arab counlries under aulhorilarian regimes (Hafez, 2005), bul crilics charge il
vilh selling u faIseIy oIarising debales and emhasising sensalionaI and
vioIenl nevs for lhe sake of ralings (see Lynch, 2008).
As research on Arab media audiences is sliII in ils infancy
(HaugboIIe,2009), lhere has been IillIe evidence lo suorl lhe assumlion
lhal lhe media have massive effecls on Arab oIilicaI oinions and behaviour,
and research findings lend lo iIIuminale lhe comIexilies of lhis reIalionshi
in lhe Arab conlexl. Indeed, ronouncemenls aboul Arab media infIuence
have loo oflen been osilivisl in characler bul vilhoul being grounded in
emiricaI research (see Sakr, 2007). Il lherefore is more common lo find
evidence for lhe media as a key lo lhe oIilicaI oorlunily slruclure (see
Lynch, 2008). AvaiIabIe effecl sludies lend lo be based on imressionislic
evidence, vilh IillIe serious allenlion lo lhe lheorelicaI underinnings or
casuaI mechanisms underIying lhe conlenlion (see Sakr, 2007).
The debale aboul lhe imacl of Arab leIevision on democralisalion is
dominanlIy concerned vilh inslilulions and behaviour ralher lhan alliludes
(see Lynch, 2008). This lends lo undermine lhe media's roIe in cuIluraI
lransformalion in favour of slrucluraI and oIilicaI changes (see Kraidy, 2012),
as veII as lo dismiss democralic lransilion as a graduaI rocess of sIov
sedimenlalion (see e.g. Armbursl, 2012).
23





22
See TaviI-Souri, 2008, for an overviev of Arab leIevision in academic schoIarshi.
23
As lhe IsIamicisalion of Arab media has increased, driven by economic needs of media roduclion and oosilion
lo Weslern forms of cuIluraI imeriaIism (see TaviI-Souri, 2008), lhe ma|or concern has lurned lo be vhelher lhis
lrend suggesls sociaI change lovards fundamenlaIism in lhe region.

28

4.1 Tnc Cna||cngc cj Mc!ia an! Ocnccraiisaiicn |cscarcn in inc Ara|
Wcr|!
The abiIily of currenl democralisalion lheory lo delermine vhen, vhy, and
vhere democralisalion haens is ralher Iimiled. A fev years ago, lhe edilors
of a comrehensive voIume, vhich revieved crilicaI rerequisiles and driving
sociaI forces of democralic lransilion during lhe lhird gIobaI vave of
democralisalion, addressed lhe loic of olenliaI sreading of democracy lo
nev regions. As far as lhe MiddIe Iasl and Norlh Africa are concerned, lhey
concIuded lhal 'a sveeing democralic lrend lhroughoul lhe region does nol
seem IikeIy in lhe near fulure' (Haerfer el aI., 2009: 383). Wilh lhe coming of
lhe Arab Sring a couIe of years Ialer, lhe difficuIly of redicling olenliaI
democralic lransilions did nol aear lo be lhe onIy chaIIenge for aIying
democralisalion lheory lo lhe Arab region. The vaIidily of addressing lhe
region as a coIIeclive an-Arab enlily is furlher queslioned al a lime vhen
muIliIe alhs of democralisalion or non-democralisalion seem ossibIe.
24

Such diIemmas, hovever, are inherenl lo democralisalion research in
generaI. arbara Geddes refIecled on lhis issue severaI years ago in an arlicIe
vhich synlhesised lhe resuIls of a Iarge number of sludies aboul lhe Iale
lvenlielh-cenlury regime lransilion and democralisalion. She vrole:

Scnc|ars natc grccic! inc incrcasing nun|cr cj !cnccraiizaiicns uiin
!c|igni, inicnsc aiicniicn, an! inccrciica| puzz|cncni. |i sccns as incugn
incrc sncu|! |c a parsincnicus an! ccnpc||ing cxp|anaiicn cj inc
iransiiicns, |ui inc cxp|anaiicns prcpcsc! inus jar natc |ccn ccnjusing|q
ccnp|icaic!, carc|css a|cui |asic ncinc!c|cgica| !ciai|s, cjicn ncrc uscju|
as !cscripiicn inan cxp|anaiicn, an! surprising|q inccnsisicni uiin cacn
cincr. Tnc |asic prc||cn jacc! |q ana|qsis is inai inc prcccss cj
!cnccraiizaiicn tarics cncrncus|q jrcn casc ic casc an! rcgicn ic rcgicn.
Gcncra|izaiicns prcpcsc! natc jai|c! ciincr ic acccnnc!aic a|| inc rca|-
ucr|! tariaiicn cr ic cxp|ain ii. (Gc!!cs, 1999. 117)

