Higher Persian Gra 00 Philu of T

PREFACE.
intended mainly as a book of reference, and for this purpose is printed with a copious index. It has been written chiefly for those students who have learnt, or are now studying, Persian in India. It
THIS work
is
should be borne in mind that considerable differences exist between the

Persian of Afghanistan
diction
'
and
is
of Persia, not only in pronunciation
and
but also in construction.

It
Many
of
these differences are
illus-
trated in this work.
hoped that the notes on composition and
rhetoric will prove especially interesting to Indian students,
many
of
whom
for their benefit that these subjects
have to study Persian through the medium of English, and it is have been treated from an English
point of view. These notes, however, are not intended to supplant the study of Arabic or Persian rhetoric, but merely to supplement it.
The author, not being a

Prosody.
poet, has
made no attempt
to deal with
In writing this grammar, the works of Platts, Ranking, Rosen,
Chodzko, Haggard and Le Strange, Tisdale, Socin, Thacher, Wright, and others, including several works in Urdu and Persian, have been My acknowledgments are specially due to Agha freely made use of.
Muhammad Kazim
ers,
ShirazI, Persian Instructor to the
Board
(
of
Examin-
who has
also
assisted throughout in seeing the

his
and
to
brother-in-law,
the
late
work through the Press, Shams"' l- Ulama* Shaykh
Mahmud
Jilani,
and other Persian

of a large
friends, for constant advice.
The addition
amount
of Arabic (viz. portions of the
Qur'an, the Alif Laylah and other Arabic works) to the Persian Course has necessitated a far larger amount of Arabic grammar than was
anticipated, a task for which I felt myself
This portion of
set for
it.
by no means competent. the work has grown much beyond the limits originally
thanks are chiefly due to Shams^lYusuf Ja'fari, Khan Bahadur, Head Maulavi of
it,
In compiling
my
'Ulama*
Muhammad
the Board of Examiners, to
Shams u 'l- Ulamd* Shaykh Mahmud

(
Jilani,
and to Maulavi Hidayat Husayn

I
of Presidency College,
and
others,
who
dil
" clean, " In modern Persian, for instance, fcwuzjA+1 means dimagh " order, medal." J,> "stomach," imtiyaz jULo)
U> "nose,
IV
PREFACE.
helped
me
'/hroughout
its
compilation
and
also to Professor L.
White-
King,
C.S.I., of
Dublin,
who
assisted in revising the proofs
and at whose
suggestion numerous additions were made.
Owing
to the
War and
proofs at sea
and
to other unfortunate causes, this
the consequent loss of manuscript and work has been un-
duly long in issuing from the Press.

D. C.
PH1LLOTT,
Lieut. -Colonel.
CAIRO US. March 1918.

:
>
TO
THE HON'BLE
MR. JUSTICE
ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE,
C.S.I., D.L., D.Sc., F.A.S.B., F.R.S.E.,
VICE-CHAN CELLOE OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY, CHAIRMAN OF THE
TRUSTEES OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, VICE-PRESIDENT
OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,

I
DEDICATE THIS BOOK,
IN RECOGNITION
BOTH OF PERSONAL FRIENDSHIP
AND OF THE SERVICES HE HAS

RENDERED TO ORIENTAL
SCHOLARSHIP.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART
I.
CHAPTER
I.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.

Page
Sec.
1.
The Alphabet
..
..
..
.. ..
.
.
2.
Pronunciation of Consonants
..11
.
.
3.
4.
The Short and Long and Dipthong Vowels
21
Hamza and
the Short Vowels at the beginning of words

of words)
. .
.
23
27 28
5.
6.
.,
The letter (at the beginning Jazm or Sukun

. .
7.
8.
Taslidid
and Idgham
..
.
...
..
..
29
Tanwin
Waslah
..
..
..
. .
9.
,,
..
.
.
..30 ..31
31
10.
11. 12.
Solar and Lunar Letters
Abjad Numeral Figures

.
..
.
..
.
..
. .
..32
33
13
To
find
the year A.D. corresponding to the year of the

.. .. .. .. ..
.
Hijra
14.
..
Siyaq
..
.
.
..
.
.
..34 ..34
34
35
15.
,,
Letters in Poetry
16. 17. 18.

19.
,,
Handwriting Punctuation
..
..
..
..
.
.
..37
38
40
41
Abbreviations, Contractions and Imala
Summary
Accent
,,
20. 21.
Exercise in Translation
..
,.
..
..
..
..45
CHAPTER
Sec. 22.
23.
II.
Division of Persian and Arabic Gramnicar
48
24.
25.
26.
.,
Etymology .. The Article The Substantive

. .
,.
. .
..
.
..
. .
..48
.
48 48
51
. .
Declension
27. 28.
29.
Examples of Declension Formation of the Plural Plurals Modern Persian
56
58
.
Classical Persian
64
Vlll
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
III.
PRONOUNS.
Page
Sec. 30.
,,
Personal Pronouns
68
31.
32.
The
Affixed Pronouns
.. ..
..
,.
.. ..
.
,,
Possessive Pronouns
..71 ..75
77
33.
,,
Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns
34.
35.
36.
,,
Simple Demonstrative Pronouns Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns
82
87
. .
,,
,,
37. 38.
39.
Compound Demonstrative Pronouns .. Interrogative Pronouns ..

Substitutes for Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite
88
98
98
..
.
..91
,,
,,
Pronouns
CHAPTER
Sec. 40.
41.
,,
IV.
THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The Definite Article .. .. The Indefinite Article .. The Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or Relative
.
130
..131
42.
^
. .
141
CHAPTER
Sec. 43.
V.
. . . .
The Adjective
149
161
44.
,,
Compound
45. 46.
Adjectives Intensive Adjectives
169
171
Degree of Comparison and Comparative Clauses
CHAPTER
Sec. 47.
48.
,,
VI.
THE NUMERALS.
Cardinal Numbers The Ordinals
.
182
191
49. 50.
51.
Fractions
..
..
.. .. ..
. .
..
..
..
194
196
197
,,
Adverbial Numerals
Multiplicative Numerals
..
..
.
.. ..
.
,,
..
.
.
52.
.;
Distributive Numerals
198
53.
,,
54.
55.
Recurring Numerals Approximate Numbers Numeral Adjectives
198
199
199
CHAPTER
Sec. 56.
57.
VII
.
58.
Arabian Months The Turki Year-Cycle The Zodiac
200
203
204
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
IX
Page
Sec. 59.
60.
,,
The Seasons..
Ancient Persian year
.,
, ,
,.205
..
, ,
.. ..
. .
..
..
.
206
209
61.
Yazd-Gardi year
..
.
62.
Days
of the
Week
210
CHAPTER
Sec. 63.
64. 65.
VIII.
,
.
Money
Weights
. .
212 213
Measures of Length
.,
. .
,.
,.
.,
,.214
CHAPTER
Sec. 66.
67.
,,
. . .
.
IX.
. ,
. ,
.
.
68.
The Verb The Separate Substantive, Verb .. The Verb Transitive and Intransitive
Tenses from the Imperative Tenses from the Shortened Infinitive
.
217
, ,
..219 ,.221
. .
, .
223
225
69.
Active Voice
..
..
,
.
..
.
.
..
.
..229
.
.
70.
71. 72.
Verbal Adjective Negative Verbs
234
235
237
73.
74.
Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs .. .. Interrogative Verbs
..
. .
,.238
. .
Roots or Stems
of
Simple Verbs
. .
239 248
75.
76.
Hybrid Verbs
The Auxiliary Verb

,,
tf^cw
Tawanistan
Giriftan
248
249
,.77.
78.
79.
,,
..
. .
..
. .
..254
. .
80.
,,
The Verbs " to begin, etc." The Auxiliary Verb Khwas tan
256
257
81.
Guzashtan, Dadan, Mandan " " to Permit, Allow
and Verbs
. .
261
,,
82.
83.
,,
Rajtan Dashtan
.. ..
. .
.. ..
. .
..263 ..263
. .
84.
85.
Impersonal Verbs Compound Verbs

Certain
266
274
280 282 285
,,
86.
Common
Verbs used
in the
Compounds
. . .
. .
,.
87.
88.
Causal and Reflexive Verbs

Passive Voice and Passive Verbs
,,
CHAPTER
Sec. 89.
,,
X.
Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

Prepositions
. .
90.
91.
Simple Conjunctions
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page 354
366
Sec.
92.
93.
Compound Conjunctions
Interjections
. .
and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings, Compli.
ments, etc.
94.
95.
Signs and Signals
389
Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions,
etc.
. .
390
CHAPTER
Sec.
96.
97.
XI.
. . .
. .
.
Diminutive Nouns
,
394 398
Affixed C5 and Arabic Abstract
Noun
. .
. .
98.
,,
99,
The Terminal The Suffixes ban
404
406
407
or van, vana,
un and van
.
100. 101.
102.
103. 104.
gar, gar, gari, kar

ar, dar, al
. .
..
..
.
..408
.
The Turkish Suffixes ji, cht, .. The Suffix dan The Suffixes zar, sar, stan
gard, khana, shan,
bash, tdsh or dash

.
409 410 410
or istan, lakh, kada, gah, abad,

. . . .
.
na
105.
The
Suffixes
umand, wand, mand, nak, ak

bar,yar
ana,
..
..
413
414
106.
107.
,,
..
.
,
..413
. .
. .
avar, var, var, gan,
man
van
..
108.
109.
,
ma,
in, an, an, ra,
415
417
agin or gin
..
..
110. 111.
112. 113.
The Formative alif .. The Suffixes fam (pam and

,,
..
..
..417
.
warn), gun, charta
418 419
5.v5, sa,
san, vash, das, dis,

..
vand
114.
The Suffix urn The Termination
.. ..
..
ish
..
..'
..420 ..420
CHAPTER
Sec. 115
XII.
Verbal Nouns and Nouns and Adjectives derived from Verbs .. .. .. ..421 ..
116.
Compound Substantive
..
..
..
425
PART
CHAPTER
Sec. 117.
II.
XIII.
SYNTAX.
On
the use and omission of izafat

of
of
.. ..
.. ..
..
433
118. 119.
The Cases
Number
Nouns .. Nouns, Nouns
..445
Concord
464
of Multitude
and
their
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
\i
CHAPTER
Sec. 120.
XIV.
.
Pronouns
Page 476
CHAPTER XV.
Sec. 121. 122. 123.
,,
Adjectives
..
. .
..
. .
..
.
..
. .
..
.
490
Adverbs
405
502
Conjunctions
Prepositions
.. ..
..
..
..
..497
..
124.
..
CHAPTER
Sec. 125.
XVT.
.. .. ..
Use
of the Tenses
Aorist
505
CHAPTER
Sec. 126.
XVTT.
...
Subjunctive
Mood
..
'..
..
538
CHAPTER
Sec. 127.
XVITT.
COMPOUND AND COMPOUNDED SENTENCES.

128.
,,
Conditional Co-ordinate, and Optative Clauses. Conditional Clauses (continued)

.
545
552
129.
130.
Concessional Clauses
556
558
562 570 573
Relative Clauses
,,
131.
132.
Predicative (subordinate) Clauses
..
..
..
Subordinate Clauses (continued). Local and Modal) Clauses Subordinate Clauses (continued).
Causal) Clauses
. .
Adverbial
. . . .
(Temporal,
. .
,,
133.
Adverbial
.
.
(Final
.
and
. .
,,
134.
Co-ordinate Clauses
..
..
..
..
576
CHAPTER XTX.
Sec. 135.
Concord of Subject and Verb

,,
585
591 591
136.
(continued)
. . . .
Errors in Concord, etc.

137.
,,
Concord of Adjectives, and Pronoun with Noun Government of Verbs, Prepositions, and Errors
600 600
CHAPTER XX.
Sec. 138.
Order of Words and Phrases
604
CHAPTER XXI.
Sec. 139.
,,
Apposition
literation
614
140.
Repetition of
Words and Phrases
Jingling Sounds
Al-
622
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Sec. 141.
,5
XXII.
Page
. . . .
Notes on Rhetoric and Composition
629
142.
143.
144.
Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, Further Observation on Style Examples of Errors in Rhetoric
. .
.
etc.
. .
644
652 659
APPENDICES.
Appendix A.
Arabic
Grammar
(with detailed
. .
list
of contents)
. .
675
899
Appendix B.
(Continuation of Sec. 125)
INDEX
909
Higher Persian Grammar.
PART
ORTHOGRAPHY (&>
1.
I.
p\*
AND ORTHOEPY
(
9dj5
The Alphabet.
<f ^>j*
).
The Arabs and other Muslims write from right to left and their printed books and manuscripts begin at what Europeans would call the end of the book. Their writing may be regarded as a species of shorthand,
(a)
,
the short vowels being omitted. In printing, each letter is not kept separate as in the
Roman
character;
there are no capital letters, no stops, and no paragraphs; in short, not one of the devices valuable alike to the printers and readers of Europe; from cover to cover their books appear to contain but one long unbroken sentence,
and many of the words are jumbled together, or, at the end of a line, written one on the top of the other. In some carefully written MSS. a line in coloured ink on the top of a word indicates a proper name or the commence,
ment
of a new paragraph, but even this aid is rarely given. Of existing alphabets the Arabic ranks next in importance to the Latin alphabet. It has supplanted the Greek alphabet in Asia Minor, Syria,
,
Egypt, and Thrace, and has supplanted the Latin alphabet in North Africa. It is the sole alphabet of Arabia, Western Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Tartary,
1 Turkey and of all the alphabets employed in India, it is the best known. That the local alphabet of Mecca should have exterminated all other
; 1 '
Semitic scripts, and have established
and Asia,
is
an
illustration
be adduced, of the power of religious influences in effecting a wide and rapid

diffusion of alphabets.
"
to
******
more
striking
itself as
the dominant alphabet of Africa than any other that can
It took
no more than eighty years (632
712) for the
Arab conquerors
found a dominion wider in extent than the widest empire of Rome, and to extend the alphabet of Mecca from the Indus to the Tagus." 1 The Arabic and English Alphabets can, it is said, be traced back to the
same primitive Phoenician

1
'*
source.
The Alphabet," by Isaac Taylor.
THE ALPHABET.
in the
The Arabs originally used the Syrian alphabet, in which the characters are same order as in the Hebrew. Remains of this former order
still preserved in the numerical value of the letters, which in their numerical order are arranged in a series of meaningless words that serve as a memoria technica and correspond with the order of the Hebrew or Phoenician
are
alphabet.
The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, all consonants. The arrangement of the Arabic alphabet is morphological, 2 i.e. letters of similar
form are brought into juxtaposition for the sake of comparison and as an
aid to
memory. With the Qur*an, the Persians 8 adopted and adapted the Arabic
it
alphabet, though ill-suited to their requirements, adding to

or Farsi letters
the four 'Ajami

therefore
p,
ch,
jh
and
g.
The Persian alphabet
consists of thirty- two letters, all consonants; four of these letters are pure Persian 5 and eight 6 are peculiar to Arabic while the remaining twenty are
,
So far as their alphabets extend, i.e. up to <^> 400. " and " Other methods of arrangement are (1) form Gr. morphl logia." the Chronological, in which the letters are added according to the date of their adoption; (2) the Ideological, in which the characters are classed according to the meaning
1
From
c *
of their names (from Gr. 'idea "idea" + logia}; as in the arrangement of the hieroglyphic signs by Egyptologists; (3) the Phonological, the scientific arrangement of which the Deva-nagari is the most perfect example ; in this, the letters are arranged according
to the organs of speech by which they are articulated, viz. gutturals, palatals, etc., " each division being also scientifically arranged. Vide " The Alphabet by Isaac Taylor. " 3 For an account of the Ancient Persian The Alphabet" by Isaac Scripts, vide Taylor. At the time of the Arab conquest the Persians used the Pahlavi character.
* Also printed <-X In MSS. and in books lithographed in the East, the diacritical bar that distinguishes g from k is generally omitted. This puzzles a beginner. It will be noticed that the body of these four letters is identical with that of Arabic
letters,
and that the only

%
distinction
They
letters
5
are adaptations of
peculiarly Persian sounds as
by the diacritical marks. Persians do not always regard the J & nd -. (T new letters but occasionally represent them by the Arabic
is
"
they resemble
thus ^**t "horse

(JI?
' '
is
The four
letters purely Persian are

f
enumerated
frequently written in the school
^t.
rhyme
:
^ ^_* U. j
These eight
letters are
enumerated
in a school
rhyme:
The Urdu or Hindustani alphabet contains three more letters to correspond with three sounds, found in words of Hindi or Sanskrit origin; it thus consists of thirty-five
letters.
THE ALPHABET.
common
to
both
languages.
The
form of
many
of these letters
varies
somewhat according
to their position in a group of letters. In addition to the Alphabet, there are three vowel signs, which, written, are placed directly above or below the consonants to which
i.e.
:
if
which they follow in enunciation in writing, but are sometimes inserted in

belong,
beginners.
1
in practice they are
they omitted
books
printed
specially for
There are also certain orthographical signs, a knowledge

necessary.
of
which
is
The following table should be studied, in conjunction with the remarks that follow and elucidate it. The greater number of the letters are by
Persians * pronounced as in English:
signs, as
Qur'ans are printed or lithographed with all the vowel-points and orthographical it is considered a sin by Muslims to mispronounce a syllable of the sacred text. Notwithstanding this, most, if not all, of the editions printed or lithographed in India
1
have numerous orthographical

to
errors. Inserting the vowels and signs adds considerably the cost of production. The State edition of a Qur'an printed and published in Turkey, and said to be letter perfect, is sold in Baghdad at the rate of thirty rupees, a similar edition, but printed in the Roman character, would probably 2 a copy i.e.
:
be sold for
five shillings.
The Arabic
character, beautiful to look at,
is
an enemy
to
printing and an enemy to the diffusion of knowledge. The written character of a language is merely a collection of conventional signs, a
mere mechanical device used to give

their alphabet once.
it
expression.
The Arabs have already changed
Many Muslims
sider mutabarrak.
a
The Persian Shi'ahs however do not seem

10.
object to .printed or lithographed Qur'ans, which they do not conto share this objection.
Vide
(k)
page
THE ALPHABET.
THE ALPHABET.
.S
THE ALPHABET.
THE ALPHABET.
w
as
words,
of
beginning
the
At
THE ALPHABET.
02
H B
THE ALPHABET.
(d)
9
-
It will
be noticed that the letters
j and j never
alter
their shape,
and though they are joined to the
letter that precedes
(on (on
their
right),
;
their left)
is
they are not joined to the letter that follows hence if they occur in the middle of a word, a gap or
them them
formed nearly similar to the interval between two adjacent words. Inaccurate spacing is one of the difficulties in reading the cheap lithographed
interval
books of the East.

(e)
The
letters
with the letters

(/)
-t and Jo though they do not change in shape, yet unite both on sides of them.
-
The eight letters peculiar to the Arabic are & ^ u o^> Js & a and (J. The four letters peculiar to the Persian have been enumerated preIn the Table of Consonants these two sets are distinguished viously.
-
by the abbreviations Ar. and

Remark.
Per. respectively.
occurs generally in Arabic words, but is " kid " "comb of bees"; also found in Persian words, as *)(*& Jl
letter
The
ghayn
"shout"
(g)
"rouge."
resemble each other in shape and are merely
Those
letters ;that
distinguished by the position or

called huruf-i mutashabih
(
number
oj^^
),
of the dots,
(AjLfilxj
and sometimes
^ etc., are huruf-i mutamasil

-
ctfUko
o^
).
Sometimes also letters that have only an imperfect resemblance, such as and i>, are included in this term. j whose names are palindromes'2 (Ji) Those letters as mim,nun and vav (and these are all formed by three consonants) are called Maktubl ( ^j& ).
1
If,
however, the
first
and third
letters of the
(
anagram
differ, as in fim,
qdf, etc., the letters are styled Malfuzi
u&d*
).
Masruri ( is)jj~* ) is a term applied to by two consonants only, as etc.

L>
letters
whose names are formed
(i)
)
Letters distinguished by dots or Jiuruf-i mu'jama ( A*.^*^
are called
8
).
huruf-i
manquta
OÂ.
Combined, these form the Arabic word nawm (fj* ) " sleep." palindrome is a word or sentence that, read either from right to left, or left to right, is exactly the same. Adam made the first palindrome when he introduced him1
self to Eve by, "Madam, I'm Adam." Letters transposed anyhow to make a new word or sentence are anagrams, thus rat is an anagram of tar and tear of
'
'
'
'
'
rate.'
3
A palindrome is
Nuqfa Ar.
)
also called
*
an anagram.
<^,
"a dot";
(for
sp^f
to
mark with
oj_>^
)
diacritical
points.
to
The term
alphabet
f^*Jl
which
ksJl
it is
is
also
applied
the
irrespective of the order in
arranged.
It
is
so called as containing dotted

.
letters, in contradistinction to the
ancient Arabic character called <*iMJi la^Jf, in which
there were
no
dots.
10
THE ALPHABET.
Dotted
letters are further
)
subdivided into fawqam
c^V
those dotted
above, and talitarii ( îlisu those dotted below. Dotted letters, whether fawqam or tahtam, are further distinguished by
JU
M
,
,
muwahhada *s*j*> ) musannat ( ^* } and musallasa ( <?^ according as they are marked by one, by two, or by three dots. (?) The system of transliteration in the present work is practically the Hunterian system. Modifications are q (instead of k) for <3, and m for & before a quiescent b or p for the final Arabic vowels, a small a,i, and u,
the epithets
/c
)
(
g*^
written above the line, and a small

cases where s-h
for the
and
z-h are separate letters, a
nun of the tanwn. In the rare mark or comma is placed be.

;l*ji
tweenthem. Ex.
asfialj^l
)
" more or most easy ", az,har
''blossoms."
is
A
"
final
<jj-
or &iv.
literated
self
by " and
pronounced like alif is a. In the few words where j

,
A
is
silent j as in
^'^
trans-
pronounced
"
.
short, as in
" thou "
it is
transliterated u.
The ya
or the
hamza
of the
"
ya
of unity
etc., or of
the izafat, are
transliterated as pronounced.
Hamza
Remark
in Arabic
words
is
shown by a hamza
as in fa*ida.
prolongation is omitted " this" is but expressed by fatha written perpendicularly over it; thus haza
/.In
some Arabic words the
alif of
always written |*& or at end of ) and <^.
IAA,
and
&\+*>j is
usually in Arabic
&+:*>)
vide also
Remark 1 1.
as in
<jASkj)<y*t, is
In Persian, an alif that is not mamduda or 'prolonged', " abbreviated", also by Indians incorrectly called maqsura
though
this latter
term
^5-.
is
properly applicable only to a final
and
^^
and
(
or
&
vide
under
It
letter
(k)
will
be seen in the table that there are two

h, four letters
(
letters
2,
transliterated
by
(
^
A
* J
and
all
Js
by
two
e>
by
/,
and three
&
(j*
by
s.
In Arabic
these represent different

affect
sounds, but the modern Persians
make no
distinction between the pronuncia-
tion of the various letters in each group.
few pedants and poets
the Arabic pronunciation, generally that of Baghdad. at the beginning of words, are frequently (I) Certain letters, especially each but above one another this is the case not other, placed, alongside
:
in combinations with r " ^
it
1: ""r r< 2 (m) In the case of a change in letters as ftl cUi Ar., from pil i>*J, P., will be found that a labial is changed into another labial, a dental into a
dental, etc., etc.
There are
i***
five labials j
o y
.
and
-^>
tdbaddul-i-huruf
THE ALPHABET.
Something similar occurs in the permutations
of
11
weak consonants,
^.^$-
a vowel (English) being usually changed into a vowel. Sometimes however, a palatal becomes a lingual, as in
,
and
"China"; JK and
2.
(m.c.)
"squint-eyed."
Pronunciation
(talaffuz
.kiAj)
of Consonants.
as an original
it is
Alif.
(a)
letter
ana not as born from
The Persians, unlike the Arabs, look on alif ^ or _. If it commences a word

itself
;
to be re-
garded as having no sound of
it
is
merely a prop for the vowel
4 (6). 1 (written or understood) that accompanies it: vide under If it occurs in the middle of a word, it is a prolongation of the short
vowel fatha and is transliterated by a, irrespective of its modern pronunciaIn this position most Arabs, Indians, and Afghans pronounce it like a in father Ex. V UT kitab " a book " some Persians and some Afghans would pronounce this more broadly, like a in "ball." This broad protion.
'
'
nunciation
in Persia.
is
characteristic
of
the
tent-people
and
of
certain dialects
In the Fars dialect, a before n or m is nearly always pronounced like u 99 Ex. v&* " a shop " is dukun c^, and bam " roof " is bum &. This incorrect pronunciation
of
is
in certain
common
words, the colloquial pronunciation
many
its
parts
of
Persia; for
example && "bread" and of "that"

,
as though spelt nun &jj etc. " wind " is thus ab bad broad promany pronounced nounced nearly like bawd,- the alif being given the sound of a in the English word fall. Some Afghans too have this broad pronunciation, but the Indians
and
compounds are generally pronounced

cases the alif
is
In
always' pronounce the alif like a in the English

if
word
father.
In Persia,
be used, the word will be taken to mean however, **> ba'd " after ', and even an educated Persian will be puzzled by it. In Khurasan, on the other hand, the j is turned into alif; Ex. andardn
this last pronunciation
" and khan c>^for ofjM for i^vM "the women's apartments c^ "blood." For the pronunciation of alif with a hamza (f ) in the middle of a word,
;
vide
under a in
this section.
Remark
I.
Alif in arithmetic represents the
number one ; and

It also signifies
in astronomical tables
and almanacs, 2 Taurus and Sunday.
an unmarried man.
In this case
it
is
usually called hamza, to distinguish
it
from
alif as
a letter
of prolongation.
*
are written in
*'
in which the days, etc., There are two kinds of almanacs, taqvlm-i Farsl (^*l^ f*^ in which signs and the letters of the full, and taqvlm-i-ruquml c^f) fljfi
are used to represent the days of the week, etc., etc.
12
THE ALPHABET.
In Arabic it is a particle of interrogation; Ex. A-lastubi-rabbi-kum, "Am " not Your Lord ? Quran VII. 168, whence the Persian o~Jf or
'
cJjf
jj^
the day of the original covenant between

1
God and Man
at
the creation.'
Poets frequently compare an erect stature, or the straight nose of a " from the creation of Also X~>* f* % jot JU| jf = beauty, or sighs, to alif.
Adam
to the birth
of the Messiah
' ' ;
' '
*>**!
is
-oJ|
the equinoctial line
' '
:
" the aUf, la alphabet," etc., etc.
Alif
also a sign of the
Unity
of
God.
alif
Remark
according to
II.
its
Indian Grammarians assign various names to the letter use

:
Kinds of
(1)
alif.
Alif-i rabita
*b-$j -^l
words that are identical;
as, o**o
"binding or copulative alif" joins two " from hand to lLoj> dast-d dast hand; (a
ready-money bargain)." This alif is also called alif-i ittisdl ( JlAif <JMt ) " the alif of junction", or alif-i inhisar jUaJ| <-aJ| ). Some Grammarians
(
style this alif-4 vast
JUj
otff
but vide
the
(10).
(
Similar to the above

alif,"
is
alif-i 'atf
;
<*-&*
UA)J )
which conjoins two dissimilar words

:
as, shab-a-ruz (jjy
"the conjunctive tf UA) night

diligent search
;
and day; always"

bustling."
(2)
tak-a-pu
(jj&
(or
iakdpuy
isj&)
"
Alif-i fa'iliyyat
(
oJUU'
ua)|
" the
alif of
"
agency
as the alif in
of
the adj. bina

participle.
(3)
U#
"seeing", which word has the force

CUJJÂC^ *Jd\
a present
Alif-i maf'uliyyat
;
participle
(4)
as, ziba
Alif-i
( IAJJ )
"adorned
J^XA/O eo^f
)
"
that gives the force of the past

).
u^jjj
masdar
tives; as, Ujl (m.c.)
"warmth",
(
^
)
which forms abstract nouns from adjec" breadth", from grarmand pahn (m.c.)
alif
adjectives.
(5) Alif-i
i
tanwm
f
&}ju
the
of the Arabic accusative case; as,
in the adverb
(6)
U5b dd
'im an
"
continually, for ever."

(
Alif-i-
qasamiyya
;
*%+~3 -^l
the
a?i/
of the
Persian vocative
when expressing an oath
as,
When
it is
this vocative alif is

(
called Alif-i nidat
*'<*
O, or by, God not used in an oath, but as a simple vocative, " dila -&f heart ZwftmZa IbJb " oh
!
Haqqd U^
;
gil
"
"
lulbul\
If
"
as,
' '
^^
however it " hn b elp
is
!
used in words expressing
or oh distress
"
grief, etc., as in Uj)j>
"
alas,"
)
it is called Alif-i
(
nudba
&***
Jfcff
" the
alif of
"
plaint
1
or alif-i madd-i sawt
An
erect stature
is
also
compared to a cypress tree.
THE ALPHABET.
13
alif-i zd*id or
(9)
<-&,) "the precative alif in du'dutamannq ($+*) " " " kundd as, mabddd iÛ/o "may it not be may he do. (8) Alif-i tahstn-i kaldm t^s~^ <-a't ) "the ofo'/ of embellishment " as, in & <( he said." This is also, and more properly, called x5fj <JJJf " vide '' alif
" verbs
(7)
;
Alif-i
superfluous
' '
(12).
<{
Alif-i
-ftJl
mubalagha
)
**>U
VA'.J
' '
kasrat
**J&
is
tives; as, in IWJA.
the alif of excess " Blessed How happy

!
the aK/ of exaggeration" or afo'/-i is found at the end of some adjec-
"
This
also called the alif-%
firawdm
)
\jb$j>
*-*'l ).
(10)
^'/-i wasli
j^j
CA),
beginning of certain Persian
words
said to be the superfluous alif at the " camel " as, in ushtar î-^f (or shutur)
is
and
also the alif in Arabic
marked with a wasl
cU>^
),
but vide
(1).
This
is
really alif-i za*id.
(11)
In certain cases the

(
alif-i
nida*, vide (6),
is
also called alif-i

/v^
351
mutakallim
JL^Lo oMf
as,
" oh
Dust-d muhtaram mihrbana IJI^
^ ^jj>
3
my
respected kind friend."

Alif-i zcfid
(
(12)
*5\) CA'I
:
"
)
superfluous alif"
is
sometimes, in poetry,
added for the sake of metre

cuwof
3-xJi^^
IA'UC
(^
c>xJlJ'*yolj
*J
AwAf b
Asii^
Verses written on the tomb of Mirza Saîb.
In rosfa ^*f;, chapa l^, sa&2a rawgr, J5j i^, the a??/ is Fi<Ze also Derivation of Words' for 'Formative Alif. tsJU CA)| ) expresses fitness or (13) Alif-i liyaqat (
'
capability;
as,
khwana
u.;
Gfja.
legible.
/; as,
5 in
(for
Persian words is sometimes interchangeable with

P. zaban &ty
f<
U^
11
(old)]
enough
as
*'
,
"
;
aw
(for
a
m; as, ghuzhm fie [for ghuzhb with v; as, vas <j^ J (for bas " with WOT khtvav and Tchaw l (for khwdb) " sleep v; Persian nahib the naJiw water (for 6) ^^^ )
)
"
tongue
"
zafan &l)
with
a single grape
' '
"
^)
' '
fear."
Pronounced as in English.
'
Ba-yi za*id ( *fy Verb Transitive and Intransitive

This letter
is
Remark.
^
'
"
)
superfluous
'
^
'
as in
fjj:
vide under
and
Prepositions.-'
often called ba-yi

*->.
muwahhada
the single-dotted b
'
to
distinguish
it
from
v_
is called bd-yi
farsi
^^ ^,
or bd-yi 'ajami
it is
u*^ ^-
There
being no p in the Arabic alphabet,
frequently interchangeable
1 Still
used in speaking by Zardushtis.

letter that
The
has been changed,
i.e.
substituted,
is
is
called
mubdal <>**, and the

t
^
'
original letter
from which the change was made
called mubdal
minh"
14
THE ALPHABET.
with
<i.x.v*
/
)
o, as fil J^' " white "

;
(for pil cAo
"
)
elephant
r
"
;
safid **&
(for
sapid
firuzi
csj^'
(f
piruzi
"
c^jjj/iJ)
victory."
CU
is generally written T; the Arabic under 8. vide nounced

:
in
Persian e and so pro-
s^> S
by the Arabs
Egypt
is
pronounced
like th in
Cuthbert, and sometimes
as s ; in
it is
pronounced &.
th.
Among
Some
the Persians and Indians, it is an English s. Afghans and some educated Indians give it the sound of
called jlm-i tdzi <^jfi p*&>, or jim-i 'ardbl

it
^j*
p**.,
to distinguish
from ^ ^L
It
is
the contraction for the two Muslim months
Jamadcfl-Ulq a,ndJumddq'l-Akhir. It is sometimes interchangeable " crooked " withc^ - and z\ with zhj as, kazh (old) (for kaj ^)
;
as, chuza
**
(old) for juja **>** (m.c.) *'a chicken,
of
a bird"; with g; as, Jildn for (old) for kash Caspian with sh c4; as, kaj
;
and the young Gilan a province S.W. of the

<JZ,^
"would that."
It
is
-^
Ch
called jim-i far si ij*jf*
^> or jim-i
It is
'ajarrii
^+^ +^
some-
times confounded with

sh <j2; as, lakhcha
^^J
(old)
(for (for
sometimes interchangeable with lakhsha *AiJ ) "flame"; with z j as,

pizishk
puchushk
V-=FVJ
J^}j)
"
}
"a
physician."
(for
In
Arabicized words
it
changes to <j>;
(for
as,
>J&*.
$w ^-h>
Ar.
Chin
(***')
"China"
J^> sanj, Ar.

ia^
chang
Called ha-yi hutti
Û,
hd-yi halqi
cymbals."
c5 lA > an(i ha-yi
muhmala
if
Û.
make
this
The Arabs, some educated Indians, and some Afghans,

something
like the
this a strong aspirate,
h in
"haul"
word be pronounced
in
the throat.
To
catch this sound,
the beginner should copy an Arab or an Afghan many times when he says the word .-^L* Sahib: (he should also note the sound of <jt>
in this word). the Persians this letter
By
is
pronounced
like
q.v.
Remark. Children in Indian schools are taught to make a distinction in but in , pronunciation when reading between ^ and *, and between u* and in speaking, no such distinction is made. practice,
Kh
called khd-yi sakhiz
iiJ ÛL, kha-yi manquta *&>& <^^, and
mu'jama A+SX**? ^lA.. Great care must be taken to make this a guttural and not a k. (There is a story of a doctor who seriously alarmed a patient by mispronouncing the word khun <l blood.")
kha-yi
c^
sometimes interchangeable with <J; as chakhmdkh flint or cock of a and with h as, uTb. chaqmdq (JjUs^ ) gun " earth." (for khdk ^()
It is
, < (
Û^ (for
(old)
' '
Ir Abjad,
it
has the same value as
viz. 3.
THE ALPHABET.
15
D called dal- iabjad*^
ghayr manquta Jâ^c J\& or sometimes mulimala <*At<* Jf^. interchangeable with t o as, ^ jj " with z " black ) partridge ; ^fy (for durraj i; as, MsJaV " master " sazaj Ar. form of sada aalw a kind (for wstao' ilu.| )
;
}
Jli
ddl-i
It is
of
plant"
with z)
as, dizar
j^
7
;
(for oTa'aV y<x>^).

zo7-
j Z
mu'jama *+^&* jj^. it is sometimes interchanged with a a as, **tf for **tf By the Arabs it " when is sounded like the th in though," if, pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue be thrust well forward between the front teeth of
.
called zal-i
manquta
di^5ix Jf3, or
By
month
j
both jaws and slightly compressed compare with " zeal." It is a the Persians like or as z in
:
and
(jc.
j,
contraction for the

<>*&( ji.
Zu'l-hijjah &^**Ji ji, while

is
is
the contraction for Zu'l-qa'dah

r in
''
always rolled and never as
are."
11
Called ra-yi gh_ayr-i
manquta A%a\^
with
cc I
y.^ ^ctj, or ra-?/i
muhmala
*U^/o ^f^.
traction for either of the months Rabi'.

as riilufal
' ' ;
It is
it i s a con. sometimes interchanged

'
^j^
(for
1
mlufar
y^>
a convolvulus
<:
aZso
a waterlily
za-yi
chanal J
^
as,
(m.c.) (for
chanar
\^)
plane-tree."
called
havvaz j?&
^\).
)
;
mu'jama &^**>
It
<^\j, za-yi manquta aiâvo îj^ an(j 2^^ 8 sometimes is interchangeable with ^; as, 5il^
;
^>
(for sw23*-
with
gurigh
fejf (for
(
gunzj^
) ;
with
5; as,
.4 i/as
(for ^4?/a2)
with
q. v.
Zi
is
a poetical contraction of
the preposition Jf.
j ZA
called go-yi
/am
^jlJ ^fj, or za-yi 'ajami 4.5*^*

It is
<^lj.
It inters in
changes with ^ q.v. " measure."

yt
pronounced
as
in
French jour or as
called sln-i ghayr-i

(1
&\+fc
^>.
(
It
manquta Abâi/o c^^ interchanges sometimes with <j

'
ttj
and
;
sln-i
muhmala
{
as, Icustl
kushti
4 y^') wrestling"; a?so the Zardushti belt worn under the f or J^</ *musk.' Also sometimes with <jo; as, clothing, and
"
J^
(for
J^
O=A3 for ^fA5
/^^ called sAtTi-i
manquta
^Jsâvo c .î,
It is
an abbreviation
;
for
Shamal JU^
(for
and 5^m-^ mu'jama *4.sv*xj (^xi. Ci the North." It inter;
changes with ^ with ^; as, kaj

.
as,
pachan iÛ-b
âsA
(for
ul
fc " pashan e;Ub ) scattering " also with " a pine ^r q.v.
;
pS
called
.
sad-i
ghayr-i
manquta
Ai^ftix)
^c
Û?,
and
5ao*-*
muhmala
It is the abbreviation for the
month
of >9a/ar
and
Pathans say ustaz in Pushtoo.

j and
J are sometimes interchangeable. Ex.^H* or used in speaking by Zardushtis. * The Bombay Parsees call this belt kusti, but the Persian Zardushtis
3 Still
call it kttshti.
10
also for
THE ALPHABET.
which shows that an genuine <ji^ (old) to so account has been audited hence sad kardan &jjf
the
word
' '
' '
sadiq
pronounced like ^> By than in sibilant harder and Educated In Arabic a stronger English. Indians and Afghans affect the Arab pronunciation: vide remark
mark an account,
etc.
the Persians
it is
to
i
h.
Pronounced by the Persians Z, zad-i manquta, or zad-i mu'jama. like the th in though if pronounced In like 3 i .e. like z in zeal. Ba.^hdad
.
with the tip of the tongue behind the root of the front teeth of the upper jaws. (In Egypt a hard palatal d).
b T
called ta-yl hutti ^ks* Ûs, ta-yi ghayr-i
manquta, and
ta-yi
muhmala.
the Persians pronounced like 01*. By the Arabs a hard palatal t. Educated Indians and Afghans imitate the Arab pronunciation. It
By
interchanges with
s>\
as, &&<&. for &''Jaat.

^lajai* Îfe, or za-yi
t z
called za-yi
manquta
mushala
*J
^l.
By
the
Persians, likej.
In Baghdad
like
the th in though
pronounced
'
naturally. called 'ayn-i ghayr-i

*l+t*
manquta
ifejfti*
j*p
^c,
or
'ayn-i
muhmala
u*
j$
It is often in Persian not distinguishable as a separ-
ate letter (as prosody proves).
with
h.
It
is
transliterated
In some words it is interchangeable by an inverted comma.
Few Persians can imitate In Arabic the ^ is a strong guttural. the Arab pronunciation. At the beginning of a word, it is by the Persians treated as though it
were the prop for a vowel.
1
Ex.
e*j>Uc
ibadat "adoration
"
(as
though spelt
o^t). At the end of a word it is, in Persian, either quite silent as *.&. jam a or else more properly there is a slight vowel sound like a half a or half e as in tama' +&. The Persians never say jama 'like the Indians. 8 Many
1
**> man' are often like *^ jam' and pronounced with a drawl, and a peculiar intonation that sounds affected to English ears such words are not man If so pronounced they will pronounced in the least like /*^ jam or
words
often be unintelligible.
In the middle of a word this
letter
has a half-bleating sound like
By
the Persians
O^
is
pronounced as though spelt cJ;l but the Arabs would

,
give a distinct and peculiar sound to the consonant z before pronouncing its vowel u ^_ . 2> This at least is the case in Southern Persia with some words of three letters end-
ing in
In the more accurate pronunciation

slightly.
of the better classes in
Tehran the
final
is
perhaps always pronounced though

3
The Arabs
fully enunciate this final
though not quite
like
the Indians.
THE ALPHABET.
a double a; Ex.
17
Ûî are Arabic word pronounced [An with a mute hamza in the middle, has, in Arabic, and should have in
sa'd
is
pronounced
sd-dd. 1
Words
like
i-i-tibdr
and
transliterated, of course, i'tibdr.
correctly-spoken Persian, this same half-bleating sound; Ex. "ordered; a commissary" (pronounced ma'amur)].
j^^ ma^mur
a middle syllable of a word, there is a very perceptible ^ begins pause in the enunciation Ex. **UI qal-'a "a fort": care must be taken to
;
When
this
make
pause in the correct place, as the pronunciation generally unintelligible. The Arabs do not make this pause.
c.
ga-l'a or qal'a is
Gh
called ghayn-l manqutd, aJâi/o
^j^ or ghayn-i mu'jama
4Uaui/o
(:
^p
much
hard guttural something between gh and r, the r being sounded like the r in a " Parisienne." It
Parisienne,
by
represents
1000 in arithmetic and hence is with Persian poets a symbol for the bulbul-i hazdr ddstdn Û-ata ;{_)& Jjb. It interchanges with <3
as ayagh
l>|
(old for
ayaq
<3U|)
" a cup."
sometimes interchanges with
<->
C_3
JJ
F called
Q
fd-yi sa' fas âA*** ^ti:
q.v.
c
called qdf-i qarshat
oJiy
Jljl.
Sometimes interchanges with
q.v.
In Baghdad and by Persian Turks often pronounced like a hard English g. A guttural like q pronounced from the depth of the throat as if undergoing
suffocation, or like ck in stuck
It
when pronounced
a
at the
back
of the throat.
must not be pronounced
like k,
common
i
,
English mistake.
By
it
the uneducated
it is
confused with
and even educated Turks give

:
this pronunciation in certain
common words
Ex.
j&
ghfidr instead of
In Turkish words used in Persian, the two letters seem interchangeqadr able: a Turk of Persia will often spell the same word with either letter
indifferently.
^.
The
and
U-f
"
distinction in spelling is generally observed
between Uf " a eunuch
' '
^K
LJ G
master" but both are

,
colloquially
dga.
called kdf-i tdzi
^fi
<J(, or kdf-i 'arabi

gdf.
<y^ oK.
It
is
in Persian
frequently confounded with

called kdf-i fdrsl
o^", or kdf-i 'ajami t^p^ o&. times interchangeable with for lagdm as lijdm ^,
^^
It
is
somebridle;
^^
"
halter" (Persia).
J
f
L is
an abbreviation
of the
month
shavvdl Jt>^.
tfi
Poets compare
it
to a ringlet.
is
an abbreviation
for the
c>;
month Muharram fj*^*

ban
It
sometimes
interchanges with n
as,
(m.c.) (for
6am, ft*
In ba'd
(m.c.).
Vide Haggard and Le Stranges' Vazir-i Lankuran.

is less
^,
the double
sound
*
perceptible.
Pronounced bun and bum.
18
THE ALPHABET.
N.
There
is
(j
no nasal n l in Persia.
is
In India, however, n
is
in
some
words almost nasal or

jahan
;
it is
then called nun-i ghhunna
imperfectly pronounced, as in chunan, * but before a vowel (and

;
consequently before an izd/at) the nasal sound disappears. It has usually the sound of ra f when it immediately precedes 6 ^ (or p Y). Ex. JAO (tanbal) "lazy" is pronounced tambal: note that
this is transliterated
m.
Nasal n always follows a long vowel.

s
W or
V.
At the beginning
it is
of a
word, or in such words as vlr^ javab
amongst Persians a consonant like v; but amongst Arabs, Afghans and Indians it is a w, like the w in we or it is pronounced like a v, or between a v and In p>yZ and w>mJ.
" a good work,"
^y
is
,
a w.
Before an
The v sound
alif
common
in Isfahan
and Kirman.
;
and after
j has, in pure Persian words, no sound

;
Ex.
(jiui^., etc., are pronounced khdhar, khdhish, etc.
there
is,
therefore,
no ditference in pronunciation between this khdstan " to rise

Îwlk
u*~\j>
is
khwdstan "to wish" and
up":
is
silent^
transliterated w.
Khwish
of
<J^
In
and
its
compounds
^
are pronounced khish (transl. khwish).

alif
its
>*
In Arabic words,
pi.
however,
is
before
pronounced
Ex.
is
u*^
u^'A.
ew>^ "to eat" and
derivatives, the j
pronounced
khud "self", <Jbe* khush "pleasant", ^^)^ khurshid "the sun", î-;^ khursand " happy ". j*. and ^f^* are often pronounced chi and hamchi. A few Arabic words like ^^ âz/a^ "life", saldt "prayer", are
transliterated u; also
du
"two",
tu
"thou",
like pish
L and
*^
generally in Persian phonetically written
eU^
and
d>3Ca.
is
sometimes interchangeable with o, as z/a/a k'U (old) [for ydvd\^ " vain, foolish". The vdv that occurs before an alif and is (m.c.)]
not pronounced, as
iJjtiô
in
Tchwdstan
^M^,
:
is
called vdv-i ma'dula
" distorted y^ vdv, or vav-i ishmdm-i

of
zamma
&>+>*
" the vdv that gives a smell

(
%il>o
^ vyX*
"
^*U^f ^fj
this is maktub-i ghayr-i malfuz
ghayr-i-maktub
td'us
vyxÂc
vdv-i malfug-i written but not pronounced." iiÂLoyj ) sometimes occurs as in ^j-^Lb
"a peacock," but the more correct form c/^Lfc> is also found. In Ar. both the wdws have the sound of w in this word.
Remark.
harf-i
A letter
(
that
)
masruq under vowels
($ij~*
o^
and
is written, but not pronounced, is also called " a stolen letter." For further remarks on j, vide
(b)
(d).
In Arabic the nasal nun occurs before the

JB,
letters
*>,>,
-J
&9
*'
o,
(3, d), as in
the words
^*
" from thee "
" thou
-
Nun-i ghhunna only occurs after the weak consonants
45-
t.
THE ALPHABET.
8
19
H called ha-yi havvaz (Jy*>

ha).
mudawwara (***> <^k) (round decided aspirate like h in hope,, except when it ends a Persian word or a feminine Arabic word (which is always preceded 1 by a fatha ). In this case it is called the "obscure," "imperc5^), or ha-yi
h" and is transliterated a Ex. aJLk khdna &s& "a house", gufta "said" (Past Partciple). This 'obscure' h is in India pronounced like fatha, but in Persia it is pronounced like a short e, or i as khdne or gufte. (If the silent h precedes an && " I have it is there as in be a
ceptible" or "silent
,
;
alif,
said", said, may, slight f! breathing sound of the h, as guftah-am, but the writer is of opinion that this sound is imaginary and that the h generally remains silent.
first
In the
,
case,
i.e.
when
aspirated, the
* is called
ha-yi malfuzl
ha-i
muzhar or zahir (jfa> ^\A or

i.e.
_v*U), or ha-yi jail

is
(^
* or
"manifest,"
sounded; in the second case it " concealed ", i.e. mute. ha-yi mukhtaft or makhfi
((^^
AJ
cs
The h
nih
is
distinctly
*
but not too markedly sounded in

&*
nuh "nine",
*J
"place"
s
(Imper.),
*J
bih
"good"
(but
&
ba or
bi,
the preposition
"to"
or
"for"),
&>
bah bah (m.c.)
" well done, excellent," and in such
like words. 3
" what? In *** si " three ", &*. chi ", *T " " who ? " and the that", there conjunction
* is
H
is
no
the interrogative pronoun aspirate, and the final
"
, great Final
pronounced like short i. In *j na and **> ma " not ", it is silent according to rule; but A* mih s " a also and */o mah moon.
' ' ' '
after
mist, fog is fully sounded ^ or

,
Ex.
human excrement " etc., etc. In * *f guh moon " or a month " *j rah " a road where the
' * ,
' :
" U^b* padishah " a king " **> mah " the " shah
king
,
' '
fatha stands for alif, the
final
h
It
is
aspirated.
distinctly
must be
pronounced in words
like
^
<js
mahr, j^ mihr and
muhr and
in similar words, and in the proper
names cj!^ Tih-ran* and
Mash-had.
A final
1
silent
will
sometimes become
<ji
in Arabic, as fustaq (fi~> Ar.
Some grammarians consider the Persian silent * to be a vowel. Except when changed into S. The $ is not silent in Arabic. be silent (in Persian) when not an original letter. only
2 3
This final * can
Note that when
final
is
sounded,
it is
transliterated
by h and not by
a.
Ex. **
dah " ten."