IoIilicaI scienlisls have generaIIy dovnIayed lhe roIe of media in
democralisalion, bul lhe ercelion of media as an infIuenliaI democralising
faclor is IikeIy lo increase afler lhe Arab Sring. UnIike olher democralisalion
agenls in lhe region, lhe media eseciaIIy nev media are generaIIy more
difficuIl lo conlain and conlroI by aulhorilarian regimes. Diamond (2010)
IabeIIed lhe nev informalion and communicalion lechnoIogies as 'Iiberalion
lechnoIogies'. Desile ils olenliaI, lhe Iack of emiricaI evidence and conlexl
in many of lhe sludies addressing lhe roIe of media in lhe Arab Sring has
rendered researchers reIuclanl lo ascribe nev media a Ieading roIe in
democralic lransilions.
Kalrin VoIlmer has IaleIy exIored lhe reIalionshi belveen
communicalion lechnoIogies, anli-regime movemenls, and oIilicaI dissenl
againsl aulhorilarian ruIe over lhe asl 50 years. She concIuded lhal
lechnoIogicaI innovalions, vhiIe oening u nev oorlunilies of organising
coIIeclive aclion, are aImosl aIvays accomanied by nev conslrainls and
arlicuIar disadvanlages:


24
I.g. Igyl and Tunisia exerienced successfuI mass ressured revoIulions al reIaliveIy simiIar oinls of lime and
shoved simiIar oulcomes in lheir arIiamenlary eIeclions. NeverlheIess, onIy in Tunisia has lhe Arab Sring lhus far
resuIled in 'significanl' democralisalion, vhich indicales some differences in oIilicaI cuIlure and civiI Iiberlies. Ior
more delaiIs see lhe Iconomisl InleIIigence Unil's Index of Democracy 2011:
hll://vvv.sida.se/GIobaI/Aboul%20Sida/S%C3%A5%20arbelar%20vi/IIU_Democracy_Index_Dec2011.df.

29

Aciitisis an! scnc|ars a|ikc ucrc quick ic aiiri|uic inc asicnisning succcss
in |ringing !cun |cng-csia||isnc! !iciaicrsnips ic inc pcucr cj inc ncu
ccnnunicaiicn icc|s . . . ii nigni |c cqua||q rctca|ing inai 2011 uas nci
inc jirsi iinc inai inc nc!ia ucrc aiiri|uic! a ccnira| rc|c in ctcrccning
!iciaicria| pcucr. 1989 uas !u||c! inc jirsi ic|ctisicn rctc|uiicn. |i is
ncu a|ncsi jcrgciicn inai inc rctc|uiicnarq ncncni cj inc |aic 1980s
ccinci!c! uiin ancincr |ig cnangc in inc ccnnunicaiicn cntircnncni . . .
!cpcn!ing cn unai ccnnunicaiitc junciicn cj cc||cciitc aciicn jcr rcginc
cnangc uc arc |ccking ai, !ijjcrcni ccnnunicaiicn iccnnc|cgics an! nc!ia
nigni natc incir spccijic a!taniagcs an! !isa!taniagcs. (Vc|incr, 2013.
116)

Whereas VoIlmer's anaIysis suggesls lhal democralisalion cannol be
caused by nev communicalion looIs aIone, Iack of conlexluaIisalion is an
issue in democralisalion research more broadIy. According lo WeIzeI (2009):

|cscarcncrs natc icc cjicn iric! ic iakc si!cs, jatcuring cnc pariicu|ar
jacicr ctcr a|| cincrs. Bui inc rca| cna||cngc is ic inccrizc a|cui ncu
!ijjcrcni jacicrs inlerIay in inc naking cj !cnccracq. (Wc|zc|, 2009. 75)

GeneraIIy, research on media and lransilion lo democracy in lhe Arab
region faces severaI chaIIenges.

The ma|orily of lhese chaIIenges slem from lhe
reIalive nevness of lhe Arab media fieId as veII as lhe nolabIe disersion,
fragmenlalion, and incommensurabiIily of ils sub|ecl of anaIysis (Zayani,
2011). The slrong desire for fasl informalion on lhe Arab media oflen Ied lo
lhe rovision of anaIyses veakened by grave emiricaI and lheorelicaI
deficils (see Hafez, 2008, Ayish, 2008, for a discussion, aIso see Sabry, 2007,
and Hafez, 2010, for a discussion aboul lhe aIicabiIily of Weslern lheories
and modeIs lo lhe sludy of lhe Arab media).
25



25
SchoIars refer lo a hosl of obslacIes lhal Iimil media research in lhe Arab region, incIuding Iimiled knovIedge of
Arabic among foreign schoIars, governmenls' reslriclions on fieId research in lheir counlries, Iimiled access lo
unbiased dala, Iack of lrained ersonneI in lhe Arab vorId, undeveIoed nelvorking mechanisms among Arab
researchers, lhe Iack of serious communicalion |ournaIs in lhe MiddIe Iasl, lhe absence of a revard slruclure in mosl
governmenl inslilulions lhal favours research roduclivily, and faiIure lo uliIise research findings lo generale nev
conceluaI framevorks for beller underslanding of lhe region's media syslems (for a discussion of such obslacIes see
Ayish, 2008, Hafez, 2008, Amin, 2008, Zayani, 2012).

30

BC D%-,&,#: $9% 7%5,0E& D%-"8+$,"#012 D"8%F G9% D,&% "H ."*,08
7%5,0I
During lhe re-lransilion hase, lhe caacily of domeslic media lo conlribule
lo eilher inslilulionaI or alliludinaI change is inevilabIy conslrained by lhe
facl lhal lhey are redominanlIy or comIeleIy conlroIIed by lhe slale and
used IargeIy as an inslrumenl for governmenl roaganda. Draving on lhe
exerience/Iileralure aboul media and democralisalion in Iaslern Iuroe,
lheir funclion vas encasuIaled by lhe melahor of a 'lransmission beIl'
vhich vas essenliaIIy suosed lo lransfer informalion from lhe Communisl
Iarly lo lhe ubIic, vhiIe suressing aIlernalive sources of informalion and
crilicism of lhe syslem (O'NeiI, 1997b). Under lhese condilions, an alleml lo
examine lhe imacl of lhe media on lhe inslilulionaI dimension of
democralisalion vouId arguabIy be fuliIe, and indeed mosl Iileralure on lhe
roIe of media in regime change focuses on lhe alliludinaI dimension,
emhasising lhe conlribulion of lhe media lo graduaI 'erosion of credibiIily
and Iegilimacy of lhe nondemocralic regime' (Gunlher and Mughan, 2000:
412). During lhe eriods of lhe loughesl conlroI over domeslic informalion
fIovs, such imacl has been moslIy allribuled lo lhe foreign media, nameIy lo
broadcasling of inlernalionaI radio slalions Iike C WorId Service, Deulsche
WeIIe, Radio Iree Iuroe/Radio Liberly, or Voice of America, many of vhich
vere oeraled by Weslern governmenls vilh lhe mission lo undermine lhe
Communisl regimes (Iuddinglon, 2000).
Desile lhe significanl efforl lhe Communisl governmenls ul inlo
delerring lhese broadcasls, by |amming lheir signaIs as veII as imosing
harsh enaIlies on lheir Iisleners (Dovning, 1996), lhey remained an
imorlanl aIlernalive nevs source nol |usl for a smaII circIes of dissidenls bul
in many counlries for mass audiences as veII.
26
SliII, lhere does nol seem lo be
a genuine consensus aboul lhe IeveI of imacl of lhese slalions on lhe faII of
Communism in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe, vhiIe raised for lheir
conlribulion by former dissidenls in VacIav HaveI's oinion, 'lhe infIuence
and significance |of lhe RII/RLj have been greal and rofound' (Cc|! War
Brca!casiing |npaci, 2005: 40) olhers beIieve lheir effecls shouId nol be
overslaled, as lhey vere onIy one faclor lriggering lhe change, and cerlainIy
nol lhe mosl imorlanl one (Shirky, 2011),
27
or oinl lo lhe imorlance of
ersonaI, ralher lhan medialed, communicalion ('vord-of-moulh') during lhe
acluaI eriod of revoIulion (}ohnson, 1995).
28

Very much lhe same can be argued aboul lhe roIe of samizdal (seIf-
roduced) ubIicalions and olher 'smaII lechnoIogies of communicalion' Iike
VCRs, ham radio slalions, audio-casselles, home holograhic Iabs,
holocoiers, or video-dubbers, crealing vhal has been lermed 'a horizonlaI
informalion cuIlure' (S. Irederick Slarr, 1990, quoled in Dovning, 1996: 89) or
a 'second ubIic shere' (Sksd, 2000), exisling aIongside lhe officiaI and
slale-ermilled communicalion channeIs. WhiIe il is hardIy disulabIe lhal
lhese lyes of media successfuIIy disruled lhe informalion monooIy of lhe
communisl regimes (vherever in Iace) and enabIed dissenlers lo share and
discuss lheir ideas, buiIding grou idenlily and lhe organisalionaI slruclure of

26
According lo lhe reorl Cc|! War Brca!casiing |npaci, originaling from a conference al Slanford Universily, lhese
Weslern broadcasling slalions reached 'aboul one lhird of lhe urban aduIl Soviel ouIalion and cIoser lo a haIf of
Iasl Iuroean aduIl ouIalions afler lhe 1950s' (Cc|! War Brca!casiing |npaci, 2005: 39).
27
In lhe oinion of lhe aulhor, 'desile lhis emhasis on communicalions, lhe end of lhe CoId War vas lriggered nol
by a defianl urising of Voice of America Iisleners bul by economic change' (Shirky, 2011: 5)
28
Describing lhe revoIulionary evenls in 1989 CzechosIovakia, Oven }ohnson vriles lhal ''The VeIvel RevoIulion
vas revoIulion from lhe bollom u. Il broke oul vilhoul lhe benefil of domeslic media and, lhough foreign
broadcasls rovided some informalion aboul lhe suddenIy exIosive silualion, informalion sread chiefIy by vord-
of-moulh communicalion' (}ohnson, 1995: 228).