*
6
Three distinct syllables, not two as in India. Two syllables, not three. In 1908 Persian
newspapers changed the spelling
to
20
(for pista *i~J P.)
(for
THE ALPHABET.
"a pista-nut"
'
also as ndkdj to be Arabic) ^, gfcti (said ndgdh iW> P.) suddenly.' In Arabic, final 8 is in certain cases written s and is then called by the Arabs id marbuta and by some Indians hd-td, and is in classical Arabic
;
"
pronounced
like
often pronounced
and written
except in pause or before a vowel. In Persian this is oâ. instead of *^. In English ci>; Ex.
i.e.
dictionaries this is generally treated as the fourth letter of the alphabet,
as o.
Sometimes the same word

significations.
is
written both with
and o, but with
different
Ex. &f dla
is
generally so written
1
of
an instrument or
aya
cs*3R*
apparatus,'-
but oJf dlat
when it has the signification when it signifies (pi. o^ff

)
"
<(
penis."
is
ai^
'
"
(^1
is this
paper correct
",
but
5>l>
Aûa *SjJ
this
paper signed
This distinction is, however, seldom observed and is considered pedantic, " and " thus jihat " cause qimat price" may be written both o.^ or A^ and o*&j or **AJ.
Fide also remarks on
oU^ and
ci>X
.
at the
end of j.
(^ T
yd-i tahtdmyya
AAJliso Îj
English consonant y\ also in vowel; Ex,. Ljf dyd ''whether."

initial alif of
At the beginning of a word is the the middle of a word after an initial long
When,
for
the sake of euphony,
the
a verb
is
changed into
this letter is
pronounced y as it
retains its original short vowel; Ex.

C{
Tjwn/a
fall,
don't come
"
from c*vof dmadan "to come", U* " to fall " he did not ^^'l uftddan "*, nayuftdd ^&s>
etc."
also represents the long vowel i (pronounced 3 (d). a ai: wide in pique) or diphthong At the end of a word it is a long ?, but at the end of the words Îj and
,
In the middle of words
as
^JU^
it is
sometimes shortened
It
is
khaili).
long in the verbal prefix
thus bale or ball and khayle (for khayll or thus ml-guft but is sometimes
^,
in careless talking pronounced short.

this prefix me).
(The Afghans and Indians pronounce
final
In Persia, as in India, the dots are never written under the where in some printed books, however, the dots are inserted. In Arabic the
:
dots should be omitted in the
alif-i
maqsura.
f
A
alif,
at the
is
end
of a
word, and preceded by a

:
fatha, is
pronounced
like
)
and
transliterated a
thus <^y a
is
(also
in India written &y*:>
is
pronounced da'wa.
This
in Arabic called
alif-i
;âx>
(
01)1
alif-i
maqsura
'the
"the abreviated alif", as opposed to

1
mamduda
o>j<x/o
Jtf| )
Colloquially in Indian schools te-gird.

Aljib or
*^Lj
is,
in
modern Persian, often incorrectly

is
spelt
^^,;
it is
pronounced
baqile.
3
In Persian this
often written as
alif.
THE VOWELS.
prolonged alif" [vide
vasl\ thus
21
and is not sounded when in contact with alif-i " the contention of the moderns" is ^^(iJi ^}*3 pronounced
4
(d)],
\
da'vq'l-mutcfakhlchirin.
*
Note that in the Persian-Arabic compound y^j! or y^jf the ^ is in reality a final letter, and the comparative suffix y can be written separately,
asy
<_
J.\.
Remark
(
is
In Urdu or in Indian writing yd-e ma'kusi or " reversed yd " written at the end of a word to show that the has a majhul
I.
sound.
In
modern Persian the
'
reversed yd
'
has the same sound as the
ordinary ^. In the Turkish dU^x*. suyursat "supplies levied in kind", the

frequently omitted, both in writing and pronunciation; to omit it in both cases this word has no singular.
:
is
it is
however better
For further remarks on
vide
4.
Remark II. Even when quoting Arabic or reading the Qur'an, the Persians do not try to give the Arabic pronunciation to all the Arabic letters. Indians and Afghans, on the contrary, not only attempt but greatly exaggerate the Arab pronunciation of certain letters.
For the Arabic and the Persian pronunciation
form
of certain letters before the izafat, vide
'
of the alphabet
and the
Peculiarity of Arabic
Words/
t
In Indian dictionaries a letter preceding another is termed JAJ \* and one following another is styled vo I* thus in the word *_>;, the letter ra
:
is k
JAJ
U ma
qabl-i bd.
3.
The Short and Long and Diphthong Vowels

of words).
(in
the middle
There are no regular vowels in the Arabic written language, but the 1 (c)] which they call of the three signs r. 7 L\yide table, " " the movers" (lit. motions"), and one of these signs o'^^Jt alharakdt placed above or below a consonant determines its vowel sound. When
(a)
Arabs make use
" movers", it is called Jfy-* accompanied by one of these mutaharrik or "moving." The short vowels were originally quite unreprea consonant
is
**
sented.
As the "movers"
it is
consonant,
only give the vowel sound essential to a obvious that they cannot stand alone at the beginning of a
word: vide
(c).
For pronunciation, vide Table. (b) The letter having kasra or

having fatha or zabar above
pish,
it,
zir
below
(
it, is
),
called
maksur (>?**)> that
majtuh
*)&*
and that having zamma or

inflection, are called ra/,
mazmum
(c)
(_+***>
).
In Arabic, the vowels, as terminal signs of
22
THE VOWELS.
or nominative
or genitive (T), and nasb ( ) or ) accusative (1), and the words, not the letters, so marked, are styled marfu*
(&)
L,jar
),
yp
\_^
majrur
(^^
i
and mansub
i is
v^*^
vide
8.
Remark.
'fen' than
for
arcZ.
The short vowel

in
'
in Persian oftener
is
pronounced
like e in
like
fin.
Also faiha
locally so pronounced, as kerd
(c?)
Long vowels
and
Alif, j
the middle of words). are weak or infirm consonants

(in
or semi- vowels
and
correspond respectively with the "movers ", i.e. the short vowels a, u, i.* In Arabic writing the long vowels are formed by a combination of two
of
these affinities;
(Ex.
i
t ba, j* bu
and
^
"
'
bl)
and pronounced
like
a in
father,
in prude
I.
and
^,
in police or pique.*
afo'/ is
:
Remark
to the
In
the
in
v is prolonged
II.
sound
written to indicate that the fatha belonging 2 (a). vide
Remark
is
The^ and
2, p. 21)
are before (vide
^5 of prolongation and Âftjf vM (& or C^JL) a wasla shortened in pronunciation, thus j jiff
pronounced
(e)
fi'lfaivr (fl-fawr).
(in the
Diphthongs
middle of words).
By ^, the diphthongs ai or ay, and au or aw, are formed, and pronounced like ai in a/sZe (rare in Persian) or ' ' * Ex. <Jjjx> mai'Z 4 or mayl " inclination ey in they, and o% in sfott p*> saum
combining fatha with <^ and with
; ,
or
sawm
fasting."
In modern Persian the ay is most often pronounced like ey in they; Ex. (.5^ is pronounced both khaili and MeyZt (also khaile, etc., etc.) (vide under
^-); also the au sound, characteristic of the Arabic, Afghan, or Indian accent, tends towards the sound of o in hose.
letter
(f)
The
original Persian
vowel system was that of the Sanskrit, with the
semi- vowel r peculiar to the latter excluded.
"weak
letters'* is the
'
term applied to
(.5-
as opposed
:
to
î-
OJJÂ. the
'
real consonants.
These are included in the school rhyme
Hence oK/
is
;
called ukht-i fatha "sister of fatha*';

is
vav
is
called ulchjit-i
zamma
"
sister of
3
zamma " and ya

C5
-
called ukhj-i kasra
'*
sister of
kasra."
huriif*' l-madd
When
"
'
prolongation", with a sufficiency of

*
or huruj^l iahba* alf}||

colour.'*
form vowels th^y are called <^t ^)J A " letters of
"
letters of
o?;^
like
filling
up
or impregnating
In modern Persian pronounced more
meyl and som.
HAMZA.
23
When
and
^
]
follow a consonant
unmarked by a short vowel or

;
by jazm, they were said to have an open sound called J>^ < majhul, or "unknown" (i.e. unknown to the Arab invaders) Ex. )y* mor an ant, ** sher " a lion " but when a 9 was preceded by a consonant pointed with L or a ^s with ~, then the sound was called ^jj**> ma'ruf or " known"
; ;
Ex.
<jS>x>
mush " a mouse "
" milk." shir
The majhul sounds o and e are still preserved in the Persian spoken by Afghans and Indians, but they are now unknown in Persia: in modern " an ant" is called Persian' mur, and there is nothing in pronunciation to " " lion from shir " milk." distinguish the word for
2
Remark
I.
There are thus, exclusive of the majhul sounds, at

a, a,
i t ?,
least nine
vowel sounds in Persian,
u,
u,
and diphthongs
ai, ay,
and aw.
The
last takes the place of the
au sound
characteristic of Indians.
f
Remark II. To sum up the remarks on the weak consonants, c5 - j ol* o^>) when ^ and (^ are initial, or are movable in the middle of a word, ( they are real consonants and are pronounced with their proper vowels; when
,
they follow a jazm they are consonsants, as in juzv *>', and when they follow a consonant that has neither a vowel nor a jazm they were in classical, and
are in Indian Persian majhul. or zamma ( ^_) the sound is
When
u
;
the consonant preceding ^ has a pish
when the consonant preceding
has a zir
orkasra
the sound
is t.
When j and
may
4.
^ follow
(*)
a consonant that has a zabar or fatha
they
be called diphthongs.
Hamza 3
and the short vowels at the beginning of words.
(a)
distinct
In endeavouring to pronounce a vowel without a consonant, a though slight effort is made with the muscles of the throat; this
is
jerked sound or hiatus
by the Arabs
*,
împulse ", and
is
represented by
is
called hamzah, which signifies "prick, the form of which has arisen from the
Persia lion
sher
j&
" shir" and a

:
tiger f*. bdbr.

is
In India the tiger
is
called
and the lion babar
the word sher
also loosely
applied to the leopard,
panther, etc.
* i.e. in Persia. Dr. Rosen " The Persian of India may justly remarks in his grammar be looked upon as a petrification of the old classical language. It has also preserved the "majhul" vowels e and o for * and M, and differences of pronunciation. other many The Persian-speaking Indians, whose studies are mostly confined to the classics and
:
poetic exercises, have followed none of the developments of the modern language." The Persian of India, therefore, though far purer both in idiom and pronunciation than the language of Persia, sounds pedantic, and is almost unintelligible to ordinary Persians.
8
Denotes
of the alphabet is
" pressure" or puncture." Among Arab grammarians the more generally called hamzah.
first letter
24
letter
off of
SHORT VOWELS AND HAMZA.

of the word 'aj>. In other words hamza represents the cutting the stream of breath preceding or following a vowel. In Arabic, hamza is placed over or under alif, or over j and ^c, but
when final is written by itself, and may follow any of the letters. The letter marked is called jr*** mahmuz or "hamzated", a term also applied to a word having hamza for one of its radicals.
so
Remark.
Alif
when
it is
merely a letter of prolongation
is
not hamza.
In moat cases alif occurs as the (b) Short vowels at the beginning of words. bearer of hamza and then performs a function essentially different from that
9
in the
Remark
is
to
13
(d)
Ex. J[ ah,
I
v
,
ub.
.
{.
When an
sound follows, then
the sign *
placed under the bearer

of
as
For the pronunciation

under
silent,
silent
?*
hamza
'
in the middle of a word, vide
letter a
2.
and, having no vowel to give

in the beginning of the
,
In the word cÛ> ma*zun "permitted", the hamza is it life, it represents the jerked sound
paragraph
;
mentioned
and, as the
first letter, viz
f is
pointed with -^ the two together in Persian give the half-bleating sound mentioned in the remarks on the letter 2.' In the word o**^; ra'is " a
head ",
x
"a
chief ", the
hamza
is
not silent,
but
is
marked with
and
is
*
con,9
sequently pronounced like ^ at the beginning of a word.

ifji,
In the words
-**j*1
has no vowel and also follows a letter without a vowel. The Arabs would pronounce the final * in these words something like shay-a, su-a 2 umara-d, but the Persians ignore the * in such Arabic words' they do howthe
final *
:
ever pronounce the * at the end of *jv, probably to distinguish

Persian word^.*. su "direction, towards." In the pronunciation of an Arab, the hamza
perceptible, especially
'
it
from the
is
when
it
9
-
begins a syllable that
is
an articulation very in the middle of a

jur-at.
word, as in
c;fy>
8 of^x which are not pronounced qur-an and
Note that though the is marked with * the hamzated' alif does not serve to as would be the case if hamza were absent from the thus prolong the sound of the to all intents and purposes alif-hamza (or hamza) and alif are two separate letters.
1
'
This
final * in
)
Arabic must not be confused with the Persian

/
following a silent
h
*
(or a
as a sign of the genitive case.
That the Persians do ignore the Arabic

+
^'
(Arabic broken plurals of
in such
their
-*J
words as dj*\ and *l^
^x
and
by
k
manner
of writing these words in a state of construction,

of the
^ j-^), shown thus: o^ c5"V'

J
is
Cfkx"'
3
"the nobles
is
time "
it is
When hamza
found at the end of syllable,
in
Urdu changed into the

**
letter *
of prolongation corresponding to the short vowel that precedes; thus^J^^

X
:
and
'
become
in
Urdu
_H^-> taslr
and
(^^
mumin.
LONG VOWELS AND HAMZA.

(c)
25
The
latest
the alphabet, and
alif
Arabic Dictionaries treat alij-Tiamza as the first letter of alone as a or for example, if it be desired to look
>
***
out the Arabic root J
scfal*
" he asked", the
must be looked
for at the
a " it beginning of the alphabet; if however it be desired to look out JU sdl flowed ", the alif must be treated as a ^5 and the searcher must look for a word
,
spelt
sm, ya, lam (instead
of sin, alif, lam), while for
;U
sar a
'
he scaled a
is
wall ", he should look forsm,
waw,
}
rd.
is
The reason is, that,
in Arabic, alif
not
considered an original letter, but

,
supposed to be the offspring of one of the
two weak consonants j or ^ and according to certain laws of euphony a weak consonant undergoes certain changes or permutations when it comes
toge her in a 'measure' or 'form' with a vowel that
it:
is
accordingly, in the last two examples, an original
or
tion been changed into an alif.
and the
letter after
must
is
Similarly be treated as the
^ "a prophet"
first
it is
it is
not analogous to has by permuta/'O'

is
from Uo
?<;
-
Ui ?
" the letter of alphabet."
The second
letter of
JL
* *
hamza, because
mutaharrik or movable, while
the second letter of
JU
is
called alif, because
a letter of prolongation.
Hamza, however, may be

(d)
sdkin, as in <jJ;.
Long
vowels at the beginning of words.
vowels are formed by a combination of

that
of
is its affinity
;
As already stated, the long a short vowel and the weak consonant
and the manner

in
words has been demonstrated

(6)],
of writing the long vowels in the middle It follows by rule [vide short 3
(d).
vowels at beginning of words
that the long vowels at the beginning of a
word are introduced by a hamza, thus
Vjf = ub
and ^Ji =
&.
Similarly wt
should = a&; but to avoid this awkward form the second

the
first,
alif is
written over
thus T
2
this alif
on the top
is
" the mark of madd or called madda
prolongation." at the beginning of words (e) By the same rule the "diphthongs"
are
vide
written
3
(e).
^1
aib (or
ayb),
and
v>?
>ub
for awb)
for pronunciation,
It will
be noticed that the three weak letters or semi-vowels are
alif,
vav and ya.
or The hamza is a strong letter, although in certain cases it is liable to modification consonants, real sometimes are vav and M hile likof the weak letters. ya change any letter of tha alif is not regarded as such at all ; but only as a prop for hamza, or as a
prolongation, as in the word

*
JU
An
2 3
ali/
so
marked
is
by some Grammarians
called alif-i
mamduda,
as
c^T
Pr
-ome."
Alif-i
r In Arabic the term

as in *UfcJ
,
mamduda can only occur at the beginning of a syllable: &\j> to a final alif foHowed by alif mamduda is restricted
alif
*U~, in contradistinction to
maqswa,
as in *+*
and
^-
26
LONG VOWELS AND HAMZA.

As
in Arabic,
I
hamza following a long a is written on the line, 1 the alif that precedes such a hamza is generally marked with a madda but this madda ' ' '* ' " he came.' for fU thus in Arabic has no effect on the
f
'
pronunciation
*U>,
This
is
also the case
when^
or
^ act as bearers of hamza, e.g. J5U qa*il

j-
u **
Final hamza in Arabic words (as
*Ufci 3
is
rarely written in Persian,
and
of the izafat; as, c^^tl writing before the always " medical officers of the * the the were retained, Military Department'
disappears in
^
:
^^
;
might be mistaken
26
(/)
for the
^
*
of unity
vide
Remark
to
(g)
vide also
(2).
(/)
In Persian the sign
over
at the beginning of words
is
omitted,
even in words fully pointed with the vowels, etc.; and in the dictionaries, Persian and Urdu, no distinction is made between alif and hamza i.e. both
;
are at the beginning of the alphabet.

4 corresponds to an English hyphen in such words as re-open, and is then written over a y (^) without the dots: in other words, hamza is thus written, instead of over the prop alif in those cases when (according to
Hamza
Englishmen) one syllable ends in a vowel and the next begins with one; Ex. **$^ fctida " benefit" instead of or *4<J. 6
s^tf
first
more correct to omit the dots in the and place the sign * over it, as e>*^ pafidan This to stand firm." word may also be written e*H*^ pzyidan, but in this case the first ^ must be
When two
come
together,
it is
:
treated as a consonant and transliterated
y.
Similarly gunjcfish
J^^*^
or
gunjdyish <J^'-au&
Strictly speaking
a hamza in Persian ought to be used whenever a
As a
rule
hamza has in Arabic no bearer when
it
is
movable by a fatha and

JP^
follows a long vowel, or

i.e.
when
it is final
and preceded by sukun.

is
In words like *A*h&
in
words where the long vowel preceding the hamza

<j?
C5, the
f.*
hamza
'
is
placed on
'
s
**
or
or above the line, or is written over a

a 8
(without dots)
thus
*Ub^
s
*-febV
In Modern Persian usually pronounced qayil. In Persian, it is optional to write or omit the In Urdu a hamza does duty
for
final * in
e.g.
such words.
1
a hyphen,
cJj*
*-
ja-uh
"may
go?",
y*
ja-o
"go." and Indians have extended the use

of the Arabic
It will be seen that the Persians
orthographical sign hamza.

6
jtf gav cow,
In Persian pronounced fayida. though Indians do write

*-x*U>
A hamza
is
not correct in such Persian words as
^
is
In
qa'ida
*.
and such words no hamza can be written, as
a strong
ci
and cannot take
THE LETTER 'AYN.

syllable beginning with a
27
1
vowel
is
added to a root, thus: ^'&*

is
(for
it and p*3*>* (for only observed in certain cases ), For the Persian ct /hamza " is necessary for distinction [vide Remark I (g)]. as a sign of the genitive case, etc., after an obscure h or after a final vide
*>*
but this rule
^\ when
^,
-*
26
(/)
as substitute for the
^ of unity, vide
rarely sayil cÛ*.
41
(c)
(d).
(g)
Hamza
in the middle or at the end of an Arabic
word used in Persian,
is
often omitted, both in pronunciation and in writing; as,

<Jj'U*,
pM
qdyim for
jJU>
qcfim, but generally saîl
Remark
I.
The
practical uses of hamza,
and
its
:
omission in modern
;
" by the following examples \&$ gadd beggar" " a beggar"; &^/ <^\*$ gadd-yiJi*? gada*i* begging"; <y *$ gada-i* Kirman " the beggar of Kerman."
Persian, are best illustrated "
be noticed that the distinction between the words for " begging" " lies in the accent and "a beggar (with of unity) only. " Mahl <ykU> fish " mnhi-i 3 (class ) a fish [^*U yak mah\ in " one month more " Jo m.c.] : j&i* U iJL yak mdh-i dlgar (m.c.) j&.t
It will
^^
"
^
:
^^
yak mahi-yi digar (m.c.) "one fish more"; also in m.c. Âid cj*^* mahi-yi digar-i and classically îÛ mahi-t digar: Ûi numayam "I show " we show." but
j&
gJUJ
numayim
II.
Remark
of
Note the division

is
of syllables
when
occurs in the middle
a word: OÂ. or ofâ.

<xJUxi
jur-at
(not ju-rat).
In the same
way
&\j*
Qur-an:
or All-** mas-ala.
5.
The
letter
the ^ (at
beginning of words).
at the beginning of a
-*** is
In Persian (but not in Arabic) the consonant
word
$
v^!
f
is
pronounced
y
v-yjjc
like the
and
'ujub (Ar.
20.
consonant hamza, thus " broken of

plural
pronounced
like
v^
defects, vices," as
is
though
spelt
v*t,
vide
In the
the
line.
Roman
character,
transliterated
by a
reversed
comma above
^&
would in modern Persian be taken to be badl-i
**
a badness,*' but in
t^'<^ juda'l the hamza is necessary. mark hamza is used to introduce it. line requires "a prop"; and this in
When
But
'the
a syllable begins with a vowel, the this hamza being written above the
is
I
case of a
in the case of
it is
that in the (with or without *), and in the case of * it is ^5* ), only initial form this last is [often] distinguished from the ordinary y by losing its dots e.g.
(with or without f
:
JV* wal "a question," J^"^

2 3
mas-ul "inquired of", **Sl fa-ida "advantage." Palmer '3 Concise Eng.-Per. Diet.
Note the
For
different position of the accents in the
two words.
28
JAZM OR SUKUN.
6.
(a)
Jazm
or Sukun.
In Arabic and Persian, the first letter of a word is always accompanied by a vowel, hence in the mouth of an Arab or Persian a word like Smith becomes Ismith (or Ismit).
1
by no vowel sound, it is said to be sakin e/ "*, i.e. quiescent, inert, or mute," and the symbol called /*>* jazm "cutting off, or amputation," or ()*
is
1
When
a consonant in the middle or at the end of a word
followed
"
sukun " rest " [ " men," the first

is
o
(
]
)
is
letter
is
"moved
'
placed over "
it.
In the word
^^
mardum
( ; )
;
by
fatha,
but the second
letter
"quiescent, inert, mute, or silent", having the sign jazm ( o) over it while the third letter ( ^ ) is moved ' by zamma or pish and finally the
;
last letter
is
"quiescent."
is
A
of the
first
letter so
aJ16
marked
called sakin
"
"
quiescent
or
majzum\
it
has none
oljâ*.
only
is
When two or more quiescent letters occur together, the termed sakin, the others being termed mawquf o^r* " dependent
"friend" the ^
is
on"
and 4j
or "supported''; thus in o,*jj> dust ei> are mawquf.
sakin and the
In Persian (but not in classical Arabic) the last letter of all words is quiescent; this being a rule, the sign jazm is omitted in the case of
,
final
letters.
Jazm
therefore signifies that (in the
Roman
character)
2
two
consonants in the middle or end of a word have no vowel between them.'

(b)
In such words as cUt

x
Jii
&& great care must be taken

9
in Persian
to avoid even the suspicion of a vowel between the two last letters ; many Persians pronounce these words almost like tifli, naqla, nagda, and in the two last words slightly dwell on the fatha. The Arabs and Indians pronounce
these words less affectedly;

naqed.
8
the Indians as though they were
tifel,
naqel,
Remark.
The presence
or absence of a jazm in a
word
of three letters,
;
sometimes completely
alters the
meaning,
e.g.
<_>& nafs
means "passion"
fissure
"the penis", but

privities of
a woman, 4
^b "
nafas means "breath";
but
" freedom from faraj grief or sorrow."
^y "a
and the
Fow
Indiana can pronounce two consonants at the beg nning. In Hindustani a few wo:ds begin with two consonants with no vowel between
illiterate
:
them.
In such cases a jazm is not written over the first letter as theoretically a quiescent consonant cannot occur at he beginning of a word. It is for this reason that a vowel is often inserted; thus Brahman is often pronounced Birahman. 3 Barf *'snow" is in India pronounced baraf; this pronunciation renders the
word
*
unintelligible to
many
Persians.
of either
sex.
In Arabic the
/or/.
privities
Uneducated Persians pronounce both
words
TASHDID AND IDGHAM.

7.
29
Tashdid
and Idgham.
(a)
A
*
(
doubled letter in the middle of a word

),
the sign
called
it
<v^
is
tashdid
it
is written only once, but " corroboration " or ''strengthening ", is
placed above
to indicate that
should be pronounced twice.

u^
A letter so
rated."
marked
first of
called
mushaddad
j*^" strengthened ",
"
corrobo-
The
the doubled letters ends one syllable, and the second
begins the following syllable. (6) In practice, the Persians strongly emphasize the letter that
is
marked
"
with the sign of duplication; Ex. ^^ khurram "joyful"; *iJ| albatta certainly." The Arabs however pronounce the doubled letter twice, unless
it
ends the word, when it can only be emphasized. words of only two letters are rare (c) Arabic
consequently words
)
like
ki and 5^
(shatt
and daqq) are three

(
lettered,
omitted.
For further remarks on
>>)
vide under
even if the sign (" solar 10. letters",
be
Remark I. word spelt like
quvvat strength." qut \^j In Arabic words a euphonic tashdid occurs when the article al precedes a word beginning with a solar lettter: vide 10.
Without the tashdid, there is nothing to show whether a " " food " or is
Remark
II.
Tashdid
is
said not to be found over
any
of the four letters

;
that are purely Persian. The word **o bachcha is an exception if the ( *.) be omitted there is nothing to distinguish it from a$u bi-chi, " for what"; " Peculiarities of Persian words." In compounds, the tashdid vide also
over bachcha
is
dropped, as sag-bacha, bacha-khar, bacha-Turk,

:
etc.,
and
also in
**>
the expression
'<
Bacha! mar-at bi-zanad

*
(a
curse).
Other exceptions are
hillock ",
(d)
and
"
thick, dense."
signifies inserting
Idgltam
V*M
one letter into another, coalescence, as
As a letter so assimilated (mudg&am shappara (from shab-para ^J v-* ) the two words with are practically synonymous. marked is tashdid, ) Remark
jadda
I.
Removing a
is
tashdid *^-^J from a word, as jada *^*> for
"path",
called
takhjif
jj
^^^
"lightened
mukhaffaf o&itx>. Doubled Arabic Remark II.

is
'
"
8.^ so and a word "lightening",

the last
letters
'
substantives in which
two
radical letters are the
same, in order to avoid two quiescent
coming
ba taahdU *J*i
In Arabic Â-
radicals are the same.
" most emphatically an ass.'* LâL (m.c.) "a i.e. one whose second and third muza'af verb, reduplicate The term muza'af is also applied to a quadrilateral verb of two
" equal syllables, as Jj^j
zalzaV
30
TAN WIN.
;
together, lose the tashdid <xjxJ before the Persian plural termination ha
thus
jinn er^
" a
spirit,
a Jinn" has for
its
Persian plural jinhd.
Similarly
from
saff
JU
" a
line
" comes the Persian compound

an
,
saf-dar )*&*>
" rank
' '
breaking
(an epithet of 'All).
in Persian, as
kaff
Ar.,
Such Arabic words frequently lose the tashdid " l un palm of the hand/' kaf *J6 P.; habb
,
I
*-**>
is
" a berry, grain,
"
pill
becomes in Persian hab.
Sometimes the tashdid
again restored before the <^ of unity, thus hob, P. (m.c.) becomes habb-i
(m.c.)
J*s*.
"a
pill"; fan
<J>
" "art", fann-1 ^xi; but kaf ciT palm
of the
hand ",
kaf-i
(m.c.) (not kaff-i J**).
Remark
exceptions.
III.
mushaddad
cf
letter
is
rarely found in a pure Persian

(or
word; arra (S. dra
saw";
8.
farrukh
farukh)
"happy, etc."
are
Tanwin
In
classical
Arabic the short vowels are used as terminations to express

:
* the three cases of nouns
is
the nominative
^
C
"7 is n. is
the genitive
Vide, also
(a).
the accusative )
is
If
the noun
,
,
indefinite, these terminations are
doubled and written

This
is
~
,
and pronounced with the nun or n-sound.
called
tanmn "
s giving the nun. Arabic nouns in the accusative case are in Arabic used as adverbs;
"
&ij&
Ex. tf&M
alif is
an
ittifdq-
"
" the accusative by chance
of
o ^. Note that the final

1
not sounded.
If the
l
word ends
<
in * or
5?
there
is
no
final alif;
Ex.
A^
*lij
bind* an if
"
alay-hi
accordingly ",
in
*4^
hikmat- an
"skilfully";
is
i
similarly
the
word ends
preceding the
lovingly." unsounded), thus <^>*>* hawa* In modern Persian the tendency is to omit the n and prolong the final d
the
is
^ and
^^ *
(in
such words the tanwm
written over the letter
"
Such words are considered by Lexicographers to be Persian. There is practically only one declension in Arabic. 3 In modern colloquial Arabic the final vowels and tanwin are with a few exceptions omitted: a noun in the accusative case, used as an Adverb, is given the tanwin.
i
Colloquial Arabic has, therefore, no distinction of case as found in the classical language.
*
*
*
:
The
alif
over the
is silent
âjui ^?.
now seldom written, the word being spelt <^>A the ^ Words like uq l)a are generally written ^X** (without alif).
<_$
is
^^
<
In the
Roman
character, a final (^ pronounced like a
is
transliterated
a.
WA8LAH AND SOLAR AND LUNAR LETTERS.

in the
31
hal- a *
}
pronunciation of these Arabic

is
adverbs;
Ex.
3/U.
"now,
at present ",
' '
reality
is
always
jabr
an
modern Persian always pronounced hold V^ while He "in is pronounced both with and without the n. In some words the * " " retained Ex. <&* or
in
;
gkajlal**'*
suddenly
"by
accident ",
"
\j&*>
by force."
9.
Waslah.
is
This word signifies " a conjunction or joining " and the alif of the Arabic definite article Ji al " the " it
:
only found over
signifies that
the
;
alif
is
suppressed in pronunciation and the

o^**'
J joined
by the previous vowel

:
thus
amir ul l-mu*mimn &&*5*Hj**\ l " Commander of the Faithful"

II to
If
final
vide
Remark
3 (d)*
a word before a wasla ends in a long vowel or in an alif-i maqsura, the vowel is shortened in pronunciation before the alif with wasla, thus
is
pronounced
fi'l-jumla
and not
fi'l-jumla.
10.
(a)
Solar and Lunar Letters.

letters, fourteen in all, are
In Arabic the dental, liquid and sibilant

'
called Ax~*^Jf ojj-sJf al-huruf u s'h-s7iamsiyyat v or " solar letters
for the by " " no means obvious reason that the word shams sun begins with one of them. They are o->-i-a-j-j- u uS- uc-<j*-.b--J- e,. If an Arabic word with the article Ji begins with one of these letters, then, for
"
^^
euphonic reasons, the J of the

loss, the first letter of
article is not sounded,
the word itself is ^- f x " " the Peace of âJl .3U Salah^d-din (Saladin). Religion
sinniyya
a
-
but to compensate for its doubled and marked with --, thus
:
The dentals
**'**,
those that are enunciated by the aid of the teeth, 8 are

)
-.-by the
o. The lingual asaliyya ( ^JL>f aid of the tip of the tongue, and are
(6)
are those that are pronounced

-
^-J-^-uw-u
^- 4
The lunar
letters
because
qamar the moon begins with one of them. With them no such takes change place in the J of the article. The lunar letters are subdivided into the labials shafahiyya or shafawiyya
^J^
o^
huruf-i qamariyya are said to be so called
&
1
or *if
v5
^ ne
palatals
lahawyya
*^ ^
)
<3
The hamza
is
pronounced.
9
8
Difficulty of pronunciation or want of euphony is called istisqal ( Jl*&-l ). The loss of the front teeth prevents the people pronunciation of the dentals.
The
letters
u"
(J
are called
'*
j***>-)\ <*JJj^
sibilant letters."
32
ABJAD.
and the gutturals, halqiyya

c
-
(aJila*)
or hanjariyya
'
Remark.
Arab grammarians have themselves
fallen into confusion
over
these ill-defined divisions.
oj^ huruf'^l-laqlaqah clacking letters"; huruf 'z-zalq (J-'^l oj^ or *AflJjA// o^sJi al-huruf''zzawlaqiyyah letters articulated with the tip of the tongue and the lips they " soft 1 letters" are the liquids ; - & - J huruf^l-lin <Ûf Jj^ 3 - is 9 * " arched", viz. u^ - (j* Ji i nit'iyyah ***& letters promutbaqah *ft>Janounced by the tongue and the fore part of the palate (viz. ^ - ^ - Jt )
(c)
The Arabs further term

a
certain letters &JSJJ(
'*
" depressed (letters)" mustafilah AJ&~*O

not
rise.
are those in which the tongue does
11.
Abjad.
(a)
The
:
following meaningless words give the letters in their numerical
order
ooo o G5 oo 00 t> CO iO
r-1
T* CO <N
oooo
r-<
OQOt^Ci)
oooo
to mathematical
The use
of letters
as numerals
is
confined
works.
almanacs, and chronograms. 6
The sum
of the letters in the
name
of a
work, or of a brief sentence or
verse recording an historical event, gives the year of the Hijra in which the
event took place.

is
This practice of commemorating events by chronograms
common
in all
Muslim countries.
is
This system
called abjad* *?uf
and hisdb-i-jummal cUa.
v Ua.,
the
Arabic word jummal cU^ signifying "cable; addition." with tashdid &>*& is reckoned as a single letter.
(b)
letter
marked
of
Examples
f
f
When
coins
u
ft
Nadir
with
Shah proclaimed himself sovereign

Arabic
inscription as a
is
ta
Persia, he struck
xx x
the
chronogram
&
^ tf?-^*^'
'
allchayr
ma waqa
" the best
in
what happened."
The
sum
1
of these letters
1148 (A.H.)
A.D. 1735-6.
Letters formed in the uvula.
a
3
Also <jlJ! OJÂ..
Vulgarly abujad.
The Arabs
-
of
Morocco in the above words substitute u*
for <j
(Jf>
for \J*
^
-j
for (j
6
<j^ f r
^
letters,
As regards the four Persian

*-*
may have
the value of
"
of
of 3
letters.
of
^>
e.
they
may
have the same value as their corresponding Arabic
NUMERICAL FIGURES.
33
The date of Taymurlang's death is in the dramatic words <s&jt f 1^ Vida'-i Shahryari " Farewell to Royalty," this = 807 (H.) A.D. H04-5.
A new gate to the mosque at Kazimayn was constructed by Farhad u Mlrza, an uncle of Nasir - d-din, Shah of Persia, in A.H. 1300 ( = A.D.
l J
1882),
or
'
nom
and an Afghan poet of Bagdad, who wrote under the takhallus o*Jliu de plume of Shihab, immortalised (as his son says) the event in a
'
poem, the chronogram of which, according to custom, occurs in the the last two misra' a jo.*> (a line of verse)
:
last, or
)*
&>.\ jt
C*A|; <jr*jiy* hfJl^JtyJ
At
J^ b
*sJ
jjU
j|
(JijlfA
to
is
" Shihab in a " happy frame of mind fixes its date May your road Paradise be by this gate." The sum of the letters in the second misra*
1299, but the writer says at the
J-" and
these words
may
alif
end of the first line "ba dil-i-shdd J^b also be translated " with the heart of shad' 9 now
:
the heart of sTwd
is
which
'
one,
so this
makes the
total 1300.
Persians love obscurities.
The
letters of abjad
can also be used to represent
figures, thus b for 12,
K for 21, etc.*

(c)
In a certain style of almanac called taqwm-i ruquml
^j*)
f>.j&
the letters of the alphabet are used with special significations; thus the letter * denotes Thursday, the sign Virgo, the planet Venus and the moon when bright. Few Persians nowadays know these signs, and the almanacs
,
never contain a key.
The taqmm-i Far si
)^
!.j& is
preferred.
12.
Numerical Figures.
from the Hindus by the
1
(a)
The usual
:
signs for the numerals (borrowed
Arabs) are
0123456789
I
In combination these are written from
left to right as in
English thus,
M*f
s-1901.
Called
by
the
Arabs
the
Bab^-^l-Farhadiyya
and
by the
Persians
Bab-i-
Farhadiyya.
The abjad system is also used as a species of Morse alphabet for visual and auditory signalling, in a manner that will readily be understood by Military Officers. Double raps or long sounds, such as sighing or sucking a pipe, indicate the number of the word in the abjad system, while single raps or short sounds indicate the position
i
of the letter in that word.
Similarly, signs
made by
tongue in the right
cheek, or by the right hand or
the right eye or eyebrow, or .by the foot, indicate the word, while those
on the
left,
the letter.
Vide also
16.
34
SIYAQ AND LETTERS IN POETRY.

for 2, In MSS., variations in the signs for the numerals are or a for 5, * for 6, < for 7, and > for 8. or for 4,
,
(I)
(*
g for 3,
or
Fractional numbers are usually written as in English as
13.
To
Let
find the year
A.D. corresponding to the year

years and decimals.
:
of the Hijra:
M = the Muslim date in
E = the required English date in years Then E = M x 0-970225 -1-621 -54. The answer
Let
end of the year A.H. The year A.D. 1900 (1st May)
is
the date A.D. of the
1318 H.
14.
Siyaq
($#* V
Mustawfis (^5****) or Revenue Accountants, and Munshis keep their accounts in a system of figures called (jU- siyaq or ^(^ divam which is
'
India. nearly the same pSj raqam of this system, vide Appendix to Woolaston's of For a detailed account is a complicated one. English-Persian Dictionary. The system and merchants keep their accounts in a form of siyaq
(
<3l**
Shop-keepers they do not understand the diwani )

:
<j\jii>
or siyaq
jjU*.
of the
Mustawfi
the is applied to a system of writing a sum in a feceipt ) written in siyaq ( $>** ) and then in words underneath it; under this again, half the sum is written in siyaq.
^fô
(
).
:
Euqumi
^j$)
sum
is first
15.
Letters in Poetry.
Persian poets delight in discovering fanciful resemblances in the form of letters. As already stated, an upright stature is likened to the letter
altf^ but bent
by
is
grief or
age
it is
a bent neck
in
is
like a, while a
drooping head
like j.
The Persian poet Jam!
his
beautiful
but
1 The revenue accounts being kept in siyak none but a mustawfi ij*j*~* or revenue accountant can interpret them. Persian officials are in the hands of their accountants. " I heard of one Governor who on removal from office had his accounts made up and was found to be a debtor to Government to the extent of 80,000 tumams (16,000).
He got
*
another mustawfi
^^*MM
to
examine
his accounts
and the
latter
brought him
out a creditor to the
amount
of 40,000
alif,
tumams."
Yates'
Khorasan and
Sistan.
Sighs are also compared to
HANDWRITINGS.
1
35
somewhat lengthy poem "Yusuf and Zulaykha'* compares the heroine's teeth to sin (-), her mouth to mim (, and her eyes to sad (*) or 'ayn (*) zulf is again compared to lam and jim.
;
16.
Handwritings.
and the
The two most important varieties of Arabic writing are the Kuft NasTch, and all the other varieties, national or calligraphic, may be referred to one of these two styles. The Kufic took its name from the town Kufa on the Euphrates, a
11
town that
at one time
was a seat
of
Muslim learning, and famous
for
a school of Arabic copyists. From authentic Kufic inscriptions,
it is
now no
longer doubtful that the
Arab employed the Kufic

foundation of Kufa.
style at the time of the con quest of Syria, before the It is now supposed that the naskh did not originate in
the second or third century after the Prophet but was used simultaneously with the Kiific in the time of the earliest Khalifas, and possibly in the time
of the Prophet
himself. 8
'
The
and
Ta'tiq
<JjJiJ
),
hanging' hand,
in Persia.
is
an elegant court hand that was,
still is,
much admired
Many
to
According to the Eastern romance Zulaykha saw and loved Yusuf in a dream At length she agreed suitors hearing of her beauty vainly sought her hand.
espouse the 'Aziz of Egypt, Qitfir (Potaphar of the Bible) believing him to be the Yusuf (or Joseph) of her vision. Her marriage was a rude awakening and her respect for her husband was doubtless lessened by the fact that he was, for
some reason or other, a eunuch. Joseph is recognized and bought in the slave market by Zulaykha and adopted by her husband. Zulaykha makes furious love to the unwilling youth. The ladies of Memphis discover her secret and talk scandal. Zulaykha hears the gossip, and faces the difficulty by giving a banquet to all the ladies of her acquaintance. While sending for Yusuf she gives each lady an orange to peel, with directions to observe Yusuf covertly the while. The ladies are so agitated at the sight of
beauty that they absently cut their fingers instead have to confess that Zulaykha has an excuse for her passion, They and she shut the doors and said 'come the temptation being so great. The Qur'an says " He said God keep me hither Verily my lord hath given me a good home and the But she longed for him; and he had longed for her, injurious shall not prosper.' had he not seen a token from his Lord." Qitfir dies and Zulaykha becomes a beggar, old, blind, decrepit, but Joseph retains his youth. Zulaykha builds a reed-hut on the
the
slave-boy's unexpected
of the orange.
'
Joseph fails to recognize in however has She the blind beggar-woman expiated her sin by her his wife. make to directed is Yusuf Her is and restored to her, youth suffering. Yusuf is a type of male beauty, the Adonis of the Muslims. common eûxsr-* " of transcribers."
his former mistress.
way by which the man she
so faithfully loves has to pass.
girya
writing
is
in m.critt^, lithographed, or printed, in

i.e.
what is commonly
styled khatt-i
naaTch with all the points.
36
HANDWRITINGS.
The
nasta'tiq
^JUi-J
(
is
)
:
a combination of the naskh

it
is
^~i
or ordinary
hand and the
ta'tiq
<JH^
Persians for well- written manuscripts
a beautiful hand, chiefly used by the but the modern Arabs call the Persian
writing generally ta'tiq. Some old Arabic manuscripts written in Persia are in this style. hand is the term generally applied to broken or The shikasta *~
l ' ' '
1 In it the the cursive or running hand used by the Persians and Indians. dots are omitted and all the letters are joined together. It is very illegible
and puzzling even to natives. The ruq'ah <***; is used by Arabs and Turks
*
.%
in ordinary correspondence.
c
The diwam ^ji*,* tughra

1
f^-k,
sulsi
^^xb
(or
^li)
are
the
names
of
other ornamental hands used in the

edicts, etc.,
titles of
books, headings of diplomas or
and correspond to flourished
letters
and monograms amongst
Europeans. These several scripts are little more than calligraphic styles. In Persia, even at the present day, calligraphy is one of the
fine
arts.
One
or two lines written
by
(
certain old Calligraphists
sell for
many pounds
a species
;
sterling.
The
Khatt-i shajari *
is
^j^Z
or
' '
tree- writing
"
,
of
merely another application of abjad *u! in it an enigmatical writing, stroke represents as it were the trunk of a fir- tree in which the number upright
of branches
on the right indicates the number

left
of the
word
in abjad **v\,
and the number on the

first letter
the letter in that word.
Thus
in
^b
'Alt,
the
it is
occurs in the fifth word of the abjad system, namely in oî**,, and the second letter in that word. All would therefore be written
'
:
\/
Vide also
11
(6)
footnote
2.
Remark.
In writing and in printing, Persian and Arabic words should
not be written half at the end of one line and half at the beginning of the next also dual words connected by j should not be separated. Only inferior
;
copyists make mistakes in
'
spacing and resort to the practice of dividing words.

of their
is
'
The Arabs have a
vile shikasta *JL~
own.
the
official
The dlwanl
The
(
-[??.&,
a bold round hand,
character, in Turkish
passports, etc.
S
Suls ^**J is a fanciful character with calligraphic flourishes.
4 Called also
secrecy in this form of writing as course written from right to left.
khapi-i sarvl (j$f* 1*** or "cypress writing." Ther*> Bought him it is widely known. Like the Ar c/r Sistan.
Vide Brownie's "
Year
Amon
PUNCTUATION.
37
if
A greeting
is
at the beginning of a letter
is
contained in one line
there
not sufficient room, instead of crowding in the last few words, they are written above the line in one or more lines decreasing in length.
Two words are often written in one, as: ^^f anmard "that man." Two words separated by an izafat are sometimes incorrectly joined in one as
(kitab-i
mam), which ought
to stand for kitdb-am-rd.
17.
Punctuation.
In Qurans or ornamental verses, punctuation is represented by various marks such as, . . etc. etc. but in manuscripts, as already : nor the other symbols. stated, neither are the short vowels written
;
.
Even
in printed
works an occasional tashdid ^jx&> or short vowel

This
is
assistance given to the reader.
is the only the the Persians one of reasons that
and Indians mispronounce so many common Arabic words. 2 The following punctuation marks ( &&sj dl/o&: ) are occasionally used:-
Comma
Colon
Full stop
'
aldmat-i waqfa
alamat-i mutlaq
alamat-i dyat
'
'
'
oof
o*x>2k
flfiJUaf
o (for &)
.
Mark
of interrogation
,,
alamat-i istifhdm
nida,
. .
j>*>^
o
&
^J
(/)
exclamation
L
'
'*
'alamat-i
farydd,
.
yd
.
ta'ajjub
. .
._>.2put3
&(jjs
j d&i cx>X;
(n)
Quotation, alamat-i iqtibas (Ûxj't
cu*^
Parentheses
brackets
f
), [
'aldmat-i
].
jumla-yi mu'tariza 4î*< ad*^ cuîLc, by
Poetry
aldmat-i
manzuma
5
In manuscripts, a dash ( ) called lakht cuij, is sometimes used to introduce the words of a speaker and consequently takes the place of u inverted commas. The modern sign over a word signifies either that
it is
a proper noun or that
it
begins a sentence.
These signs,
if
used,
are frequently in red ink.
In classical Arabic the short vowels are the most valuable part of a word: the
short vowel distinguished the person in a tense, the case of a noun, or the gender of a pronoun a short vowel makes the difference between the active and passive voice, and frequently between a transitive and intransitive verb, and the presence or " a triliteral absence of tashdid may entirely alter the sense: in the absence of "marks,
final
;
root
may
^
be pronounced in twelve different ways.