31

lhe oosilion movemenl (VoIlmer, 2013), again lhe assessmenl of lheir
overaII roIe in lhe rocess of lhe regime change seems nearIy imossibIe lo
disenlangIe from olher faclors and variabIes.
There is a broad agreemenl, lhough, lhal as a consequence of lhe rocess of
IiberaIisalion vilhin aulhorilarian oIilicaI syslems (as for examIe in lhe Iale
1980s in many of lhe CII counlries) and lhe graduaI easing of governmenl
conlroI over oIilicaI communicalion, lhe nalionaI media couId become
Ialforms for disseminalion of aIlernalive informalion or crilicaI vievoinls,
conlribuling lhereby lo lhe deIegilimisalion of lhe exisling regime, even if
uninlenlionaIIy (RandaII, 1998, Gunlher and Mughan, 2000). As Gunlher and
Mughan remind, 'IiberaIizalion can sel in molion rocesses of change lhal are
difficuIl or imossibIe lo conlroI' (2000: 41415), arguing lhal 'vhen some
miId crilicism of lhe shorlcomings of lhe exisling syslem vas aIIoved,
suorl for lhe regime began lo erode' (Gunlher and Mughan, 2000: 415).
Case sludies of democralic lransilion from some of lhe Soulh Iuroean
counlries (Gunlher el aI., 2000, Ribeiro, 2013) confirm lhe videning gas in
lhe censorshi aaralus in lhe Iasl years of lhe diclalorshi, aIIoving for
occasionaI broadcasling of sociaI crilique as veII as reIaliveIy uncensored
reorls on oIilicaI evenls in Weslern Iuroe, vhich aIIoved lhe audiences lo
crilicaIIy comare lheir ovn silualion vilh lhe one in lhose counlries and
nurlured lhe demand for oIilicaI IuraIism. This broadIy corresonds lo lhe
lvo roIes ascribed lo lhe media during lhe re-lransilion hase by ennell
(1998), as quoled by McConneII and ecker (2002: 9), nameIy lhe 'vilness roIe'
(lhe rocess of making ubIic lhe lransformalions lhal are laking Iace in
sociely) and lhe 'reifying roIe' (roviding a variely of images and informalion
aboul lhe socielaI changes lhal coincide vilh one anolher).
Hovever, as far as lhe roIe of sociaI media in democralisalion is concerned,
schoIars lend lo adol a dicholomous vision of lhe loic, eilher emhasising
lhe 'revoIulionary' roIe of sociaI media in emovering eoIe Iiving in non-
democralic socielies or minimising ils roIe (for a delaiIed reviev of bolh
aroaches see ComuneIIo and Anzera, 2012, }oseh, 2011). A lhird aroach,
moving beyond lhe enlhusiaslic and lhe scelicaI oulIooks regarding lhe roIe
of sociaI media, is referred lo as conlexluaIism. This aroach lends lo use
comaralive research lo emhasise lhe imacl lhal oIilicaI, sociaI, and
economic varialions have on lhe roIe of lhe sociaI media in coIIeclive aclion
(WoIfsfeId el aI., 2013: 4). Here, sociaI media are nol IikeIy lo be inlerreled as
lhe 'main cause' of such comIex rocesses, nor can lhey be seen as
comIeleIy uninfIuenliaI (ComuneIIo and Anzera, 2012: 453).
The roIe of sociaI media in Arab democralisalion have generaIIy been
erceived osiliveIy, lhe urisings in lhe Arab vorId have oflen been IabeIIed
lhe 'Tviller RevoIulions' or 'Iacebook RevoIulions' in recognilion of lhe
rominenl arl Iayed by lhese looIs in lhe coordinalion of mass rolesls,
communicalion of reaI-lime images and u-lo-dale informalion, and for lheir
aeaI lo lhe inlernalionaI communily, foreign civiI socielies, and diasoras
(see CollIe, 2011, arkai, 2012, Lim, 2012). In addilion, schoIars argue lhal
sociaI media had a nolabIe imacl on lhe conlenl and quaIily of media
coverage in mainslream Arab media (Khamis el aI., 2012). Hovever, desile
lhe olimislic readings of sociaI media's roIes in democralic change, lhe
horizonlaI, non-organised, and non-hierarchaI slruclure of sociaI media
overed movemenls seemed lo Iimil lheir success in osl-revoIulionary
eriods comared vilh organised and lesled movemenls. This Ied some lo
concIude lhal lheir roIe can be conlingenl on hov veII organised lhe grous

32

using sociaI media are (eaumonl, 2011), as veII as on lhe exlenl lo vhich lhe
addressed issues louch lhe sociely al Iarge (arkai, 2012).
!"# %&'# &( )&*+,' -#.+, +/ 0&'+1+*,' *",/2# +/ 1"# 3%,4 5&%'. ,')& )##-) 1&
!" $"%"&$"&' (& )& )**)+ (, -(&'".'/)0 ,)-'(*12 3(* ".)4%0"5 6+&-7 89:;;!
!"!# %&'()* +,%+ *-./%0 1)2/% 1%3 ,%4) 50%3)2 %6 /15-&+%6+ &-0) %+ 7)3
!"!#$%& ($ %)# *$+",-($. "+ %)"&# /#0",*%("$1/2 #0#$%&3 4*% %)#2 -(- &"
!"#$"% ' ()%#*+# ,$'-*. /0 )1.*2 3*."' ,4($ ', !!-!"#$$%"& () *+,-.-/", "01$%
!"#$ &#'"()* +',(-.)'/#0 #)#1/(!,2! #$% &' (#)*+,#- ./#$0*1 12./ #1 # +#3,%-'
!"#"$%&$'#%() "+&(&,%+ -%#.'#%&(/ 01%- ,'2"- %# %(+$"'-%()34 !%55%+.3# #&
!"#$%$&" (") *"+,$ -%.* ./+ *"+,$! !" $%& '()* +,(!"-. $%& $/0 (&!"10(2&3
!"#$ &'$!( )*+", !" $%&' ()*(!" $%&'& ()*+)*,' -&.& &/%0&+ 12 03!"#
!"#"$!%&"!# (&) *!)*)#"+ ,&$, *!),"#,# -. /01*, $.+ 23.-#-$ %$. 4" "5*6$-."+
!" $%&' ()*+ %+' ,*-(%&! !"#$%&!"' $)"'-!"#$%&$' ')&*+#$,*- *./"&/$#0
!"#$$%"& !(% )%*)% +, #-./*#!0& 1*2 133%)) !+ *%4 )+3#15 -%2#1 6)%% 7%55#*&
!"#!$%
The debales regarding lhe conneclion belveen sociaI media and lhe Arab
Sring suggesl lhal, vhiIe sociaI media can be effeclive in reshaing lhe
ubIic shere and crealing nev forms of governance (e.g. Shirky, 2011, see
aIso Zveiri and Woollon, 2008, IlIing el aI., 2009, for lhe imacl of sociaI
media on oIilicaI and sociaI organisalion), lhey are nol slrong enough lo
cause revoIulions (e.g. Anderson, 2011, Iaic and Noonan, 2011). This is
refIecled in lhe avaiIabIe emiricaI evidence vhich rovides no slrong
suorl for cIaims of significanl nev media imacl on Arab Sring oIilicaI
rolesls (see Aday el aI., 2012, Da|ani, 2012). The roIe of sociaI media is lhus
seen lo be faciIilaled by lhe resence of revoIulionary condilions and lhe
inabiIily of lhe slale aaralus lo conlain lhe revoIulionary usurge (Khamis
el aI., 2012). In facl, schoIars nole lhal a significanl increase in lhe use of lhe
nev media is much more IikeIy lo foIIov a significanl amounl of rolesl
aclivily lhan lo recede il (see WoIfsfeId el aI., 2013). These oulcomes are
oflen dravn from comaralive research Iooking inlo lhe roIes Iayed by sociaI
media in rolesls among lhe differenl Arab counlries (e.g. Hovard and Iarks,
2012, see aIso WoIfsfeId el aI., 2013, for a reviev).
There have been severaI allemls lo syslemalise lheorelicaI concerns and
emiricaI research aboul lhe roIe of sociaI media in oIilicaI change. Some
schoIars suggesl dislinguishing belveen lhe inlernel as a icc| for lhose
seeking lo bring aboul change from beIov, and lhe inlernel's roIe as a spacc
vhere coIIeclive dissenl can be arlicuIaled. (1) They argue for lranscending
lhe debale belveen uloian and dysloian erseclives on lhe roIe of lhe
inlernel in oIilicaI change, (2) lhey roose a shifl avay from erseclives
lhal isoIale lhe inlernel from olher media, and (3) lhey caII for a beller
underslanding of lhe diaIeclicaI reIalionshi belveen onIine and offIine
oIilicaI aciicn (see Aouragh and AIexander, 2011, for delaiIs). Olhers have
caIIed for lhe abandoning of any lechnoIogicaI delerminislic framevork:
inslead focusing on lhe comIex inleraclions belveen sociely, lechnoIogy, and
oIilicaI syslems (ComuneIIo and Anzera, 2012). Moreover, schoIars slress lhe
imorlance of considering oIilicaI conlexl before allemling lo anaIyse lhe
roIe of sociaI media, as lhe nalure of lhe oIilicaI environmenl affecls bolh lhe
a|i|iiq of cilizens lo gain access lo sociaI media and lheir nciitaiicn lo lake lo
lhe slreels (WoIfsfeId el aI., 2013). IinaIIy, researchers have caIIed for lhe
focus lo move from lhe nevesl lechnoIogies and lo lhe Iong-lerm sociaI and
cuIluraI effecls of inlernel and mobiIe hone use (Hofheinz, 2011, for furlher
insighls from a communicalions and inlernel sludies erseclive see lhe
seciaI seclion of lhe |nicrnaiicna| jcurna| cj Ccnnunicaiicn, Sring 2012).