;
The vowels of even Persian words are misplaced the Ispahanis say amruz for A imruz, and in most parts of Persia padishah is the pronunciation of pad-shah. The Persian word common example is awaz of the Persians, instead of 'iwaz ( (j^^ )
'
girya
&
is
in m.c. gariya.
38
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND 1MALA.

Abbreviations, Contractions, and Imdla.
is strictly
18.
(a)
An
abbreviation of a word
a part of
it,
as
A.D. for Anno
Domini;
diet., for dictionary.

is
A
for
contraction
the elision of letters or syllables from the body of a

is
word, made in such a manner that the whole word

" received payment."
gw
^
indicated, as
rec'd pay't
The term
contractions.
(a)
1
oi*l&xuc mukhaffafat is applied
to both
abbreviations and
Some
of the
most common abbreviations are

salam
11
(1) p.c
=,
*xic alay-hi-' s |1LJ|
" Peace be upon him.

l
' '
(2) f*l*>
a " God alay-U wa-sallam be gracious to him and give him prosperity (of the Prophet
= f L. j
*Lf
aJUj
^Le,
Salla-llah u
only).
For Christ
or other Prophets the
Muslim says
AjJLc ) ILxxi
Îc
<dli
^^JUjj
^ ^ts
fJLJf &de j d\ }
li
^ IXAW
^JLc
(3)
^ÂjJLc^f W JU.
to him."
Salla-llahu 'alay-hi"
"God
1
be gracious
Also
for'^^ê
^correct."
(4)
(f~ or)*
or
" The Peace of God be on him
(ê^
or) *jJU>*.U| f$L>
Salam^-Uah
(or
'alay-hi or alayhim.
them)."
c:
(5)
&<*)
&
AX*
AJKt
^^j.
Raziya-llahu 'arihu.
*'
May God
be
(6)
pleased with him." = ^t i'*a.;. -;
Eahamat v -lla
'alay-hi.
The mercy
curse
of
God be on him."
(7)
::
<3uJU
âJt
i'iJ.
La'naf-'llafc
alay-hi.
"The
of
God be on him."
(8)
K = Ûj
aJJfiJu.
Sallama-hv'llah u
ta'alq
(for
ordinary
persons, in letter writing).
Nos. 2 and 3 are used for the Prophet only.
No.
1 is
generally used for Saints, but not for the Prophet.
No. 4
is
used for the Prophet or for Saints.
Nos. 5 and 6 are used for anyone.
No. 7 for Satan; for Yazid.* the assassin of the Prophet's grandson; or for anyone specially obnoxious to the writer.
No. 8 for Mujtahids,
etc.,
when
alive.
The form
(9)
of writing the
^1, for
first
above Arabic abbreviations varies slightly. " and so on " (when the ByM' ^f, etc., in the sense of
of a quotation are quoted)
.
few words only
Also jlsufând
;^-^L
By
Shi' ah s
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND IMALA.

(10)
39
5-
for
+^ plural
f
<j
(also in the
Qur*an for J5U> a lawful pause):
-^ for
6s*
(11) (12)
for
<&>.
*^ *^ plural of plural. " name of town "

(in
geographical works).
(13)
" " name of a for (geographical works). +sc place ^ " " town small works). a for t<& name of
(geographical
(14) &
Lsy~*?
" Christian era."

" Muslim era.
' '
* (15)
^sufc
9
="*! I* "note," and
JLcU
"subject"
(gram.).
(16)
(17)
(18)
u - Asu-i "note." Fzde 17, line 13. ^ = ^*>" " and so on." = ^dS* and y>*> "first," and and f
the order
'
'-'last,"
first
i.e.
'reverse
(read
,
the
word
with f over it
for
and with
over
it last)
C also stands for 4*xx*
"subject," and
^L
"predicate": vide
also (23).
(19)
(20)
(21)
-ftx:
u**
(jj
= Jywi* "object" (gram.). = *-flJ"&*> " author."

jj^xiU (a well-known dictionary).
=
=
(22)
oUlJf d:Up (a well-known dictionary).
(23)
(24)
(6)
f
-j
ot*A)f îîi-o (a
fcL5
u^lifcjj
well-known dictionary)
.
vide also (18).
(a
well-known dictionary)
in
The following common contractions occur

:
words purely Persian
in origin
(1) An initial alif followed by a quiescent consonant is frequently elided and the jazm being removed, the consonant is then pointed by the same short
vowel that occurs in the second syllable of the original word, as c^f aknun, "now," ejjtf kunun; afsurdan &*j~i\ "to freeze, be dejected," fusurdan; " a &*&>< used women
:
," sifidaj rf by isfldaj îtioAwot (obs.) paint (m.c.). If the initial alif is pointed with kasra, the short vowel of the first letter
of
the contraction
becomes kasra, as: istadan
()*&**[
or istandan
c;JoUu.i
" to take," sitadan cÛU* or siiandan &&&*. If the initial alif is pointed with pish and the second vowel
first
is
fatha, the
:
vowel of the contraction can sometimes be either

9
;
zir or pish, as
uftadan
&&&] " to fall"

is uftidan].,
fiiadan or futadan
&*& *
or
Ûj.
[Another form by imdla
(2)
Ishkastan (^Xi[ (m.c.) for shikastan i^^&b. Long vowels are sometimes converted into short
vowels
as:1
nigah
<*&,
shah
etc.
A^>,
digar^^, shukuh
*, budan &*>,
for
nigah
&, shah
^,
digarj&t,
(3) Examples of other contractions not subject to rule are: mar,)^ for bimdr jU# "sick," for madar } "mother", and for mayar jk* ''bring " " not chi, (vulg. and m.c.) for chiz, 3*^ thing" mi-ram, pj&o (vulg.
40
SUMMARY.
m.c.) for
,
',
mi-ravam fjj** ml-khay ^î* (vulg. and m.c.) for mi-khwahi " happy ^fjA-x* sham p> for skavam (*j~ [shum, for Ar. shum] nusha A<y for &&yf anusha (old); chunuj**-, forjl cjy*. chun u 2t for ft'At ^y^ (tahi or " " $tt& (mod.) shdndan, ^(& for nishandan &^(&', a T (mod.) for empty and mi-dad are vulgarisms for mi-ravad, mi-shavad mi-shad tff; mi-rad, dqd
and
( '
and mi-dihad
ustaioi ustdd (vulg.); shazda for shdhzdda. are contractions for ftg-g/t sunduq, ru-yi mlz.
;
Tu sanduq and
19.
Summary.
be seen that the learner must take
From
(1)
the preceding remarks

:
it will
special care
to discriminate
;
between
^ an
(like
English k and
c& in stuck
M (latter pronounced
in the
like ch in foc&)
(2)
to
;
make
<J
a guttural
when pronounced
throat)
with the half-bleating sound when it occurs in the (3) to pronounce middle of a word and when it begins a middle syllable to make a pause before pronouncing that syllable and when it ends a word to omit it or half omit it, and to pronounce the word with a peculiar drawling intonation.
:
In such words as
(4)
toj,
the
must be
slightly
pronounced after the
alif;
to avoid the suspicion of a vowel

o
tifl
;
between the two
last letters of
words
like JjLk>
o
(5)
to aspirate the
&*>
(or ^), particularly in
words
like
j^* mihr, &\j^
Tihran, and
mih
(final silent
of course being exception).
As a rule every letter in a word must be distinctly enunciated must be no English slurring of words. An uneducated Persian learning English would have little inclination to fall into the objectionable
Remark.
;
there
'
'
habit of
' '
' '
clipping
his words.
must be made between fehe long and short vowels. have a passion for making the short vowels long they also expend a good deal of energy in shouting and putting the accent on every syllable. For accent vide 21. The necessity for enunciating every letter will be discovered in distinclear distinction
English people seem
to
guishing between such words as Ai^wo sirishta "mixed," Ax)^* sar-rishta " a ec good knowledge or experience of a thing," and sar-i-rishta &jj"* the
end
of the thread."
(b)
The pure vowel sounds are a, t, u, and a, *, u, besides the diphthongs 1 ay (generally pronounced ey) and aw (generally pronounced like owin cow).
1
In India ai as in
aisle
and au
as in the
German
haus.
EXERCISE IN TRANSLITERATION.
There
is
41
also the rarer
majhul vowel-sound
o. 1
26 (/)], hamza, in Persian, usually (c) Except as a sign of the izafat [vide occurs between two vowels (i.e. vowels according to English ideas) and thus corresponds to a hyphen.
(d)
A peculiar
it.
stress
must be given on a double

all
letter, i.e.
a letter with
a tashdtd on
(e) In printing and writing generally omitted.
short vowels and orthographical aids are
20.
(a)
Exercise in Transliteration.
are merely an exercise in reading
The following meaningless words

:
to teach the vowels

Short
of
an
(
&[ in
&1 un
t^ an
Long
Jf
(for Jf
<5l
t)
&
dl
cX>J.
'in
il
^
J^
or ol
'un
J/f ul
<ul
Jb
Diphthong
Jjf
cl*c
J*c
tZ
ayl ayl
Jy awl
Ji* 'awl
Remark.
All Arabs,
and many educated Indians and Afghans, make a

v-f
-
distinction in pronunciation between

(b)
*-*c, etc.,
but not the Persians.
The
following
is also
an exercise
is
meanings. the same.
Special attention
in reading, but all the words have directed to words that are apparently spelt
The learner
is
recommended
first
to cover up the right-hand column and

:
then by the meanings test his pronunciation
arose
earth
gain, interest
tribe, family
gul
gil
JZ clay
khdk
sud
qawm
bid
a willow
a hair
vine- stock
mu maw
young
of
u young, or the
for
anv thing
bachcha
bi-chi
what
in <^jt o-l, oh There are many words in Persian pronounced differently though to the eye the same ; these have different significations.
1
!
As
spelt
42
blood
the anus
TRANSLITERATION.
khun
kun
,
a squire a gentleman a table with the meat on

'
khan
it
'
khwdn
ru
face
go (imperative) * self
=-
raw khud
khud
dbru
l
a helmet
honor
gutter (for water)
db-raw
K*
become
or go (Imperative of the verb
shudan)
9
shaw
of the verb shustan)
wash (Imperative
J
shu
for
him, to him
(for jl AJ)
bi-du
run (Imperative of the verb davldan)

barley
rivulet
bi-daw
one grain].
ju
seek (Impera. of the verb justan)
ju
a follower, attendant
a
little
pas-raw
pisaru
son
a pledge
if
giraw
garu (for agar u
l
he (poetical contraction)
j\ j>\
a defect, vice
Ar. broken pi. of
ayb
above
'uyub
a day, Ar.
Ar., pi. of
yawm
above
ayyam
ruz
a day, P.
hope
table
umid
miz
or
ummid
In modern Persian abaru.
Or bi-shaw "become."
In modern Persian the Imperative )y** bi-shur
is
used
instead of the obsolete shuy**. 8 Also a " husband " (a word

*
6
In modern Persian >*^
&*"-/
much used by the tent-folk). "seek " instead of

ju.
The Indians and Afghans preserve the "unknown" sound
of the vowel (e) in
these words.
TBANSHTERATION,
lion
43
Mr
shir
milk
with
without
f
ba
U
puf
pufak
a blow or puff (with the mouth) a blowpipe (for killing birds)
month; moon
c
mah
mahi
ism
Tchwab
pi. of.
*
fish
name
sleep
mean, low,
,
o*~J
pastan
pistan
the breast, nipple

strangers (Ar.
sister
pi.)
khawarij
(sing.
khwahar 2
wretched, miserable boldness

<j^
khwar
a knocking at the door
u daqq 'l-bab
Civil
Code in Muslim law
'urf
an eye
(A. head) a
>
'ayn
cape
chief
a leaf a slave a Major
varaq
banda
ydvar
'Arab
vaqt
(pron. bande)
an Arab
time
t
pi. of
above
awqat
Ichurak
3
food
pleasant
custom
The Indians and Afghans preserve the "unknown"- sound

The ^ not pronounced
in these Persian words, vide 2
(
of
the vowel
(e)
in
these words.
*
s
2
).
(j
).
The J
The^j
is
pronounced in this Arabic word, vide
it
not pronounced in Persian. in this particalar word.

is
6 6
The Afghans, however,
generally pronounce
This Arabic phrase
is
common
2 under
with professional story-tellers.

2
Note the
half-bleating
sound of hamza, vide

*.
under 9*
like short u:
1
8
Final h silent, vide
This
2
is
one of the few Persian words in which the

.
is
pronounced
vide
under
44
TRANSLITERATION.
ftf
Adam
harm
Ar. standing, erect, firm
difficult
Adam
zarar
)j*> loss,
pjti
(c)
qaîm
The following
examples of transliteration should be studied khurd

kh w dstan
fi'l-Jumla
ma'nq"
ait *lxfcf
x*
atibba-and
*s
jamd'a-ddr
na'uzu
bi'lldh
bism^lldh
o&i*
or o*5oA
hayât
Saldh u 'd
Dm
banda-yi u
Ichubi-yi
mashjiad
az,har
insdniyyat
(d)
As already stated in
1 (a),
the Arabic character
hand.
The following Persian puzzles are

:
a species of shortexercises in inserting the diacritical

is
points, the solutions being given below
(2)
Remark.
The
solution to No. 1
is
uu
No. 2 begins
(3)
6wa-*
wary y and ends with maw

j*^,
?
chi-Tcunam <*&*. &*.
What
is
till
the
word
at last he says, khar-am (" I am an ass "). khurram, etc., " *> is anchi gufti hasti vali in mst ^. ^\ ^y-A
The guesser says haram, jazm, jurm, jirm, The reply then what you have ^^
*^
said
you
(4)
are,
you are but

;
it is
not the answer to this."
e^<i?^*^ j|
ixjiu>
(.5^**^
Ox^J^fiAa.y S$
^^ c^**^.
The key to the answer depends on the various significations of ja'far The first Ja'farjA*^ is man's name, the second signifies " donkey," a J&AS*. " and the fourth " a a the third i: parsley bridge."
1
*
Practically
equals a hyphen in this Arabic word, but in m.c. the

*'
word
is
gener-
ally
pronounced
*
y, as qayim.
Ja
1ar is
a local word in Kirman for a " donkey

is
and
also for a bridge:
one of
the Arabic significations of ja'far
"river.'*
ACCENT.
(5)
45
A man
named Badri
^^ went to the Sadr-i A'zam ^\ ;x* or Prime

He
said
:
Minister and asked for money, but got nothing.
The
the last
first is
Badn-yam
sad riyam.
the second 6ad riyam (for
n-dam a crude word)
word
is
21.
(a)
Accent.
is
The general
Ex.
:
rule in Persian
that the primary accent

8^-J pfcartf
falls
;
on the
last syllable.
MsA " a led horse (old) " "a glove (m.o.)." means "an assistant to a falconer"]; (fit oô^
*^
pasha
" a mosquito,"
;
to
'
<_' [In India this word

kashhd:
to do
"a boy "
o^
darakhtdn
' '
trees
' '
:
j,i*
handz
"yet";
'done"
3>
(Past Part.);
" better
^y
v>^
khub-tarln " the best, most beautiful," etc., etc.
^^ kardani
da$z
' '
karddn
"
:
cAâ
l
"that has
to be
done
"
;
^T kardd
bihtdr
Remark.
Ex.: darakhtdn-i bagh

or darakhthd-rd
(6)
The accent does not fall on the izafat nor on the affix tj. b ci^;^ "the trees in the garden"; darakhtdn-ra
fL^ " to the trees."

:
Exceptions are
(1)
For the sake
of
emphasis the accent
falls
strongly on the
first
syllable of all imperatives, negative or otherwise,

stress).
:
bi-kunid
Ex. ;f^ bdr-ddr "take away"; " " " do bi-ravand &*> md-kun, *&* md-kuriid "don't do ye " " " let them let me do." bi kunam go ÂV (2) The accent falls on the first syllable of the Aorist (or Present Sub;
:
(frequently with special bi-kun "do thou " ; ijJj
^y
junctive), of the Present,

affirmative.
and
of the Imperfect tenses,

p&>.
Ex.
" I was j**^*^ mi-kardam doing, etc." p&>*> ndmi-kunam c^_^+> ndmi-kardam. the accent seems to fall on the u, In the phrase ^'^ & td na-guî
*ixx9
mi-kunam "
;
kunam, ^ am
I
bi-kunam " I
;
may
whether negative or do, shall I do," etc.

:
doing, I will do, etc."

;
rather than on the negative
in ÂXJ
t>
td
na-bim
it
seems to
the negative or on the
first
syllable of the verb (&).
either on and Indians Afghans

fall
say
<f go*e.
Should these tenses be preceded by a preposition that is part of the verb, the accent still falls on the first syllable, i.e. on the preposition.
bar mi-daram fjl**"^ ddr nami-ravam. fjj*+ij$
Ex.
' '
I will take it
' '
away
p\**+>
j bar nami-daram
is
(3)
In the Preterite (except when

all
it is
negative) , the accent
on the on the
penultimate of
persons except the third person singular,
when
it is
prepared" has the accent on the second
syllable: the infinitive
amddan
is
obsolete
amada karddn
is
used instead.
46
last
ACCENT.
syllable.
:
" ordered
Ex.: f<H"^ pursldam

da'dawd
:
"I asked":
AJJ^*' farmfidld
Aiate
" *A~,J pur sid " he asked Prets. (4) In negative

by
a preposition, as
"they gave":
^^7* farmud
the accent
^^ "
;
guftim
"we
said,
etc.
"
"you
;
but
falls
he ordered," etc. on the negative unless preceded
mentioned in
:
(b) (2)
in the latter case the accent falls
" he did not fell," jiU%i ndyuftad on the preposition. Ex. aU't fall," but Ûa^ j$ ddr na-yuftdd. not take the accent. Ex. cAM^P darakht(5) The affixed pronouns do " " his trees " kitdbhd-yitan your books" c> <^t^< madahd-yash khil-ishan "their income": owt &\S*> bds-i-tdn ast "it is sufficient for
: :
" he uftdd
c^t^
you."
(6)
The accent never
falls
on the
^ ^
of unity
[but
it
may
fall
on the
demonstrative ^].
Remark.
rule
nouns, as also adjectives ending in
and formed from adjectives and Abstract nouns ending in that are formed from nouns, follow the
and take the accent on the last syllable, i.e. on the ^. Ex. ^Q niki " " << (from nlk ^& "good" and dust friendship goodness" ^^^ dusti 2 o*jj> "a friend"), etc. It therefore frequently happens that there is nothing but the accent to distinguish between two words which are spelt the " or " dusti same; thus î*^ may stand for dust-i a friend friendship ", " " '* may mean a bride" or nuptials ( arusi}.
: :
'
(7)
The following
:
indeclinable particles have the accent on the
first
syllable
(
" " yes " L>f " or d'rii is to say or vdli 6 but yet, however ^xcf, yd'rii " whether or " not," etc." dyd (an interrogative particle) <^f dn yes, very " " (C *>JL bdlki well" *J**\ inak here is, behold perhaps, moreover, on the
U dmma
" but "
" that
llkin* " but
"
"
bale (or ball)
^^
:
" here I am." Idbbay (in Persian generally lobe) contrary " In the preposition ^f^j for the sake of" the accent is on the second f< 1 Khuda for God's sake." Ex. bard-yi syllable.
6
: :
"
tM
This rule applies equally to a Tiamza that stands for this c5
vide
(g).
^ 3
Afghans and Indians say nek,

In m.c. i^r*^
is
dost, etc.
a bride (not a bridegroom).

lakin
*
5
The Afghans and Indians say lekin, the Arabs Afghans and Indians wale, or wa-lekin.
"Here
am, yes"
for
Arabic
-jJ
ktbbayka.
Ldbbay
is
common amongst
Indians" say bara,e.
women.
7
Pronounce the
cS'Ltf
slightly as a consonant.
The Afghans and
bar ay
Impera. of
ACCENT.
(8)
47
have the accent on the first syllable: ashamldan " to drink o'*t^ khwabidan " to sleep" c;^T dmadan "to come." take no accent, neither do the particles *$ (9) The simple prepositions and &* or the conjunction ^. As pronouns, & and *. may take the accent.
" khurdan " to eat

:
The following
Infinitives
:
o&x/cl&f
The
particle cjj^ is accented, except

ki.
when
it
forms compounds, as in
chunan, chundn
(c)
A correct
i.e.
accent, pronunciation, and intonation can only be acquired
by
they must be caught orally. The rules given above have, however, few exceptions, and if carefully studied will prove a great aid to
ear,
the learner.
It
must, however, be remembered that there are dialectical differences in
accent, as well as in pronunciation: of
two well-educated Persians, one may
say pidar-i
first
another piddr-i man. Dr. to Rosen the only Persian noun with the accent on the According " a sdnndr is jlx* penny," a contraction of jli>a **c sad dinar. syllable
man and
This remark probably refers to the more correct modern Persian spoken at Teheran. In Shiraz, however, and some parts of southern Persia, the accent falls on the first syllable of the following common Persian and Arabic
nouns
l(
j<$ pidar
father
"
:
;,il<*
mddar
''
mother" j&\j^ khwdhar "

:
sister
"
:
value about three rupees or about four shillings) dinar "(an imaginary and infinitessimal coin, 50 of which go to one jtxja to one 'abbasi and 1000 to one qirdn) Û* 'dbbasi (the fifth of a 200 shahi,
c>^P tumdn
(a coin, in
gj
qirdn)
^/AJ qdssdb
In;^
" a butcher/' " a brother," the accent baradar,

-
is
on the second
syllable.
There are probably other exceptions to the rules in (a) and (6). (d) In the old-fashioned classical Persian of India and Afghanistan, the
accent does not follow the above rules.
1 In the Past Part, the accent falls according to rule, from amdda " prepared " vide note 1 to 21 (a).
;
as,
amadd,
to be distinguished
*&;
2
In Arabic nouns of intensity of the form Jl*

^^ 7** Sartip-i
the accent
is
on the second
syllable,
mashshaq
a drill-master Colonel."
.d of
*~
a house
jr* J* war->
stallion
" and
'
mare "
k&ar vulg. means " the y in m.c.
CHAPTER
22.
II.
Persian and Arabic
Grammar
is
divided into
t^_
^ Sarf
EtyOÂ)!
mology and *sO Nahw Syntax.

" accidence
is
The Arabs say
l^yt j-=cu^l
is its
f^\
f\
the mother of knowledge and syntax

23.
father."
Etymology vJL*.
Aqsam-i kalima
*
PARTS OF SPEECH
*U>\
There are according to Arab and Persian Grammarians three parts of which includes substantives, adjectives, numerals, (1) ^-f ismf speech
:
pronouns, and participles
(2)
J*J
fi'l,
the verb
(3)
J^
harf the particle,
which includes the remaining parts
of
speech, viz.
adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections. " and murakkdb " comThe harf is divided into mufrad "single, simple pound." The former consists of letters of the alphabet that are used singly as
particles, as )
and
for
the prepositions
-
jt
and *
-
these are said to be
twelve
^
It
is
1*>
^-
'
24.
The
Article.
customary to say that there is no article in Persian. There is, however, a means of rendering a substantive both definite and indefinite vide 40 and 41.
:
either
In the absence of any article a substantive like *->\j " wine " or " the wine," according to the context.
25.
l
sharab signifies
The Substantive 8
*Jyô
^ti)
**l
Gender
^ju.
'
).
(a)
Alam
a proper
name
and
includes not only names, as

(
;
Ahmad
****\ 9
,
etc.,
but
titles (khitdb
ljai>>
Zogofr
noms de plume
(
(takhallus)
" accidence or 1 etymology (gram.)"; ishtiqaq j(sd^\ "derivation of Arabic Sarf " " cause of " words deriving words from an Arabic root vajh-i taamiya (lit.) naming
;
:
is
*'
derivation."
*
Not to be confused with kalam

'
(
'
j**^ ) sentence
proposition, etc.
Kalima
)
also
means the
fafz (
Muslim profession
is
of faith.
is
The
distinction
between
*+&
kalima and
&& )
(of
that the former

'
word
3
two or more letters) The term noun in English formerly included

'
a word with meaning whereas the latter without meaning.

*
may
be a
adjective
noun-substantive
and noun-adjective were the terms used. Ism-i 'amm ( fl* f~I ) " comr
(
*JLc
'atom ) Or ( j"(aL \~j&**~~* noun; ism-i ma'nq proper noun." Ism-i zat consonant. The Afghans and Indians sa, /*' " an abstract noun. /
' ,
THE SUBSTANTIVE
GENDER.
,
49
surnames or nick-names or epithets (laqab) of famous people as Euyin-tan er* eX&j "brazen-body," i.e. "invulnerable" (name of Isfandyar); any
s
by which a person is commonly known, alias ('urf J^ ), as Kalian (Indian) for Kola Khdn, Ma'rafi (Persian) for Muhammad Rafi, Mirzd; and the filionymics and patronymics (kunydt) of Arabs (which
contraction
common
precede the name) as Abu'l-Qdsim

&*[.**>
bin Yusuf. include 'alam (mentioned above) ; nouns (1) Definite nouns ( p>\ ) ordinarily indefinite that become definite by construction, as ghulam-i Zayd
Muhammad
any common noun given as a secret epithet o**^ "the (our) friend," dushman ^j+Jo Â) ^t*^), "the (our) enemy" any common noun used as an epithet and commonly known (ma'hud-i khdriji ^5^;^ *^**> ), as Ghuldm-i Misr j*&*> f&e tl the slave of Egypt (Joseph), KhalU* ~lidh *JL/i JU-k the Friend of God" (Abraham) the muzdf of a pronoun and the personal and demonstrative pronouns vide 40
AJJ
p&c
" the servant
of
Zayd
1
"
(ma'hud"i zihni
as dust
(6)
Remark.
(2)
Indefinite
nouns
jXi ^,f
) ;
ya'ni ism-i har chiz-i ghayr-i
mu'ayyan
Remark.
indefinite
(6)
In kas-l rd shunidam
(***
\j>>~
the object
is
considered
though marked by the postposition
rd.
Persian.
Grammatically speaking it may be said that there is no gender in 2 Males and females are either expressed by different words, as:
and dushiza >xw ^ zan na-dida *:<x> mard " " lord, etc.," khdtun ^y ^ man," &) zan a woman"; khwaja^^"lady": or else they have the words y nar "male" and *Û mdda
dlv j>& ua
and pan
"
female,"
etc.,
added, as
" a bull," j " a lion"

;
*Ûj or ** ^ mada-gdv or gdv-i mdda
^^ or J^^ nar-gdv
" lioness "*
'
(Indian) or gdv-i nar (m.c.)
Jblxs^j^ shir-i
JJ^J
mdda
b$
cy [bwa
(m.c.) is ['
however generally widower '] to^ y " beggar-man,"

;
cow" y^shir-i nar mard-i btva *&> zj* and zan-i bwa means widow only and zan-murda it>j*> &j
;
" a
'
\*$
&j
;
"
beggar-woman."
feminine
Remark.
gender
:
Tazkir j*t& the masculine gender
ta*nis vi*jJU the
muzakkar^** and mu*annas

4
**iô (adjec.) masculine and feminine.
Tamylz-i jins ^î^

I
,x^
tl
distinction of gender."
\)
Asp
ra farujchti <J^Jj*
y^*t
" did you
sell
the horse
"
;
asp ra
is
Vide
4
26 (h)
Rem.
II.
Arabic nouns are either masculine or feminine, and when in Persian qualified by Arabic adjectives, distinction of gender is sometimes observed, as will be shown later.
8
Pronounced vulgarly
*jtf.
gab.
The Afghans and Indians say
ga,u, writing the
word
with a hamza,
4 Nar-shlr
Nar-i aab in are not used by Persians. and mdda shir " " " a great fat narrakh.ar-1 in m.c. means the yard of a house vulg. m.c. means ^j*> " the yard of a jack-ass.*' Nariyan and nar-/ khar vulg. means blockhead," but " stallion " and " mare " in m.c. madiyan
j& ^
j^ 8^
;
^y
50
THE SUBSTANTIVE
(c)
GENDER.
Arabic nouns form the feminine by adding ah (in Persian the " *JU> malika P. " a l to the masculine, as <-l< malik king ) imperceptible l "a queen" ; &&&* sultan; ailkL sultana P. (class.).
Many
Remark.
*G
In Arabic this feminine termination
is
called
id
marbutah
haia ( 8 ). ) and by Indians ( ifcy^c t in Persian written and pronounced

:
It is, however, only in certain
words
vide
is
also called td-yi ta*nis
+*&
remarks on
*.
This termination
).
Ex.
*^>
(d)
Khdnum
^^
" "a lady
is
the feminine of
,
cM
khan
*
"a
is
squire"
(at
present a title given to almost every officer) and begum Grammarians call this f , mim-i ta*ms. of beg ^#.
(e)
^J
the feminine
" a The Persian wordyb bdnu

is
lady, a princess," (a
word sometimes
also
added to female names)

e>b
"a
" female guardian of the cy^ csy^ bdnu-yi haram harem" (specially for the Shah). Vdv j must not, however, be considered a " Persian feminine termination >f|j zdlu "a leech >j zanu "the knee";
neat house- wite" 8
;
:
compounds, as
not the feminine of e^, a wo id only used in bag&-ban "a gardener," etc.: thus >b <*f kad-bdnu
jyzdaru "medicine, gunpowder, wine" and such words

culine nor feminine.
are neither mas-
In words like j^-J pisaru and j>yô dukhtaru the j words are distinctly vulgar and should be avoided.*
is
diminutive
these
The
wordi^
khalu
''
a maternal uncle
"
is
from the Arabic
l^
and has
for its feminine
Remark.
the uneducated, j is sometimes added in familiar talk, as maharu bi-gir "take hold of the camel's mahdr (nose-string)"; " the fellow came and said" o-of j; U ydru dmad va guft ; (ydru is here
By
used in a
half- joking sense). 6
In Arabic the
of
* is
not silent &Lc.
jn
modern Persian haram-i shah
"wife
*
Shah."
;
mode n
8
Turks, also Afghans and Indians, give the e the broad majhul sound Persian the e is pronounced short as in the English verb *' to beg."
Also Icad-banu shud <X& îb
<i
but
the
girl
is
married,
i.e.
became a mi
added to
of a house."
4
In Kirman a vav
(^),
and
in
Teheran a ya
(^5), ia often vulgarly
names, as
6
Ahmadu *+**) and Ahmadl is*+^\ for Ahmad *+^l. Khala *)^ is properly the feminine of khal Jl^ Ar. "a maternal
In India yarn
uncle
" w!
is
not used in Persian.

*
is
often vulgarly used as the vocative of yar
jt|
DECLENSION.
51
" little in Kam-tarin ttfjU, the superlative of quantity," has in modern Persian for its feminine &*** kamina, which in modern Persian " I " or is used as a substantive by women instead of the pronoun "me," when writing to a superior. Ex.: or) >i** o^c aix^ kamina 'arz
(/)
'
(p^**
ml-kunad
c^jlojhi
&>& mi-kunam) "I (your slave) make petition"; " oU&| bi-in kamina javdb iltifdt bi-farmayid kindly inform me
(or
is
^^
Û
(i.e.
your slave-girl the writer)." Kamina &*+ the contracted superlative kamin.
(g)
apparently the feminine of
in the imperceptible
Arabic past participles, used as substantives, make their feminines Ex. * [vide (c)]. v-^j/o mahbub-i man "my friend
:
(male),"
&}**"
mahbuba-yi
man "my
friend (female)": (y^j*
marhum
"the deceased (male)"; &<0j**j* marhuma (female): <j>j*/o and &jj** a 8 1 "a divorcee" (set ma'shuq and ma'shuqa "beloved": aMk* mutallaqa
free).
(h)
Vide also
43
(t).
Real feminines,
are called
^5^^
* '
nouns expressing living things that are feminine, L*\ **i^, as opposed to Âfl^ or Or ^J^x> {J j&
i.e.
^ô
* grammatical or irregular (Jit. heard') feminines," such as ' the earth," which are feminine in Arabic. the sun,' arz o^l
' '
Remark.
jannat
un
;
u&sd e*^/o are Arabic words that are feminine by form, as
^^ [fern,
26.
Declension, Tasrif or Qardan
jjljy
or
cjjyj
).*
There
(a)
only one declension. When indefinite, the accusative case

is
:
is
usually the same as the

B
nominative
(b)
when definite I; ra is affixed to the nominative. The dative is formed by prefixing the preposition
by
affixing
f^
*J
bi
to
the
nominative, or
m. 6
is used as a positive adjective signifying used in the plural or qualifying a collective noun to
1
'
In
classical or
modern Persian kamina

it is
mean,
vile.'
In the Panjab
followers."
signify
"camp
*>))* f***>
^ J^*
40
j*
e^y^ A|/
*$ e/f *****
^^
quit jfcamwo
an ki murad-i kjâf^r-i yaran barmasalih-ikhudmuqaddam darand (Sa*di). " he said the least (of their qualities) is that they put the desires of their f iends before an izafat after kamina is wrong. Here S'adi their own comfort, i.e. they are unselfish
:
used
*
AXk+S' as
a masc. superlative.
l
Vide
(a) (2).
or
v^
3
In classical Persian (jpil* ashiq is generally used for the male lover, while Jfj^** 25^ the beloved ' is generally considered to be feminine of necessity, and is not
'
therefore distinguished
by the feminine termination
vide also
43
(t) (5).
In Arabic
(3
^s
more usual for divorcee.

it
*
6
" These, especially gardan &\*jf, also signify conjugating a verb." Seldom written separately in its full form unless the word following
begins with
6.
The dative with
*J is generally used in m.c. in preference to f>
52
DECLENSION.
Remark.
The rd
-
\)
of
the dative case
is
sometimes considered the
in yak-l rd khar-i dar gil uftdda equivalent of the izdfat:
bud
c?^
&>UJ|
J?
(class.),
the same meaning could
be
expressed by
t)
j**
khar-i yak-i.
formed by prefixing ^5! ay or b yd the interjections calling attention. For the vocative in 27 (e) and 118. rhetorical language vide
(c)
The vocative
is
' '
oh
' '
,
or one of
aiif in poetical
or
(d)
The Ablative, Instrumental, and Locative

There
is
cases
are formed
by
prepositions.
no proper Genitive in Persian. This case is expressed by coupling two nouns together by a short i (or kasra r-^) called by gram" marians the kasra-yi izdfat oA*! \j~$ ("the i of annexation" or the The thing possessed t of joining"), or more commonly *l^f izdfa or izdfat. " ! malik the son the *->&> of is first. Ex. JXc
(e)
1
' '
placed
jXc
kitdb-i
king j~i pisar-i " the book of the son of the pisar-i malik king."
:
j~>*
Remark Grammarians enumerate many kinds of izafat (1) The izdfat-i tashbihi ( ^^^ eJLot ) 'the similitudinary
:
izafat,'
and
as
izdfat-i isti'dra
(2)
The
'
c^ V
(i)
the metaphorical izafat,' vide (12) and (2) (iv). ' the izafat of qualification/ ) tzdfat-i tawsifi ( &**& Here mardis termed the (noun) qualified.'
>l*iw cuiLef
'
^^
'
The qualifying
'
izdfat
is
subdivided into
The
The
i>j^f>
c$**y oJUl the simple

cuil^t
qualifying izafat as mdrd-i khub

,
(ii)
^ft^P
where
the substantive
is
qualified
privative adjective, as darkht-i bi barg cu^.5 " a man deficient in sense." kam-'aql cl^ f* *j*>
(Hi)
^>
'
a leafless tree
"
by a
mard-i
The o-&*y (j***j> ^lt where the substantive is compound agential adjective, as mard-i sutihan-chm (.&<*. (û ing (fault-finding) man." Vide (vii). where the substantive (iv) The t^tf"** s^*^
qualified
li
by a
*j*
criticiz-
^^
is
qualified
by
a metaphorical (adjective, as mard-i sang-dil J^
î
et
the stony-hearted
(v)
c<*/y
c^
(j***)*
pound privative agential " un dutiful son."
where the substantive is qualified by a comadjective, as pisar-i nd-sa'ddat-mand ***> eÛ* b

tf*jl^'
In modern Persian
is
this i is often
is
pronounced
ol*A*o.
like the
e in bed.
The second
In modern colloquial Arabic the two nouns are placed in juxtaposition without any sign of the genitive case, as, ibn malik " a ** the son of the king," etc. son of a king"; ibnu'l-malik
noun
in construction
and
called
*(
DECLENSION.
(vi)
53
is
The
e^^Ls%*H
oA#
t5
oJLe|
is
where the substantive
qualified
by
two
adjectives.
(vii)
tJ>*j+J|
jective the first
a substantive to a compound adpart of which qualifies the second part, as asp-i tiz-raftdr
c?i^
v^jUel links
jli^^x) ^*>|
(3)
asp-i
tiz
Jx> -*-().
1
(
F^cfe
)
The
izdfat-i zarfi
^j& cuLt
'
<&* "bottle of rose water, or conversely db-i shlsha a^-w vjf gulab " tank water." " bottle birka dbi-i water," &?j>
v^
"
(m). the adverbial izafat,' as shisha-yi
(4)
The The
The
izdfat-i fa ill
shanda-yi kitdb ^li^ S*A*J>J*

(5)
<c
"
^^
vsJUi
"the
as
agential izafat,"
as faru-
seller of
books."
),
izafat-i maf'uli
^^*a/o
cJLa
sukhta-yi dftdb
*->\ti1
l2a^
burnt by the sun."

(6)
izafat-i
tamliki
izafat" or the
izdfat-i haqiqi
hakim
p*> J
"
"the
^^ oJUf ^^ cuUf
<c
)
)
"the
' e
possessive or property the true izafat," as ganj-i

;
Shah-i Iran
^t U
sage's treasure (i.e. the 1st chapter of the Qur*an) " the Shah of Persia." Vide also No. (8).
(7) Izdfat-i takhsisi
(^^âsj vsJU|)
*->
(
the particularizing or specificizing
izafat,
the butcher's shop." *a-'te. or ) izdfat-i baydni (^1^ o.*Uef) "the (8) Izdfat-i tabyini ( t^-HtV Cf Xb ouÛ tild sd'at-i as a watch of gold." descriptive izafat," the The descriptive izafat includes Ûj o*j'Uc( which shows posses1
as dukdn-i qassdb
<&* 0^,3.
"
jji*j
sion of the
jjj|
1st.
person singular, as,
kitdb-i
man
'
&*> ^(\f
'my book";
v^9 ^^ <y '-?
the
ô
ÎxJus
Ûj
o^L^f which shows possession of the speaker and his friends
(i.e.
1st person plural) , as kitdb-i
ma ^ v-jlK
' c
our book
' '
the
^^
shows possession
of the person addressed; the &d\ Û**j îUj
oJUÎ shows
possession of the third person, as kitdb-i
u j\
wltf
"his book."
' c
These might also

(No.
6).
(9)
all
be
included
under
the
possessive
izafat"
Theizdfat-i tawziJil
' '
^^J^y
'
oJUcf
"the
izafat of manifestation,"
which
is
nearly identical with the

(
Gvlistdn
&\Z~>& ^JSS
the
izafat of specification (No. 7),' as, kitdb-i ' ' book Gulistan ; ruz-i shamba <wi^ )y
^Saturday."
Remark.
The
difference
between the two
is
that the members of the

^f* or Mash, had
second compound can be reversed, as Shahr-i Mashjiad *r Shahr yfi <i^x> ; but in the first they cannot be reversed.
^
(.
,
bdd-i
(
v.
(
as bi-'l-jins ( crisJb oJUf ) "the cognate izafat," " c ^j ) the morning breeze." " the izafat of 'Ati it-i ibm J^\ o.iU| filiation," as Abbds-i bas son of Ali." " as nargis-i tashbihi cJU| " the izafat of
izafat
l
zdfat-i
^^^
simile,
chasr
J
fj"
.y
the narcissus of the eye
(i.e.
the eye like a narcissus)."

chasm a metaphor.
B " a vessel."
nargis-chashm
is
an implied simile and
nargia-i
54
DECLENSION.
The
izafat-i
isti'ara S'jUI*.! oJUaf
izafat-i majazi t^)^-"
the izafat of metaphor" or the " the " the o>Lcf , figurative izafat ,' as dast-i 'aql J&* o-*o
'
hand of wisdom " and

the two
not.
(13)
is
daftar-i shikayat ji&. The distinction between that in the former there is an implied simile, in the latter there is
^&
For
the
falck-i izafat
oJUi!
^j>'
and
izafat-i
maqlubi
<^&o
cu'l^f
" the
inverted izafat" vide

(/)
117.
If
first
substantive terminates in a semi- vowel
(c^-^-l),
or in a
~^
silent h, 1 the izafat is
pronounced yi
it
is
and
is
then no longer written

&U*. Tcfmna-yi
but
as follows
(1)
After silent h
written
s-
or
*,
as,
^*
mard* " the
house of the man."
For the pronunciation eto.,t?fe41 (c). 3

Remark.
of
hamza when
it
stands for the
^
^Jy
of
unity,
After aspirated
8 it is
written ~^~
as, (j*Jy<M
*^>~#
6*5/
nuzdah-i amval-ash " nineteen- twentieths of his wealth."