33

<C !"#*8+&,"#
A slale of lhe disciIine for lhe sludy of mass media and democralisalion is
difficuIl lo conslrucl. Il resuoses lhal lhere is a corus of inlerreIaled
vorks, desile lhe exislence of various lheorelicaI and anaIylicaI aroaches.
We have discovered lhal lhere is IillIe of lhis coherence. Il is imorlanl lo be
cIear aboul vhal lhis slale of lhe disciIine invoIves. We are nol inleresled in
lhe reIicalion of exisling lheories lhal corresond lo vork in eslabIished
democracies. Ior examIe, lhere are vorks lhal demonslrale lhe roIe of lhe
mass media in 'selling lhe agenda' of an ucoming eIeclion. This is nol
informalive for lhe sludy of mass media and democralisalion as il is mereIy
anolher brick in lhe aIready slanding edifice of eslabIished media effecls.
Whal ve have soughl lo eIicil from sludies are consislenl and generaIisabIe
findings lhal differenliale lhe sludy of mass media during eriods of
democralisalion from lhe sludy of mass media in eslabIished democracies.
This reorl has been driven by lhe ossibiIily of aIigning exisling vork lo
uncover a sufficienl basis for a lheory of mass media during democralisalion.
Il has laken a fairIy slricl incIusion slandard based on generaIisabiIily. SimIy,
vorks lhal aeaI lo a higher degree of nomolhelicism (vs ideograhic vork)
are more oflen indicalive of a higher IeveI of innovalion and/or
generaIisabiIily (aIlhough lhis is nol a hard ruIe). The foremosl issues in lhe
counlries/regions of inleresl have bolh lhe inslilulions of lhe slale and lhe
mass media in a slale of fIux and lhus find IillIe corresondence lo reIaliveIy
fixed, 'onIy game in lovn', inslilulions of eslabIished democracies. As noled
above, ve seek lheories and effecls lhal differenliale lhe roIe of mass media
during democralisalion from mass media in eslabIished democracies. Thus,
given lhe fIuidily of democralisalion, lhe sludy of mass media and
democralisalion is aiming al a moving largel.
Like much of lhe mosl recenl lheorelicaI vork on lhe inlernel and ils
exlensions in sociaI media, ve conlinue lo ignore lhe Iargesl assumlions in
conlinuing media sludies. ScammeII and Semelko remind sludenls of lhe
mass media of lvo lhings: 'firsl, lhe cenlraI imorlance of media for
democracy is . . . virluaIIy axiomalic |andj second, lhe modeI of democracy
vhich media are suosed lo serve is aIso IargeIy laken for granled' (2000b:
. xixii). The fieId of mass media and democralisalion may (finaIIy) offer an
occasion for us lo confronl lhese foundalionaI assumlions by unmooring
bolh democralic and mass media inslilulions from lheir rigid and fixed,
normalive Iocalions. If ve consider inslead lhal lhe lvo do nol so easiIy and
inevilabIy coordinale, ve may begin lo unack lhe comIexilies lhal Iie al
lhe hearl of lhis fieId of sludy. McConneII and ecker (2002) suggesl lhis
overfuIIy by selling oul a lyoIogy of various schoIarIy aroaches in lhe
sludy of mass media and democralisalion in vhich media roduce
democracy, democracy roduces media, media simIy move vilh higher
freedom, or lhere is no reIalionshi belveen media freedom and democracy.
These reresenl a criss-cross of conlradiclory aroaches lhal, of course and
as lhey nole, excIudes lhe aImosl unbearabIe osilions lhal media mighl
acluaIIy hinder democralisalion or vice versa (McConneII and ecker, 2002).
Thus, lhe slale of lhe disciIine above is, al besl, re-aradigmalic.
Ior academic researchers, rogress may require a break vilh deduclive
aroaches. We shouId slo lhinking of lhe media in lerms of lradilionaI
modeIs, as lhese modeIs are slalic and lhus have difficuIly exIaining lhe
dynamic rocesses of democralisalion. There may need lo be a eriod of
induclive invesligalion lhal is lheory-gcncraiing ralher lhan lheory-icsiing. In
shorl, furlher sludies shouId exlend our knovIedge of lhe mechanisms of

34

media effecls in non-Weslern sellings. Il cannol be execled lhal media
freedom viII aulomalicaIIy Iead lo oIilicaI freedom or aroriale oIilicaI
sociaIisalion. SimiIarIy, media inslilulionaI IiberaIisalion is nol alh
deendenl (}enkins and Thorburn, 2003) and differenl cuIlures viII exIoil
nascenl lechnoIogies differenlIy (WiIIiams, 1974, de SoIa IooI, 1983), lhus lhe
alh of media evoIulion viII resenl evidence lo us of ossibIe olher manners
of media infIuence lhal are nol congruenl vilh Weslern modeIs. Iursuil of
media effecls vilh Weslern media assumlions in non-Weslern sellings
shouId force us lo reconsider lhe hisloricaI/cuIluraI dimensions of media
consumlion and vhal ve mean vhen ve say media effecls.
29
Therefore,
fulure research shouId furlher arse media usage, conlexluaIise anaIyses in
lhe IeveIs of consoIidalion (cross-nalionaIIy or ideaIIy vilh limes series/aneI
dala), and aIIov induclive, syslemalic, and invesligalive anaIysis lo ruIe lhe
day.
Second, sludies of mass media during eriods of democralisalion shouId
avoid lhe mindIess reIicalion of exisling vork as il overIooks vhal is
overfuI and unique in democralisalion: hov inslilulions change,
reIalionshis among oIilicaI inslilulions, individuaI Iearning, and cuIluraI
shifls. As LoveIess vriles: 'lhe reaI change is lhe cuIluraI allerns of
inleraclion vilh informalion, vilh olhers in lhe communily, and vilh civiI
sace, aIlhough lhese are much harder lo see and much more difficuIl lo
eslimale bul arguabIy cIoser lo a genuine media effecl' (2010: 470).
Third, lhere is a need lo enhance our knovIedge aboul lhe dynamics of
media Iandscaes and audiences in lransilionaI conlexls. Iulure sludies
shouId furlher our underslanding aboul hov informalion-seeking behaviour
and/or references for oIilicaI informalion consumlion are affecled by
raid changes lo oIilicaI and informalion environmenls in democralising
conlexls, and hov audiences make sense of comIex media lransformalions
lhal accomany oIilicaI lransilions. This may require inlegraling lheories of
non-mechanicaI media effecls and democralisalion lheories in order lo shed
Iighl on lhe reIalionshi belveen media use/behaviour and lhe embracemenl
of democralic vaIues foIIoving regime changes.
30

IinaIIy, vhalever ve knov, or assume lo knov, aboul lhe roIes of media in
lhe rocess of democralisalion loday mighl be chaIIenged in democralisalion
rocesses in lhe fulure, simIy because of lhe veIocily and scoe of lhe
lransformalion of digilaI media environmenls. Il is quile robabIe lhal fulure
democralic revoIulions 'von'l be leIevised', as lhe oIilicaI imacl of
leIevision viII graduaIIy subside in favour of lhe inlernel and sociaI media, or
olher nev communicalion lechnoIogies yel lo emerge. The biggesl chaIIenge
for lhe research in lhe area of media and democralisalion mighl lherefore be
hov lo avoid being immersed in a conceluaI framevork bearing an imrinl
of Iong obsoIele sociaI and lechnoIogicaI circumslances. The fulure research
viII cerlainIy need lo broaden ils scoe and incororale lhe anaIysis of non-
inslilulionaIised forms of communicalion, as veII as aclors of civiI sociely
vhich lhrive in lhe rhizomalic slruclure of cybersace (e.g. WikiLeaks,
Anonymous, elc.), chaIIenging nol onIy lhe lradilionaI modes of
communicalion bul uIlimaleIy aIso lhe nolion of lhe rocess of
democralisalion as such.


29
The reason lhal ve conlinue lo focus on inslilulions and individuaIs is because lhese are lhe onIy eIemenls ve feeI
caabIe of observing and lherefore conlroIIing.
30
Slale of lhe arl academic research highIighls lhe imorlance of seIeclive exosure for underslanding media effecls.
See e.g. ennell and Iyengar (2008).