(2)
After
alif or
vav
it is
in
modern Persian written
C5"V P^-y* rose (or flower)."
ward " the
foot of the
man "
^ ^^.bu-yi gul " the scent

*
<^,* without *, as
of the
$\**>
It used also to be written
or
$, asjl
ru-yiu,*&
sada-yi buland
cases as
correct. 6
also
but modern Persians maintain that
* is incorrect
in such
is
after
in
the latter case they maintain that kasra
Should however the
final alif
stand for *f at the end of Arabic words the

yf
izafat is, or should be, written in the ordinary

safk-i dima^-i ziyada az
way,
as ***
' '
;
hadd
' (
shedding blood to excess
j\ 8^3*^ *& Û* sama-i

fc?1
In these two examples *Ua stands for *(** " " streams of blood," pi. of blood," and *U for A +~* (pi. ot^l.) vide also 4 (e). As however the final * of Arabic words is often disregarded in Persian, such forms as (?* ^^j commonly occur for &* z&j.
buland "the lofty sky."
1
f<
But not
after
an aspirated h as in mah,
yofc
"a moon;
to
&*
U> t^j ydk-mah-i digar
another month," but

2
S
wo^?-t digar j&te

is
The hamza-yi
After a final
;
izafat is Persian
*.
and has nothing
Û ^ do
is
another fish."
with the Arabi/

"j
tl
*"'*"'
c^
*,
the
e*2a/a
also written in the ordinary way,,
of *,
after
but
though perhaps more correct,
not used for
C5 in modern Persian though so used in India. * In order to distinguish it from the ^5 of unity vide
yi izafat.
5
41
(6).
This
ya-
Persians never write

4>tx>
jlji)
etc.
They
also
state that
J;
<5
Atx3 C5
L;a
incorrect.
DECLENSION.
(3)
55
<j? it usually written in the ordinary way T, as, " the fish of the mahi-yi darya sea"; but according to some grammarians it should be written t (or * ) as (^ As however final with * is liable
After final
is
Û.
to
be mistaken for the

(g) t
<_$
of unity
following a
weak consonant
(vide
the former method
is
preferable.
(i e. alif-i
After a silent
^ preceded by fathah
<jr,
*** vSjU at the end of Arabic words, the final

izafat
maqsura) or by to wm fathah is changed to alif and the
ma'na-yi an "its meaning." The Arabic Û/o i is also pronounced in Persian ma'ni and may therefore optionally in the genitive be written of î** (or, as above c/f c5 ljjt>c )expressed by
as, c/f c5 lijt/0
*
oJU
it has the same meaning would be pronounced da' vi-yi ishan. Proper names, however, should not be, but often are, changed; thus
Similarly da'va-yi ishan
may be written
oik! c?L^, or uUjf ^5-^ though
>}**$ &*}*>
cfhambar
Muas
Payyjya,mbar or incorrectly j*+*# f
C5^
XJ
5
Musd-yi Pay;
"Moses
the Prophet"; #*~*>
^l~
for
f~*> ^f^c.
but
'Isi-yi
Mary am or 'Isa-yi Mary am. With the exception of case
(2),
the sign of the
izafat^^^
is
omitted
expressed by prefixing the " of or property.' belonging to the " " mclnz mal-i ast this is b;i JU ^t darya imported (belong. " the ing to, or coming from the sea) to the question, "whose son is this? answer might be e/ jl*> mal-i man "mine," or fj&tj* d(* mal-i baradar-am
is
in writing and printing, it being a short vowel. (4) In modern Persian an absolute genitive
c '
word JU mat " o*t earth

;
'
Ex.
(^yj JU mal-i zamin
j^
"
my
brother's."
In m.c. this word mdl Jt* is frequently inserted unnecessarily, especially the o ^** Jl* d~*9 qunsul mal-i Sistan " the Seistan vulgar. Ex. by Consul (i.e. not the Kerman Consul) o**f *j^ J^ mal-i qadim ast (for qadim
:
' '
asi)
"it
(g]
is
ancient, or of ancient days.'
'
(1)
and
(2)],
The Indians and Afghans do not pronounce the izafat like yi [vide (/) but whether expressed by * or ^5- they give it the classical prooy ^^ khana-e mard, Ijp ^fcU mdhi-e darya. After the semi- vowels and silent h, the izafat is by them generally
:
nunciation of ja-e majhul, as

(h)
written,
if
written at
all,
as explained in
(/)
(1)
and
(2).
kasra ij~$
of
however a company *or ^, as f^ 2*^1 banda-e Jchuda " the servant 3 " oj the place of the father "; or instead of a jafe padar
may " God

hamza
^^
is
the correct Arabic form.

plural
Tho broken Arabic

py/t
J>*t amwal
is
only used in the sense of
"
possessions,
wealth, etc."
modern Persian pidar )*.
56
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
as, <J
and kasra may be written

in the Punjab.
bu-e gul )&*
Û. 1
This form
is
common
In practice the
tioned in
41
/.
(d).
with <^ of the izafat
is
suppressed for the reason men-
Remark
' '
In^
div
' '
clamour, lamentation
~) for the izafat.
II.
" a " demon," ^*^ khadw Khedive," gharw and such words the ^ is treated as an ordinary
i.e. it
consonant and not as a weak consonant or semi- vowel,

kasra
(
takes the
Remark
ism-i-'am
(
Nouns are
)
;
called proper
ism-i-khas
(
( <j"*^ f~t ) that has a concrete something zat) or si ma'na existence as opposed to an abstract noun ism-i ( î** fat or oJL0jt). The term abstract is specially applied to that class of nouns )
;
U ^ ^f
collective ism-i
is
jam
&*.
^^
ôj
common
generic
concrete noun (ism-i
the
name
of
is formed from adjectives and denotes character, as, "goodness" and more generally to all nouns that do not name concrete things, as, <^*->, jAl^b" kingdom."
which
Nouns are A noun is

For
also
'
"
primitive
'
"
(
**l+
)
f**l ),
and "derived
'
' '
"&*
*ô
).
p~\
).
definite
ma'rifa
*J^
or
'
indefinite
40-2.
nakira a
definite
and
indefinite articles vide
When
common noun is
definite, and, by an allusion that is understood, is used to supply the of a proper noun, it is called îî ^.n** md'hud-i zihrii, thus an dust place
5
made
cu^j^f meaning
a
"
So-and-so, our friend about
whom
we're talking."
When
common noun
noun,
is
definite
it is
used as an epithet or nickname, i.e. as a proper and called <^"; thus Khaltt JxU- "The Friend (of
^^
God)," an epithet
for
Abraham.
Vide also
25
(a) (1).
(a)
Singular
27. Examples of Declension. Number *^, or ^* or, <*^ îXc.
Halai (oJI^)
case
"
N.
(J^\* d-Jlak
mard Jy man or the man. dast-i mard AJ* O-.A the hand f
-j
of the
man.
G.
CA>0f
oJla*.
Jchana-yi
V pa-yi
1
mard ,3^0 <xjlak. the house of the man. mard * t>j* ^b the foot of the man.
S.
The
izafat
o'^t
that,
in India.
Note
is occasionally expressed in these manners in old M modern Persians would saybanda-yi khuda, f<^ I<^J J
written
j'a-yi
pidar
Fa'il (cbk') subject." Maf'ul ( Jj*^ ) "object" is applied to &ny case governed by a preposition. 3 Of two words coupled by the izafat O^Lif the first is called the muzaf (
2
and the second the muzaf

*
ilayh ( *J| oLaxs ). In India and Afghanistan pronounced *y <XiU> Jchana-e mard and Sj* For another form of the genitive in m.c. vide 26 (/) (4).
^^ pa-e
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
f
(
57
mard-ra
bi-mard &j
\j t>f>
l
to the
man.
to the
man.
C
5
mard-ra
\>
*+* the
man.
( mard ty man-
V.
*l^ vsJUk
or
a^
waw
c^l
oh man.
mar da
az
Ab.
^^ oJU*
ward ^yo
3'
from the man.

prepositions.
The remaining
Remark.
cases are formed
by adding the
also called
AJ
*<,*
The accusative
case
is
J*A* and the
ablative
is
sometimes called *i* Jîx and the locative *
The dative in Ij is considered the accusative. +* ) is declined in precisely the same manner. (6) The plural jam' ( In classical Persian and in modern poetry the particle j* mar is (c) sometimes added to some of the cases. It is generally redundant but
occasionally restricts the
' '
e/fx
meaning to the case in point. With the nominative it is emphatic; as &^j* mar jan* "the mar an that very.
' '
life
itself"
(d) Vulgarly the accusative sign ra |j vowels, thus marda, mardu or mardi for
is
mard
supplanted by one of the short ra. This is said to be a sur-
vival of a Pahlavi termination.
In asbu ra biyarfyt l;^*t, the $ is a vulgar diminutive. (e) A form of the vocative chiefly found in poetry is formed by affixing f( " <a to the nominative, as X*lj bulbula friend." nightingale "; Iwja dustd This form is found in the singular only. If the nominative ends in a or in
a long vowel, the euphonic rule in
IjlAi
28
still
(c) is
applied.
DanghjH ty*
' *
alas
"
and
in a
c$f
)
Khuddya
"
O God"
are
used colloquially.
thus,
The vocative
t-Ul?
cannot be followed by the
izafat,
bulbula (or ay bulbul*
This preposition
Fa'tt
(
JrU)
seldom written separately except before a " "subject." Maj'ul (J^*^ ) object" is applied
*J
is
v
to
any case
overned by a preposition.
Har ki daru dad mar jan-i mara Burd sim u zarr u marjan-i mara. Mawlavi. Whoever will heal my loved one He will get from me silver and gold and coral."
' '
Zarr for zar by poetical
license.
o bulbul of Persia (Sylvia luscinia) is a real nightingale and must not be with the bulbuls of India and Turkish Arabia : its song in the writer's opinion
ior to that of the
English nightingale.
58
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
" oh bulbul," but bulbul-i bagh-i ma U> xU cUb " oh bulbul of our garden.'* For this vocative qualified by an adjective, vide 118. Nouns ending in silent s do not admit of this form of the vocative. 1
28.
Formation of the Plural
*^
Classical Persian.
) There are two numbers, singular and plural. Old Persian ( p?.** ^j* had a dual later Persian had none. The following are the rules for formation of the plural in classical
:
Persian
(a)
Rational beings and animate nouns form the plural by adding
&].
Ex.
pi.
B^jb'j
aspan
Îw
padshdh king," pi. Irani ^l^jt " a Persian,"

;
"a
cA^lÛ padshah-an;
pi.
i_**l
asp
"a
"
it
horse,"
Iraniyan
Remark
I.
If
the
noun end
in
as
^^ hakl
" a narrator
:
follows
the general rule, the final <^ becoming a consonant, as

Similarly kay
c/i^
^"
king
" has kayan
hakiyan.
oU*', etc.
Remark
other words
(b)
II.
The
origin
of this plural
termination
i.e.
is
stated to be a
repetition of the demonstrative
" more than one."
pronoun
c/f,
"that and that," or in
by adding U
*'
Inanimate objects and sometimes irrational animals form the plural ha. Ex.: kitab "a book," pi. tÛ^ kitab-M] -**f asp
^X
a horse,"
pi. l^*l
asp-ha (as well as asp-an &\$\).
Remark I. There are exceptions to this rule. Sa'dl uses the plurals ÛLkp and cAii^. This is perhaps done to confer dignity on these nouns, the Still under this supposiplural in c;f being more noble than the plural in I*. tion it is not easy to account for such plurals, as eJ>H^ ofjjl* o>U^ and The plural in an &) ,is frequently used both in prose and poetry for the ejUJj.
sake of rhyme.
Remark
creatures,
(Iqb.
II.
Rarely in classical Persian the plural in ha
is
used for living
as:
namburdaha U j^
"the
(people)
mentioned above
":
"
Nama-yi J., p. rid ed. Bib. Ind. of Beng. As. Soc.). Remark HI. In a few words a distinction is made, as saran &\j*
:
(m.c.)
chiefs," but
sar-lia
Rukh
;
has in modern Persian either rukhan c>^> or rukh-ha similarly angushtan cjtxiî, and angushtha t LXi! "fingers"; akhtaran and akhtar-ha Â>J^ " stars " abru-ha l*jj/>t and abruvdn &\jj*\ "eye)
l ;
(i
cheek
U^ "
" heads."
brows."
If they did there
would be no distinction between the plural and
this
form
to
of
vocative.
2
The word Yazdan

pi.
"God"
(also
Izad
*j>\
and Yazd &.
is
said
corruption of a Pehlevi
and to have been
originally used in a plural sense.
FOEMATION OF THE PLURAL.

(c)
59
from which a Ex.: L>|^ dand

tl
In forming the plural in an, is apocopated, a
if
the noun ends in alif

is
"a
I, or else in a j u inserted for the sake of euphony.
sage,"
pi. &\jti\t
dana-yan;
the
pari-ru (for
<j
fairy-faced," pi.
After a final
o^y^J pari-ruyan. j, when radically

of the
final,
^ is omitted.
Ex.
jjk
1
"the arm, the upper part

eyebrow,"
pi. cJb^l
arm,"
pi.
&\j^ bazuwan,
abru
" the
abruvan*
plural of
US
Remark
niyagan.
I.
The The
niya "grandfather, ancestor"
is
Remark
II.
with as plurals of sal

regular plurals of
(d)
* are occasionally met saliyan and and mah to. These are Jl* exceptions and rare. The these words are to be preferred.
plurals e>y
^^
into
in an obscure *. this is, before ol, generally changed " " ^, as *j>y> murda dead (past partic.), pi. murdagan. this is Sometimes, but rarely, the * is retained in writing, as &tf
If the
word ends
^^
8^
incorrect.
In poetry the plural termination gan
is
employed contrary to
rule
Qa-ani says
(e)
If
the noun
is
inanimate and ends in silent

:
h, this
^ usually and
lf*lj
properly disappears in the plural, as If however by the elision of the

better to retain
plural
IA
**>b
nama " a
letter," pi.
is
namaha. 3
its
any ambiguity
likely to arise, it is
it,
thus,
*lsu/o
mahalla*
"a
l
quarter of a
l*"> 5
town"
*
has for
alsi/o,
n preference
plural
to the correct
which latter might easily be

is
mistaken for the

retained.
of
JUuc.
In modern Persian the
generally
Must be distinguished from the word j^?T The plural ofî div and similar words
26
(ft)
ab-rti
is
" honour."
divan cJt^, or (mod. ) divha

Ufjl)
1
?
vide
Remark.
Modern Persians
often pronounce these bazivan
and
van eJ^yl .
3
As
If-*!.*
may
stand for either
namha
4-*^
" names" or nama-ha
IAAX5U
<
letters,"
it is
usual in modern Persian to write the latter
^ ^^>
for
I*
For the same reason the
plural namajat
otavcli
is
preferred.
Similarly other words,
^^
"houses"
for
instance, might in
modern Persian be mistaken

jazm be written
is
orthographical
sign
this
ambiguity
eJ^ Mian-ha khans. If the disappears. To avoid such
mbiguity the spurious plural ^!>^

*
used even in colloquial.
The
final 8 of
Arabic words ought logically to be retained.
60

Remark.
Nouns ending in * preceded by a long vowel l follow the ^ aU^lj; ; rah "a road," general rules in (a) and (6), thus aUob plural la Both the letters s shouldbe pronounced, i.e. the word should pi. *!; rahrJid.
be pronounced as written. Arabic words take the Persian plural or the Arabic broken plurals Ex.: v 1^ kitab " a book," Pers pi. l^lfe* kitdb-hd, Arabic broken pi.
(/)
a
;
kutub
J*U
'5wt7 " a labourer/' pi.
^
)
^JUU
'amildn and
*JU.*
amala. s
(
Remark.
are
The broken
in Arabic
(or irregular) plurals
jam
~i
mukassar
J~& &*
x-
commoner
to both rational
and
irrational beings.
than the regular masculine plurals, Some words in Arabic take the
and are applicable
regular as well as one or
more broken
plurals.
There are two kinds of broken plurals recognized by Arabic grammarians, 'the plural of paucity' and the plural of multitude,' vide Arabic Grammar but the distinction is not observed in Persian except by a few
'
pedants. In the rhetorical style, almost any Arabic word and its broken or inner plural can be used. Sometimes a word has several bpoken plurals if such a
:
word be used
in different
" a house or Ex. from o#. bayt plural in one sense and another in another. tent, a verse in poetry," we get o># buyftt "houses," and oUjf abyat "a "verses"; cUlc labourer," pi. *JU^ "labourers" and J^ 'ummal
:
meanings
in the singular, it will generally take
one
gtf^
"agents."
(g)
regular feminine plural in Arabic ends in of, which is an the regular feminine affix * ; thus, masc. p. of kanm un "kind," expansion
The
fern,
un and fern. f+jf karimat
pi.
oU^/
karimat un
in Persian karim, karima t
kanmat.
by
obscure,' but aspirated. Called also inner plurals because they are formed, not by affixed terminations, but internal change. They are really collective forms, and in Arabic are treated
1
This h
is
of course not
'
silent
'
nor
'
grammatically as feminine singular, even when they apply specially to males. These broken plurals are a difficulty in Arabic and only a less difficulty in Persian they are so irregular and various that no rules really help the student. Arabic
grammars
measures of these plurals which however give long tables of the various only bewilder the beginner. The broken plurals of all words met with in reading should be written down and committed to memory. If this be done, the learner will be
' '
surprised to find that in a short time they cease to be a serious difficulty. S In m.c. this word is used as a singular and the plural is formed by the barbarous
form 'amalajat *>^ *Uc. * Compare the English

'
'
'
'
plurals
'
pennies
pence
so
much
value
fishes
'
and
fish
'
denoting a number of penny-pieces and * * brothers and cows and kine ; ;

' '
'brethren.'

This regular feminine plural
sense, as
is
61
frequently used for nouns with a neuter
rU^ hammam
t
un
"a
bath,"
"condition,"
.
pi.
e^|U>
haldt un
pi.
a
oU>U^ hammamat un
sama un
1
j
JU. hal un
m
*U~
"heaven,"
pi.
f e>fjU~
samawat un The regular feminine
common
beings
is is
plural of Arabic nouns with a neuter sense is of occurrence in Persian, but the regular feminine plural of rational " an " rare; thus, j** 'aduv enemy (masc.) takes in Arabic the
regular feminine terminations, singular both masculine and feminine. 3
and
plural, but in Persian the
word
Remark.
The Arabic noun
of relation or relative adjective is
formed
of the
I
by
affixing the syllable
^-7 and
rejecting all such inflections as the

tf
5
<-
t " Mecca Co " a person feminine, or the dual and plural signs. Ex. */o t5 of Mecca." has no tashdid. In Arabic from the In Persian this final relative adjective a collective plural may be formed by simply adding the
' '
:
feminine termination
as
who
asserts the eternity of
n Persian dahri "one ^j** dahriyy^ (in matter and denies the resurrection or the world
^^J
to come, atheistic"; &j*J| ad-dahriyyat*
" the sect
who hold
this belief."
This collective plural in Persian (without the Arabic article) is AJÂA ddhriyya. Only a few plurals of this description are used in Persian, principally those
of various religious sects.
reigning Shah)
(h)
is
Qajariyya used in m.c.
<*J;l^li
" the Qajars"
(the tribe of the
Plurals of plurals
(W
t^)-
An
additional broken plural
is
in
1 This plural is rare in modern Persian hammam-ha f*>A, is preferred both in speaking and writing. 2 In classical Arabic the alif with madda would be given the ordinary sound, then the hamza would be pronounced and finally the tanwln 4 (e) Remark. vide The modern Arabs have simpli6ed the word into sama, while the modern Persians say sama, In dtjU* the hamza is changed into j in Arabic also slightly prolonging the final alif. f
:
'
'
written
3
ci>|
U*.
*><**
In modern Persian the feminine

signifies
may
occur in writing.
of
*'**!
J^
4
'aduv-i
a' da
"deadly enemy"
(lit.
enemy
enemies):
dushman-i
dushmanan
iÛîj (j^-ô has a different signification, viz. the enemy of (my) enemies, i.e. my friend, " the but dushmantarln-i dushmanan &\*+& &iJ (j^**o is used in this sense of
greatest
latter is
enemy." In Arabic j*& c5 Afi grammatically correct.

like
'
is
tne idiom and not ^l^t j**, though the
Words
and
*
naqliyyat and cijU*Aj wahmiyyat meaning "things narrated," things imagined," are the regular feminine pi. of the Arabic adjectives
(vide relative ^s)
oUUJ
and
âj
its
has for
broken plural
p*j wahm f^t awham.

I
the substantive "conjecture, imagination
62

*>
Arabic sometimes formed from the broken plural, as,

(for L*t), pi. LS*J
yad
u*
" a hand,"
a ydi " hands,"
pi. of pi.
L?}
ayadl
"
hands; benefits."
Sometimes the regular feminine plural is added to the broken plural, as bayt "a house," pi. o^j buyut "houses"; pi. of pi. o^j buyutat "a, cluster of houses ";Â^ jawhar "a, gem, jewel," broken pi. j*>'j^ " jewels of various kinds ": jawdhir "jewels," pi. of pi. e!y*l^ jawahirdt A is the Arabic form of the Persian gawhar^^. 1 jawhar J
The shade
is
of difference in
meaning between a plural and a plural

5
of a
not always observed, thus there is apparently no difference in plural " meaning between <jj^b turuq (mod.) tfre broken plural of (Jo* tarlq a road" and the double plural oUr^t turuqat (class, and rare), though the latter ought " to signify many roads and ways."*
barbarous plural is sometimes made by affixing to an Arabic broken plural the Persian plural termination IA, thus ^jje zuruflia from " vessels the broken plural of zarf- 8 ^*UJ| " many kindnesses from zuruf
(i)
' '
' '
altaf
o^Wt broken plural of lutf. These double Persian- Arabic plurals occur only in nouns with a neuter
,
sense.
A few words purely Persian have been adopted by the Arabs and Arabic broken plural, and the Persians have in turn borrowed the an given broken plural of their own Persian word ; thus the Persian word ol^j farman
(j)
becomes fardmin u
vowel
c^y
in the plural, and in Persian without the final
of the classical Arabic, fardmin.*
" The word anagur j^\ 6 grapes word Persian the of angur ji^t. plural
"
is
vulgarly used by Persians as the
There are probably one or two other
Persian words, vulgarly arabicized in this manner by the Persians. Dastur ;yâ a Zardushtl priest, pi. dasdtir ^>Ua ; Khan e^, Persian, a title like squire, Arabic pi. ^j*> khavdnm (m.c.), used only in Persian.
(k)
In imitation
at is
of the regular feminine plural in Arabic, the termina-
tion
of
sometimes added to Persian words, thus ^s&jy navdzishdt

cc
" favours" and oliol^* farmdyishdt

jj
orders,
commands."
and >*!>* are used in m.c. Persian, but
^^l
and
^^\
only occur in
high-flown Persian.
*
In Urdu the same broken plural
may
be a plural in one part of India but a
singular in another.
8
*
Zarif
"
witty, ingenious
is
" has
w*
for its 9
common
'*
plural zurafa**
Such a word
is
said to be
^j** mu'arrab
made Arabic "
or " Arabicized
"
:
this
term
applied to any foreign word adopted into Arabic.
Similarly a
word
is
said
to be
6
o^, " made Farsi," i.e. adopted into Farsl or Persian. o*;*^ mufarraa Anagur is of course an imitation broken plural the correct form would be
:
anaglr.
For the Arabic dual with a purely Persian word vide
29
(i).
63
When the word ends in a silent h, the affix of this bastard Arabic plural " a written combecomes oU> and the h ( disappears, thus *iy navishta the munication" (past participle of pure Persian verb navishtan "to write") " a f ort " becomes olaJLiy navishtajdt, and the Arabic word **1* qal'a'1
1 )
becomes oksud*
sense.
qal'ajdt.
An
exception
oUJUc
This plural occurs only in nouns with a neuter : vide p. 60, note 3.
clas-
These imitations were considered vulgar and were rarely used in

sical Persian.
Remark.
have different
pi. *Jîf
Sometimes the broken Arabic plural and the imitation plural " significations, thus from b* dawa AT. medicine," the broken " Arabic in but in modern Persian medicines," adviya signifies
"spices/' while the Persian plural

Persian
' *
e*^!^
davdjdt
signifies
in
modern
medicines.
' '
(/)
Regular masculine plural Arabic jam'-i sahih or jam' 4 salim

,
or
/J^
is
*^>
).
The
**. ( f*ûe in masculine classical Arabic has two cases regular plural
x
and
tw
formed by affixing to the singular &j un a for the nominative, and

remaining cases
:
for the
terminations.
is
Thus
these are an expansion of the singular Arabic in classical Arabic, the regular nominative pi. of JUU
&jl*\* 'amilun*
" workers."
In modern colloquial Arabic the second affix only is used with the omission of the final vowel, thus tr>J^.e 'amilin (for all cases) "workers."
In Persian, Arabic plurals in un a
classical
Arabic.
The modern
(in
^Ûx)
by
the
mu'asirin
only in quotations from the however is occasionally used. Ex. plural and writing speaking) "contemporaries."
:
^ occur
(m) Arabic Dual tasniyah (**&
).
The dual
in classical Arabic
is
formed
adding to the singular &\ an* in the nominative, and
^ ayn
in the other
cases.
&
In construction, or when followed by the affixed Arabic pronouns, drops out.

classical dual occurs only in quotations
is
The
from the Arabic.

:
In modern Arabic the dual

<oJ
very rarely used
it
is
formed by adding
ayn
for all cases.
The Persian tendency would be
to transform 8 into
*-*,
but the
suffix
being Arabic,
the Arabic-Persian letter

a Qal'a **A*
qila*.
;
is
substituted for the pure Persian.
the final h has no sound whatever.

plurals are
The Indians and Afghans say
The Arabic broken
^ and
64
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
4 '
In Persian this termination ayn only is used. Ex. " bi-cornous (an epithet of Alexander the Great)
;
' '
{&& j& zu-'l-qarnayn ^x^ ^ ^y ^'liLo Sultan-i

L
:
yj
barrayn o bahrayn
Vide
two continents and the two seas "the two harams," i.e. the shrines of Mecca and Medina. (.fr*^ haramayn
Sovereign of the
;
' '
29
(n)
(i).
Akh
Ar. " brother"
akh-l
l
as akhavi Husayn mi-guyad instead of akh- % generally say akhavi my brother Husayn says ." Hence akhavi has come to be regarded as one
:
^^
^t
Ar. "
my
brother."
The Persians
' '
word, as
(polite,
akham-yi
man
* '
vulg.
my
brother
' '
and akham-yi mukarram

&\j**\ is
in letters).
The broken
plural ikhwan
used in the sense of
brethren (religious), as: ikhvdn-i safa, i.e. ham-dman. The plural of ukht oA.f sister is akhavat olyu
is
akhavat-i
mukarrama
an address
in preaching.
29.
Plurals
Modern
Persian.
In the modern language, spoken or written, the plural in U> is by far the most used it is applied to nearly every substantive, animate or inanimate,
:
official documents or in rhetorical writing, the plurals as well as the Arabic broken plurals and the Arabic c;f used, regular feminine plurals of inanimate substantives Mullas, and travelled or educated Persians, frequently use these plurals in speaking, when ordinary
Arabic or Persian. 8
are
still
In
in
people use the plural in
I*.
Remark.
In the vulgar form of the spoken plural the

of
of
I* is
dropped.
for
Thus instead
bachcha-ha
is
khudha-mdn cjU^^L
(a)
the vulgar say bachcha. a double vulgarism.

*
WJ
tff
Khudaman
The
plurals
>Ut
"horses,"
iyfjyb
"arms," &\?~4 6 glsuvan
" curls
of helmet depicted on Alexander's coins
Various reasons are assigned for this epithet one is that it arose from the pattern another that it signified that he ruled for two
:
a saying of the Prophet ten qarn c>j* make a century, but qarn &j*. According to according to others the word means a space of ten years or any multiple thereof up to In m.c. it frequently signifies 30 years or 50 years. At this time the life is in 120.
danger
:
d)'A eJj*
*f^
.
etfl
in bachcha qarn darad (soothsayer's idiom) " the
life
of this
child is in danger."
*
3
In modern Arabic
c5^f akhuya
*'
my
brother."
sliiran
Zanan v^J, bharan
oJ|/^, aspan e/^f, gavan \&j$ 9 marduman e)^^y,

all
cyf^-, pisaran &\j~î dufchtaran c*[y^^ etc., are plurals in ha. * In m.c. generally pronounced asban.
6
common
in m.c. as well as their
Gls
i_j""i*
or gr?SM f~**
zulf
is
also applied to a
woman's long
hair.
The
side locks
are called
vJiJj
and the
fore locks
îa.
chaiar.
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
65
or long back hair," e>^x? "slaves or servants," e>U^ " trees" and others are still used by the professional story-tellers. 1 Muzhj* "eyelash" is in m.c. muzha y> and the common plural is
muzhaha
IA
y>.
The
old plurals
muzhagan ^(f}^ mizhagdn &%fy

5 ;
muzhgan
&&)* and mizhgan &%$* came to be regarded as singulars form muzhgan-ha ^(fyo or mizhgan-ha Ifjfcyo.
(6)
hence the modern
The
28
rule for writing the plural in
(*>
of substantives ending in silent
(e) and Remark) is often neglected in modern Persian, thus be written for l^laL and Ufj for A *;.* may
(vide
IA Ai(<L
(c)
A few Arabic
"
" thus *Uf ashya,* things ^t ayâw "days" (plurals of &S> shay* and are never used in the Persian plural: the word yawm] (*! oij-aa. hazarat
"sirs,
broken plurals are used in speaking even by the vulgar
gentlemen"
(a
word common
in speeches) has
no Persian
"people"),
plural.
Fuqara*t*jti (pi. of faqlr

salatin
(pi.
(pi.
"poor"), Ûf
>\
aAaZt
(pi.
of
aW
e^^
of sultan),
* '
zavvar
,
(pi.
of masjid
mosque
"
)
of zaftV "pilgrim"),
^1-*
masajid
and a good many others are in common use even
by the uneducated.
In the m.c. a few broken plurals are incorrectly used as *JU* cj yak 'amala " one workman," c**t *!*> ^f tw /aââ a5^ singulars. " this is a labourer." * For ulu (= zawu pi. of zu) vide under Zu.
Remark.
Ex.
'
'
Na*ib
-r^5^,
" a lieutenant," has for
its plural
nuwab
>>'
+* ^\ y but in Persian (the title), is
by a change
of the first
vowel the word navvab

<J^)\ (pi. of
<->\j*,
nawab 6
used as a singular.
Arbab
rabb
v_,j) is
in m.c.
:
" master" and has
for its Persian pi. arbaban Îjjt
and arbabha L^ly
the singular rabb v; means
" Lord
' '
(of the Deity only).
(d) Some Arabic regular feminine plurals are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as e>UJt* "tracts of country"; e>!jU* 'imarat (m.c.)
"buildings." Persian words with the imitation feminine Arabic plural [vide 28 (k)] are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as ouUb bagbat (rare) "gardens", t( e>U>^ dihat "wishes, desires", villages", cÛUlâ. khwahishat (m.c.)
:
or ^*
ma'ralcagir,
rectly
4
5
*A5 qissa-febiWan or qiasa-gu

i.e.
also
&$
OO'SA. liikayat-lcun and
* " one who

qiata).
is
collects a
crowd."
(In m.c. **^*
is
often incor-
pronounced qassa and
The
correct plural ^*
Wj
preferred in
modern
Persian.
In Persian generally (but incorrectly) zuwar.
In Arabic
zSftr
has
also
the
regular masculine pi. cJ^tJ.

4
6
aJLc broken pi. of J*Lc, vwie 28 (/): *!** plural of In India the tashdid is usually omitted.
66
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
When however the termination is ola. 1 the farmayishat glftjU^> "orders." silent h of the singular is often retained in writing, thus eÛ* ô* (instead
of
eU^>
(e)
mivajat "fruits."
few plurals of plurals with the feminine termination [vide
28
(/&)]
are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as:
Oy ? umur broken
6
pi.
The double
also
plurals,
of^l amr). one Arabic, one Persian, mentioned

double
in
28
(i)
are
used in speaking.
Remark.
In
is
m.c.
'
the
'
plural
oUaJL^
:
"workers"
28
(k).
occurs,
though cUU
(/)
not a
noun
with a neuter sense
vide
The
plural of the Turkish
word
<Jl>t
il
" a wandering or
nomad tribe"
is
oUi?
(g)
iliyat
(and incorrectly sometimes

ci>'*y*aj
e>&>l ilat)*
t(
The substantive
biqsumat*
biscuits ",
and the Turkish word
" rations, requisitions ", are either singular e.L.jjj;- suyursat or oL^** sursat or plural. The termination of is not the plural termination.
Arabic plural, masculine, is occasionally used by (h) The regular educated Persians in speaking (as well as in writing). Ex. <j~k^ e.*y^ 6
:
hazirin-i majlis
;
' '
' '
gentlemen
(addressing an assembly
lit.
those present in
(Shah's
the meeting) &*&# U> ^.MîU x+^ jami'-i multazimm-i " all our retinue were Diary) present."
(i)
ma budand
The dual
eH^r-le
is
also occasionally used in speaking (as well as in writing).
Ex.
fy
both sides of the road;

is
^^-^ Hasanayn
its
" the two Hasans,"
Sometimes an Arabic word
used in Persian with

ol-a.
;
correct Arabic pi. termina-
tion
and sometimes with the Persian imitation

is
thus *J(j^ havala

is
"a
transfer
consignment"
in
the plural
euty^
in Persian
e*3ll^ (rare)
used as well as
Hal
<4
state,
condition ";;
;
but only used in Pers,

unity) Ar.pl. pft
a
raqlm
^
is
Jt>M
"
ahval and &V\j^\ dhvalat, an Ar. double pi.,

;
letter
tablet
"
(in
Persian raqtma with the* of
âqcfam, and
Pers. raqimajat.
(also
8
In modern Persian the olsdU* ).
generally retained in this word as well as in
oL>U.
cUlc has thus -agents, "(3 and 4)

(6) the regular
several plurals used in Persian
o*L>c
(1)
*JU*
workmen,"
double
(2)
and
U*U*
is
-workmen"
'amilin
(bastard
plurals):
Arabic masculine plural
(&^\*
( isJtjJA
(^^
'amilin-i divan
(m.c.)
Collectors of revenue "),

;
which
occasionally used as well as the classical form
g^LoU
the latter however
is
only used in classical Arabic or in a quotation from the
classical Arabic.
t%5**
adj., signifies *'a
man
of the
Iliyat
^^f
" and
and
has a plural
The word bisMt
ta^^
js
also used in Persian as singular
plural.
Hazir j*k>> has also a broken plural huzzar JÂ..
PLUBALS
i.e.
MODEBN PERSIAN.
'Alt
:
67
Hasan and Husayn, the two martyred sons of two kingdoms," etc. vide 28 (m).
:
daulatayn
v&j* " the
In imitation of the Arabic, the dual

Persian words, 1 as
:
is
even occasionally added to
B'lsyar lab-i chu la'lu zulfayn-i
chu mushk;
(0.
" and many a ruby

(j)
lip
and musky tress."
K. 137 Whin).
lar,
few words are found with the Turkish plural
or j$ 9 as,
i.e.,
For an imitation broken plural of a purely Persian word vide one curl on each side of the head behind the ear,
28
(j).
CHAPTER
30.
III.
PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns
Ism -i Zamir
y***
**\
).
is no distinction between the personal and possessive pronouns are of two kinds, separate and affixed. they The separate personal pronouns are less used in Persian than the
There
personal pronouns in English, as, except when emphasis terminations sufficiently indicate the persons.
(a)
is
required, the verb
The
:
following are the separate
zamtr-i munfasil
<J*AAU _>A**
pronouns N.
Dat.
V
.o
man %
3
ma, or
UU
maha we
(also
mayan
Ace.
[yo ?wara
me, to
me
Afg.).
N.
Dat.
Ace.
}
S
tu*
thou
shuma, or
^ ^ shumaha
(
(m.c.),
!/
you
B
(also
sJiumayan ejL;U^ Pers. and

6
Afg.).
or
vo
ne
poetical)
.
ishan, or
e;'-*^!
N.
classical
ushan, they (also
and
is>LLj|
Ishdnan Afg.).
;
is used instead of man &* as, Jfa raftim p>&) U. Vulgarly, Give us a for the penny give me a penny.' vulgarism, English Compare The vocatives of the 2nd personal pronoun are ay tu ki a^y ^$1 and ay
*
ma U
'
shuma
ki *t
classical
^\ such forms however are unchaste (g&ayr-i Persian however ay anki <j>T ^t occurs as
:
fasih).
In
cu** s
^*
fj
o^jJ
^-)Lc
j^y J
^ *-^t
^5-1
bi-iqbal-i tu dar 'alam nist
Glram
ki ghfim-at riist glydm-i
ma ham n%st ?
(Gul. chap. I, st. 13).
pi.
j5U*.
f~t.
!the
It
must be
recollected
that
all
pronouns come under the head
of
"ism"
*
3
For
vocative of
man \&
as a possessive
\)
Sometimes vulgarly
is
in m.c.
(y).
man-ra
u^
pronoun vide but with the {
32
^
(b).
unity man-i-ra
correct: vide
41
*
5
Note that the j is pronounced short like .. p?A. The Afghans often say o. The Afghans say eshan, oshan and esânan mafhul sounds.
;
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
The preposition
occasionally used:
*J
ISM-I ZAMIR.
69
with
j and <^
is
generally written
^ and <^
>V
is
but
very
also, especially in poetry, bi-du j*j
e^V is classical,
,
and and
^5^
bi-duy.
if
In m.c.
rarely,
1 ever, used in m.c.
The
preposition bi
when used
Vay
eJtf
<_? is
for the dative case is called ba-yi maf'ul J^*^ ^.. used for u $ for the sake of euphony in the following sentence :
,
(j-jj^t
bi-vay guft (m.c.

t
and
classical).
To avoid the
repetition of the
j\
second pronoun u j\ the vulgar also say u bi-an guft cJtf Û him." It may be said that vay is not used in m.c.
" he said to
Remark
I.
The
first
personal
-*.feliuo
"speaker"; " and the third "present

;
the
second
v^ ghayib
34
pronoun is called îSXo mutakallim mukhatab "addressed" or _,<*(*> hazir " absent."
ii>f
For the third persons, the demonstrative pronouns ^\ In " this " and an "that" with their plurals iriha (m.c.) and anha (m.c.) [or inan o&f
(6)
class,
and anan
c^^T class., vide
(b)]
are
sometimes used.
c/f .
Also
j\
is
sometimes substituted for the demonstrative pronoun
Ex.
Andarun az ta'am
khali ddr
Ta
here j!
is
dar-u nur-i ma'rifat
bmi
(Sa*di)
used for of: vide also
34
(n)
No.
in
10.
Remark.
not u ki
AîjT Sn-ki (classical
and
modern
writing)
is
"he who
' '
banda the slave and third persons singular, vyo mukhlis "the (your) devoted"; J^S ^>^\ ikhlas-kish* "the (your) most devoted;" vij>* kamtarin "the least " and for the feminine *xj-*r 25 (/) ] Jjjtf kaniz 3 <{ the (your) handmaiden or female slave," etc., [vide are often used when addressing superiors, and sometimes to equals out of
(c)
Instead of the
first
' '
respect.
In classical Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these words are always followed by the third person of the verb, both in speaking and xixx> leave to represent" writing, as ijbj* %u banda arz ml-kunad "I beg
f
:
the slave makes petition), but in modern Persian (except in official documents) the first person is more usual even in writing, as u^* **V " I the slave make **; petition ^\ in banda chi taqsirdaram ? fj\* J*A&
(lit.
:
' '
^V
(m.c.)
"what
With^*
fault has this slave
(1)
committed
jl
"
fear
"on," )* dar "in,"
az
"from,"
etc.,
)\
and hlian el^jl are

jyf
generally
contracted into one word, as: jpi daru, c>l^j?
barlahan,
azu.
Chunu
is poetical.
cW kteh
Also
(classically fash) is
a subs, signifying " faith, religion

^XJo
"
:
in
compounds
practising, addicted to."