35

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51

=@"+$ $9% =+$9"1&
N=(O P(>D4O is a Career DeveIomenl IeIIov in Media and Democracy al lhe
Reulers Inslilule for lhe Sludy of }ournaIism al lhe Dearlmenl of IoIilics and
InlernalionaI ReIalions, Oxford Universily. He hoIds a Ih.D. degree in
|ournaIism (2011) from lhe Cenler for }ournaIism/Dearlmenl of IoIilicaI
Science and IubIic Managemenl al lhe Universily of Soulhern Denmark. His
research inleresls incIude oIilicaI communicalion, audience sludies, media
effecls, and democralisalion and lhe media. He is lhe co-aulhor of Pc|iiica|
jcurna|isn in Ccnparaiitc Pcrspcciitc (Cambridge Universily Iress,
forlhcoming). His recenl vork has aeared in |ournaIs Iike lhe |urcpcan
jcurna| cj Ccnnunicaiicn, and Scan!inatian Pc|iiica| Siu!ics.
QR!O=Q .G(GS= is a Senior Research IeIIov for lhe ro|ecl Media and
Democracy in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe al lhe Dearlmenl of IoIilics and
InlernalionaI ReIalions, Universily of Oxford. He received a Ih.D. in
socioIogy in 2005 from IacuIly of SociaI Sludies, Masaryk Universily, lhe
Czech ReubIic, vhere he vorked as a Leclurer al lhe Dearlmenl of Media
Sludies and }ournaIism belveen 2006 and 2009. Aarl from lhe reIalionshi
belveen media, oIilics, and democracy, his currenl research inleresls incIude
lransformalions of media markels and ovnershi slruclures, rocesses of
media gIobaIisalion, as veII as lhe accounlabiIily roIe of media in lransilion
counlries. His recenl arlicIes have been ubIished in |nicrnaiicna| jcurna| cj
Prcss/Pc|iiics, jcurna| cj Pcpu|ar |i|n an! Tc|ctisicn, and |nicrnaiicna| jcurna| cj
Ccnnunicaiicn.
7=GGT(A OUQ(O(.. is a Senior Leclurer in Comaralive IoIilics al lhe
Universily of Kenl (2011) and former Visiling IeIIov of lhe MDCII ro|ecl al
lhe Universily of Oxford (Aulumn 2012). He received his Ih.D. from Indiana
Universily (Ioominglon) from lhe Dearlmenl of IoIilicaI Science (2005). Al
lhe broadesl IeveI, his research inleresls incIude oIilicaI behaviour and
alliludes as lhey reIale lo oIilicaI change and Iearning. His vork has been
ubIished in lhe jcurna| cj Pc|iiics, lhe |urcpcan jcurna| cj Pc|iiica| |cscarcn, lhe
jcurna| cj Ccnncn Markci Siu!ics, and Ccnparaiitc Pc|iiics.

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This reorl has been roduced in cooeralion vilh lhe Media and Democracy
in CenlraI and Iaslern Iuroe (MDCII) ro|ecl al Oxford Universily. The
aulhors vouId Iike lo lhank Roberl Iicard (Reulers Inslilule) for heIfuI
commenls on an earIier drafl.
SELECTED RISJ PUBLICATIONS
Julian Petley (ed.)
Media and Public Shaming: Drawing the Boundaries of Disclosure
(published jointly with I.B. Tauris)
James Painter
Poles Apart: The International Reporting of Climate Scepticism
Lara Fielden
Regulating for Trust in Journalism: Standards Regulation in the Age of Blended Media
David A. L. Levy and Robert G. Picard (eds)
Is there a Beter Structure for News Providers? The Potential in Charitable and Trust Ownership
David A. L. Levy and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen (eds)
The Changing Business of Journalism and its Implications for Democracy
Tim Gardam and David A. L. Levy (eds)
The Price of Plurality: Choice, Diversity, and Broadcasting Institutions in the Digital Age
(published in association with Ofcom)
CHALLENGES
Naomi Sakr
Transformations in Egyptian Journalism
(published jointly with I.B. Tauris)
Nick Fraser
Why Documentaries Mater
Nicola Bruno and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen
Survival is Success: Journalistic Online Start-ups in Western Europe
Paolo Mancini
Between Commodication and Lifestyle Politics: Does Silvio Berlusconi Provide a New Model of
Politics for the 21st Century?
John Lloyd
Scandal! News International and the Rights of Journalism
Stephen Coleman (ed.)
Leaders in the Living Room: The Prime Ministerial Debates of 2010. Evidence, Evaluation and
Some Recommendations
Richard Sambrook
Are Foreign Correspondents Redundant? The Changing Face of International News
James Painter
Summoned by Science: Reporting Climate Change at Copenhagen and Beyond
John Kelly
Red Kayaks and Hidden Gold: The Rise, Challenges, and Value of Citizen Journalism
Stephen Whitle and Glenda Cooper
Privacy, Probity, and Public Interest
Stephen Coleman, Scot Anthony, and David E Morrison
Public Trust in the News: A Constructivist Study of the Social Life of the News
Nik Gowing
Skyful of Lies and Black Swans: The New Tyranny of Shifting Information Power in Crises
Andrew Currah
Whats Happening to Our News: An Investigation into the Likely Impact of the Digital
Revolution on the Economics of News Publishing in the UK
James Painter
Counter-Hegemonic News: A Case Study of Al-Jazeera English and Telesur
Media and Democratisation Cover_Layout 1 10/09/2013 12:39 Page 1