3
Ex.
(_r^
zulm klah " oppressive."
*^j&
kanlzak, properly the diminutive of kaniz
70
(m.c.)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
ISM-I ZAMIR.
&
the
first
"the mean"; j$ U^ du'a-gu

"the least" are
(in writing);
Û da'i
(in
writing); cUf aqall (in writing)
also used as substitutes for
person.
With the exception of j&

:
haqir, these are all followed
by the
third person singular of the verb fi&* u^^xa^. haqir 'arz mi-kunam (m.c.) "I this humble individual make petition " djte j*p-x*~> 4,5^^ *<*. chi dakhl-i bi;
haqtr ddrad (m.c.)
"what has
this got to
do with poor me
"
etc.,
Remark. In Persia, a friend writing to an equal would use banda with the first person to use the third person would be too abasing.
;
>^J
In addressing the Shah *&, banda *v and haqir^s^ do not express

cient humility; such phrases as
at)
suffi-
*Jl^
"house-born (slave)", khak-sar Û^'A,

*A*
fidaw ^)**, jan-nisar ;& Û-, khdna-zdd A common etc., are used.
signature is (^Hj) d*&\ Jjff aqatt" 'l-'ibad (fulari) " the least of the slaves (so-and>J " so) Sayyids sign "aqatt u 's- Sadat" e>|*UJ( <JUf and Rawza-khwdns ^j^\'^\ Jff
:
"
Hajis may sign gUÎ d&t aqall^l-Hdjj. After cyoa. â?m< " Highness," Û* Qibla-yi l 'alam "Qibla of ^Lc the world," and similar respectful terms, the third person plural is used
aqall
:
u * z-zakirin"
(d)
In m.c., however,
(even when addressing people present), both in classical and modern Persian. " the second " after a ^J^janab-i 'all Your Excellency
Û
person plural is preferred (but not in formal letters). (e) As the plural is used instead of the singular in addressing people of standing, its place is frequently taken in m.c. by the double plural. The double plural in ejf of all three persons is used by the Afghans. In the m.c.
of Persian Ul* plural of cÂft is
(/)
and ÂjU unknown.

is
are
common;
U.U
is
less
common,
these
while the
The following
an example of the use

8
(
of
polite
forms
of speech:
*&
aw
^^
Jk-t
eâ.
or
yisMt-i Jawab-i 'AUhali-yi banda na-shud
u ^ o r ^^ vJ^ ^^j^y farmd"I have failed to, grasp Your

1
Honour's meaning."
Remark I. Man o- is the only one of the personal separate pronouns that can properly be coupled to an adjective by an izdfat. Ex.
:
Chand
1 ' *
gu*t ki bad-andish
u hasud
How
Ayb-juyan-i man-i miskin-and? (Sa'dl). wilt thou say that the malignant envious seek to find fault long
with poor helpless

1
me ?
' '
&U*
of the qlblah, the direction of the face in prayer, especially the direction
Ka'bah
****, the sanctuary of

a
Mecca
the Arabic dual qiblatayn signifies Mecca and Jerusalem.
Janab
" and hence "Your honour, refuge,
v^
1
signifies
"
maigin,"
etc.":
etc.;
" threshold " and

signifies
hence
"a
place of
^General in attracting attention would say to a Consul, Janab-i Qunsal (-U>>> 8 Hazrat v^r^-^ is from the same Arabic root as^y^^ Tiuzur "presence ", and
<^
"high."
Even a Governor-
li^f ajatt
it
is
the Arabic comparative or superlative of

ajal
cUU.
jcdU
'
glorious, illustrious
"
must not be confused with cU-l
"the appointed hour
of death or
doom."
THE AFFIXED PRONOUNS.

r
71
x man-i bar-bad shuda (m.c.) " I the ruined one "

1
man-i mazlum
"
(m.c.)
jv^
eX
I the oppressed."
JW^J er*3
;
The Afghans say

Persia the izafat
wara-i banda, but classically

*^x> j^r*.
and generally
in
am
ffMttff a**t
^ c/
is
omitted
man banda
.Mem banda, ummid awarda
(Sa'dl).
a'za/aZ is also incorrectly joined to the pronouns of the second the first and second person plural as, *i;ld ;l &* \) yi ^y and person singular, * ra chi kdr ddrand (m.c. only) "what have they to do with tu-yi faqir " i*xi^< oîi \jj*&& ÎA U maha-yi bi taqsir ra aziyyat you, poor creature ? " mi-kunand (m.c. only) they are punishing us though we have committed no
;
In m.c., the
fault"
*tf
*^ u**^
?
'>
^fî^
l>
*>^5Hi^
ÛU^
are
shumaha-yi bi chara
ra,
chira
inja hobs karda and
(m.c. only)
"why
8)Uuo
you
poor creatures imprisoned

used),
here?"
Instead
ajUuxj
<jr^Jf
of
is
ishan-i
bichara
^(^
(not
ariha-yi,
bichara
i
used in m.c., and an mardum-i bwhara
JJjlsuj
^^ ^
,
writing.
Remark
II.
Man utuj*)^"!
.
and thou "
' t ,
" both of us
-
is
an ex-
pression of frequent occurrence, especially in

\j~* ^~** >>
poetry
y j &M
^}V^ c^l
3'
:
ftojj^r
s
.
Bar-Wnz birawm az in vilayat Tu dast-i mara bigir u man ddman-i

31.
(a)
(1)
man u
tu
tu. s
The
affixed
Pronouns
:
AJuaLo^Slw zama'ir-i muttasila).
The
affixed
pronouns are
Singular.
Plural.
First Pers.
ft
am my
me*; to
;
me
to thee
^
&$
it
~^
i
{
man
tan
Second pers. e| at thy thee Third Pers. <j! ash his, hers,
;
its;
him, her,
it;
to him, to her, to
&&
~ ishan
was in all probability formed an to the singular, thus ff the termination u/f by adding plural regularly, am " mine, me, etc." would result in the plural Û) am-an. However fatha
Remark.
plural of the affixed pronouns
i.e.
The
has
now given way

(2)
to kasra.
<ji
In classical Persian ash
and shdn
c^ 1
^ were used
for
animate
also.
things only.
In modern Persian they are applied to inanimate things
Bar j* " on " and bad iU the wind" " to tr. bar bad dadan &*\t destroy."
1
'
bar bad raftan
()
:
Aîj
to be destroye d
In m.c.
U^ >>
tuv Tch.uda is for

;
local.)
8
" " without perhaps a corruption pay, impressed In prose this would be tura.
|JAj fy
turd bi-khuda
tuv khuda'i
(vulg.
and
of muft-i &huda*i.
72
(3)
In pronunciation these affixes should be, but seldom are, preceded by a slight pause in other words they do not affect the syllabic accent of their words, thus c>b^ JA.X> )& <^b *.U5f ^ ^yu* o^j/j Â*f gj& darigh dmad-am " I felt a disinbi-tarbiyat-i suturdn va d*ind-ddri dar mdhfil-i kurdn (Sa'dl)
;
:
clination to teach beasts

of
the
it
blind";
"
as in the example. In words (4) terminating in the vowel *, the final letter becomes " his nose " or " nose " as blni a consonant, (_r-*^j bimyash poetically but it is Sometimes the affix is written separately, as: <jl binish.
:
" came to me
and to hold up a looking-glass in this quarter dmadam f^T would be "I came", but dmad-am f'^f
^^
^j
not so written by modern Persians.
Words terminating in alif-i maqsura *)y*A*> -A!| change the & to alif then insert the euphonical y, as: &)** da'va, Jtyje* da'vd-yash "his and claim or quarrel, etc." in m.c. often u^fy^: ma'nd-yash J^î** and ma'ni(5)
;
yash
cr-jji*^
are both correct.
Remark. By poetical license the vowel of the affix can be omitted, as pidar-sh <Jy*J " his father."
as After Arabic words ending in Tcibriya*, the alif of the affix should be retained, thus <jt *L>^ o* ^' is poetical or modern colloquial. forms of the singular are written in full, (b) In classical Persian the full
(6)
,
1
A^
:
*>!. Jchana-am only after a word terminating in silent h. Ex. ft " cases the alif is omitted, as f;aU> mddaram my mother."
! :
in other
Remark.
Shaykh Sa
dl writes
Here
(c)
at could
t
After
' '
01
^ ^
' '
not be joined to **", but for the license of poetry. " is inserted for euphony, as a ^b pa-yam my foot
' '
"
;
-yat
thy hair
bdzu-yat o-j^j
thy arm
' ' ;
ot*jl^^ dast-hd yi-mdn
"our hands."
is often omitted, as In m.c. and in poetry, however, this euphonic bdzu-sh "his id dasthd-mdn e >Ul t (Jj$ diram-hd-sh place": jd-sh o^^ "his magic," also diramhd-yash) <Jj^ jddu-sh (better (J^^j*
;
; ;
.
jddu-yash.
(d)
Examples
(1)
(2)
of the affixed
pronouns are
^ ndn-am
(J^J
bidih
"give
I told
(to)
me bread."
him forward."
jUiit? guftam-ash
"
him."
"
(3) j*>
pish-ash biydr (m.c.)
bring
rarbiyar
So written (probably) to indicate that the h is not sounded. ha du ash ra Uyar, or )\# b LTb* J* har duyath In the m.c. \) c/2l^ " both of them," the <^ is omitted or inserted indifferently
bring
har duyiahan or c>^f
i*$)*
j* har
du-yi t8\an.

digar bi-zabdn-ash naydvarad.
73
is
again mention him " him

the object
ei>l<x<>
' '
(lit.
"she will not him on her bring tongue) ash here

;
' '
(and
1
is
not
her
',
possessive).
(5)
(6)
fM>*LJ
(m.c.) sadd-'t
na-shantdam " I did not hear you."
j*i^ of
(7)
(8)
(m.c.) sadd-at kardam "I called you." "our father." padar-iman cA/ojAJ cAk^** sarhd-yishdn "their heads" (but v^^t
|4X*>
^ j^
A
sarhd-yi
(e)
Also colloquially sarhd-shdn. ishdn}. In classical Persian the plural affixed pronouns are not
much used
the separate pronouns are used instead. In classical Persian the affixed pronouns
may
be joined to almost
any word
in the sentence except to the simple prepositions

8
:
*&lif jl \) crixL [vide (h)] yak-t rd az kardand bd man-ash dusti bud (Sa dl) " one of those who mutinied had a friendship with me."
the conjunctions
ki ghadr
^ ^"^
^^ ^
f
and
to
some
of
dndn
be noticed that the plural affixed pronouns are preceded by the case of (c) by a ^). If, however, the noun end in (or &>^ khdna silent h* the izdfat is in modern colloquial often omitted, as
(/)
It will
a kasra
in
"their house," or o,U &li. Tchana-yi shdn. In classical Persian this would be u>U*|t iiU* khdna-yi-ishdn or ^lîiU^ khdna-yi shdn; also in modern Persian it would be better to say c>^t &\&> khdna-yi ishdn than khdna-yi shdn
or khdna-shdn.
sMn
The kasra
is
omitted in the following
Examples of both
Zi-andarz-i
man
kas Tia-pichid ruy
Ki andarz afzun kunad dbruy (Shdh-Ndma, Book I, sending message from Salm and Tur to Farldun, p. 21). None turned his face from our advice. " Because advice
,
m.c. for sadayat.
In m.c. generally pidar.

Gar-at zi-dast bar-ayad chu naJchl bash karim Var-at zi-dast na-yayad chu aarv bash azad (Sa*dl)
free like the cypress
But if thou canst not, then like the date palm. the epithets karim pijS and azad t>\$ are frequently applied the conjunctions poets to these two trees. Note the affixed pronoun at is joined to "If thou canst, bo generous
' ' :
and vagar 3 if and and if." Final silent * is considered a vowel by some Grammarians. silent 8 in Arabic. 6 In modern Persian sometimes written (j'^^- (without the *)
gar
*
"
"
"
There
is
no
final
74
man ar maghz-i tan shud tuhl Chird az khirad-(i)-tdn na-mdnd dgahi?

Zi pand-i
(Shdh-Ndma, same page as above).
^-f <>J3fy G e;l Bi-farmud-i shan id nawdzand garm Na-khwdnand-i shan juz bi-dwdz-i narm (Shdh-Ndma, Book I. Pddishdhi-yi Tahmuras-i Divo-xilj-iu
-^ o&
band
si sal
bud, p.
8).
Bi-ayvan-i Zahliak burdand-i shan
Bi-dan azhdaha-fash sipurdand-i shan
(Shah-Nama, Book
I.
Bar
takht nishastan-i
Zahhdk
va bunydd-i bi-ddd nihadan, p. 11).
Buvad khanahd-shan sarasar palds Na-ddrand dar dil zi- Yazddn hirds (Shah~Ndma same page as above).
t
Remark
to verbs,
I. In modern Persian the plural affixed pronouns, when affixed " retain their kasra, as &{&&{ guft-i-shdn "he told them cA*i# ;
guftam-i-shdn
"
I told
them."
be noticed that the affixed pronouns, when the
Remark
II.
It will
of the verb, i.e. when personal pronouns in the Accusative or Dative case, are not followed by \) rd vide 32 (a) for i> in m.c.
direct or indirect object
clear.
am might mean " my porter " j^*ij <&^L>* (XlU^/o A^xi oJ^j ^li js^y i^jJi ^y khwdhar-i tu az
9
:
i
is ambiguity which even the context does not make " you spoke ill to ^ft? {** bad-am guftl in m.c. would mean me", but it might also mean "you said that I was bad" in ** IA> ^Jb)A darbdn-am rahd na-kard " the porter did not let me go (or let me in)", darbdn(g)
Sometimes there
:
Ex.
'
^^
<-& c^Ht-^
>\
y ^lA
(^
khasisi misl-i tiijirhd-yi
1 Isfahdnl panir-rd tu-yi shisha karda nan-ash rd pusht-i sh'isha ml-mdlad (m.c.) "your sister who in miserliness is the equal of the Isfahan merchants,
* putting her cheese into a bottle and rubbing her (or its ? ) bread on the outside of the glass"; here nan-ash <_& instead of "her bread"
might mean "the bread of it."

1
In classical Persian a noun in the accusative to which a possessive affixed pronoun

'
attached often omits tj. a Here the ash would probably not refer to bottle and therefore does not belong to the bread. either her or its.
is
' ' '
cheese
'
as the cheese
is
inside the
Otherwise the ash could easily
mean
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
(h)
75
fre-
In m.c. [vide also
(e)]
the singular affixed pronouns can be, and

:
quently are, affixed to some of the simple prepositions, as {j*>\j* bardyash "for him, her, it"; <j2j| "from him, etc." <jfy* "in him, etc."; oJ& for " " to him, etc." (Jfyj zir-ash under it" ^b fi bi-am <Jt *j, colloquially
:
dad
to
(m.c.)
"he gave
;
it
to
me "
at a
o^
bi-at
dad or oj
(m.c.)
" he gave
it
in kdr az-ishdn? thee"; az-am fjl az-at e>j> ''from me; from thee " are of this." not Ûjj jf J ^Ji (m.c.) doing (Such expressions they capable are still considered vulgar, but will probably soon be recognized as correct). " " b " " without ba " with bi ", They are never affixed to j bar on " " " " 15 td and some others. J*. juz up to yj za&ar above except
;
,
"
' (
' '
When
the affixed pronouns
are possessive,
person is called mim-i izafat oJlt the third shin-i izafat vrJl^t ^î. When used for the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, the first /0 the second td-yi maf'ul Jj*JU Û, and the is called mim-i maf'ul J^*** third shm-i maf'ul J^xj ^.^ or shin-i zamir-i maf'ul Jô^â (1^.
^,
the pronoun of the first the second td-yi izafat o^'Ui ^G, and
modern vulgarisms that are creeping into writing " shumd tishnatan ^^] c> lx *i-/ L* "we are hungry Ma " ishan ast ^^-f && ^^ U^ "you are thirsty garm-i shdn ast o**| ^Li*^ c>^t " I feel cold. feel warm man sarma-m ast ^~\ "they (*l^-*> er* Persian the affixed pronouns can take the place of the (?) In modern reflexive pronouns when the latter are used as possessive pronouns vide 33 (h) iÂ l^jUT î "the &\ (k) In kitab-ha hama-yi shdn khub ast o~*t v " = **A in kitdbhd hama khub ast of these books are
(i)
The following
are
gurisna-man ast
' '
>
1 '
whole
ow-of.
good
v-^
4^ e^f
The
singular ash u*' could be substituted for shdn ol
in the pre-
vious case; in kitdbhd hama-yash khub ast (m.c.) o*[ <-tj^- ijt **a> l^^ (^-jf " these books, the lot taken as whole, are good ", but in the sentence mikh-
hd az zamin chahdr vajab buland bud va

cJ ^
1
sar-i
shdn (or sarhd-yi-shdn)

J
tiz (m.c.)
<>Jf
cr^J J ^^Hi' the singular 05^ jjj ( ÛolAj*. or) j- ) could not be substituted as the various pegs give a scattered idea.
*& v^J ;W
Remark.
Vjâix!
" attached pronoun, nom. case "attached pronoun, ace. case, etc."
^/
JLâl/e
^x^
"
;
ctalo j***
32.
It will be seen
Possessive Pronouns.
31
(a),
(a)
from
and
(/),
Examples
5, 7,
and
8, that the
affixed affixed
is
pronouns
are
pronouns when
possessive as well as personal. possessive are properly followed by
In the m.c., the

I;
when
their
in the accusative case.*
Ex.
^xj
f;
îo
dast-am rd bigir " take
my
noun " hand
or dast-am
1
Afghans and Indians say

In classical Persian
I;
be.
Ex.
third only used after the affixed possessive pronoun, person^ Yak-l az hukama* pisar-ash-ra nahl kard az bisyar kjurdan ki- 1; <^7~v *!***! J cr^
is
a philosopher warned his son against over-eating saying that
."
76
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
classical
at
The dative and other cases are usually formed by prepositions, both in and modern Persian (and seldom by f;). Ex. *wof i**~. oJ^> } bi-gushrasida ast "have you heard? " pisar-asJi ra guft cuK } o^-J (Sa'dl).
:
Remark.
stantive,
it is
If the possessive affixed
pronoun
Ex.
:
refers to
more than one subkhurak-
affixed to the last only.
am" my
dear
life
If clothing and feeding." the comes last. adjectives, pronoun
+'bj^ the substantive
^"j* pushak u
is
Ex.: o>j_)c
"
! :
vide also
Remark
followed by qualifying 'umr-i 'aziz-at "thy
to
(6).
possessive pronouns can also be expressed by the personal separate pronouns coupled by the izafat, to the thing possessed. Ex. t-y ;AJ father (lit. the father of me)"; cjlAfl &l^ khana-yi ishan 1 pidar-i man
(b)
:
The
"my
shan
"their house/'
(Pidar-i
&\J
^ and khdna-shan
&(
*JUk
(m.c,)
would have the
same meaning).
In the accusative, the separate pronoun is put in its accusative form with f> Ex. ^*j> \j*> o*o,> a dast-i mard girift " he caught me by the hand."
:
u-ra f*}t pidar-i

bi
The dative can be formed with dddam " I gave it pidar-i u dddam f*\* jt ;^ *J.
Remark.
I;,
but preferably with
AJ.
Ex.
fj^t
to his father (m.c.)";
more commonly
In a continuous sentence,
to
(a)].
etc..
the separate pronouns also

\jj
come
last [vide
jJUr^Jux)
(^
Remark
^M^
Ex.
j\
#* $ J*>
oJij
^^
J^
j j&
^**^
u har
fabi'at-i
pur sharr u shur va
surat-i zisht-i bad-tar az div-i
kas ra mi tarsanid "his evil nature and ugly appearance

of a
worse than that
demon
The vocative
exist, as pidar-i
(c)
used to terrify all." of man <j/ as a possessive (not as a personal pronoun) does
,
mand U*
" oh
my
father!
"
In m.c. the affixed pronouns are preferred, but in writing and correct
speech the separate.

(d)
The separate pronouns can

Ex.
:
also be used in the ablative to express

Jt
possession.
<xUx*o^f
J(
<k
a3
cuÛ*
^f
in 'imarat
na az shuma va
you nor to me."
vide
na az u mi-bashad (m.c. or class.) " him " in mdl az man ast 3 ou*f
:
this building belongs neither to

)\
JU ^f
"
(m.c.)
this belongs to
(e)
In certain cases the reflexive

" Mine
pronouns
denote
possession,
33
(a).
"
,
'
(/)
thine
"
,
"
his
"
,
etc. , are
expressed by the demonstrative
Afghans and Indians say fehana-e eshan.

In m.c. dast-am ra
*
3'
lî
man
(affixed profioun)
ast
would be more commonly used.

.
Also in m.c. in mal-i
c*f
i*y*
JU ^|
REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

pronoun &\
,
77
j!
as
^^
j]
az an-i
man " mine "

it)
?
j>y
tf
c/l
az an-e
wi
"to whom did
it
belong (whose was
"
tafifa-i
bi-man guman-i ddrand zan-i khud-am chunan ki hastam hastam.

1
(K. Rub. 334 Whin.) " Each sect miscalls me, but I heed them not, I am my own, and, what I am, I am."
Sometimes
jf
is
omitted as:
here an-i tu
(g)
zamm-i, hama waqt an-i tu nist Digardn dar shikam-i mddar u pusht-i pidar-and nist vju~jo y ^/f means " does not belong to you."
Ay
ki dar ru-yi
In m.c. "mine, thine, etc." are generally expressed by JU mal-i man "mine" ,y|jj "property." Ex. U&^
:
JU>,
(
lit.
a
^*y
^ JU
c5j^*
mal-i
man u shuma
"
i^jj/h-?
tawfir na-ddrad
:
classical c/f is also used, as
gdv-i az an-i
^^f
er*^y
they had out a
bull
"whatever is mine is yours." Barahman birun dvardand uf jl belonging to some Brahmin."

and
in
The
8
Remark.
Possession, in classical
sometimes be expressed by the dative case, as " the ghuldm-i bud king had a slave."
33.
modern written Persian, can j>y \> *U^b pddishdh-ra

:
^^
Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns.
(Ism-i mushtarik
(a)
^j&> p)
also
tX/Uy^
Zamir-i
ta^kid.)
There are three reflexive pronouns in the
classical language,
,>>*
khud* (Ji<^ khwish? and v^j**- khwishtan, meaning "self": they are indeclinable and as a rule can refer only to the subject of the sentence they take the place of the personal and possessive pronouns when they refer to
:
the subject. of the three

use:
(1) oJJ)
Khudis
is
applicable to either animate or inanimate nouns, and the most common. The following examples will explain their
j^ &Uu jf
u
b%
" he went to his khdna-yi khud raft

raft
own house"
bi-khdna-yi u
"he went
to his (somebody else's) house";
Note plural verb after har. Note that JU> need not be repeated before I-*-* yj*^ taw/ir, A. increasing, etc." in modern Persian has come to signify " difference." S Broken pi. **A|y Barahima. * Note that the u is short, vide remarks on on ^ 2: khud signifies "a helmet.'* From bbrtd " self " is derived the Persian word Khuda " God " (the self -existing). 5 Note that the In modern Persian 2. j is not pronounced, vide Remarks on j " khwish means also " a plough." The Afghans and Indians say l&weah for self;'*
I
78
a.

&U\j
l/o
ma
t;
bi-Tchana-yi
&l- >>
^J; ^x>
' '
khud raftim " we went to our own house " ; maw Za?/d ra oar khana-yi khud-ash dldam " I saw
Zayd
in his
own house
but
man Zayd
ra dar Wmna-yi Jchud didam
\)
&j (^
&1&. would mean " I saw Zayd in own house.' f&t, &jo* is used in classical as well as in modern Persian, as :
my
'
Khud-ash
"
A
In
stag that enters the haunt of lions,

its
home
will
make a
death- vacancy
(Anv. Suh., Chap. IV,

possessive pronoun.
(2) fi*> tjL. Jchud
St. 7): in
the preceding examples
j^
is
for
the
"
myself, I
went "
<2>>^
raftam
yii>;
forcibly *u>;
v*)U^|
I;
himself"; instances khud

(3)
cJtf
" I went j^ myself ", or more forcibly " *j^ khud raftand they went themselves", or more ba khud burd t>^ J "he took it away with khud ra kusht
^ ^
in these
^"
he killed himself":
is reflexive.
$>L Jac tj er^ **A Aama âs-m 'ag^-i Mwd numayad (Sa*d!) "every one thinks his own brains perfect," and similar sentences, the reflexive pronoun is necessary hama leas u*^ *+*
In the sentence <xUi
JU?
bi-kamal
though grammatically in the dative must be considered the

the sentence.
(4)
logical subject of
With immaterial
The phrase
his, etc.,
things,
" fame " love ",
"
,
etc.,
khud
{i
or khwlsh
(J^.^- in their possessive sense are used,

(5)
and not khwishtan

' '
^>^.
^j-iu j>^k
khud bi-khud
"
,
signifies
spontaneously
"of
my, thy,
(6)
own
accord."
In the language of mysticism

'
^yi^j
bi-khudi or
^^^-^
oJla. halat-i
bi-khudi signifies a state of religious abstraction or ecstacy in temporarily leaves the body.'
which the soul

from Umar-i
AT
'
Note the meanings
of
khud ,^* in the following two

**
lines
Khayyam
*
:
*3 **
f^r-*
g
chi
SjLJi^ ^^LbjJi
?
c^^f
tu ba khud-i na-danisti hich
Farda
ki zi
khud ram
khwahi danist
Thou who
whilst in possession of thyself knowest naught To-morrow (i.e. the day of Judgment) when thou leavest thyself
"But,
(by death), what more wilt thou know ? if you know naught here, while still yourself,
of self,
To-morrow, stripped
what can you know? (0. K. Rub. 52 Whin.}.
"
suicide."
the
Khayyam "tent-sewer," the taTchflllua (poetical profession of Umar in either case the izafat.
*
;
'
nom de plume
')
or possibly
Past tense with present meaning.
For Jf
poetical license.

A
j
31
15
79
A^
OM|
v^f^-
Asuljl
;l
IT
Jtt a^Z-i gwftflr
Ma& gashtand u
!
ghubdr
Bi-khud shuda va bl-khdbar-and az hama kdr Ear zarra zi har zarra giriftand kindr
Ah ! in chi sardb ast ki td "The tenants of the tombs

Nescient of
self,
ruz-i
shumdr
and
to dust decay, all beside are they;
Their sundered atoms float about the world, Like mirage clouds, until the judgment day."
Remark
rdy
"
I.
Khud
colloquially, as:
<^
^ ^
J>
;
(0.
is
K. Rub. 242 Whin.).

' '
largely used in
compounds, both
;
self- opiniona ted

;
" posure" esA^ khudi (rare) egotism." Remark II. In the speech of the vulgar, khud Uî. before the affixed pronouns, which is contracted
khud-bin "proud, self -conceited khudr khud-ddrl (m.c.) "self-possession, com-
^^
:
classically
and
^la^
has a plural khudrhd as follows

(vulg.)
;
Khudhdyimdn e>Mjkj>^, khudhd and so on for the other persons.

(6)
man
&\*{&zjs>*,
and khuddmdn
<JS
For emphasis, the Arabic phrase *~ij

(or
bi-nafsi-hi signifying in proprid

all
51
personnd
yM^b
U-n-nafsi)* can follow

:
^, etc., for
<*~ftij
speaking and
(
Ex. <**>* ( ^tiJl or) khud-ash rd biwriting. ^ o ' ' I saw him in his own person *--&ij *j^ Ûo| nafsih or bi-n-nafs) didam tshdn khud bi-nafs-ih raftand "they themselves, personally, went." *xiiJ; (c) Khwish cAl^ can be substituted for tj^ in places where the latter
' ' ;
^
:
persons, both in
signifies
possession, but JS^^ rarely -like &j*> stands substantive. It is also classically used in compounds, as
alone
without a
<^# <JV.j^ khw%shbtn. As a reflexive pronoun tj^tj^ is not used in m.c., vide (/). Example of khwlsh Jb.j^ standing alone
:
Chu 3
dil bi-dustt-yash
khwlsh rd 'alam sdzad

'alam bar afrdzad ?
(Anvdr-i Suh., Chap. I, St. 15.)
Chird bi-dusJimani-yi
man
"My heart affection's flag for him displays Why should he then a hostile banner raise
' '
(East. Trans.)
But Ichud-rcfl subs. \) &js* The Persians usually follow the modern Arabic pronunciation and say bi-nafsih As already stated, the in the first instance and bin-nafs <j"JU*ta in the second. For the doubling of the n in the final short vowels are omitted in modern Arabic. In *~&? the final hi is the third person masc. affixed second instance, vide 10.
" : in Arabic this final * 4 he, it pronoun would be changed to agree with the this point subject or object, in number and gender, etc., but the Persians often neglect of Arabic syntax. In writing they, however, also do use the Arabic dual and plural
pronoun
forms bi-nafsihunia and bi-nafsihum,
8
Chu ^-
is in
speaking always
chi.
80
Khwlsh Ju^. is applied to persons only, but cannot be employed to emphasize a noun or a pronoun man khwlsh raftam p&j JH^ w* cou ld not
:
be said.
(d)
Khwlshtan ^y&jja.
is
compounded
of
"
body
"
;
Jk^
:
khwish and
it
tan
it is
both possessive and reflexive, and unlike <J^y**
can stand
alone and can emphasize a noun or pronoun. Ex. oJ*' I; c&* j*> khwlshtan rd " he killed himself " kusht Ij (^yô^ &$)\ (jj*> har has awldd-i ajla** khwlshtan rd dust ml-ddrad (m.c.) "every one loves his own offspring":
;
oâ
^=~*t
errft-
"
(class.)
e^*i^ ^^ l> ^LH^f ddaml-zdd man holds his own life dear", or "
Tarh-i dunyd bi-mardum
his
rd jdn-i khwlshtan shlrln ast own life is dear to man."
dmuzand
' '
To
Khwishtan slm u ghalla anduzand(Sa,'dl}. others they teach retirement from the world
While they themselves are engrossed in collecting
grain."
silver
and
Khwishtan î^j^L also occurs in a few compounds, as: khwishtan-bm

ÂJ ^yL^sL
(class).
^y&^L is applicable to rational beings only. In modern (e) colloquial, although z^ is occasionally used alone, it is more usual for it to be coupled with the affixed or separate pronouns singular and plural. Ex. +M& (^ ^^L. khud-i man guftam* (m.c. only), or /*ii^ f&j^
:
Khwishtan
khud-am guftam
(m.c.
(m.c.)
"I
myself said"
ojjXfif
(+
^^L khud-i shumd guftld
only), or
**&
&\3 tj^.lchud-itan guftld (m.c. only)

raft (vulg.), cuf)
"
said";
^; u*^
"that
khudash
uf
(m.c. only)
man went
himself ";
^^
khud-i
you yourselves an mard raft
dar khud-i shahr (m.c.
only)
"in the city itself." The form.s khud-am fi>^, khud-at
ei>â, etc., are also classical, as
j**
indn-i irddat bi-dast-i tu
Ya'nl ki man kiyam bi-murdd-i khud-am rasdn Khasm-at kuja-st zlr-i qudum-i khud-at figan Tdr-i tu klst bar sar u chashm-i man-ash nishdn
(Hdfiz, Letter
Nun.)
stani,
Note that (^s adaml "man" has three syllables and not two as in Hindubut adam-l " a man" also that fehwishtan &&?.f^ does not here refer to the
:
*
grammatical subject of the sentence. However in sentences of this kind where no ambiguity can arise, "his own, etc." must be rendered by a reflexive and not by a separate personal pronoun. Note the m.c. position of Wivd t>- and the izafat o-*Uf : classically
man
kh.ud guftam.
81
In ordinary conversation the rule that the reflexive pronoun should be used when the pronoun refers to the subject, is frequently broken if no ambiguity can arise from the violation of the rule, thus *a>tîujA>
I.
:
Remark
rd bi-shuram "I wish to wash my hands," PJ&J !^*X,A mi-khhwdham dastam instead of f)>& !/*>>* ^"** f**!* "** mi-khwdham dast-i khudam-rd bi-shuram khudam bi-chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c. and (m.c.): f*?.t p&>=^ jo^k
3
f*j* emphatic) "7, / myself, with
my
is
very
own
eyes saw
"
(it)
vide last
two
examples in
(a) (1).
Remark
U
is
^ &Uu
III.
II.
Though khud
ujlj/ are occasionally
indeclinable, such (incorrect) expressions as met with.

as possessives
The advantage of using the affixed pronouns with khud *j> shown in the last two examples of (a) (1).
Remark
again," while
vide lines in (a)
^^
(6).
In m.c., the phrase fty&* bi-khudam means
"I am myself Vi-khud means "foolish, useless; also in a fault":
is usually used as a substantive only, signifying (/) In the m.c. " a relation " khwishan u dustdn &\L*j*j cjl4?y^ " relations and friends " khwish u gawmi na ddrad "he has no kith or kin."
;
^^
va hukama* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwish ast na barddar ast va na khwish ast (Sa'dl) " and the sages have said that a brother who is wrapped " in this extract from the Gulistdn up in self is neither brother nor kinsman
:
there
a play on the two meanings of khwish *^>^J7? without the second ast].
is
[another reading
is
barddar-i ki
Khwishdwand
modern.
(g)
*>j(&jjL.
subs,
"a
relation,
kinsman,"
is
classical
and
the
Khwishtan w**>^
(d).
is
used in m.c. for the reflexive pronoun
(in
ace.)
for its use, vide
In modern Persian, spoken or written, the affixed pronouns can take the place of the reflexives when the latter are used as possessives, as " 1 want to wash mi-khwdham dast-am rd bi-shuram ^)^> fj my p>~* Â^.iux/0 hands" (for dast-i khud rd \) (t^ o~-o or dast-i khudam-rd \) )
(h)
{^ ô
1 dyd shumd dya-tdn rd khwdnda id?
^wi^
ylijf
U^
Lf "have you read
your verse
J^frXao
' '
The separate pronouns cannot be
so used.
It should
be noticed that
stand either for dast-am rd or dast-i mard, but tyo ^~* represents only dast-i mard. (i) Yak-digar jA^j and Jwm-digar j&.*+* "one another; each other"
may
are reciprocal pronouns: yak-digar rd mi-zanand

striking each other; fighting together."
i^y
*4.A
^y^
I)
are j&*&> *'they
(Gul., St.
1
IX, Chap.
Hama tawdi'-i yak-digar U-kunid to each I) "do you all bid farewell
Plural ayat-i tan ra.
82
other."
SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
For
misl-i
ham
p*>
JA* "alike
(like
each other), etc.", vide under
Adverbs of Comparison.
Simple Demonstrative Pronouns (Ism-i ishdra " this" (ism-i ishdra-yi qarib (a) The demonstrative pronouns are <^l in " " A ba'id an that **& x;L( ^.i) they IjUi p\ ) and e/T (ism-i ishara-yi refer either to persons or things, * and precede the noun they qualify. When
34.
;
qualifying a
e)j
etf!
noun they
"this
are indeclinable.
Ex.
&>.\
,y> i^l in
mard "
this
man
' '
in zan
i
woman";
n mardumdn " these men."
^^
is
in kitdb-Tid
"these books "
Remark.
The noun demonstrated
called &d\ jU-*.
(b) A more ancient form of e^Jt was im, which perhaps remains in J imruz "to-day"; JL~<| imsal "this (current) year"; v*** imshdb "to" this time " 9 "this Imsubh night"; and inject im&ar (old). ft
/*!.
'
morning
In
' '
"
^f*
also occurs,
but
is
not chaste.
inan
cjlxjt
are used for rational beings (zi-ruh jj?.& ) sometimes as a separate " and substitute for and in the sense of c^l " they IfM inha and t^Jf anhd for things ghayr-i zi-ruh These plurals are used only when the j>jt*
those
"
classical Persian the plurals
and anan o^f "these" and
j-
pronouns stand alone as a separate substitute for a substantive. Ex. AJJ lif those who existed before ***>&* ^ Jf <-!*$ ananilci qabl az ma mi-budand 8 us," Note the relative aâw. In modern Persian 42 (</)] after c^f [vide
:
' '
these plurals in an of are rarely used even in writing and then only if followed " by the relative ki **. Anha lei ** l^T, or anhdî ki A^jJl^t =" they who
(ishan ki a\JLl|t cannot be used).
Anhd
(ki) is
however
classically
used for " they
"
:
zir-i qadam farsudand V'andar talab-ash har dujahdn paymudand "The sages who have compassed sea and land, Their secret to search out and understand, "
(O.
K. Rub. 151 Whin.)
In conjunction with the preposition

:
and
e*^
bi-dan sabab, bi-din sabab or
frequently in classical and in m.e. jihat are used in m.c. ; but not bi-dan mard*J
* '
bi-dan zan.
The demonstrative pronoun for ** that must not be confounded with the Arabic word c/f '" time." The is) of these pronouns must not be pronounced nasally a common fault amongst English that are accustomed to speak Hindustani. In m.c. an
frequently pronounced un.
4
is
^f
iUwk y
*$
e/f Jacu
its (of
except this that
thou art
the house) neighbour "
f& guftam ba-juz an U tu hamsaya-yi ifi (Sa'di), " I said

;
here jf
is
used for e/f
vide also
30
(6)
8
and 34 (n) (10). In modern Persian budand î^ would be used. Har du jahan &^jbj& i.e., this world and the next.
t

*
SS
l^f
dmadand dar-jush shudand " have come and run their eager race." Many
ki dar
(c)
Anhd
In modern Persian the plural in ha

Lfjf
jjf
aU*
tnM "he
sa/?d
and those black

lîjlj
"
m aw&a siydh and

"
' '
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 237.) only, is used. Ex. j x>Ju lî these (things or persons) are white
bi-dnhd in'dm dad va ba-inhd

(or to
dushndm
(m.c.) afa fUJj LîU
flij> (or lo the latter)."

(d)
gave rewards to those

*
the former) and abuse to these
For phrases
txuf^j (ôaj
"some
mine," etc., twfe ^/o e/f J| are of opinion" is classical

'
32
'
(/).
Ba'zi bar dn-and
as well
idiom occurs in the Iqbdl-Ndma-yi Jahdngiri,

Beng. As. Soc.
vide
as modern; this p. 19, Ed. Bib. Ind. of
" former
(/)
(e)
In
:
^
>
also
means " the
latter
"
(i.e.
the nearer of two), and
e/f
"the
Ex.:
c<
vide
Example second in
(c),
and Syntax.
&f $ means "for that reason,

c/f jt
**
f&
b cx<<=w
^f j
for that purpose," classical. va in hikayat bd tu az an guftam ki (class.)
reason for relating this story was
"
my
so also
'&y*
Shaykh Sa'd! says

s
;>^
*>jj*-
tt)t^Ju.(
8
*$
oî dt
J(
c;U/o
A^
^,
î^
Humdy
* '
bar
hama murgJian az an
sharaf ddrad
t>0^ Apparently
i$
Ki ustukhwan khurad va jdn-war naydzdrad The Huma * is exalted above all birds because It lives on bones and injures no living thing."
c/f
jt
stands
\j
in
such
7i
sentences
for
ojlj
e>f
31
fjji/o
Uj
^f j&su
mi-guyam
ki (m.o.)
"
(fijA>
^f
vide
harfhd rd bi-khdtir~i
an bi-shumd
."
I tell
you
all this,
only that (merely that) you

Conjunctions.
Remark.
(g)
Compare
*S
Uuf Ji
Compound
Note the employment classical and modern

gardam
fj
of e/f in the following
examples which are both

ast ki
^\^ M "
J:>
|/
*$ -=-^f
is this,
B
of tr* ouxU.
ki az
hdjat-i
man an
mard
;
dil-shdd
e/f
Â ^jjf ^
wound
1
my
need
that thou shouldst
make me happy"
&
f#
of
blm-i
an bud
zakhm haldk shavam "I nearly died
the
(lit.
there was a fear of that, that I might die of the wound)."

is
j<>
In modern Persian *$ c
After the prepositions J.
used in writing, but seldom or never man e and jt, the alii of these demonstrative pronouns
to their preposition in one word.
may be omitted, and they may be joined

titf'
Ex.
(jt.jb
for
)*
3
e^r?
etfjt
v*dk page 69, note
1.
No
wo/ctf after
&*A
mc
.
requires the iza/at.
The huma UA Or humay <ÛA i s the bearded vulture or lammergeir and is not a fabulous bird as translators have supposed: vide Jl. As. Soc. Beng., Dec. 1906. There falls will are however fables attached to it; one is that the person on whom its shadow witl occur will death his kills one if rise to sovereignty it, another that any ausicious," etc. uaun " auspicous days from this word is derived the adjective elM ** humayun 6 The izafat cannot be omitted after blm.
*
; 1
:
84
\
Ûy
(S'adl).
Gar kushi var jurm bakhshi ruy u sar bar dstdn-am Banda rd farmdn na-bdshad har-chi farmd*i bar dn-am
"Whether thou
slayest or pardonest,
;
Thy
slave
(I)
has no will
on thy threshold, my whatever thou decreest he accepts with

head
is
laid
resignation."
(GuL, Chap. II, St.
2.)
In classical and modern Persian the phrase
^f j
c^-a*? ba'zi
bar dn-and
"some
(h)
are of opinion/' etc., is of
common
occurrence.
In mystic poetry
c/f is
often a substantive and signifies something
that can be felt rather than defined, grace, individuality. The following two examples, which the writer does not attempt to translate, exemplify this
obscure meaning
"
JU)
a;fa
w>>J
jjx
}
ka. j^ta
i;ta ctft
o~*oi
***f
t5*f
**
of
lab-i la'l
Shdhid in nist ki ddrad khaLi sabz u
Skdhid an ast ki in ddrad
dn-i\
ddrad
Shdhid an
Banda-yi
nist ki
c
mu*iyyu
s
tal at-i-dn
miydn-i ddrad bash ki dn-i ddrad

:
in
In m.c. in u an signifies various things, as (i) u an shud "we talked of this and that (different & "neither this nor Na in va na an c/f &> j
<j/f
>
^\
o^3cu suhbat-i
topics)."
that, neither the one nor
the other"
Sufi shuda-i, in na-khwuri an na-khwuri? Dar-khwurd-i tu sang-ast; bi-raw sang bi-khwur (O.K.) " Sufis, you say, must not take this nor that,
Then go and eat the pebbles 4

In man-am
is
off
the plain."
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 251.)

ki
mi-ravam
to start, or I will go
"
;
(m.c.)
^^ &
in u'st
"
o~y
^
:
ô ^\
(or
am
just going or about
inak u'st o^jt
^j\
" here he
6
;
in u'st ki mi-ravad
is
"he
:
is
just going."
Var
poetical for j?\
am
at the
end
of the lines stands for
"I am " and
is
not the affixed pronoun.

1
8
Tashdldon the by poetical " face." or gal' at aspect

Sang Miwurdan eJ^jj^
Inak manram
license
"one hair."
* '
;
-&
also
means "to be stoned
there
is
a double
meaning.
5
** -A?', or Inja-yam ^jlijf m.c. **herel
am."

(j)
86
you,"
In the following m.c. sentence f**~) &*> ** o kar bi-kun va ilia in ast ki man rasidam " work or else I shall be down on " here I in ast is used in a dramatic sense and i.e. I'll
signifies
am,"
be with you but not in in
-xl
could be substituted for in ast ki o*~$"
&i.j|
in this sense'
this is
ast ki ba
shuma guftam
p&
**"
ut
which means "
the reason that I spoke to you."

(k)
l*</ c>f j in kuja e^f colloquial and classical phrase va an kuja " where is this and where is that," signifies 'you can't even compare the two one is so much the superior to the other.'
(I)
The modern
"
The following idiom

îut
'
'
is old,
Jt
but
still
in use
ijjj
mara yad
remind
at |yo fj j\9 bidih
ji &f t*l I
when
' '
.
am
at leisure
&&$ chun az in ki from this (work) that
amongst the Afghans dar inam farigk shawam

:
am engaged in,
me
(of that)
(a) it
(m) In
was stated that the demonstrative pronouns precede their

:
nouns, but this rule is violated when emphasis is necessary. Ex. )\j~ * the horse I rode o~ijf %*, asp-i ki savar shuda budam in ast jo^>
' '
Â*.|
this
is it."
(n)
The following added instances
of
demonstrative pronouns perhaps

*
exhaust their meanings in the m.c.

(1)
u kushti mi-giriftam " otherwise in
fiô ^^ j|
b c?&l~
^J &ti )*
J va
ilia
dar in panjah-salagi
ba
spile of these fifty years of

fifty years of
have wrestled with him, even with these No. (8).

(2)
mine
A
mine, I would ." Vide also
<^*i
rasidid;
arrived;
A^WJ *>.***} U^ UlAi| ittifaq an shuma waqti-ki nazdik-tar shudi an ham chara na-did "by chance you when you drew near, he too (the other party over there) saw no
ajU.
p*
elf
^^w
^j^
help for
it
."
Remark.
Note the slovenly change from plural to singular in the verbs.
Nazdiktar j&.ty means "nearer than you were " better u. Note the use of e)T for jf he ;
' '
when you
rasidid
(3)
<uiij \)jj*t *Z
**>*)
&]** )
&*j& &j&jtk**j
l
.
bar yak digar
mi-burdand va bi-dan rasid ki kaniz ra bi-kushtand

of
"
(class.)
they got jealous
one another and matters
reached to such a pitch that they
killed
the girl."
now";
^
also
Panjah-sala *JL.
panjah-aalagl
3
Û
" behold, lo" used in writing and in m.c. l^b a dj. from t^J "fifty" and "year": subs.
;
JU
Jjl-îj
the state of being

:
Gbayrat
"a
o^ here jealousy
years old." this word has generally a good sense

fifty
and means
honour; jealousy for the honour of one's womankind." Bi-ghayrat &j**X (m.c.) is used as an abusive term by Muslims. In modern Persian hasad *-*> " " or rashk <-; would be substituted for ghayrat &j in the sense of envy in the
nice sense of
above example.
86
(4)

e^l
Jt
**J
cs*^
chand-i
ba'd az-in (classical
and
"a ba'd-az chand-i
little after this
"
;
**f
amad
ddrad
(class.)
(5)
*& ow^
" a few days passed after this." ^jj AJ e~k&i A>" e;T clixj ^|^S
y (^ ^
oj
m.c.)
= f^***.
j|
jjy
<.$#) rwz-
c^cwd bar In bar
^lÛ
'adatha-yi bad na(a little girl)
misl-i an-ki angusht bi-bini-yi khud-ash bi~kunad
" she
has
no bad habits such as picking her nose."

Remark.
after
it.
Angusht
is
used in a general sense and does not require
fj
(6) o**o
Ub a
Jti)
ls<..u
^jf in-ham panjah dana

no
tila *st
"and
here are
fifty
pieces of gold."
Remark.
fa
Note that there

tila
is
izafat after
dana ;
also ow-oXfc for
dana-yi
could also be said.
(7)
A^ ^ly
^^t
baray-i
an-M " because

i^f<V
."
(8) 4>U*|
Aa.
t/;^
îa.j^
ai"
(*t^lx eJtîp-
bi~dan buzurgi chi taur uftad (m.c.)
"I
hayran mandam ki dirakht-% remained lost in astonishment as to
how
No.
a tree of such size

(1).
(or in spite of its size) could
have
fallen
' '
:
vide also
Remark.
(9)
The
JU
clause after *$
f^
is
in the direct narration.
tejf
VÔKU* ^^JUii )&
Jftfcl
VJ^
darb-i utaq ra sakht du-dasti baz
karda
vtf ^) (^^ ^3 Z^6a khanum zud an " Ziba Khanum suddenly and violently
with both hands bursts open the other door of the room
(10) AJU/ \)J ty AU^ <_â. erAJ pish-i man " I had a few girifta (Afghan) rupees by me; taking
8
."
^J
:
chiz-1
it
rupiya bud
u ra
." This
Remark.
idiom
is
Note
\^\
u-ra for
tj
e;T
the latter would be more correct.
common amongst
the Afghans. 4
(11) j e/f oJj e/f )& j f*j* j'< \^.\ u* o^j e^' )* dar ^n vaqt man * n kar mi-kardam va dar an vaqt an Mr (Afân) "at one (special) time I did one
thing and at another fixed time another."

(12)
aUi
not."
i.e.
* o~| ^jf Jix misl-i m ast ki na-bashad "it "not worth speaking of, contemptible."
is
as
if it
were
an indefinite quantity; some a little while." Panjah ashrafi (now a two-tuman piece) or panjah lira or some such phrase would ordinarily be used instead of panjah dana tila. " a little.*' In m.c. nazd-i man 3 Chlz-l (sJfc*- m.c. and classical for <_>*' qadr-l chand rupiya-l or chand dana rupiya bud.
1
Classically chande,
j>\
and ishan
U^t
are strictly applicable to rational beings only

is
except in
2 to
the case of personification.
This rule
however frequently neglected.

jt
For
34
(a).
classical
examples of substitution of
for cut
vide
30
(6)
and footnote
EMPHATIC DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

IS
87
td inki
and
af
13
anH
"until, before
a ln-ki dnjd rasidam u murda bud
had died"
^ ruz bi-ruz bar *jîu t^y'f vlr* jtf ) p*jj*\ " dnki shardb asar ta nami-bakhshld miqddr mi-afzudam every day (m.c.) I increased the quantity (a little) till (at length) wine lost its exhilarating
:
13 (*^-; l?of *&jt (m.c.) "before I arrived there he

:
"
jt
^j^S.
effect."
(13)
In bud
ki
&f
^ ^f
"this was the reason
that": an
ki.
ki
*&f
(classically
(o)
and
in
modern
writing)
"he who "
not u
" behold here, here is," and anak J^f "behold yonder, there is," the affix appears to be the diminutive affix, but the signification is intensive J&f "behold, here I am " inak ml-dyad *jf' J&t " here p**> he is coming ": 'Usmdn Aghd (inak ndm-i u) ( j 'Usman ) l*f Ûlc j*l> " behold here am I." such was his inak-am
In inak
cJouf
:
^1
Aîa
(for
name)"
"
! ;
ft
whXjt
(p)
Ant oJf
is
;
" that " for thee
"bravo and ant o*if or anat oJf, for an tura\j* of " also int bravo " and mt OA>| or in-at of &\ "this
!
for thee," occur only in poetry.

35.
Hamm
very one
of
' '
u-h**
"
Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns. this same one, this very one" and &{+* haman "that
l
more emphatic forms of the demonstrative pronoun and are more frequent use in the modern language than in the classical. They are
are
ruz
simply the demonstratives strengthened by the particle = ham dar an ruz j$j of ^>, etc., etc. jj) cA*A j^
ham
/**
dar
haman
illus-
In m.c. the plurals
and Û^ are also used. trated below. Examples

Ifjo+tb
:
These words have other significations

' (
(a)
" as
Haman&(+* haman &(+& signifies " soon as o^ oU-*

:
when
--then (that same time),"

birun amadan-i khun
haman va murdan-i baradar-am haman bud "

brother died,"
as well as m.c.
(b)
:
O^jt &*j*j
c^
o^^f &jj
."
2
as soon as he
was bled
my
"no
sooner was he bled than

(c).
This idiom
is classical
vide also
" the same." Ex.: also mean oU* ^\ " " this is the very same one you saw &.$ o*| in haman ast ki didM " we came >* jl ^2; Tiamm rah amadlm by this very road, this is A the same road we came by." j^j &*+*> e^ u^ [^ khwahish-i man hamln bud
Hamm
u*** and haman
o **
1
"
my
desire
was the same:

f!
this very thing
was what
I too
wished"
he
man
ham dn-am
&$
a>Ujk
<j*>
(m.c.)
" I
am
that very person, I
am
"
:
*î** ^
ÛA ma
hamishd hamdn-lm ki budim (m.c.) " we are always just as

are always the
we have been, we
1
same."
;
In m.c. often pronounced hamun

etc.
for
^1
f*>
and of f*,
jf
the emphatic p* are
Or birun amadan-i k&un va murdan-i baradar-am
yak-l bud (m.c.) c)
88
(c)
COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
" came, he went [Me

(d)
o^ j]
f **f
*$ (î-*^
(a)].
hamm
ki
dmadam u
raft (m.c.)
" as soon as
hamm yak dana, " only this one " (classical and m.c.). f <x &L^ U ^x^ hamm ja kushta shud, " he was killed in this very (e) "= the spot"; t^j* e^** hamm fardd (m.c.) "not later than to-morrow
AJb <->
<irt+
English vulgarism
(/)
" to-morrow
as ever is."
&
bud
hamm
hamdn va sukhanhd-yash " such was his conduct and such were his words." (m.c.)
(j-i**
t&ty&^j
ejUA Jiote^ harakdt-ash
36.
Compound Demonstrative Pronouns.

l ,
:
" are like, manner, etc." Compounds with the adverb u^ chun " such = like and churiin âm this) îs<.+a> c^ (1) (.îa. chunm (for " also adverb " in this manner." a one as this " such like that ') and c^? -** ham-chundn (2) c>^ chunan (for of c#*" " " in that also adverb manner a one as that ts*j* &&%- J cH^ chunm " so did so and va chunan kardl ^lU. j i^- J^ eyê surat-i Ml you chunm va chunan bud the matter was so-and-so
(a)
'
' *
' '
' '
here chunan va
chunm
i^^-
'
(&**-j D&**
is
contemptuous,
cjlia-
Oh
So-and-so.'
Remark.
n^f *w
chumn s and
*
^f aw chunan are rather more
emphatic forms.
& chunm shakhs-l suhbat na-bdyad kard " one should not converse with such a person" cx*f n^^> chunm ast? (m.c.) " is the case so is it so ? " here chunm 1^3. is an adverb. 5
(6)
j>y
<xiUJ
o^sv-* ^âiu^ ^jJu^ U
'<
Chunm &***- can be combined with <^l 6 as, ^cj^ ^f *A*>J ^^^ *^ *i^w pish-i man in chunm chlz-l na-bud ki 'iwaz bi-diham " " I had no such thing with me that I could give in exchange
(c)
;
^^
îxj
15
f&*) f^J*
^^ ^
(m.c.)
c ^ un^ n
travelled a farsakh
1
"
;
ya ^
iars akh raftim
' '
here
m chunm &&*
(m.c.)
is
in
this
manner we
an adverb. 7
2
3
*
5
Chun cJ>^ also means " how?, because and when." Tu kaun hai ay aise taise ? (Urdu). Dar talash-i In chunln jcir-i budam f^ tP^ LJ*^ L^' U*^JÔr 65 chunln ashMLas oclsxAt ^t^ ^ (without (^ of unity).
Chunln ert^- and chunan c>^Similarly chunan
are asma-yi kinayat.
^^-
with an.
Ex.
va
faivr-i-ki
an murgh-ha avaz ml-kardand
an chunan gah-l na-shunlda budam j*^J jsîij^(f ^lisJf ^.^Cjxj Jt^f l^* ^f j I had never heard birds sing as those did." (class.) 1 The <^ of unity can be added to chunan &&* and ham-chunan &(^+* (but rarely if ever to chunln or ham-chunln) vide page 89, note 2.
'
:
^^
&\y
-*
Lc^b ^^l
/o
jf
*<jol
AA.
ki az madar-i parsa
(Shah-Nama,
Jild-i
Avval,
Birzayad, shavad bar jahan padishah Ra 9 y zadan-i Kaywus dar kar-i Sudaba va Siy 9aush).

Remark.
(d)
89
In the second exam pie )> ^t In tawr would be more usual.

*
' '
1 chundn u chunin kardan (or guftan) &*j* LrtJ^ J o ^crastinate, evade, have recourse to subterfuge."
to pro-
(e)
Chunmhd
lf*i^
and chundnhd
l^^ "such
like things
"
are not used.
ham-chunin is merely a more emphatic form of (&**- chunin. (/) îsufrA "a Ex. cWf Lwijf ^-aiu* <.>*+* ham-chunin shakhs-1 mjd dmad (m.c.) person
:
exactly like this

4
(
act like
" this
came here": e^jêJ*^ -**

1
fitMnrShunin kdr bi-kun (m.c.)

is
in the latter example ham-chunin
an adverb
&
^ÂXSUÂ
fj]&
/A
{.}*
Lj\z)jjji ham-chunin ki tu zur ddri

so
man ham-ddram
(m.c.)
"just
as
you are strong,
am
I too strong."
:
him "
"
Ex. ham(g) Similarly cjtisi+A is merely a more emphatic form of c)^-' chundn ddam-l rd dnjd didam p&z l?of tj âf ^^+*> " I saw a man there just like him "; ham- chundn shakhs-1, man dar 'umr-i khud na-didam (m.c.) ^* " I have never in my life seen a man like ÂJJJ &j*> j+c )t> v* ^^sî. e)^?
1
:
^^
(J*jz
ty *ÛSI*A ^/o
man ham-chundn
(or as
ki
bud
'arz
kardam
(m.c.)
I related it exactly as it
happened
was the case)."

s
j
Remark.
It will
be noticed that Jiam-chunln ÂXSUÂ
s f or
near> an(j
ham-chundn
(h)
&(L^+*> for remote, things.
There are three other words that
may
be considered as demonstrative
pronouns and deserve notice, viz. ^-*A hamchu "so (in m.c. pronounced hamchi), such," and e*!*^ and cJl&x*- chandm* and chanddn "so much."
Their use
(1)
" the work must be done like this " *$ 6 bdyad kard (m.c.) o~*j^jJ,> j^f f&+Sb " ki he is ddam-i dilir-lst such a brave misl-ash nlst (m.c.) *s^*ojj îxc hamchu " 6 hamchu ruz that there's none like
:
best illustrated by examples. ^sb*A hamchu or ^^^^ hamchun. Ex.

is
^ Û^sw* ^
\j
kdr-rd
hamchu
man
him"; iy^*^
(class.)
clear as
daylight."
Remark.
<^f^ hamchmis
is
also occasionally
used in m.c.
:
The
follow-
âci+A j ^SL+A va hamchun hamchln-ash khusha &w^ crM^** hamchin, (vulgar) "he does it like that and like this, but this is the way that pleases him."
ing vulgar saying
1
an
illustration of these
two words
*
3
For *aFA. chunanchi and <*<a. chunanki, vide under Conjunctions. " I made a 'Arza daahtam in
^*li
is
&*>jf (m.c.)
petition
writing."
The
C5
of
unity added to
ham chunan
or
chunan
ki
occasionally
4
f* )***J? /** i^* " exactly as he was
by
Persians
** )î
:
perhaps incorrect. Ex.: l^f^jt " I was (Afghans) entangled (or

vide
by the Afghans and ** (or *^^) ^^^F

1
imprisoned)
there
vide
Adverbs and Conjunctions.

39
(g).
*
6
For chand *** " a few, etc."
Instead of hamchu ;&+*> the words hamchunan &\*XL+*> or hamchunln ould be used here.
6
In (m.c.) misl
cU
WO uld
be used instead of hamchu
90

Khusha &j*> is vulgar for khush ast vr~t <J%j&. Instead of ham-chun and hamchm u*5Â the words chunan &&*. and chunm &*** would
,
be better.
Chandan oN^ " so much as that; so many; that amount; all that " all time," and chandin (&**<* this; this long time,'' etc., are used with or
1
(2)
without a substantive.
Ex.
chandan
olîa.
*>"
chandan sharab bi-man dad ki na-tavanistam bi-khuram (m.c.) " he gave f)jî me so much wine that I couldn't drink it (all) " chandan misl-i u narm" danam ; jf Jx* ^|<xia. (m.c.)- "I don't know such a lot as he does
;
pl~J\j&
&]&
^v
f^
ut^
p>\**+>
chandan dakhl-^ bi-zaban-i Farsi na-daram pj\*> t5r)^ îV c$*^ " I have not a great knowledge of Persian."
ell***- (class.)
To chandan
murdand
ki
-
&>
Chandan-i az ta'un can be fixed as " such a number died of >^ô e/ÛDjt ^t^^plague that ."
iy|<xia>
the indefinite
Chandan-l az
m malikhulya firu
**
ki
guft
ki bish taqat-i guftan-ash
na-mand
so
much
(GuL, Chap. Ill, St. 21) ^'^^9 did he rave like this that he ceased from mere exhaustion."
UJîuJU) ^jjf
yf^
'Umr chandan-i
îLj Chandan
..."
kam bashad
life
'"
the shorter one's
parishani kam ast the less one's worry."

cXw
jliax>
j*lax>
also
means
fold"
&\<x*- *x*
i& Ijj .^fjf
chandan
ki
man
dar In
muqam mazlum shudam
sad chandan az an ziyada-tar istirahat hasil shud (m.c.) " in comparison with the oppression I underwent there, my ease was a hundredfold (lit. as much as
I
was oppressed there, a hundredfold more than that was ease obtained)."
(3)
jjX)6J
Chand/in
|j
(^^^
chandm
(e
sal ast ki
shuma ra na dida am
(i.e.
(m.c.)
^<^-
l*t
you
"
:
(*& iS o*.i JU,
it is
so
many
many)
years since I have seen
o^x
(^j|*iJ
bi-chandm
jihat (m.c.)
"for several reasons."
Remark.
Note that chandan

singular.
o!<*i^
and chandin (^.^'^ precede their
nouns which are in the

(i)
For chandanchi
chandanki &&\*i*. "as oft

etc., vide
Asuf^ "howmuchsoever, notwithstanding" and as, as many as, insomuch, although, as soon as,
Adverbs and Conjunctions.
(/) For bi-chandm martaba afzun &j_j\ the more/' vide Adverbs and Conjunctions.
*^
^^^
(class.)
"how much
With the
of
unity
chandan-i
^1^$- "of any amount, however much";
vide (3).
2
3
In modern Persian
rabt-l
Jo-^ would be used instead of <^k*O dakhl-l.
firu
^f*^" means "such a quantity" and not "such a long time." s be redundant, but I think it is meant to emphasize the fact that he raved jj may *
Chandan-i
in a low voice like one in delirium.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
37.
91
Interrogative Pronouns
Ism-i Istifham
:
^S^\
f\*
**!
strongly accented in speakthe verb or come close to it. for and immediately precede emphasis ing, which ? " both forms are used in kudam or eJ^ A > kudamin % (a)
***>
There are four interrogative pronouns or adjectives ' are ? and &* chi. 1 chand " how
kudam;
ki;
many
'
They
' '
fl*S
m.c. as well as in the classical language; they are applied to substantives,
animate or inanimate, singular or plural. Ex. oaiv f\& kudam shakhs " " which kudam rah (m.c.) " which road ? " ^jlÂ) tij j*l^ (m.c.) person ? b <*j bi-farma*id bi-bmam man ba kudam pi*? pte cui, j tWf slf/ojsuoti f\*t be pleased to say let me see with what na-mahram-ha amad u raft daram " unwarrantable people have I comings and goings ? erf & ? /*c$^
:
' '
p)<*
o*f^>
f\**
3 vjXo nami-ddnistam ki an
I
kudam mulk u kudam nahr
ast (m.c.)
" I did not know (whilst

Remark.
questions.
was gazing) what country or what

^tJ/
is
river it
was."
It will be noticed that
used both for direct and indirect

is
;
[In the last example the Imperfect " " I was not knowing (all the time I was gazing)
(b)
ast cuvoi is
used in a continuous sense, dramatic present.]
f(<3/
g*
hich
meaning, as hich yak

(c)
kudam, "none, not one of them," has the same -& but Tiich kas ^y **** means " nobody (at all)." g*&
;
:
In the modern language ^J yak-iîs generally added, as ^~~+-> /t^ kudam yak-l-st " which one is it ? " v cJ ^^.^ j*f^ kudam yak-i-shan khub ast " which of them is good ? " The answer might be ftc
:
of
of
<tf
Remark. Kudam p\* can also be used instead of the accusative plural " who ? " vide Remark to
:
(h).
For r tATy, or "every," vide 39 (?) and (k). The (e) Afghans wrongly use kudam f\*!> in the sense of the Hindustan i <{ oAf Ex. some woman told me" t5 A * \) cr^ j*'^ kudam ko,t. jj+3 &j
(A)
: :
" each
j*t4>5"
kase-ra
dldi
"have you seen anybody?":
^1**"
jjj^
'
w* &**$ 39) 5
b ^>a. ^j\ j& tj ÛJi az roz-l amadan-i man ila imroz kuddme insan ra fjjj " dar in jazira na-dida budam, from the day of my arrival till to-day I had
tdJdJ
For chiguna
*>f
as a substitute for **>, vide

t^ is
38
(a).
In the accusative
of course added, as:

:
kudamkar ra
kardl
4< " kudam ra dadl " what work have (m.c.) you done ? ^td \j f\** (class.) to which " m.c. The *& in one did you give it ? or bi kudam kas (_r& j*t^ bi-ki dadl i&\&
ordinary prepositions can of course be used for other cases.

3
Ncirmahram
fysutflj
ship (brother, etc.) permitted

*
5
"unlawful man," i.e. one not within the degree to enter the " haram."
unity.
is
of relation-
Kudami c^f^
Yak ^j numeral "one" and <^ of for kudamln (^\^
used in
class.,
and modern Persian

&> instead of
in
writing, forkudam.
In correct Persian hich insan ra IjiUol
kudam
or
kudaml insan ra
92
:
never seen any man in the island" some one " (for vJJw |j kas-i rd
v^
\j*^ kuddme-rd
?
bi-talab
"
call
^^
;
~bi-taldb).
(/)
Ki
*f "
who ?
"
ace.
|>
^ or I/ Hra " whom
"
;
dat. &*ra or bi-ki
"whose (property)?": <Â) (X Hra zacK \jf JU " whom didst thou " strike ? ^l^ *& or)l/ Hra (or fo'-H) dad? " to whom didst thou give it ?":>/ & ki kard " who did it ? " ^~l i*&~*\ *$ ki istdda " " " % ast who is standing ? i}*>^ * ki budand who were they ? " ** \> Jl~* " <>^-*> ** ki hastand &/ ckj sag ra ki vayl s kard " who loosed the dog? " who are they ? hikmat az ki amukhti * jf (or klstand *~*t " (Gul.) "from whom didst thou learn wisdom?
or A&. 1
Ex.: *$
ma?-* &t
:
1 '
) :
Remark
istifham
(
I.
^^ftLof
This interrogative pronoun (' noun or ol^ ) or kdf-i kudamiyya ( &**\*S oK ).

to
'
^
it
is
called kdf-i
When
used (interrogatively)
(
imply a negative
:
is
called
kaf-i
istifhdm-i naft
^&
(
^lâiî
o(^).
Ex.
^wU
The
^lx)|
fj^S o^^jf &Z
J&*2*
*^
lA^^/t
:
(Sa'dl).
particle
o^
tf is also a conjunction
for its various significa-
tions, etc., vide Conjunctions.
Remark
II.
In the accusative, &$

(h).
is
generally used in the singular only,
but vide Remark to

(g)
Before
j*l
am "I am" and
all its
persons, the
are
6
:
of ki is
changed into
4^ for euphony.
found: ^'^-J^
are they
' '
Ex.: J& " who is kist
y
it,
tu ki-i
"who
he
?
thou?" but
&
bi-t is
also
who
is
"
^^ o^l
ishan kiyand
"who
similar change
may
:
take place before
*i~&hastam "'lam, I exist"

' '
who are they ? and Ex. jii^ klstand (or ki hastand) persons. In the third person singular o**a> & is not used. [The contraction ^~~*f
all its
' '
stands for c^,f

(h)
vide foot-note.]
6
The
plural
cA/ kiyan
is
rare in classical Persian, but is
still
in
The remaining cases are

is
of course
dative and accusative

distinguish
it
also written
I;
formed as usual by the simple prepositions. The *>\ but in this case care must be taken to
*
kuh
&"
from the dative or accusative

be noticed that *$
plural ki-ha
is
of
*^ kih " small " or of kuh *$ poetical for
hill."
is
* It will
applicable to persons only, and to both singular and

'
plural.
3
The
also used in m.c.
Also pronounced vel to rhyme with the English bell.' is vulgar for ast. Vulgarly, *** kiya is also used final rather than of o~-a> *^. be the contraction of o*|
*
:
Kist *^~~*? appears to
6 6
(
*$ or **t Ordinarily written ^f
^.
the old Persian word
In modern Persian
e>^
is
used as the plural of
kay
=Shahin-shah), the term applied to the ancient kings of Persia before Islam.
colloquial use
<io.wf
l amongst the Afghans. Ex. o&c eh!^ ^ dar in fikr u Ichiydl bud
:
93
ji
kujd bidin makdn diiU^ "he was wondering m.c. and amadand va kiyanand (class. Persian,, Afghan) whence they came and who they were."
ki ishdn az
In the m.c. of Persia the plural
kihd or IAA* ki-ha
is
of frequent use.
Ex.
xvJ& U&a.^ dJ*x>f UAJ" ki-ha
amadand va
'
:
chi-hd guftand? (m.c.)
" what
people came and what things did they say
Remark.
did you strike
The accusative
' '
\j penis." j>$ speech it might kasdn ra zadi (m.c.) might be used, or Jjl^f j*f^ kudam ddamhd-rd
" what <^j l^ kihd rd zadi people though correct is by some avoided in talking, as in quick " the &<*. chi Instead Tcir (j(<~ sound like
plural
l>
^^
In
AJJ>JJ
A*"
classical Persian the construction
would probably be
^jbj
Ûuil
signifies
ashkhas-i
ki zadi ki
budand ?
A;i
(i)
In m.c. the phrase o*~.x& A*
bi-kist
"who
is
with
whom ? "
disorder âmongst people).
Anja ki o-oXj *fj*.

treat
raftid
*i s
?
shuma ra navazish kardand? Na khayr ki bi-ldst (m.c.) " ^H> ^ ^f when you went there did they Aid/ u43'y L>
you
well
No
j|
they were
sag-i kist
all
in a bustle."
is
(y)
o~~Af
of
cX
"whose dog
he
"
in m.c. signifies
" he
is
The idea is that a dog has no respect on its own nobody, has account, but merely some respect on account of its master, and ^^f sag kist consequently means 'he is the dog of no one of any account.'
no account."
Similarly f*~
(k)
^ *&* sag-i ki hastam?
pt^f
^~ U ma
great!
sag-i Tcistim?
*a.
chi
"what, which? what!
how
in
what manner
or
kind? why?,
Chi *^
*L?-
etc."
Ex.:
used for the singular or plural, generally for inanimate objects. ci^jolj^ &a. chi kitab-i'st ki mi-khwahi "what book do t you o~~*^ or better, want?"", ^fjwô a^lir kitdb-i ki mi-khwahi chist? : &*. " cu lÛtf in chi kitabha-st " what books are these ? **J!>> AA. LJL.|j.iu x3
is
iHiXJ **
^
:
kitdbha-i ki mi-khwdsti chi
budand? (m.c.) "what books did you want? " &*. j| az chi jihat "for what reason?": &*. ^ty bardyi-chi "for what?": chi nishini ^^^ *** (m.c.) "why I wonder are you sitting " chi nishasta*i &^J &. ditto. here ?
&<A(^(i
c^
Note that
this first
&$ ki
is
really
a conjunction and not the interrogative pronoun.
For
this connecting
2
*\
vide Relative Pronouns.

?
Or kudam
'I
kitabha-ra nii-khwasti
^Wîu/o
boxes"
-
\)\^*$ f\*f vide (m).
knew what
things were in the

&*.
danistam ki chi chlzha dar sanduqha

this sentence is correct, a Persian
bud ty
^î^ ;i
^)Jj^
*t
ÂMJI^ (m.c.).
Though
would naturally
would say kudam
in
speaking omit the word chlzha

*<*
l
^-i^ and
say danistam
:
(ki)
dar
sanduqha chi bud &j*
^5oi^ )& (if) pi~*>\& ( O r chiha \^- less common) chizha ^J**- i*? instead of 'Û^ ^^ chi chlzha.
an Afghan
94
Remark
as, chist
I.
Chi &* like "
lei
?
*S often combines with the
^~-J- " what
is it
how
"
:
chisdn
e) l~^-
word following it, "in what manner ? "

for
how ? chiguna &j*Remark II. In m.c. az chi &* j! sometimes means " of what substance or material ? It usually means
* '
'
'
1
"
what reason ? "
The dative J^ chir a "for what?' is only used as an interro" why ? wherefore?" or as a causal conjunction (tf |^ chird-ki) gative, "because that." The dative formed by the preposition can however be used. Ex. SU bi-chi jihat "for what reason ? "
(1)
:
In m.c., chira of. course" (i.e. why not ?).
Remark.
[^
is
commonly used
in the sense of
"
certainly,
(m)
{tctf
An
accusative with ra after chi

:
is
rarely used: its place
is
taken by
l
kudam, as
i<xjJU>
bi-anjdm rasdnida-i pleted," or chi kar ra bi-anjdm rasanida-i i<xoU) Ûo| AJ (; jfe &*> (rare). " which book do Chi kitab mi-khwahi ^tj^-J-* v ^ *^ (m.c.) you want
1
kar ra fûO \> f\*f " tell me comwhat have work (m.c.) yourself you
j&
o,^
khud-at bigu
kudam
"
?
" what sort also

kitab ra
%
of
mi-lchwahi?
\t>f j6
' '
book do you want ? ", but ^ya.** " " which book do you want ?
*>*-
\j
V UT j*t<^ kudam
Remark.
taken to mean
(n)
chi kar karda-i could also
be used, but might also be

'
!
what
&<*
fault
is
have you committed ?
In m.c.,
generally followed byjjja. chiz

:
" " work ", or word, matter." Ex. harf " " what is he then ?" (i.e. nothing"); p%*?*. ** " are we hich-im
o^
o^f jj^
"thing", aa. j\ u chi
kar
chiz ast
chi chiz-im
" what are we ?"
(i.e.
/*jf
*$*>
nothing").
(o)
The following
4
are
?
common
colloquialisms
I to
8
:
&*.
?
business
is it of
mine
what have
do with
also
it
"
it
^^
:
bi-man chi
:
' '
what
*^^ etc.
ya'm
chi
chi
"what do you mean?",

;
;
"is
chdra "
to do?
what remedy?" 5>b iyl^ what can he do? 6 (nothing)"

a
i.e.
aa. c^' ;a/t
possible?": *>U* darad "what is he able
"what
guft ki chi
1
chi hdlat mi-kashad <x^* oJti. how aT oif miserable is he 6 !: state he is suffering," " he said what ? ": <^x^ tf o^f ^t* a^ 4 u chi sag-i ^J|b j
The ra necessary
Plural ace.
after
kudam
|j
1
3
kudam
kitabha ra
:
Vulgarly ^5*-
cM
(^
*^ cM
&*.
c^*
what
"
or
'*
what thing^ "
is
common
vulgarism.
4
t*j
?
îijâ, AJ|^J
(Sa'dl, verse)
A^
of
bi-kushad
6 6
" what
J|
(yo
care I that the

<ijl
war g az %n chi moth kills itself

**
jt.
Also u chi jism

Also
c/ii
u jan darad ?
^^ ^
~^
baray-ash mi-guzarad
ast ki
sar-i
95
(lit.
bala-yam
bi-nishmad
he
?)
to
sit (at table, etc.)
above
"who me "
?
t)
is
he then
what a dog
is
(p) &*.
What? Ex.
^t* ** jj^y>
^ <-M
a*.
shash nan ra har ruz chi

' '
mi-kuni
* '
what do you do with the

ji
six loaves every
day ?
,^^
jyHj^Hs*
mi-khwahi chi-kuni (vulgarism)

>\j>
olo
chi
*T
J.A
Û
cAt
"what do you want to do"?: ^fô ml-danam shayad ki u ham najat ydbad " what do
' ' :
^
I
know but
that he too
(m.c.)
am
shud*
may escape ? ^.t îtA>i warn? ddnam "I don't know what became of my horse"
*x
:
asp-
bakhshidam; kamzak ra (j cî* fyxAiuÎj sii/a/fc îT " " the I do with the girl? is but can what (Sa'di) negro yours
ra
fti-fat
chi
U* fj kunam
Remark.
** "
It will be noticed that ** is used in indirect as well as in
direct questions.
(q)
; '
How
how
fearful,
" " what " Ex. &# ^'^ >** *^ chi-qadr* hawlndk bud " &*. ^ô man chi kambakht am how terrifying it was ^fv^.io^'
!
! :
' '
unfortunate
(r)
&^
am I ": v^ J-^ *^ chi ma-nzil-i khub "what "How? In what manner? why?": i* JÛ
!
a fine mansion !"
zan guft bar in love with
man chi me ? "

'
'ashiq shuda-i
:
" the woman

âr
c
^
* '
&>"
J ^% &>
said,
?
<s
" it
o^
&*>
eÛ d
fy
arf
have you fallen there is no doubt about
'
Why
J*j1 Afu S^**^ (3r^ jk* ** **& I) t*m*&~\ Iskandar-i Ruml ra Alexander the guftand ki diyar-i mashriq u maghrib bi-chi girifti ki (Sa'di) Great was asked how he had conquered the East and West, because " (lit. " oJkx) " ?) they asked, In what manner didst thou conquer ^b aTy
:
AT
'
^^&&j
what
tion?
^)\i*
tuki bi-inmihnat girijtar-l shukr bi-chi gvfi?
(Sa'dl)
"for
afflic-
(or how) can you return thanks since you are entangled in this
"
:
**!
e^^t ÂÛe^ jJU ^jt^xk

!
:
a^. aXI|
' '
&{&* Subhana'llah! Chi Khuda-
wand-i 'alim u sahib u -' sh-shan ast!
Praise be to
God
What
" mighty God is he

' '
a wise and
^Mî &? J&& fulan some one said to him, Why do you remain seated here because ."* chi budi 6 (classical) would to God !" p?^ (t* or)^| ÂJJ A^. 6 chi budi agar (or ki) hakim mja ml-amad " would to God the uuii Governor had come here (or were to come here) This idiom is still in use amongst the Afghans.
&$*
**"
(^
kasl guft-ash chi nishmi ki
(Sa'di)
' '
' '
Foibala-yisar-am
(V^CS^J
better bala tar az
man &* $ j* ^.
" I don't know what
(sickness)
But nami-danam has come to it."

2
3
chish shud (vulg.) *** u*^> f*l**+*
Also qadarjb* "quantity"; etc.
($
(without hamza)
" a
\
ball."
6 But C5> f* J*^-* J *^ chi bashadagar bar-i digar mutarannim shavl, " chi bashad or ehi mishud what " how nice it would be if you were to sing again would it matter if ." 6 Chi budi mja birya yad *?\# ^?<-^l <ÂjJ *$ (class.) " would that he would come &* or chi Tchjlah bud &}* <jj^ *% is used instead of chi budi in m.c. chi khub bud
'
!
'
^ ^^
96
t>
>\
agar dar mufdvaza-yi u shab-i

inter-
falchir Jcardi chi
shudi?
(Sa'd!)
course with her, what then

(t)
"
?
" had he delayed but one night in his

chi-ha
:
The
plural of
&*.
is
it is
rare in classical Persian.

&<*-.
In
modern Persian the
plural
is
also written
Ex.
<>l^&x>
I*
<*^
chi-ha
IA &*. miguyand "what do they say, or what are they saying?": *$ *+&&&? (ft j tj& chiha Tci na-kard va chiha ki na-guft (m.c.) "there was
nothing he didn't do or say."

(u) Chi-chi
**.
-
&*.
signifies
"what
does
it
matter one way
or
the
" whether other"; also

bar takht
whether
murdan
chi bar ru-yi

;
Ex. ^^LSJ)J* *$" ^*J* ^^j* *^ chi ." khdk " what matters it to die on a throne or on
the bare ground ? ** ground":

Âfii
it
is
j**>\
the same thing to die on a throne as on the bare chi amir chi faqir (m.c.) "whether gentle or <*<$
;
" * gadd (m.c.) o*^ *^- )* **- chi dur chi sadaf whether simple " " a pearl or an oyster shell Q^J &* j **-*!}> A^ chisharif u chi wazi' as well high as low."
chi shah chi
:
"
Remark.
examples.
This chi
is
f^ khwdh
repeated could be substituted for &*.* in these
called chi-i (not chi-yi)
musdvdt (c*tj^
&*.
"the
of
com-
parison or equality." (v) It was stated above, in

It is
(k),
that
^ animate beings, as things. Aa. ^\ 3/ Shah pursid ki in chi ddamhd mi-bdshand " (m.c.) the oib l^f " in addm-hd kistand ? Shah asked who are these men ? (instead of
however
is generally
used for inanimate

:
also occasionally used for

'
^^
'
In the former case, however, &*. has rather the sense lôjjf " what sort of &*. of ," whereas *Z merely asks who are they? ^-^ yo ^jf " what sort of man is this ? " in mard chi kas ast mard chi kdra ?
(MwjjT
î)
'
'
^
"
,
(m.c.)
jîl
[in
ast
e~!
?
tyK
?
&s*-
"
:
tj*
(m.c.)
"what
-
sort of
man
is
is this,
or what
?
is
his
profession
chi
*a.
tu chi kdra-i ijf &*-j* (m.c.)
" what
8
your work
also
= 6i-^
to-
>w]
(S*y*j*
n)
-^'
&t\ er* (3d )* **
y c5~^ ^ chi kas-itu ki dar haqq-i
man
in ihsdn farmudi (class.)
"who
is
art
thou who hast acted so kindly
wards
me ?
' '
(w)
Chand***-
"how many "
applicable to things animate or inani-
mate, with or without. a substantive. in the singular.
The substantive,
if
used, must be
1 Note that the final letter is doubled durr J and must therefore in prose be pronounced with a stress on it. Here by poetical license the word is dur. " Hindustani 2 The distinction that exists between (vide 81^ and SteppingStones ") in Urdu does not exist in Persian between Bl^ and *^.
In m.c. this chi kas-l tu
y ^^
*% would be too
familiar an address to be followed
by ihsan farmudi
97
Chand *** is also an interrogative signifying "how much ? how many ? how long? to what length? etc." Ex.: axA<il^j| <xU. tS &\*>+> namiddnad ki cJiand az shab guzashta " he knows not how much of the night has " (Sa'di). passed (i.e. how near morning it is)
Pd-yi miskin piydda cJiand ravad K-az tahammul sutuh shud bukhti-'
(Sa'dl)
the weary foot-man go For the camel has no more endurance left in
far can
5 e>*ot ***$ jij&Uô
How
it
"
\y
Turn mushdhara chand a&t? Guft "hich."
(Sa'di)
"how much
often
?
is
your
pay?"
' '
He
long
said
"nothing":
?
birchand girifti* (m.c.) "

1 '
^^
**&*
how much
is
how
"
did you pay for (this)
";
j^. ***.
chand bar
oia.
13
td-chand
for
how
' '
Like chi
&*.,
chand *&*
occasionally used in exclamation.

jjâ.
years
Remark " or "

Remark
I.
In composition: *JL
of
how many
Chand
years
"
chand-sala, adj., signifies
"of few
according to the intonation of the voice.
II.
xxa. is
only used of things that can be counted.

<^j*3
For quantity that can be measured

In m.c., chand taab
*Jt
13
and
)*&*> are used.
<u^.
means,
measuring
five
î by
five e
will this
howmany parterres of ground each stream water in twelve hours ?" A

chi A*,
"
plot of the size

(x) (1)
mentioned
is called
by
villagers *-*&$.
Grammarians distinguish the particle (o^)

Chi
&*(
by various names
chi-mi-khwdhi
as a simple interrogative, as Âfj-iux/o

^'^fti(
**&.
)
.
A*,
?, is
called chim-i istifham
(2) Chim-i istifham-i nafi ( ^ftJ îtx*! p**. ) implies negative interroga" " what does he know ? tion, as an kas chi mi danad <MJA*> **. ^^'^ nothing
:
vide also (6).

(3)
Chim-i nahi
l***
p**.
implies prohibition, as
in sada chi mi-kunt

it."
Lf'* *^
(4)
(^
(m.c.)
"why do you make

(
such a noise
Chim-i mubalagha
a*JU*
:
adjective
and
?= don't do
intensifies it , as
^(^4x5 Uj)
the
the ** of amplification precedes an " how &*. chi zibd mi-khwdnad

(m.c.)
nicely he reads."
(5)
Chim-i ta'zim
st
in chi mard-i
(6)
^~~J.^<
^^
this;
^*
?**
c<
*. of
honouring precedes a noun, as

is
what a man (brave) he
"
Chim-i tahqir (â=3 p**. ) the **. of disdain" implies negative interrogation combined with contempt, as: o>W JbUi a^ ^| in chi qdbil ast " This chi " how can he do how is he fit for this ?
(m.c.)
business
^.
is
practically identical with chim-i istifhdm-i nafi (2) q.v.

(7)
Chim-i tahayyur
^-
chi mi-guyi
" the Aa. ^*su ^. ) expressing astonishment," as: " " what is this (m.c.) you're saying what do you mean
(
! !
A strong
7
breed of camel with two humps.
Also in m.c. dar chand girifta
t^^
***)&
or elliptically chand giriftl
98
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(8)
CMm-i
tahassur
(^~*J
Falak bd
man chi
kardi
^^ **
me
' '
!
^
(*>*>
'
" as in " the ** of regret danghd ay b JUj ^t wheel of the sky, Alas
)
U^
how
has thou dealt with

(9)
For chim-i musdvdt vide

For chim-i
tasgl&r
'
(u).
(10)
j*>&
p**-
or
"the **
of
diminutiveness
"
,
vide
Diminutives.
38.
Substitutes for Interrogative Pronouns.
" Connected with a^, are the inter rogatives <w^ chiguna how? in what " from &*. chi and & and e>^ apparently state ? guna colour, manner
l
' '
' '
derived from
(a)
^ and the demonstrative pronoun

o*t
e>T .
9
Chiguna.
)
o~jj*yf AJâ.
" what sort
For the m.c. at end of (v) 37.

Remark.
" of a man is he ? phrase ^~\ fyK &* *j+u.\ in mard
^^f
*^%- chiguna ddam-i
st (classical
and
vide
m.c.) (or
chi-kdra ast
example
In the above example, chiguna *>>^> qualifies the nounadaw

"
j*af
In the phrase &*& chiguna-i Ex. U>jy (&) Chun*

:
how arejôu
?
"
?
,
chiguna
&*.
\j
is
an adverb. 5
^^
^ 6e-ma chun-i
what
el
away from
?
' '
^X* ^f*. o7^ J -* t^*^ ^ cf^'* darvish-i za' if hdl rd dar tangi u khushk%-yi sal ma-purs ki chun-l ? magar (Sa'dl) "don't enquire from the poor darvish during a famine year how he is, unless ."
6
1
find yourself tf
<
(lit.
how
art thou
art thou
"
ji
J^ ^^ Jij^^
us,
how do you
39.
Indefinite Pronouns
^^>
#>\
).
(a)
is
There are very few indefinite pronouns properly so
called.
The defect
from the
supplied by the
list
of unity or
:
by
substitutes, as will be seen
following
of
examples
Guna &lr,
also
gun &j*
be careful to pronounce the } long and the
final 8
like
e,
tejf^ chigune
*
& *j$
>^
chand-guna "of different kinds,
various"; also
guna-gun "of different colours or sorts."
Chiguna
'
^^- here equals )}&

'
*^- chi t&wr or
p~$
**- chi qism.
Note that the

'st
is
*
J-*^^)
that of unity (and is " what sort of a woman
" not that of <j*d adaml "

is
man "),
as in chiguna zan-l
she?
Note the
"
I
difference of
meaning
of *^*"^ in the following

>
two sentences
T*^^
Man
u-
ra dar Basra dldam;

(Sa'di)
haji chiguna bashad
*^
saw him in Basra; how can he then be a pilgrim from Mecca ? " chiguna " what sort of a pilgrim is he ? " Guftarn-ash chiguna-l dar In halatl hajl ast " " I asked him how he was *jla. (Sa'di) %^$feeling." * Chun is also in some districts vulgarly used for kun v)j& " the anus." c!^:
&J^- t5*^
V^
-^
'
U>' (i^
^^
Another reading is Tdvushk-aali Chunln e;i^> chunan eJ^ fulan

}
^^ e&x which
(>&*, etc.,
is
certainly a
>**-,
commoner word.
chand
chandan and
are called kinayat
^?^.
(1)
99
"Other, another," digar j&.&, precedes or follows its noun, as: digar ruz )jj y^D, or ruz-i digar j*t> jjj "the next day" also "another day"; " another road " digar bar jkj&t, or digar rah *}j j&* or rali-i digar *.& " bar-i digar .* j* "another time; a second time, again dlgar-gun \y j&i* "in another state, altered"; jj> J'+S namdz-i digar (Afghan idiom) "the
9
!;
afternoon prayer digaran <jlj&t> or dlgar-ha lAjfc^ "others, other people 1 digar kas (class.), or better with J&A (class.), or kas-i, digar j>*
' '
' '
% of unity the kas-i digar " another person, some one else <^s.t (^ " " another the other 'azvha another (remaining) "; Ujapyo^ digar person, limbs"; digar barddardn-ash {*\)dj* j&i* "his other brothers" (Gul.,
j^ ^^
"
Book I, St. 3). The expression

other remained
"
Û ^j^d oJ>
yak-i raft digar-l
mand " one went,

*
the
is classical
as well as m.c. 3
j&.&+*>
Yak
other/
'
digar
^^.
and ham digar
are
reciprocal pronouns
each
one another.'
I.
In classical and m.c., digar j&& is frequently used as an adverb signifying "otherwise, again, any more, why then," etc., as: ,i^Lo ^jl^J j j*U jj^^^j va digar kas nam va nishdn-ash na-shinavad (Gul., Book 3, St. of the Boxer, No. 68) "and no one ever hears of him again" here digar ^.^ is an adverb " again," and does not qualify kas : digar paytn-
Remark
tofj&itjj&d (m.c.) "further down."
Remark
"
//.In compounds and
in poetry ^fd digar, as:

X
\s>
J>* digar-gun
*
changed, altered, otherwise."

<~*\ j>*
Bazarcha-yi qasab-farushan digar ast* store of Cairene cloth or silk have we."
(0.
Û^*
*-*/AJ
^j'3
"no
is
K. Rub. 58 Whin.);
another place."
lit.
"'the mart of the muslin- sellers
Remark
III.
For the
^ of unity with &gar j&&,
vide
41
(p).
For " the one

J^t* L5^;
the other ", vide yak-l

digar
(c) (1).
2/
ofc -*
" one
other, another
:
"
;
note position of <^ of unity in these

so
two words
chlz-i
c5-)4^ chlz-ldlgar " " the dlgar-l should mean thing of some one else
also in.j&.
ljFj*2& means "another person,"

;
C7Ô$Instead of
in m.c.
however
it
often incor-
rectly
means "another
thing."
These expressions are exceptions to
rule.
chiz-idlgarj&.3 csOi^j 2/a& chlz-l digar ^.^ (J*?*- tJj could be used; vide also
to
(6).
3
Remark
j^5 j t)}^ j
)
o^îjji
ju
A&T
^
.
îX**
i^J cUc j
oAyof
*&f îc
Qasab
y'^y xîi^j j** j *>*j* Vn^? #*) Here LS^&Z could have been used.
{
u^ >>
in
Bazarcha **. ^|jb dimin.

Persian).
*-*"&* fine linen
of
Egypt (word not used
modern
100
(2)
is properly a substantive (pi. aghydr "strangers"). Ex.: j*& ghayr 1 mdl-i ghayr "some one else's property" cJ ^^s. âi^ shakhs-i
:
j* JU
To
ghayr-l guft
"a
stranger,
some one
else said this."

?
the question " are you a relation of theirs

^x>
" the answer might be

'
m an ghayra hastam
zdtl
1 l
(m.c.),
" I
am an
outsider.'
Dar umur-i
own
va Tcdrhd-yi ghayr bd man kunkdsh namudl - j ^\& >y*\ " he used to consult me on his er* -?^ c5 *>(< (Tr. H. B. Chap. V) " " another affairs and those of the community ghayr-i ^sj** person, a
4^
' '
stranger.
Remark.
Ghayr
" un-, im-," etc., to form adjectives. participles, with the privative sense " or cc uninhabited" " uncultivated Ex. ghayr-i dbdd &$ j*P gltfiyr-i insaf
:
is
prefixed to substantives and adjectives,
and Arabic
oUflJfjjA*
"unjust"
(but
if
the
omitted, as ghayr insaf i
manqula
i.e.
" " immovable (property)
^^l
compound
(class.)
;
is
a substantive the izdfat
is
"injustice"); âx/o^p ghnyr-i t^jZisQj*? gkayr~i mankuha "unmarried,
illegitimate (wife)";
^;^*^
mod.
" not inherited " ghayr-i mawrusl

8
*^ j*
ghayr-i ndfiz "inoperative, of

(also
no effect"; ghayr-i mawrus &
Per.).
Va-ghayra
;^,
P. (for wa-gâyr"-hu JJ^j, Ar.),
and
<~&)'&j**)
;
va ghayr-i
zalik (for Ar. tX/jÂc^

)\ Jt
= " with j*?

The
but ghayr az u et cetera" ), and ghayr-i the exception of him." in compounds is izdfat vi*jUe| in modern Persian after gh.ayr
an cA j^- = "
perhaps a
ghayr
11
corruption
,
of
the final vowel of the Ar. noun, thus

khdlis,
u&^j& t
khdlis in
(6)
Ar., and ghayr-i "One another"

:
Mod.
Pers.,
**
impure."
(l)^jA^j yakdtgar (one word) classical (numeral) and dlgar >.* "another." Ex.:
dust
" one " compound of yak -& ra p*)\*y> ^*j& \j jj*&. yakdlgar
' '
:
j&i<& iiliu î^ raftim " we went to each other's houses." bi-khdna-yi yakdlgar Yakdtgar J&A& is used in colloquial only by educated people ham-digar
other
:
mi-ddnm
' '
we
are fond of ea,ch
^J>*A
is
used only by the vulgar.

I.
Remark
j***
This
reciprocal
pronoun must not be confounded
with
^-
yaki-dlgar "another individual," vide footnote 2, page 99.
dlgar-l
fi;*
the property of some one else."

is
The expression
;
Uw
c ghayr sha&hs, though correct, ^fc
not used in modern
Persian
3
shaMis-i yhayr-i is used instead.
In modern Persian the izafat
-i*Ll
is
used after
ghayr
j*
in
compound
adjectives.
In old classical Persian, however, the Izafat

after ghayr j*p*
It is
o^^l
appears to have been omitted
omitted
in India
and Afghanistan.
101
is
Remark
It
II.
Note that in the second example A&>

but
less usual, to
:
used collectively.
would
(2)
also be correct,
use the plural
ba ham-digar nishasta and <y " (m.c.) j' cws aqab-i ham-digar (s*j&* f* mi-amadand (Shah's Diary) they (the ships) followed one behind the other." One " " some one " " any one and " a person.' (c)
digar (m.c.)
C
"
J&* ^> ham
they are seated together
^^
v^
' '
' '
'
(1)
yak-i (the numeral yak
"one"
with the
$ of unity).
Ex.:
j xxxU^^ cA^f 0""""?^ 'J ^-- ^ &jjB* (^j* îuw sukhun bar in muqarrar shud ki yak-i ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand va (Sa'dl) "it was decided to appoint some one to spy on them v^JU J| yak-i az muluk " some one knocked " one of the dar zad
1
' '
'
'
(Sa'di)
kings
*j)t>
^X* yak-i
(m.c.)
at the door."
anyak-i î e/f (m.c.) "that one," " this one." Ex. j*x p& )* ^. vd ^~"$ pusht-i and in yak-i &$ (m.c.) an yak-i dar qcfim shudam (m.c.) " I hid behind that there door."
The following are
colloquialisms
"The one
an
the other"
is
yak-i
^&
classical Persian digar digar-i ^j&.* uf. for digar-i ^sj^. Vide foot note 2.
In
^l digar-i <JT^*J or in yak-i " the other" also occurs
j^
Remark.
" the answer your average ? might be

,
Yak-i ^Xj
is
also a
numeral
Jto
thus, to the question,

8 ^xj yak-i dar dah
' '
"what
is
one in ten
(cartridges, etc.)."
Note the following idioms xi^j p*>^ "they were all of one mind, unanimous (
:
<w>
hama bd-ham
budand
yak-i budand
*>2j> J.b
man-yak-i-am
^^*
e^!f
3 (*"
1
^ ^
^1
yak-dil
-^)
.^
(Sa'dl)
9
"
am one, alone," I am the one who

first
but yak-i man-am az in miyan

."
For yak-i
^&
;
" in the adv.,
place," vide
Adverbs.
Yaki
^
^
is
also a subs, (note accent)
For yak Jo
vide
41
(a)
"unity, oneness, concord." as a substitute for the indefinite article, vide also under Numerals. Man yaka u tanha j * er* (m.c.
the numeral,
only)
"I
alone."
(2)
^^f
ahadi (the Arabic numeral
"one"
is
unity), though practically the same as yak-i <^, verb in the negative, vide " No one " (d) (6).
l
of with the Persian the with in m.c. used only
at,
but that
4
Note the Preterite tense is used to signify that not only was the decision arrived it was carried out. Hakim-i guft Mbilaf-i In 'ajab budi ki an yak-i bisyar-khwar bud fjaqctt-i bi-nava*-i
na-dasht halak shud va
an dlgar kj&wishtan-dar bud
^ j*
3
ISa'di)
the former
(or latter)
was a great eater and could not stand was accustomed to abstinence.' "
" a philosopher replied, 'the contrary would have been strange because the fasting, so he died but the second
;
Or yak- bar dah
102
Remark.
duals."
The broken
:
plural of ahad
(^$)\*
*M
j
l
is
dhdd o^f " units,

f
indivi-
Ex.
f/o
yJ
**
\j)
&.}*
*^ ol^*-
^ j ^^ e^T"^ y cJ^
&*
guft bar pisardn-i dhdd-i ra'iyyat

pisar-i
mard
(Sa'di)
chanddn jafd u tawbikh ravd nami-ddri ki " he said you do not treat the sons of any one of my
subjects with the severity
îj
^K
(3)
{&*& 1j i^f jl <^<^\ " I never ahad-i az ahad ra na-didam ki chunm kdr-i bi-kunad (m.c.)
you use to
my
son
"
&y^*
saw any one
else
do such a
t
(disgraceful) thing as
}
you have done."

kas-i guft ki
or
u~
."
31
kas or kas-i.
Sa'dl says
*
:
Ex.
&? eJif ^-~
"some
body
said that
fi
f*jiJ
â
e~*|*.
Ûj
^j*>
^^Lot;
Rastl mujib-i raza-yi Khuda-st Kas na-dtdam ki gum shud az rah-i rast
Rectitude (or truth) is the means of pleasing God. Never have I seen an upright man forsaken."
Gar
bi-ja-yi
nan-ash andar sufra budi dftab

ruz-i rushan kas na-dldi dar jahdn
(Sa'dl).
Td qiydmat
^^J
*&
**\t>
&1
^+te\->
oft^ guft bi-i'timdd-i
an
ki
ddnad ki
to
bi-kas
" he na-guyam (Sa'dl) replied because he relies on

I
what he knows,
in
viz. that
(a) (1)
:
won't repeat things to any one "

cr^J"?
o**^ >()f
vide also
u^^
' '
V-^^
^*&
example =E *s)y* /*^ ^ J*> îu*
Remark
*$ ki
sukhan juz
bi-hukm-i zarurat na-gufti va mujib-i azar-i kas bi-zaban-ash na rafti (Sa'dl) who never spoke unless it was necessary, nor unbridled his tongue to
hurt anyone's feelings"

AisJjj e>l-?
^ )^
Kas
(in m.c. kas-%
instead of kas)
;^
ijf
aiif
*l** j
j\
\jr^
va hukama*gujta and chahdr kas az chahdr kas

live in
:
bi-jdn bi-ranjand*
" four people
Wj"^ <j& J o^
Remark.
dread of four other people " J! Ij^ qaza-ra az kasdn-i u yak-i hdzir bud "by chance one of his
followers (people of the house)
was present." " noble"

;
^
~
is
also used in the sense of
(i.e.
a 'some-
body') as opposed to nd-kas

1
^^
"
ignoble,
mean"
Jcas
thus Sa'di says:

Care must
kuss).
(j^-*^-
In m.c. kas-l
^|
"some one," but
(j**^l In
"this person."
be taken to pronounce this word kas
(^
"a
and not kus <jf (whence the Arabic

person, a
Kas
* '
(jr$ is properly
' '
a substantive,
body"; chunln kasan & '*^
such persons. * In m.c. and in prose kas-i ra

3
^f an
kas
ash M-girift fa that person's house."

*
would be used for kas jj^ in the example. \j ( dast"that person." Ex.: &jjf J^l*^ ^ ^j ^^r^ (J&vt led to and him he took him by the hand bi-manzil-i an kas dar avard
^^
'
Bi-ranj
pi. of
fty "in
affliction"
and
**\
"are," or
:
else
bi-ranjand to-^Jj* the
3rd
person
the Aorist of ranjidan
&**^)
both correct.
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
103
Shamshir-i nlk az dhan-i bad chun kunad kas-i
Nd-kas
"
How
An
bi-tarbiyat na-shavad, ay hakim, kas (Sa'di). can a man make a good sword from bad iron?
ignoble
man becomes not oh

;
philosopher, noble
by education."
(m.c.)
p& y become a big person, a somebody, these days."
Imruzhd u ham kas shuda
ast wi*i
A~
^j^f
" he has
Bar khud
dar-i
kdm u
drzu dar-bastam
Vaz
"
minnat-i har nd-kas u kas vd rastam.
I close the
Nor sue
for favours
door of hope in my own face, from good men, or base.'

"
'
Kas u nd-kas
El-kas
^^
^
*'
(O.K., 315, Whin.)

high and low,
all."
tju
signifies
friendless, destitute,
an orphan."
Kam-tar
kas-i .^~$ j+S
"
scarcely a person."
,
These significations of kas <j

as well as classical.
(4)
nd-kas
^^,
and
bl-kas ^JN/^J, are m.c.
insdn "man"; (jc.s& ddam, ^tf ddaml, f&f "a shakes* olô o^*^ ^^f ddam hayrat mikunad ki "one person.", Ex. insdn could be substituted in such sentences (lit. a man) wonders that
1
:
"One":
^M
' '
the scent ji^x fj ^cjj bu-yi gul shakhs rd mast mi-kunad of the roses intoxicates one shakhs na-bdyad in, hama subuk bdshad ^lj C^XM. a^. ^f <xUi (JO.&& (m.c.) " a person, (a man) ought not to be so
' '
:
v^^c
(j&s^ Jl
l '
impatient."
Remark
I.
*A-\J
iâs^, shakhs-i vdhid,
or^j
'a person, some one." Ex.: single <>&j ^tîu^ j& i b xa.tj âfcuA shakhs-i vdhid bd dah nafar nami-tavdnad o**f bi-jangad "a single individual cannot fight with ten men":
"a
fard-i bashar, signifies
individual," and shakhs-i ^îui
" some one came

"personal."
^&*
(to
me)"
butîui
shakhsi adj
(note accent)
means
Adam
(*<if
and insan c>^l both mean

'
"man"
as opposed to
'*
beast," but the
latter is also
not a savage.' of, possessing politeness, good manners The following classical sentence, Mi-tarsam mabada bi-dast-i adam-i jangali bi-yuftam va In ham-churian ast ki bi-panja-yi shir giriftar shudan (^$*&^ ^^liT **"&) (i>U<c ptaji** ^jjXii j&j j** ^^^ *J *S ^**\ viAJ^ -** e^!t ^ *&%. (class.), would in modern Persian be
used in the sense
rendered
Va
In
chunan
ast ki
guya insan bi-panja-yi shir
giriftar
shavad c)^^
er^t
*
3
The
plural of shakhs
*f or
is
In m.c.
glj or glch
would be more used
in this sense.
104
Remark
II.
The
indefinite
pronoun
"one"
'
in English, or
:
may
often be rendered in Persian by ASÂ har-ki whoever" " the nearer one c*M|j3 eiL&^ har-ki nazdik-tar ast panshdn-tar ast
"a man," <s~] j&ty tfj*

is.
the
more one
(v);
*>j*>
is in
anxiety,"
lit.
whoever
is
nearer
is
nan-ash
ajxij JAJ^SU ^Jli J^j na-khurand chun bi-mirad ndm-ash na-barand
<J~ck
i^
1
45 in great anxiety, vide *f dar harki zindagi )* j*>

(Sa'dl)
"when
man's bread
death."
is
not eaten
is
in his lifetime, his
name
is
not mentioned after

:
The following
often quoted
by dervishes and Sufis
" one" can only be expressed by putting the Aorist or the second Past into verb, Habitual, person singular, as, gu*i
(6)
The
indefinite
pronoun
*&&* ty*) <**?*j ^**>j &j <^&>\**\ \j&* izdihdm-i zan u mard chundn-ki agar sar-i suzan-t-anddkhii bi-zamm na-rasidl " such a crowd of men and women that were one to (H. B. Chap. XI) throw (or had you thrown) a needle's point amongst them it wouldn't have
"you would say"
f*\
reached the ground."

(d)
(1)
"No
^/^
:
2 one, none, nobody, nothing; no, some."
grJt<fc
Jiich kas>
citiuJ(
or
Sa'di says
^J
û
j
"
;
kas,
with the verb in the negative.

iltifat
Ex.
' *
.$'
^j,*
hich kas bi-man

(m.c.)
:
na-kard
31
ta
no
one paid any attention to

hich ki az shumd-ha
' ' ;
me
4 <>jl~jo
^\ &$ UUw
hich yak az
is
&$
lai*q-i in kdr nistid (m.c.)
business
Idyiq-i
î^J eX ^Ûaye
$
*
\A\+
jj
" none of you are
fit
for this
^^
of
shumd-hd
marhamat-hd-yi " kindness cJ^

;
man
î-^.|îi
^^
:
kardan na-tawdnistam one of the adventures
5
J '
you deserving of my hich yak mdjard rd qalam-band \) (^^ "I was unable to commit to writing any (Afghan)
riistid
(m.c.)
"none
->
^
"
*^^ o*^ J ; lx> c5 J )j* ***$ chaslim-i mur u " none has kas na-did ever seen ant's (modern saw) pd-yi mar u nan-i mulld 6 eye, snake's foot, or Mulla's bread."
1
oj&
'
^XA
hich na-guft
:
' '
he said nothing
(/) (2)
hich kas
naydmad
'
no one came"
vide also
and
116 (m).
1
'
Note
*
this
method
'
Nothing
is in
of forming the passive. English a noun.
Or hich yak <-j ÂA.
Grammatically, of course, this should be nlst ^^~~&', this 2nd person plural is an example of the slovenly thought so noticeable in modern Persian. 6 In m.c. this sentence would be hich yak az majaraha ra naml-tavanistam qayd iJo bi-kunam p&-> iSuJ* |j Uf^lo j(
6
Mullas
'
^wJfÂJ^J bleed people

'
and
are not bled.
^j^. In m.c., mulla-zada
ls\j
&c
is
almost the
equivalent of
stingy,' etc.
105
is
Remark.
Hich
-*;*,
which
is
used adjectively and substantially
applicable to substantives, animate or inanimate. cedes its substantive.

1
As an
adjective,
it
pre-
(2)
"Some, any."
"
:
In composition,
without a negative someetc.
times implies
some," and with a negative "none,"
Example
Bi-hunar-rd bi-hich
Gar Faridun shavad bi-ni'mat u mdl Teas ma-shumar
(Sa'di).
" Even should he become a Faridun in wealth and possessions, Do not consider the ignorant (mean) person anybody."
ô^jAa. â> ($)***& (î* tu-yi sanduq hich chiz hast "is there anything hich ddam-iinjd dmad "did any man in the box?"; **1 lavi-}! <y^ ^*A come here?": ^^ ^s^r* g& hich mard-i naydmad "no man came": " " is there hich Teas hast one there? *
g*>
dnjd
any
oJj
Â
"
hich vaqt
mara yad
mi-kurii
"do you
ever remember
me ?";
?
;
hich gah anja rafta-i (class.) " have
you ever gone there
bidiht (m.c.)
(3)
^\ ^lîwo a^ ^j bi-Mch vajh mi-tavani "can you by any means complete this work ? "
m kar-ra anjdm
In answer to a question, hich

Ex.
:
negative.
mi-kuni " what are you doing g* " who is there ? "the answer nothing." To the question, cu^r Isuf might be ,***> "no one."
Q.
and
its
^s&*
&*. chi
compounds signify a " A. ? hich
"
Similarly \n
hich chiz nist
;
hama
hich ast ^~>\
&^
A^f-jf, signifies
**>
" this
is all
nothing
"
;
(chizri
^^^
or) J**.
"it
is
nothing"
J*J C5t.T'
In hama hich ast chun mi-bugzarad Bakht u taWit u amr u nahy u gir u
ddr.
"This is all naught, since it passes away, (viz.) fortune and sovereignty, ordering and counter-ordering, empire and dominion." (Sa'di.)
1
Hich vaqt vs*^
Â
ever
"
;
hich vaqt-na *i *^-j

^.)2
grJjA
"never."
Ex.
ghulam
hich waqt darya na-dlda bud
ty
t&>
rilst
" the slave had never -=^j *?*& (*^* (Sa'di)
seen (or experienced^ the sea.'*

*
The
m.c. phrase hich kas-l

),
o~~oj
^5^ gri*,
or hich mard
' '
;
rilst
^^^
Zj* î
(not mard-i (.sty*

also
signifies
signifies
" he is of no account, a poor creature

2>;!*J
the latter sometimes
hich mardl na-darad
4^^
manhood
(poUtely translated
" he has no
").
106
INDEFINITE PKONOUNS.
Dunyd
V'dn
]
didi va liar chi didi hich ast
niz ki gufti va shunidi hich ast.
" You
see the world, but all

all
And
'
you say, and

' '
all
you see is naught. you hear is naught/'

(0. K.,
Rub. 50, Whin.)

cu*.f
'
He
is
less
than nothing
hich-tar ast
az hich chiz kamtar ast %

^f.
JLJ JA*.
-wk
jt
(m.c.), or
u az hich
*^\ yw> *** jf
Remark. It must, however, be borne in mind that hich ^-AA properly means " anything," and hich-na &> *& " nothing " thus, " eating nothing is better than eating bad food would be rendered by hich na-khwurdan bihtar az ta'am-i bad khwurdan ast o~-t ^^^ ^ Ût jf j^ &d)j&j **>*> while hich
;
' '
khurak khmdan
at
all,
&y^ ^t^
ever?
' ' '
:
^
:
(Indian)
would mean,
better than
if it
meant anything
"eating anything
(or something)
is
."
(4) all
;
"At
all,
In interrogative phrases
implies "ever, at
in the least.
Example
Ay
ki hargiz fardmush-at
na-kunam
(Sa'dl).
Hich-at az banda yad mi-ayad?
" Oh Thou
whom
all
never forget,
Dost thou at
<y fi
*j
])j\
remember thy servant?
"
(Sa'dl).
* hich tar mi-zani (m.c.) "
^-Sao -XA
do you play the guitar at all ? hich mi-shavad u-rd bi-binim (m.c.) fl would it be (or
"
:
is
it)
at
all
possible for us to see
him ?
'
'
Remark.
futile."
(5)
^J ^
^^>
hich
u puch
c<
signifies
contemptible, anything
silly
or
Hich **A
(like
(of
"
(*t^ ^>jA tive, it signifies
either
harj&) can be joined with kuddm f\*f, as, hich kuddm two); anyone (of three or more)." With the nega-
"neither" and " none."
Remark.
Ism-i
Hich
(
^
p*\
and harj* [vide

)
(?')]
are called
p%&
o^ or
j*^4*
o^.
mubham ^x
( '
is
Indefinite Pronoun.
(6)
No one
:
"
(m.c.) AJ
(c) (2).
Â*. ahad-i
na
(m.c.)
(i.e.
ahad-i with the verb
in the negative)
vide
Example
îu
p&j
LS ***\ Jf^M ahvdl-i ahad*i
barham na-khurd.
(Shah's Diary)
"no
one was upset (sea-sick)."
For Va an c/f
>
o.*l>A
2
^
Also ujuz-i hava ast
1)^
(m.c.).
Poetical for faramush-at cuw^l^
Could also be written
-J^
(rare).
(7)
107
CMz J*.
or
chlz-l
c>*$*
followed by
negative
verb
signifies
"
nothing," vide (p).

(e)
Persian also falan)
"So-and-So, such and such, Snooks, what's his name ": e>& fuldn (in is a designation of an undefined person or thing, present or
it
1
absent; as an adjective
precedes
its
substantive, as: fuld.n-kas
&%*
va
"such a person."
Ex.:
pt&f
<^*>j*S*.
oJj>j
tj
**Ajl
^j^G tf
^yf
e>;lijj
bashdrat dvard ki fulan qal'a rd bi-dawlat-i khuddvandi kushddim (Sa'di)
"
' ' :
and brought the good news that such and such a

\vl* ypb JJA. ji
fortress
had been taken
&*. tS
oJif
fj
^lo^b
(
eJ^>3?
3'
cf? yak-l az buzurgdn pdrsd'i
rd guft ki chi gu-*i dar Jiaqq-i fulan
dbid (Sa'di)
" a certain great
man
asked a pious ascetic what his opinion was concerning a certain religious " <vof (âcuw or ^^) <j*? &&*, or ^*f ^JU fulan amad, or person &~* or ()&'* (kas-l shakhs) dmad "So-aad-So came"
; :
/tt/an tdrikh fi sana-yi fulan
"on
is
you there." male or female. 4

vsjlb* L)
!
" ho
Fulan
Yd fulan such a date in such a year." also used to indicate the private parts of
etc., is used.
The feminine Remark

isjJU,
is <*i^,
but more often ^3 o^' fulan zan,
I.
as: In
fulan
The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used with fulan "this So-and-So" and an fulan && of "that &%*
So-and-So."
Remark
came "
II.
In
vulg. m.c., ydru
j^Lj
is
used for
men
or
women and
sometimes for things, as: ydru dmad **f j^ "So-and-so (man or woman) " ** (or the goblet or gaming ydru rd biydvar >jUj Ijjjlj bring the wine
;
things: for anything forbidden).

(2)
i^J
fuldrii
is
refers
\)
to persons
only,
An
exception
;(#
^M*
fuldm-rd biydr (Tehran)
whether present or absent. " it

bring
A caller,
to avoid the mention of his
own name, might say

etc.
,
(wine)." to the servant
at the door, biguîd fuldnl
dmad shumd tashrif na-ddshtid,

'
In poetry fuldnl
^^3 sometimes
signifies
a mistress.'
Fulan u Bahmdn
adand ^/of &\+^ j && " So-and-So with So-and-So came " fuldn u pashmaddn guftand *&s& ^!^*^ j o^ (m.c.) "they said such and such things."
;
j o^* and vulgarly Fulan u Pashmaddn ejt^^+^j ^ o^' are also used for persons or things when there are more than one, as Fuldn u Bahmdn dm:
1
i
In m.c. gushadan
cJ^
(not kushadan
The two words parso,

is
^)^
and
;
'abid *-'^
'56*cZ
former
3
Persian, the latter Arabic
^^
signifies properly
have much the same "
signification
the
worshipping (God)."
Note the
^ of unity.
ooHij
^3L?
(
The
m.c. abuse fulan-am bi-fulan-at
O r fulamash (J**^) has an inde-
cent signification.
108
Fuldn
the former
that
is, if
()&*
is
can be used as an adjective, but fuldni
^^
cannot.
Also
;
indefinite
referring to a person
(nakira *j&) and the latter definite (ma'rifa *(>** ) known to the speaker and his listener, fulani,
tJM would
be used, otherwise fuldn &&.
bistar (or btsdr) î-^ j for generally things, rarely for persons.
'
Fuldn u
o^'
is
also used in
modern Persian,
(3)
What's
-
his
name
' '
;
JAA. &$.
M
:
chiz, or chi chiz-l (m.c. )
Lcf
Ûu
jAa.
ASU biraw bigu bi-chi
chlz,
' '
bi-Hdji
Aghd
"
(m.c.)
>? #> tell and go

:
Ex.
what's his name, I mean Haji Agha ^-^ f JU, ^*>f e>* o^->*S- **$ c^li z " pish-i man dmad-ghuldm Hasan what's his name came to me -Ghulam
Hasan." In,jf bi-man ar, fulani

(4)
^ =
J>&>
c>O J*&
j&*^.
If* L^t
ay saba nakhat-i az ku-yi fulani
ma'shuq.
Bastar u bistar
$~# )
"So-and-So," are obsolete.

:
Remark.
In the following sentences

^j(>x.j &f
i
^ ^ ^ J* mar * n (.5*^ lr*3 j^ dard ra dava-i nlst magar zahra-yi adam-i ki bi-chandin sifat mawsuf buvad. (Sa'di) "for this disease there is no cure, but the gall of a human being who
has such and such qualities," the word fulan could be substituted for chandm e,^^ without materially altering the sense.
(/)
^j o?-^c o*j
^^ W ^
" "Both," and neither
of two.
"
(1)
^*J
* 4 *j&j* har-du "both." Examples: \>j& ;^ a/.>;b \> *&) j* j*> har du linga ra bar-i shutur karda mahar-i shutur ra girift (m.c.) "he
loaded the camel with both
its
loads and took hold of the nose-string

c
' '
;
^^^T C5^ J^
' '
o^ j^jtf bi-har du dast dar dumbdl-i kishti awkht.
(Sa dl)
of the ship
perhaps the rudder) guft biglr an har du ra id \> j* j*> \y j& ^.A^jjUu^ " turd sad dinar bidiham he said save both of those two and I will give you a
he seized and clung with both hands to the stern
"
(or
13
v^flf
hundred dinars" 5 p*j jt>j& " we both went." )

:
^ md
har du raftlm (or simply har du raftim
Note the demonstrative or
relative ^5.
(j).
2
S
Yorharj* "every
Linga *&)
is
", vide
" one out of a pair; the load of one side of a beast of burden,"
the camel leading-string attached to a
for instance) the
etc.
Mahar ){\*>
is
wooden key
in the nose.
In
certain districts
(Khurasan
mdhar
^V
is
not used, the leading-string
being merely attached to a rope halter.

bl
The
classical expression
mahar (camel without a
nose-string) signifies
" and sometimes "wan"refractory
j^ ^j^*
<shutur-i
dering aimlessly "; commonly used in India. 5 Formerly a coin of value. At the present day a dinar is an imaginary coin of infinitesimal value Note to, fifty go to one shahl or to a half penny of English money.
;
for
4<
and "
3 would be unidiomatic.
In m.c.
109
l " we <*$>>>*> har du-yi ma dmadim following examples p>*1 or or ejlkf har du-yishdn, or har e/^ j^^** /*, <^j& j& " both of them " 1 )(# (j <j2( jay* Aar du-ash rd du-shdn, or har-du-yi ishdn biydr (m.c.), or jU? I; <Jb)*j* har du-yash ra biyar (m.c.), (or har du shan ra
j*^*
:
is
also placed before the separate

:
and
affixed
pronouns as
shown in the " both came
I*
eA^
biyar
lyU-
^ j&)
"bring both
of
them "
the last however
is
for living
things only.
Remark.
In m.c., hama
si
shahr j^ * A tj )j* j wanting in you, (you have neither of these two) )*j*> e^jl
(2)
"Neither
(of
va sarv rd hich az in har du mst

qualities
(3)
* '
and the cypress has nothing

Vide also
<^jjii|
of these
two
mentioned
" Both."
is
' '
(Sa'df).
(d) (1).
The Arabic dual

occasionally used
ithnayn
"both", pronounced
in
Persian isnayn,
(4)
by Mullas, or
in legal documents.
Indirect
:
ways
of expressing
"both"
are given in the following
examples
I* ; (you and me) go lîf ^ "let us both (us and them) ^jjj^ " <c go you go with j^j jt U l*^ shumd bd u (or shumd va u) bi-ravid (m.c.) 4 " him, let you and him both go ^ ^f p& ham in va ham an &* J/f rd biydr, or more commonly in u an rd-biydr j# \jtf j e>Jf *' bring both this and that (i.e. both)."
pljjlji ^
wwn u tu bi-rdvim " let us both md u dnhd (or md bd dnhd) birawm (m.c.)
e/
:
"
j& har du taraf also expressed by the Arabic " the two dual sides, both sides; the con^- jdnibayn or u&jle torafayn both tending parties, parties."
(5)
jt>
:
" Both sides " o^fc

1
e^
Remark.
etc.
Similiar to j<o*> har
du "both," are
A^yfc
har
si
"
all
three,"
Ex.
of
p**-jj*
^ &j&-
V^ T^J*
nar P^nj kitdb-i khud-rd farukhtam
"
I sold
all five
my
"
books."
Some, several, sundry, few." Ghand ***-, or chand-i ^^- "a few," signifies an indefinite quantity; it precedes or follows its substantive, of unity. which should be in the singular, and may or may not have the
(g) (1)
Or har du
(m.c.).
ta
man amadim
' '
p>.**
a)^
jiÂ
(m.c.): or har
du
ta
shan
*> na. nor are expressed by &> na " You have not these both." * Note that the order of the persons is the reverse to that " and the " I and thou " say (or you) English you and I."
3
'
Neither
Lit.
in English
the Persians
p
jjua.
1
:
^b
J
a few times"
<*f
chand ghuta Tchurd (Sa'dT) "in short he sunk " a bar dmadfi&'dl) vt^.jj) *** chand ruz bar
bdr-1^
ai*.***!* kalima-i chand (Sa'di) "a few words "; few days after this"; " " I went a few Û. steps (Sadi) x5o* JÂ* qadam-i-chand biraftaim ,-frXJjj " a few cTwmd years." sdl-1 (Sa'di)
;
CTkwd
indefinite
is
an adjective.
'
If it follows its
noun, the noun requires the
<jr.
Remark.
ten.
Chand
\***-
a few
'
properly indicates a number less than
..
Khurush-i bar dvard Bizhan chu shir

Zi Turlcan bi-raftand chand-i
dilir.
Shah-Nama Book
(2)
4, Oiriftar
shudan-i Mahuy-i Suri va kushta sliudan-i u
Turk. bi-farmdn-i Bizhan-i
In modern Persian, chand^t*- precedes its substantive, which is in of unity, and the verb is generally in the the singular with or without the chand sarbdz raftand 8 "a few soldiers went ": Ex.: ***>>j 3^ j~ **$ plural. (^>^ chand-l murdand* (Afghan) "a few died"; jl&xi. *J^ chand
to&jto
khidmatgar "some serving men," but IAJ(&/C,>^ jf ôia. chand-i az khidmatgdr hd " a few from amongst the serving men." verb is frequently put in the singular, Colloquially and vulgarly the
(3)
there were **? chand nafar Isfahan* nishasta bud the verb should be in the plural (budand some Isfahanis seated (there)
Ex.
*j*
ai~io
^^^1
' '
' '
In the m.c. sentence
^^ f* j&.& ^\AJ*
*j$
***
IJJA
chand kuhd-yi digar some other rocks," kuh

in the singular.
is incorrect.
ham budand, "in the midst
&{&)& dar miydn-i darya of the sea there were
the singular should be used with the verb
Chand kasdn &\~f
though sometimes used in m.c.,
(4)
The Afghans
u
substantive after chand *^..

tdjirdn
1
(not the Persians) in speaking frequently use a plural Ex. c^j AJL^J 7 cjUsÛ ^ 6 \sJlj*& chand
:
^jf
sdhibdn-i kothi nishasta
budand (Afghan)
"a
few merchants and

:
*** (m.c.) " a few days." Ex. i^jjj (class.); also ^j^) *^ o**| e;f cui/wsô maslahat an ast ki chand ruz-l bi-shdhr dar-ayl jz jf-> ^cjj) i^^ " it is (^n.c.) proper for you to come and stay in the city for a while."
Or
^^J
e^r?
2 3
The hamza
Chand
is for
the
^5-
of unity.
is
Colloquially, raft nafar-i
o^
the singular
used; but incorrectly.
4
5
murdand &*ty i^j^
Or bud d#.
Also kuh
a vulgarism and incorrect. should be in singular after chand ****

**i^-
*^
In m.c. chand nafar
t&jirj+j*
or chand nafar tajiran
but the singular

1
is
the commoner.
This
is
the Hindi word
^^
kothi.
Ill
owners of warehouses were l angushtarha-yi tild "a few

In m.c..
sitting
(there)
finger- rings of
&> Ûy&Xit gold"; *j*Lo!

;
"
^
***.
chand
chand
'
aqsam-i 'araqbud (m.c.) "there were several kinds of spirits."

(5)
several times.
LS***- chand-i, or yak-chand-i <^*i*. u&, means IA? Ex. : *~ **>* <jr*^- *?* -ÛJ(
' '
alittle
bud injd buddida shud (Shah's Diary) " the Hakim- u-l Mamamlik " 4 Mamalik, who had been here for some time, was interviewed by us <joJ^. " I have been here for some Usuul e A chand-i hast injd hastam (m c.) îL*A
ki chand-i
;
^^
while/ Haktm-^l-
time"
J>3
c5â. j|
T^
J.*j
ba'daz chand-i (m.c.) " after a
little
while "; )& &f tj?-?^
*I
r"
o~ J^"
^'^ ^***& chub-i ki dar dast ddsht chand-i bar sar-i u zad
Af.)
"he
struck
I.
him
several times with the stick he held in his
hand."
is
Remark
chand-gdh
It will be noticed that in m.c.

(classical),
chand-i c5"î^
used for
& ÎI.
aia. (classical jlj
and
m.c.),
chand waqt oJj and chand daf'a &**& *i^

in speaking.
***. (classical
and
m.c.),
chand bar
(m.c.).
The Afghans use chand gdh

Remark
Yak chand *^*>. is used in the sense of "a few" <**&> " a few chand persons were present." nafar-i budand (m.c.) L$J*> yak " tan-i chand (class.) signifies (6) cxva. sundry persons "; ^^ î3 " certain indivi&<*> O*ASI^> tan-l chand dar suhbat-i man budand (Sa'df)
;
duals were friends of

oJjJi
mine";
^^ li-^^?
t;
JtoyjT
--^
^^
A*^
c;lyojl
M^.
û
<JAA.
v4^^^
l5
tan-i
dzmuda rd
bi-firistddand td dar shi'b-i
chand az mardan-i vaqi'a dida va jang " certain jabal pinhan shudand (Sa*dl)
experienced veterans were sent to hide in a ravine in the mountains." In m.c., instead of the classical <Ma. tan-i chand, j& *\*. chand nafar
is
used.
(7)
For chand
&**.
as an interrogative, vide
ti
37 (w).
(8)
Yak chand takes a

If
"a few, a little, somewhat." Yak-chand âaxj and chand td vide (5) Remark II. singular noun, but a plural verb td tf is added, however, the verb is in the singular, as yak chand td
<xU*
: :
mard
" so
36
bud.
Yak-chand-i, adv.,
is
" a short while
"
vide
(5).
Compounded with the demonstrative pronouns, c^<^ chandin much as this," etc., and chanddn &)*'** "so much as that," etc. vide
(9)
:
(b).
For chanddn
vide
ki
a&l^
" however much, as soon as, as long as,"
etc.,
92
(d) (13).
I.
Remark
1
Chand
***> is
connected with and
*Jt,
and andak
Or
singular.
In the m.c. of Persia, aqsam (*^f the broken plural of qism f~-* might occasionally be used under the impression that it was a singular word. 5 Title of the Shah's physician.
2
* i.e.
6
days, weeks, or months (not portion of one day).
Similarly for things
&
^^
chand
ta (m.c.) is used.
112
only used for things that can be counted. and ;*&<* are used vide (h). For quantity that can be measured For para a/J " some, a few," etc., vide (p) (2). " Somewhat, a little quantity," c>^ qadr-l. Ex.: (h). (1)
//.<*ia.
Remark
Chand
is
^^
gadr-l db bi-dih
"give (me) a
little
water"; jv *>^
"bring a little barley." " So this

(2)
(3)
Vide barkh-1
" " That much, that quantity is^x5

"
much,
"
quantity
^y,
j**
etc.,
'in
^^3 "a little."

qadr.
?
gadr-i
jaw biyar
is
^1
qadr.
c>f
an
(4)
How
vide
much, what quantity

etc., is
"
}&* &* chi gadr
Remark.
c>**,
only used for quantity, for things that can be

(g) (10).
:
measured "
(i)
Remark
II
All, every, the
whole"
(1)
&& hama
<UA
the whole, etc.
also
means "every "

:
(har).
In classical
8
Persian,
marduman
precedes or follows its substantive. Ex. (class.), or <*+* c^^y* marduman-i hama (Indian)
^^y "
all
***
hama
;
the
men "
*&j UA
the
men went "
Û^/o
or)
j*,y
mardum
(or
marduman hama
" all raftand
(class,
and modern).
In the Gulistan, Jiama <W* generally precedes its substantive (without an izafat), and the substantive and the verb are in the singular 6 or plural
according to the idea conveyed. Ex. *-*& *+* hama shab (Sa'di) "the whole " " the whole of one's life." night j+* ^*A hama 'umr
:
t;
** c)\*fc A
*A ^_j))l_AJ
; |) uflJU
j*
Naml-bml
ki gav-i dar 'alaf-zar
^^ X ^J ^
"
?
Biyalayad hama gavan-i dih-ra? (Sa'dl). " Dost thou not see that one ox in a meadow
Can contaminate
Ifaf
is
;
all
the oxen oi a village
<&&
hama 'aybha
is
the plural
1
(class.) "all the vices" (i.e. every vice there here used in an intensive sense 7 to signify numbers).
Qadr-l; qadr, A.
and
P., signifies
"quantity, value
'
'
and qadar,
' '
P. (in Arabic qadr)
signifies
"fate, preordained destiny."

the doctrine of free will
' '
Hence csj ^
4
qadarl (note accent)
who maintains
2
as opposed to
cri^
jabrl
"a person one who believes in
predestination, a fatalist."
To be
distinguished from
j**-
ju or
'
c^
'
'
or juy (also jub)

;
" and "a running brook

single grain of barley."
the Imperative of justan of juyldan

S
to seek
c^
jav-i
" a
No izafat. Mardum fty*

marduman
is
a collective
.
noun always treated
as a plural, though
it
has also a
plural
5
$
c^^"
noun
is
singular
often used in a collective sense and with a plural verb.
M.c. hama-yi 'aybha

Similarly
^
ages, long
g^
*^ muddat-ha
times"
is
stronger than
t i me)
'
^tô muddat-l
^
"along time": *>U he was ill for ages."
UA^ ^J,A:
he was
for
a long
but u*
113
*+*J
(Sa'dl)
"they say
'
' '
perish
of the
here
'
:
'
guy and chi gham gar hama 'alam murdand. what concern of ours is it, if the rest of the world alam is a collective noun signifying all the people
f*
*'v
'
&*
world
Garchi sim u zar
Dar hama
sang ayad hami nabdshad zarr u sim sang-l

zi
(Sa'di).
and gold come from stone Though Not in every stone is found gold and silver
silver
dar gusist Halal ast burdan bi-shamshir dast (Sa'di).

hllat-l
hama
"
When
every
(single)
stratagem has failed
Then only
C5***
is it
lawful to resort to force."

*4.A
jt
~b
3
ojl/o
^ ^1U^
y*.
^^^
dushman chu az hama
hllat-i
dar
mdnad
silsila-yi dustl
bi-jumbanad
(Sa'di)
"when
(your)
enemy
has failed by every single stratagem (to injure you), he then tries to make friends with you." In the last three examples hama, with the
is of unity
added to the substantive,

i.e.
' '
signifies
each
' '
or
* '
' '
every
considered
separately,
har sang-i ^Xi*yk.
It is difficult to say
whether
*+*>
hama
is
a substantive or an adjective.
follows
it
it
either precedes its substantive without
an
izafat or
in
apposition (of corroboration

l
**?$
without an
izafat,
as
*n^ ^tH* j o^<>j &+&

structions are used, it
is
In modern Persian, though the same confor hama A+A to precede its substantive and be usu$l
J|. t ; (^.
coupled to it
by an
its
In Indian Persian, hama *+*

it
precedes
obviously a noun. treated like an ordinary adjective, i.e. substantive without an izafat or follows it with one: it
izafat: in this case it is
is
can also follow in apposition. (2) In modern Persian, hama

5
:
*+*>
generally precedes the substantive
with
the izafat. Ex. <y>j/of l^J) <*. hama-yi zanhaamadand ôr zanhahama amadand) " all the women came." However, hama zanhd amadand is correct (though
Poetical for agar-chi *=^'.
^
3
For
zar)'}',
ta*hdid poetical license.
Or mand Û
(Past tense) and jumband
" the whole of the j^Z <Ua> hawa-yi shahr sukht city (sing.) was burnt," but *+* hawa-y shah>' of the all the (Sutc&ta shud city say." **t)f&*.J1e" ml-guyand people could be said instead of sukht}.
4 c^jLyvs
<
Tamam ^W>
8
and jami' Q.*^ are always followed by the
izafat.
114
" shab " the whole of the night and jji) *+* " " the whole of the day but hama shab v** **A (or hama-yi hama-yi ruz shabhd l^x &**) and hama ruz jj) *+*> (or hama-yi ruzhd Ujjy *A ) mean
rare)
even in m.c.
v^ &+* hama-yi
"
every night
" " and "every day
o-*i
^Lajl <_#** ***

cc
^ ar hama<l shahr-i
' '
s qassdb ast
(modern vulgar and
incorrect)
in every city there are butchers
(collective noun).
In modern Persian, hama **A with a singular noun is equivalent to har j*> and should be followed by a singular verb, but vide end of (4).
Remark.
(3)
6
Before the affixed pronoun <jf there is no izdfat. Ex. <j! <**A " the <>Vf j Jf ^ ** I? /w%ra hama-ash bd safd u zabz u dbdd ast (m.c.)
:
l
valley, the
whole of
it, is
Before the affixed plural pronouns, the izdfat

after
pleasant, green, and fertile." is either omitted or inserted
hama
**A in speaking.
(or
Ex.
l^f
H*J oLw
6
)
&+& or
cjl
*A hama-yi shdn or
hama-shdn
hama-yi dnhd
**
bad-and "
all of
them
are bad."
this izdfat after
Remark.
Even
in m.c. it is considered better to
omit
hama
*+*
the omission
Hama-yi
in
mardum fty
^
***
is,
however, rarely made even by " " all these <u& is

(m.c.)
the educated.
:
mardum f*j* A^X>; (m.c.) is ambiguous, as it may people" or "so many people." In hama mardum jam' shuda budand ki
digar jd na-bud d^w
but in hama mean either " all these

people
^^&^
there
/i/o
**&j*
*<***
*^ fa/ **fV' (m.c.) "so

for
many
people
had
collected that
was no room
in hama-yi
mardum
^^l
&*a>
"
all
ambiguous; but in these people" there is no ambiguity.

is
more"
However,
(4)
it
would be better to say hama-yi

chiz
in.
Hama
hama-kas
Jj^
"everything," hama-jd U.
oJ?^
&+^\j\
AA
&+&
<<
'every where,
"
A**
classical as well as m.c.
"everybody," andâma vaqt In hama makharij )&*>

is
"always "are
all this expense"

7
appears to be modern. &** Hama kas
followed either
;
by a singular or
kas
plural
verb
according to the idea in the writer's mind
hama
dmad
<x*f
u*^ *+* (m.c.)
Also *>i> *4Jk hama-ruza
every day."
*
3
No
izafat
or dar hama-yi shahrha ^jf*9 &+* Jd.
Sa'di, however, uses dar
hama
sang-i
^&
*Â jj,
hill.
4
5
Julga *X1^ a valley, or plain, as opposed to
nlst
Abad means " cultivated " and hence "populous" '^^^ c^dljf ^^jl injaabadi means "there is no cultivation here," or " there is no human habitation here."
;
For neuter things hama-yi anha bad
ast *^*~]&J Ijjf <UA.
Perhaps the only instance in the Gulistan where hama kas

is
nominative to a verb, kas mushtarl buwad.
in the verse
^ <jlS* ^< i+&
fj
^^
^ UA
occurs as a
durr-i yatlm-ra
hama
116
&+* (m.c.) "
all
"
everybody came
vide
(i) (2)
"
;
hama kas dmadand
3o**f
the people
came,"
(5)
Remark.
The Afghans in speaking also say hama kasdn ejUf &*&. (6) The m.c. expression p*> c^-y *+A hama tu-yi ham means "all together, indiscriminately" (= {*?>(**)* *** hama dar-ham bar-ham); *+* e^t ^ " with all bd in hama (classical and modern) this, nevertheless, in spite " this is not " ^*jxJ &** i^t in hama mst of all this all, something remains.'
'
;
Remark.
It
will
be noticed that in classical Persian,

it is
***
hama
is
considered an adjective, while in modern Persian

substantive.
(7)
generally treated as a
The
regular plural of *+A

is
hama
c^*
hamagan
is
old
and not used
in
m.c.
Hamgindn &&*&
generally used as the plural of hama &A, and
signifies the
whole collection regarded as individuals. As the diacritical bar of \^ is omitted in Persian there is nothing in " fellowworker, comwriting to distinguish the plural of ham-kun I^*A from &{)+*>. hamgindn panion (8) L5O> hamagl is a substantive, signifying "all, the whole, entirety,"
,
' '
derived from **A hama, as

Jt
l jumlagi is from &U^ jumla (vide 9). Ex. " " out of all the women az hamagl-yi zandn (m.c.) ; ^jj* jt <^*A az u kuchak namt-tavanand khudhamagl buzurg
C5^W
ddrt bi-kunand (m.c.)
"all, great or small, lose their self-control; L^** L^
" ^lâ. man hamagl-yi chizha-yi khud rd dvardam I brought all also, like hama &*.*, can follow the substantive my things." Hamagl
(*^f
t;
â.
^^
in apposition.
Hamagl ^t**, followed by a plural verb,

refer to the
unlike hamgindn e>UJU*, does not
collection.
whole regarded as individuals, but to the whole regarded as a " all is generally followed by a plural verb, as oJu*; <î*fc " but ^~>\ " all of it is *->j*> went, good." Hamagl is rarely used. " Jumla &U^ sum, whole, total, aggregate" is a substantive, and is (9)
It
:
^+6
;
y a>^ &+*. jumla-yi wujud-i u (Sa'di) usually followed by the izdfat. Ex " Û*. ^ ty o-*f *^L the whole of his body tj ^GUl-* ^b^ cuif guft du'd-yi " he % u rd turd Musalmdndn ast it is a prayer of said, jumla-yi (Sa'di) khayr
: ' '
'
welfare for
you and the whole of the Muslim people j&) &.!**> jumla-yi of the whole "the oluK &L^ jumla-yi kd*indt " the lashkar army (Sa'di) " 3 that all creation the
;
' '
'
"
whole of
things
be,
^^^
az
e>**-^
^^
is of
^'^ ji &*^
y
1
*$
agar
man
Arabic.
Khuddy
ta'dla
chunm
Hama
**^> is
Persian but jumla *JU^>

,
is
Jumlagi
[
course a Persian
noun.
a
Kkayrj***
^.
is
here an adjective: du'a-yi khayrj**>
<*s
**,
opposed to du'a-yi bad

usually inserted.
There should be no
izafat after
Khuday though
colloquially
it is
116
tarsldaml ki tu az Sultan az jumla-yi siddlqan
budaml
(S'adi)
" had
1
I feared
my
"
;
God
cx*t
as
you do the King,

**
would have been one

j'.j
of the Faithful
firaq-i
Testifiers
î J& $ <3yj*
^W
va az jumla-l ki dar
(Sa'dl)
" and the following
is
an extract from
all
that I
u gufiam in ast composed on our
llai. jumla khata kardand separation (his separation from me) "; &* *& <-aU <*!+<* "the shud (S'adi) "the whole missed the mark"; jumla talaf
^^
whole was destroyed.
' '
Jumla
*JU^> occasionally follows its
substantive in apposition.
Remark.
*JU^ ^fjf az an jumla signifies

*JU?Jk
bi-l- jumla
' '
;
"out
of the whole, as
l
an
example";
"in substance,
" jumla on the whole " out of the whole."

(10;
<*JUsJi
fi-' I-
jumla
in short"; aJU^Jf ^^JU alq,-*l" in short <*U^ &* min jumla x

' '
;
There
is
(also ^t-JU^ jumlahl, rare) "universality, totality." Jumlagi properly a shade of difference in meaning between jumla AJUa. and
^^^
jumlagl <^&+^
Ex.: jumla-yi zanan amadand
<3.ivof Îj) AJU*.
or nearly of the whole of the women came," but jumlagi-yi zanan " the totality of the women came, none was left." c>lij ^Û^
Ra'iyyat-i
"the whole amadand
an
taraf bi-jumlagl muti'-i
farman gashtand
j^^l^scu o^Js c;T
"the people (peasantry, etc.) of that district became " to him in a subject body (at once and without exceptiou) j&J ^^+* jumlagl-yi lashkar "the whole of the army"; I$A! ^jÛa. jumlagi-yi aspha " the whole (m.c.) body of the horses."
(Sa'dl)
;
Remark.
hama,
or
" All came," can be expressed by hamagi (or jumlagi, tamaml jumla <*JU^) amadand. Hamagi, (etc.) yi-khurak sarf shud
all
the food was eaten.'
'
Some
are vulgar,
Persians maintain that these uses of hamagi ^2+& and jumlagi and that the two words should be considered adverbs,
<ijjcf ^^JL*.^ &\jj
**
as
zanan jumlagi amadand 8

(11)
fat.
Jaml
:
Ex. f.y zanha " all

of the
in a body." the followed is ^4-^ "all, whole, universal,' always by an iza" A+A, jami'-imardum " all men, or all the men 1^3 ^4^ jaml'-i
the
women came
'
army
is
women, " but

;
or all the
women"
^-iJ
j^
" the whole jaml'-i lashkar

an
in *j**f l*^*.^ />^y

Ux*.^
is
mardum
jaml'
amadand " the whole
of the people
came,"
an adverb in the Arabic Accusative.

:
Majmu,
occasionally used for ***., as ft^suo " all the sons of Adam, mankind."
majmu
-i
banl
Adam
ftf
Siddiq &.&"*
" a faithful witness," an epithet of Joseph,
Abu Bakr and Abraham.
SMiq
2
3
"sincere, true."
Note the
^ of ^
is
pronounced short fL
&*>f
Or zanan bi-jumlagl amactand
^5^*^ c)^
(m.c.).
(12) Safir
117
properly signifies "the remainder, the rest," but " it is the whole is frequently employed in Persian to express always l followed by an izafat. Ex. j &j& *> ^sj& j ^l** y ^ jf <Û> ^s\**- &U^J|
J^
' l
i âa. j aS" ^gjZ*** fi-l-jumla chiz-i na-mand az sa*ir-i ma'asi vamunkar-i ki na-kard va muskir-i ki na-khurd (Sa'df) " in short there was no sin nor forbidden thing
that he had not committed, nor intoxicant that he had not tasted."
jki
(13)
1*1*}
*&
kdffa
"all, universal";
and
<u.kU qatiba
"
altogether,
all."
&K
kaffa-yi
anam "the whole human

1
race
"
;
^ the sciences": kaffa-yi p\j*j c^l^j' f ' (Sa'di) everybody, high and low.' These two words are not in common use.
' *
^
gy
^ &K
kaffa-yi
'ulum "all
anam
az khawass
u 'awamm.
Remark.
totality."
#&
an
kaffata
and
^1>UI qatibat
an
are adverbs,
<c
all
of them, in
2 Û5 "complete, entire, the whole, all" is both a substan tive and an adjective, and has the same i2a/a<-constructions as hama
(14)
Tamam
it is
Ex.: )^ fUS tamam-i ruz 3 (m.c.) hama, " " the whole " day," and IAJJ; (*l*3 tamam-i ruzha (m.c.) every day j^ (*U3 " " tamam-i shahr (m.c.) all the city <3^ j*U3 tamam-i makhluq (m.c.) " all the people"; &*> j*&*. IA^ Û'J tamam-i chizha (or cAz) M^V 5^wc? (m.c.)
also used, like
in apposition.
" * every thing was ready JÂ. ^1*3 tamam-i chiz tayyar shud (Afghan) )\ the same; f\+t j+5 qamar-i tamam (rare), (in m.c. mah-i tamam] "the full
"
;
moon."
U3 U
^1^
ujUyoi
'
tamam na-tamaman darand And clumsiest workmen own the finest tools."
Asbab-i
(0. ^T.
141 Whin.).
izafat
In
classical (and in Indian) Persian
tamam pU3 does not take an

c '
when
it
precedes
I.
its
substantive.
Remark
as possible."
The phrase
:
as possible," as
har-chi tamam-tar yxjUi &&. Â means as much " as u i c bi zudi-yi har chi tamam-tar ^LoU'J kly Q </^-^
*^^
Remark
II.
Tamam
;
ended, finished"
(15)
shudan o** fU-3 "to be completed" or "to be tamam kardan e^/ fU3 " to complete, finish off."
Instead of
tamam
fU3, the adjective fti
âmm
(class.) is
sometimes
The demonstrative is*
' *J (^"Ij vî-J; |j o^f; rasf ra zinat-i rastl tamam ast to the right (Sa'di) j* in itself." ornament and sufficient hand is the its fact the of (hand), complete right being
o^t
In India tamam ruz j)) fU3 (without
izafat).
118
used in writing.
Tdmm
u tamdm fU3 jf^
plete";
(16)
ftf (Ûliusf
istisndyi
tdmm
(emphatic) "perfect and com" a (emphatic) complete exception."

1
:
Tamdmi Û^ (m.c.), substantive, is also sometimes used f3/ Û3 " all the men." tamdmt-yi mardum (17) Tamdmat o*<Uj (class.) is a substantive, old, but is still used
by Afghans and Indians " all the
(Indian)
in writing.
Ex.:
cu^Lj
oÛ-> tamdmat-i
pilau*
elephants."
Remark.
(18)
l*U>
tamdm* n
is
an adverb, " wholly," " in toto."

"all,
:
*j
Kull J^ substantive
in Arabic phrases.
common
Ex.
universal, the whole, each": it is +9 *9 " all the u <jU/f JS kull -'n-nds people," LW
ahad in Ar. "every one."

Kull J
the
is
also used in m.c.
and in writing,
as
kull-i
zandn
kull-i
women";
Kull c&,
^&
like
kull-i
shahr "all the city"; pH*
&
'dlam
<c
all
the world."
hama
*+*,
can be used in apposition.
Classically (and in
Indian Persian) kull JS precedes its substantive without the izdfat. Possibly the izdfat after kull in modern Persian is a corruption of the final vowel of
the Arabic nominative case kull u
(19)
.
From
the Arabic kull L&, the Persian abstract noun and the Arabic
are formed.
adjective
'
^$ kulli
;
Ex.
' ' ;
'
the whole of the

' '
men went
J&
l
f*/
mardum U-kulU
ihtimdl-i
kulli
' '
raftand, P.,
J *ia.i
every prob-
ability
Arabic adjective.
I.
*
Remark
and
^g&s bi-kullt,
'
adv.,
"altogether,
generally."
KulliyaV
:
1"
kull** &> are also

*
two adverbs with $

to"
5
jb)
different meanings, as
Mardum
;
kutt** (not kulliyat*"
&X) dmadand ^<^T
ê (m.c.)
" he
is
"all the
men came"
but u kulliyat an rdzi
nlst^^ ^\)
tyt j] (m.c.)
(Ar.)
quite dissatisfied."
of
Remark
II.
^1^ kulluhum
it is
"the whole
them"
is
used by
the Afghans in speaking;

(20) &*>\e
also occasionally used in m.c.

s
'dmma
tff
(class.), j*j^c
umum (m.c.), "the whole, etc."
From the
Arabic root
adjective
m.c.,
^
c
amma "to
dmm "special"); *^(

fU
be general, comprehensive" is derived the MO??> (m.c.) "common, universal" (as opposed to
o^
al-'dmma
(class,
and
rare)
"the common people,
Emphatic,
like the English saying
'*
most complete."
In m.c. tamaml-yi pltan
or the people in general"
119
ê
"
(m.c.)
universality
"universal";
in Persian
^^
H*j rf ^ f*** <-^* "his universal liberality." Hence &cU amma-yi mardum (m.c.) "the whole of the people";
^
";
ôj-**
am(m}1 'umumi,
(m.c.) adj.
"
"
vulgar
e ;
j*j+*
'umum
(class.)
adj. (m.c.)
and
p***
amim
^G
pj+e
'urnum-i mis
;
(class.),
'
and
^.L) <toU
'amma-yi nas
(class.)
"the whole
of the pea-
of the
people"
c*x^ <lcU
'
amma-yi
ra'iyyat (m.c.)
"the whole
of the women." amma-yi zanan (m.c.) " these and (21) iÛ JjÛô ^t inmakhluq 'am(m)i (class, and m.c.) 2 people are ignorant, uneducated"; ot yo ^jf \n mard 'dm(m)i-st
*if
i
santry "; Ûj &oU
" the whole
" this
Û
man
is
common, uneducated."
also means "noble and plebeian"; pU j u khawdss 'awamm. u[>^
c
(22)
Kkass u
is f f>* j
amm
u^
the plural
'umum-i mardum "the people generally, very nearly all (23) î/o the people" (but in (*j+* (&^* "a common matter," umumi ^fj+* is an " this is common adjective but in 'urnum-i darad ").
^c
Remark.
general,
i.e.
From
the
same root comes the adverb UJ+P 'umuman "in

:
as a rule
"
C>JUJ/XA>
Uj+c
'umuman mi-guyand
"it
is
commonly
said."
(24)
^^J
yak-sar (m.c.;
"all together, in one body; suddenly"; also
"without a break, and direct."

(j)
"Each," "every," "all,"
"
s whatever,"^ har ^>j* har yak

,
(or
har yak-i),
(1)
^j*
where" "
etc.
:
time"; t^ Â har ja "everysal har har J *^, waqt oJ^ ^*, har shay ^j*, etc., ))jj*>, " " or continually," " every thing, time every day," every year," "every
j* har.
;
har kas, f\*j*> *har kuddm. Ex.: j*j* har bar "every
1
har ruz
(t)tj!>c5*ky
**>
^*>j&* jtf *"*\& *z~\)j>\
^> jL& ^^
sukhun-idigarbi-gu-
let me yam, agar rasl na-bashad bi-har 'uqubat ki farmafi sazavar-am. (Sa'dl) if it does not prove true, I am fit for any (or every) more and word one say
"
InmakMuq 'awamm-and
' '
liof
educated.
*
^l^c^ê^l
word
(m.c. only)
"these people are un-
Not
to be confused with the
^1 ummi (Ar.)
"illiterate" derived from
**T ummah "people, nation, sect, etc." 3 i^.| jA far ahad is not used in modern Persian, and
classical Persian.
*
6
is
rarely
if
ever used in
Note the absence
For hlch-kudam (*l^ with or without negative, vide (d) (5). g*A of the of unity (?), which could, of course, be <^
?**.
inserted.
<XoU} jUU* ^ Oând (Sa'di) "(slave
girls)
(jfej*& H har yak-i badi'-i jahan va mumtaz-i zamanwho are one and all such as are rarely found in this
' '
world and are unequalled at the present time.
120
& punishment you may command"; j-^Ltf J>j& 0-J+& bi-har zarf-i-ki sar-i-tan bi-gunjad kila-yi an zarf barabar-i sar-i shuma-st " (m.c.) any vessel that contains your head will be the measure of a quantity " az to har taraf o^fcyfc jt " from every side." equal your head
;
Harj*> is properly a distributive and precedes its noun. It is emphasized the of unity, as har mulk-i zaban-i ddrad *j\* (J&j ^Q* by "each _y* separate country has its own language."
is sometimes used instead of hama &*& "all," just as hama *** sometimes used for har j* "every." [This confusion has probably " " arisen from the fact that "every man says = all men say '].
"
all
Har " is
'
Remark.
Har an
*$ &tj*, and har an ki
c/fyk,
the more emphatic forms

(I).
of har, are used in relative sentences, vide (k)

<-j
and
' '
every one j& har kas? " " har kudam ^5^^;* liar yakl (or har yak) and f]& **> liar everybody kudam take the singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's or ) -JÂ mind, but the singular is the more correct. Ex. _$%*
(2)
j&> (or
^j j&}
liar
yak
;
(or
har yak-l)
' '
^^
ml-guyad or rni-yuyand (m.c.) " " &> every one says something different c>^ *&>^ j &)&> î j*> CÂJÔ ^) Axiftf J^LJ ^ ar yak-! 'bazla-'i wa latifa-1 chunanki rasm-l zarlfan bashad ham-i ^4.4,
*uj$*
or
*>j&o har yak (or har kas)
chiz-l
guftand (Sa'di) "every one told some good story or pleasant jest after the manner of witty people' (here the plural is used as the writer had in
'
his
mind, a number of people in the assembly concerning which he was writing) *}** ^. jijf^ <J^J ^>j*j va har yak-i bar vifq-i danish-i khud
;
ray mi-zad (Sa'd!)

his
opinion"
33ilj &Lf,i
ijo ^xf^Â vijU $}* agar gusfandha dah ta budand bay ad har kudam-l> yak gusfand dashta bashand (m.c.) "if the sheep were ten then everybody should have one sheep apiece ' (here the plural is also for the same used, reason).
'
^^
one, according to his knowledge, gave not be in the plural), tf Jb (*>**&* j>\ the verb could (here
"iand each
(3)
HarjA
also
means " whatever."
Ex.
*f uU^*
fchey
o^jbiiJi
&&% *Cysuyk
har nahv-% ki gufta and bayist 'amal kard (m.c.)
"we must
act in whatever
way we have been directed way it must be done)."
(lit.
in every
way
have directed, in that
It is
perhaps this
eS"
a d not the demonstrative ^3 that

is
is
found in the antecedent

42.
to a relative clause
2
3
when
the antecedent
preceded by
har, vide
Or ijf *+*, vide (i) (4). Or grammatically dashta bashad AJ^b

Bayist
***"*:! lj,
past, for future action.
(k)
,
121
*'
Whoever, whosoever" har-ki, AX~T ,A far kas-i ki^
"
*$ &$
f\tf j* liar
kudamki,
of j*> ^haranki,
.^
A+*>
hama
kas-i ki.
(1)
Examples
A^.
(Jib Jl
^^ ** -f-
#ar
an-&* tukhm-i badi kisht
u chashm-i niki dasht

batil bast
Dimagh-i bihuda pukht u khayal-i
(Sa'di).
Whosoever sowed
vain and foolish thing.'
(2)
'
evil seed
and expected
8
(to
reap) good, itnagined a
gtrand (m.c.)
&*j*& ^l*if xi;lA ^cJÎ " whoever has a

In, "
&
^tA>yfc
harkuddm
ki asp-i
darand in'am-imi<
horse, will get a prize."
take whichever you please bi-girid *lj** *x*tjiiyo t$ \) WAÂ (m.c.), the ra \) would be taken to be the subject.
(3)
Remark.
" har kuddm

is
ra ki
ml khwahid
necessary otherwise pt^Â
Har
in the
same way.
girad &j*f*
*&OÂ, /âr^' a^*, suidhamaka-s-i ki A> ^^Â are used #ar âs-* A;i (or har kas-ki * o^^ 7A ) biyayad iriam-i mi^^^Ji A-J^J &** j& (m.c.) "whoever comes (or every one who
kas-i ki
comes) will get a reward

L5^J
"
^^ ^ j*
[
**
V*.
u&
cf^^ *?
?
Lr^
7* *r
>
C5;
170
Mar-i
tu ki har kira bi-bini bi-zani

ki har kuja nishlni
Ya bum
<;
bikanl?
(Sa'dl).
?
Art thou a snake that whomsoever thou seest thou strikest
Or an owl that wherever thou
sittest
thou destroyest
:
'
Remark
I.
In the following har j&
is
understood
Remark
II.
Har an
(I) (3).
ki -*&f y> is
in
classical
language applicable to
things, also vide
Remark
"
(1)
III.
<xlj A^Â har-ki
bashad
;<
whoever he
'
may
;
be."
har chiz,
Whatsoever, whichsoever, whatsoever thing A^yfc har-chi, jA*-j*> har kuddm, & e/f jA liar an ki, &* of y*> har an chi, f<& j*>
'
an
(1)
chi.
.^Â har chi (classical and m.c.). Ex.: A^y jt* J^ ^.b har ki dast az jdn bi-shuyad har-chi dar dil darad bi-guyad
Note i$
>ugh old
2
3
y j*
har u ki
is
not used;
it
does not exist in Persian.

har ki &*
Har an
ki
is
not obsolete.
is
Har Har
kas-l ki
kas-l ki
better
It is more emphatic than j&* and more common in modern Persian. in m.c.
would be preferred
122
''whoever abandons hope of
life,
(Sa'di)
says whatever
is
in his
mind (without
fear)."
can also be used for living beings (in classical and modern 1 ^^ <,* uAÎ jt * ^l^&iy **/* j <* Persian), as \) isAlf *Â oJi? guft har-chi darvishan-and Man ra vdm-i bi-dih va har-chi tavangaran-and " he such of them as are chlz-i bi-lchwah
Har-chi
AÂ
î
&&**
az ishan
'
(Sa'dl)
said,
poor, give
" as ; complete as possible ji*U3 A^fc har-chi tamam-tar ^LoU5 A^-y* Isjf " let the utmost endeavours har-chi tamam-tar sa'i karda shavad (Sa'dl) *j
them a loan and such of them as are rich, ask a loan from them* (lend to such of them as are poor, and borrow from such as are rich)/' The following uses of har chi AÂ should also be noticed &&> ^t AaÂ an ml-raqsad (m.c.) "as this one pipes, that *<A*J>Q 12/f har-chi in mi-zanad one dances (i.e. in whatever method or time he pipes)" or "the more he " " " plays the more he dances y & AAÂ har-chi zud-tar as quick as possible ;
;
:
"
^^
be made " tÛi^jl -JA. v* c ^j* har-chi gasht 'aqab-i jaw, gir na-yamad " however much he sought for barley, he couldn't find any (in spite (m.c.) find any)." to he of all his seeking failed
;
(2)
Har-chiz
jfjLUj
J*^^>
fj
(classical
and
m.c.)
^jj|j^
&&J
&+*>
^ ba'd az m har
^yb
&)%*
chiz-i
girifta bi-kinara
of (or every single thing that I

(3) Af
guzashtam (Afghan) "after this had need of) and put
$ *** <;** j* ki mar a zarurat bud hama ra I took whatever I had need
ty
it
&
on shore."
8 ^**>1 ^.u Af pj.*> )&* &1 j*> har an dlvar-i qadim ki pish amadi bi-quwwat-i bdzu bi-yafgandt (Sa dl) "whatever old ruined wall he came across, he cast down by the mere strength of
^fjA har an ki ; <,*&** jj{>
his
arm."
Har an
djy
ki A&fjA
&)
vâJlyo
dushman
" because mukhalajat ziyad kunad (Sa'd!) whatever enemy you treat kindly, he increases his enmity towards you
ki ba-vay ihsan
^f
Ex. A&f ^Csu also applicable to living beings. * & U an-ki har an bi-hukm-i Ûî ^^ (.j+A,* (*rt jA
is
:
kum
(whenever you treat an enemy

also (k) (1).
(4)
kindly he* increases
his
enmity
6
vide
Har kudam
\*Sj*>
"whatever, whichever."
Ex.:
c5>
1 Note the plural of the adjective : the plural here makes the adjective definite harchi darvish ast would mean all the poor of the world."
Instead of har chlz-l ki
AJ _)*^yfc
iS
the following
Or
har chi mara zarurat bud or

[/
har chi ki mi-khwastam ^JLotyRx*
AÂ
^j**
*5j*
(m.c.)
(kinar ml-
gu&shtam ^tÂ^j^). 8 In modern Persian, har dwar-i qadvm-l ki A^ ^s+t** j\ji j&. * Or har dushman ki or har dushman-l ki ACxi+Aj;, j& or As" ^.^^
used.
6
jib
might be
Or har kudam
(
kar-l ki AxJ;K f I*Â (m.c.), or bi-har kar-i ki ACjjKj^J, or har kar-l
ki
AXjj^Â
m .c.),
or bi-har chi
bi-har
123
dast
kuddm
kdr-i-ki
mi-zam khardb mi-
kuni (Afghan) " whatever you put your hand to you spoil": t^Jljt ff**yk o*f ^^L <jrjx& [#(& har kudam az in kitdbhd bi-girl khub ast (m.c.) " whichever one of these books you select, it will be a good business for you."
(5)
Har an
Aasuf j*>
chi Asuf^k (classical or

(class.)
used in writing only)
&)**) *~&*J.
+i.&j
*b
\t>(s
"we
have attacked the rinds
let
happen what
l
An-chi **uf (classical and m.c.). Ex.: ^& dn-chi (or har-chi) guftam qabul na-kard tl in spite of
will."
J&
all I
f&
*
iacofÂ
har
said,
1
no matter
J v xi "and rd va dvurdam dnchi shud tamdm (Afghan) dastydb f^Jjt \) fU-> whatever I could lay hands on 1 brought (the whole of it)" AAI^** *$ aûT
I said, he did not agree
(lit.
how much
whatever I said
)."
*^ *^
^ô
dnchi ki
nu-khwdhad mi-kunad
*ap.Jf
tl
(m.c.)
he does whatever he wishes"
dnchi ghuldm u asp ddshtam farukhtam (m.c.) ) fÛ f*&ji;J "whatever slaves and horses I had, I sold " ***>> b **fj* *^^
;
^b
-^l
&
r^
^&
I got dnchi safar karda mulkhd* rd dida budam U-ffiida bud (m.c.) no benefit from all the travelling and visiting of countries I had done =
j5A5tfixj
"
in spite of the fact that I
had travelled and seen many countries
I got
no
advantage."
(m)
"
(1)
great number,
many, enough
"
;
bas ^r?.
Ex.
Bas ndmvar
bi-zir-i
Kaz
6 '
hasti-yash bi-ru-yi
zamin dafn karda and zamm yak nishdn na-mdnd
(Sa'dl).
Many a famed one have they buried beneath the ground, Of whose existence not a trace has remained on this earth."
Bas gursna 6 khuft va kas na-ddmst ki kist Bas jdn bi-lab dmad ki bar-u kas na-girist 6
(S& di).
"
Many Many
45)
:
a a
man man
has slept hungry and none
knew who he was,
Bas-i jy-j
(vide
"a
1
has been in death's agony over whom none wept." " alif of excess"; many," and basd U? with the
f**"
jyt
C5--J
^ va bas-i dilhd az
u shay da
(Sa'dl)
" and a number
of
hearts (were) fascinated

1
by him
' ' ;
bas-1
mardum mi-guyand
Or better harchi
^^
or har qadr guftam
2
3
In m.c. dast-glr j*&~&. ** after anchi &?->1 Note
also
the ** could be omitted
or harchi
substituted for anchi AacJf .

*
6
6
Note the plural

Poetical for
jl
is
necessary here.
**
U az.
:
Alsogrwrwna, gursna,etc., etc.
but nigarlst
^ "he
looked."
perhaps the only instance in the Gulistan where bas-i ^5^? occurs in the prose portion ; and it is folio wed by the plural as in modern Persian.
7
This
is
124
" bas-i zanan " many women," people say cA>j j~> (m.c.) ! (bas zan or bas zanan not used) v_^y u~*y az bas-i farsang (Sa'd! verse) ** from many a farsang ."
(m.c.)
"many
asp-i tiz-raw ki bi-mand
' '
Ki khar-i lang jan bi-manzil burd (Sa'di). Oh how many a swift courser has flagged and failed
When
(m.c.,
the wretched ass has reached the stage's end."
C5^3 c?~^ bas-i zanha-yi fdhisha dar Kirman hastand but uncommon) " there are many loose women in Kirman" &l~^\ 8 t-*> " **&yj* basa ihsan farmudand (Afghan colloquial, and rare m.c.) he (respectful
;
with great kindness &# jjTjj) (<jJ } or) <j*J j\ u bas zirak bud (Afghan and Indian, written and colloquial) " he was very intelligent." Ex. X <vol# j> <^ bas-i bar na-yamad (2) Bas-i <^~j is also an adverb. " a ki time did not before ^^/J ^~S bas-i bi-gardid (Sa'di) long elapse " " he wandered about backwards and forwards a great deal (or a great while)
pi.)
treated
me
"
' '
(3)
Basa
U*J is
old and rarely used even in writing
-^)_)J
basa buzurg
(classical old)
(n)
(1)
very big," vide 88 (1) (3). " Many of them, a large number."
the adjective and adverb
"
L$*J/ guruh-i c^k'-J bisyari.
From
of
the substantive
(with
^[^ bisyari
p^j
1
j^bisyar "much, many" comes " " (modern Persian), and bisyar-i^^^ a many
bisyar-i
unity).
Ex.: AwjAx> ^Û^J
mi-guyand
(m.c.)
;
"many
say," or
of the
^J>^
c5J^
bisycir-i az
*j*>
[;
bisyari-yi^
mardum
rah na-bud
mardum mi-guy and (m.c.) but az "from the excess j*d^ isjf*~* ) (m.c.)
crowd there was no room to pass." Ex.: f<yo (2) Guruh *jj "a troop, band, class." az-mardum or mardum, (m.c.) guruh-i guruh-i fsj* j) (3&} number of men"; *i>j* ^ &jj guruh-i mi-guyand 5 (class.)
certain
^^
(class.),
or
"a body, "a class,
number
(of
people) say."
fyj they are
Remark.
Guruh guruh
mi-ayand
1
^T
%j3
"
i^
signifies
"in troops"; guruh guruh
coming
bas-l
in crowds."
In the clause
(j~>
J va
shukr guftam
(Sa'di), it
it qualifies
is
not clear
whether
"bas-l qualifies
the substantive shukr j&*, or whether
the verb shukr
guftan (r*& j^**> and means

a
"a great
deal, a
good while."
**"
This
is
not the
alif of
the vocative: basa bashad ki
*lj
^
J
(m.c.)
<4
prob-
ably."
5
In m.c. bas-l ihsan (j^^t ^^-J.

Ki-az bisyari-yi du'a
wa
zari-yi
banda sharm harni-daram
t5j'3
^**
Cfo^H
3'
*^
^*)ti
^5-**
fy
\)
8<*V (Sa'di)
because from the excess of the beseeching and lamentation
of
my
6
servant, I feel ashamed."
Note accents.
**&
l^ty*
c5
7T
guruh-l
marduman
ra did
'
(Sa'di)
he saw a collection of
f
people
"
:
note absence of izafat after (^)j* on account of t5
unity.
(o)
125
it
" Most of
them"
e>l^>
jfy
" oîfl aksar-ash most of
"
;
,-JUf
etc.
(1
)
ÛiyT! aksar-i-shdn
(01 aksar-i ishdn)
" most " of them

{
(j^fri aksar-
" ash (m.c.) "most of it." Aksar-imdl (or better amvdl), Jf^>o| O r) J^y^f most " aksar-i of the property zanhd "most of the women" ^j>frl &\~j&\
;
;
aksar-i kasdn (m.c.)
" " most (aksar persons

also
Teas
^ ^\
-
not used).
Eemark.j&\ aksar
(2) *-J^t
means "
for the
most part."
aghlab
used like aksar.
(3) _;j&jo bishtar or
(p)
"Something, a
^y^ bishtarin, "

little,
used as aksar.
-
nothing
^f
^-k
-.>>^
i>b
a thing "). Ex. 'ilm-i dar muhasdba chunan ki ma'lum ast chiz-% danam î(^ ^5-.^ (Sa'dl) I know a little of accounts as is known to you *lj.iu c>h^ tx jt az man
(1) Chiz-l
(lit.
:
1
^^
{{
'
' '
chlz-i bi-lchwah (Sa'di)
*'
ask
me
for
something
(for
a boon)
"
a little further "; oJjjU^wo chiz-1 sarbdz " has of in the soldiers started? raftl (m.c. only) anything way (i.e. has any armed force been sent there ?)."
chlzi dur-tar (Afghan)
*
^^
^ ^c^^
Remark.
^t
Chiz-i
&**
with the negative
signifies
j^f^-so t5'>i^J va chiz-i
na-khwanda
am
\&\
<x
am
unlettered
4 '
"
(Sa'di)
j\
(*^C>
(m.c.)
for this reason I did
" no work.
^c>x^
^^
az
m sabab chiz-i kar na-kardam

*
" not a Ex. thing." "I have read nothing,

:
" the wind abated somewhat." (Afghan)

(2)
^ c>^
!>*
hawa
chiz-\
kam shud
plural.
Parari I;U subs, "a piece, bit, patch" is usually followed In m.c. only, it signifies "a little." Ex.: (J&4g>& /*&*!<>
by the
5
^^
x;*J
para-i harfha dashtam bi-guyam-ash (Shah's Diary)
"I had
a few words to
say to him
";
;
*'&*)
Ujl^s
para-i sarbazhd
rajtand, or para-i sarbdz raft
oJij jb^wo !;b
pdra-i tafsil-i andarunl ^^\ d*-afti> |; b (Tr. H. B. Chap. XIV) " small arrangements of the harem some "concerning &j i^b /*i^ ^.f^ ^^ ^jê (H. B. Chap. XXIII) "I used to see some women in the court of the Hakim, but."
;
(3)
Khurda-i
!!>;>^ (m.c.) (lit.
"a
crumb, a speck ")
also
^yX>
yak-
Aksar
j\
and
^^l
followed by a genitive. two words in m.c.

2
3
aghlab according to the regular rule of the superlative are Theizafatis, however, sometimes incorrectly omitted after these
3
In m.c., here qadr-l
(.s)^
Or
sarbaz-i chiz-lraft? o^Jâ. ^j(jj~ (m.c.). In m.c. i^ bad would be used hava \j&> signifying "air."
,
use
hawa
5
for
*'
wind "
Indians and Afghans
as well as
"
air."
Or
better
W'^
^5*^
ba'zi harfha,
and
ba'zi az sarbaz-ha
^^**J
126
khivurda (m.c.)
(or
aft) fo'efo'^
"a
give
little"
(m.c.).
Ex.
**j (vJf
Lj
"
f^y*- khwurda-i
jaw
(4)
little."
Kam-l 1 Kam-i
^ ^
me
"a
*
little
' '
barley (or water).'*

(classical
,
and m.c.) from kam, adjective " few, could be substituted foi Tchwurda4 1^^ in the above
little
example. B (5) Andak-i

f
,/ail
(classical)
"a
little,"
or
"a
little
time."
Ex.:
' '
;
till he gained a little strength titaandak-i quvvat ydft (Sa'di) bih az bisyari-yi* mal (Sadl). JUa. ^<x>( andak-1 jamal
"
and andak-i ^/î " a little." <-Jf is an adjective, pure and simple it is according to some Grammarians the diminutive of and oJ| but according to others and <^t is a
Andak Andak
c^wl ''little,
few"
contraction of andak ^*J\
vide also
Remark
in
(r).
I.
Andak
also
means
Ar.
,
(classically)
' 4
"Approximate Numerals." "a vide

few,"
little,
first
example
'
Remark II.QalU
JUtf,
few
"
;
and
qalili
are equivalents of the Persian andak
^^ and andak-t ^&>\.

Ex.
:
^M
a few
"
^ ^lM
i^j
jjti-x-o)
(6)
Taraf-i
ji
^j>
"
a portion (old
classical).
ma^'A;
m taraf-l az zamaîm-i aTMaq-i u ma'lum shud (Sa'df) " a por

became known
of the
tion of his crimes

(Sa'dT)
to the
king"; (J*~j&
Ex.:
*l/oUx
something
5
matter had reached his ears."

rare modern).
(7)
Barkh-i
^j
(classical
and
&5
f
31
^j
31
****** j\ o/AJ va barkh-i az 6i^ az qabza-yi tasanuj-i u badar raft (Sa'di) xi<Wf t5 i r barkh-i amadand (mod.) "a few came" ^3 3 t^^ barkh-i az
;
"a few women"; **)(a Ijy J-.^>^ e^^> v.^j e;f ^(>! ^^^1 " if an barkh-i tahavun u takasul rava darand (Sa'di) âr they agrar add-yi show even a little slackness or neglect in performing (the duty) ; j &*\^\ az umar-i giran-maya bar-u kharch 31 va barkh-t j+s. )j ^j^4J Â. namudlm (Sa'di) "we expended a portion of our precious life on it." Barkh-i ^5^ is lit. " a portion, a share." It is not followed by an izafat,
zanha (modern)
' '
^j
'
as
an
izafat
cannot follow the

it
of indefiniteness or the <^ of unity.

az.
This
is
perhaps the reason that
is
more often followed by
Compare
ba'z~t
of unity
also
kaml
subs. " deficiency."
adr-* could also be substituted.
Andak,
^JJf
*
AJ
adj.
Ex.: atash-i andak ra
\)
^^l
(_r->f
(Sa'di);
bi-andak
muddat
(Sa'di)
"
in a little time."
iJ*~** as might logically be expected. As jamal JU^ has two syllables and mal one, euphony requires bisyarl-yi mal J^ c5 -r&*"'^ to balance
Not
bisyar-i
>
This
first
az 3' omitted in
some
copies
the two prepositions az close together are
uneuphonious.
Juzv-i
l
127
(8)
c#.>
:
(Persian)
section of a
book"
and
juzv *> = Ar. &* juz*, "part, portion, c5A>^ is either juzv-% for J$j*> "a little," or else
\
Ar. adj., juzvi, Pers. adj. for
t_$l>^
"partial."
Ex.
^!d J^c5J->^
bi-qimat-i
juzv-i
pul dashtam (m.c.)

(m.c.)
"I had a
little
"at
trifling
little
cost"; *f*f/
;
"I
took a
rice"
' '
;
^JA> ^?>?V
at a partial
word
^Jj-J
^TV
"at the least word, " at the least nasim-i (m.c.) wind, at bi-ju-î
bi-juz*i harf-i (m.c.)
u
money"; Li>^ ^*+&

c$l>*
?MZ-*
juzvi
(m.c.)
6nw/
giriftam
a partial wind."
**
Remark.
juz*i <^b**j
adjective
(9)
^s*>
Kull u juz* s^ j J^, or Mft' w juz*4 " $ i n whole and in part, entirely." "
juzvi
J^j <J&
or az kulli
is
[There
^*+**\.
also the
petty, trivial," qimat-i juzvi
^y**
Lakht-l 3
piece,
^^
&
" a short time
' '
(old classical,
and rare modern) from
lakht
"a
a portion,"
etc., etc.
Ex.:
vr*j>
j>y
bi-andisha faru raft (Sa'dl)
"he
considered a little";
andar in
(10)
lakht-i
andishid
(Sa'd!)
" he considered a
little
about this."
a pinch
(of
Shamma-i
:
(rarely used, Ar.)
"an atom,
particle,
c<
snuff), etc."
ty
&+>
' '
^
;
vazir
shamma-i rah burd (Bust.)

<^Lo
the vazir got
an inkling
' *
of the matter
o^x>
&+
CÂ. ji j\ o^l j J3Ui j|
^ ^^
bar-i vazir az shamcfil
va alMaq-i u dar hazrat-i malik shamma-i mi-guft ki well (or so) the wazir was mentioning a few of the good qualities of (Sa'dl) the boy in the presence of the King, saying ."
Remark.
tion,
Nabza
a<^x>
Ar. "small portion," has
much
the same significa-
but
(11)
is
rarely used.
From tyi zarra " an atom, a mote in Ex. B-V *)* JL> "one atom, the least part." " (m.c.) give me just a drop of water."
:
a sunbeam," comes yak zarra tj& J^> yak zarra ab bi-dih
(12) Bi-qadr-i
yak par-i kah-i

1
^^K^^
^^
(
(m.c.)
"a very
little.
"
Ex.
' e
cxwt^ o^JI
tjs*
^^
^r!
j*&J bi-qadr-i yak par-i kah-i qimat na-dasht (m.c.)

.
it
was not worth a straw

(q)
' '
(lit.
Ex.:
Ar. (lit. "a portion"). } ^*j ba'z-i "some say"; ^J3't5^ ba'z-i az zanha ^^x* C5 mi-guyand "some of the women"; *)J^ C5^*j ba'z-i chizha (m.c.) "some things";
"Some";
^^
ba'zi, Per.
a chip of straw). and u**? ba z
^ ^lîi-jjt ^5^ ba'z-i az rakhiha-yi khud

1
ra
dadam
*'
(m.c.)
gave some
Juzv-l C5JL)^ (m.c.)
of unity
in writing also
9
}^
juz'-i.
But f&jf
tj
*jj* tjt*
î
(
yak juz
-i
birinj ra giriftam (m.c.)
"
took a portion of
the rice."
8
phorically
Lakht-i jigar j*- cussj a beloved child. ' '

' '
O r dil
J3)
"a
'
corner of one's liver (or heart) "; meta-
* Par-i gul <J$
jJiaa,
petal of a flower
' :
<^*^ has the
<
of unity.
128
of
my clothes
"
;
&&&* ^jcliJil ÂJ

J
ba'z-i
ashkhds mi-guyand (m.c.)
"some
persons say"; cî-ly^ c5^* ba'zi khavdnin some of the Khans. nin ^!>^ ji cs^J
' ' ' '
"some Khans ";
ba'zi az khavd-
by
is
Ar. substantive "portion is not used in m.c. it is followed the izafat , and by a plural noun or by a collective noun, vide barkh-i (^^j. Ba'zi u*&** is an adjective and therefore does not take the izafat, but ba'z
(ja*J
;
Ba'z
"
a substantive and
'sometimes.
5
is
correctly followed
by the
.
izafat, as
ba'z-i
awqdt u^*
otfjt
The
plural of
^^ ^^
is
Ba'zi murcfhhd didam

Ba'zi, az rakht-hd ra
j*^
\)
^^
dadam jofa
j
l
^*j "1 ^^jjt ^^ =

The
plural
saw some
is
birds (indefinite)."
ba'zi rakht rd
dadam
\j&>) <.^*J
ôt^
"I gave some

"
(r)
of the clothes."
better with ba'zi
Much, many,"
a
i^
bisyar adj.
and adv.
Ex.
(^4.^ U*
^-w. *>" ^ ^/f
v^<xif
^jjU*-vj dvarda and ki sipah-i dushman bisyar bud va inan andak "it is related that the soldiery of the enemy was much while the (Sa'dl) " *t yj latter (were) few uXjyuj j*Ux> U J -^ f;^ ^î o j
olij|^
!
^^ oo^
shikayat-i ruzgar-i na-musa'id bi-nazdik-i man avard ki kafaf-i andak ddram va to me of his wretched state (saying) that 'iyal-i bisyar (Sa'dl) "complained
'
have small means and a
"
large family'
;
(Sa'dl)
"with much trouble";
^^
jU~j ^^ybi-mashaqqat-i bisyar

^*.j*
)\*~*
yak-i
tawbat-i bisyar
^lo( '; &j*jfe^j*& dar asnd-yi rah shutur bisyar* bud (or shuturha bisyar budand) " on the (m.c.) way there were many camels"; AV^** )b?~* c^^j zanhd-yi
;
Tcardi (Sa*dl)
"a
certain
man
used to repent
much and then
"
bisyar (or bisyar zanhd) mi-guyand (m.c.)
"many women say"
Ma-kun takya bar mulk-i dunyd va pusht Ki bisyar kas chun-tu parvard u kusht (Sa'dl).
" Place no reliance on
this world,
For many
like
you
jt
it
has nourished and slain."

sentences az shab " a great part of the night had
:
Note the meanings

bisyar guzasht
of bisyar ;lx-j in the following
o-<^ L~j ^.^

oîl ^L^j
(m.c.)
passed"
bisyar shab (or shabhd) guzasht
c^*f ^x
(
or)v-A^;l-A^j (m.c.)
;
nights passed," or
^&&
shabhd-yi bisyar guzasht (m.c.)
j&j
IAJ^J (m.c.) bisyar qism paranda-hd giriftam (m.c.) "= Uof (m.c.). kinds of birds r
^
)
" I caught various

(subs.)
many p~3 Û^
"
^^.
Bisydr-i (az)
jt
dance" "
say
:
bisydr-i az
"a much," and mardum mi-guyand *vjS

t^'-i-^
^ ^^
of
bisydri
<^j^
j\
:
"abun-
bisydri-yi
mdl Jl* ^j{*~j "abundance
wrath
^;^ " vide
"
many men
(5)
also (p)
and
footnote. 4
1
In Urdu ba'ze
is
an adjective.
2
s
The plural budand

Or
shutur-i bisyar
^**
could have .been used.

or shuturha-yi bisyar
fa~*j/&,
In prose kasan
(s)
129
"Remaining, remainder"; <^b, Ar.

it
adj., is incorrectly followed
by
the izafat as though

(1)
" the remainder

' '
were a substantive
Ex.
:
bdqi (adj.).
of
;
the day passed", but
^tf p*)J} ^b bdqi-yi ruz ham guzasht ^b bdqi-yi ruzhd

lajjy
(m.c.)
"the
remaining days
Imshab-am dard-i
*'
dil
tamdm na-shud
Bdqi-yi ddstdn bi-fardd shab (Salim). To-night I could not relate all my suffering, The remainder of the story stands over till to-morrow night." Baqi pul rd chi kardi or baqi-yi pul rd chi kardl are both m.c.
The Indians and Afghans correctly omit the

occasions.
Uftj baqiyya, subs, (classical " " the remainder of thv^ soldiers sipdh
izafat after bdqi
^b, on
all
(2)
and
;
m.c.).
Ex.
U**
o>
baqiyya-yi
)jj
&&* baqiyya-yi ruz " the remainder
of the
day."
(3)
Lx
ma
Ex.
:
baqiy
is
a
,
Ar.,
in Persian ma-baqi <JaA*>,
lit.
"that which
remained."
substantive.
This
used in modern (and perhaps in classical) Persian as a " the remainder of the jjj md-baqt-yi ruz (m.c.)
^^
day."
Remark
for the
I.
&*Ii
tatimma, Ar. subs, "completion, appendix, etc."

:
is
used
The
Ar.
remainder or balance of an account, as ^L*^ tatimma-yi word e>f>>-/ mizdn has the same signification.
II.
Tiisdb.
Remark
of food
;
Pas-mdnda *^l*
î
is
generally applied only to remnants

;
bdql
what remains or is left behind 8^1* ^b 'aqab mdnda "to what remains over" (of an account, etc., or of people,
i>Jlx} i_*fl*
mdnda
lf
to
things, etc., after counting).
CHAPTER
40.
(a)
IV.
THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

The
Definite Article.
If
*V
the noun
I;
There is no article properly so called. ). the accusative case, it requires ra. Ex. " but wf ab-ra bidih " give (me) the water &^ vT ab bidih " give me
Harf-ita'rif
l
<-*^ o,^
and
in
is definite
water"; du asp-ra didam "I saw the two horses"; but fxi *-~\ j* du asp didam " I saw two horses," and 2 j*^^ *_^t X*| ^ 3^*1 imruz dar " bazar asld* asp na-didam (m.c.) to-day I saw no horses in the bazar."
Remark.
In the nominative
case^^
3* du lashkar can
mean "two
armies" or "the two armies."

(6)
reflexive
Proper names, titles etc., the separate, the demonstrative, and the 3 pronouns, the interrogative **"&*, <*4U and ^Û, *+*, ^+*> 3 etc.,
9
Lrf a*A f *U^, <Û^, ^*A.,yU, ^J> and *-^Â, j&j*, etc., are considered 4 definite or ma'rifa ( so *yt* ), and require tj, especially in modern Persian
;
pronoun yak-l ^fy In modern Persian, the affixed possessive pronouns when affixed to a noun in the accusative case, are also usually followed by f>
.
also does the

(c)
In
classical Persian, this construction is rare.
In the Gulistan. the
\j
is
both omitted and inserted.
The
Syntax.
t>
of the dative, however, cannot be omitted.

\j
For further
rules
on
the insertion or omission of the
of the accusative
and dative,
vide
under
Remark.
(1) All
The following are

Powerful."
also definite
nouns that have the Arabic definite
article Jt
as )d&J\
"The
(2)
Nouns preceded
tive pronouns.
(or
demonstrated HftÛU) by the demonstra-
Ta'rlf
-AJ *J ) also r
means "
definition."
*
3
For
aala*.
and fulanl c5-^> (subs.). In the Gulistan and in classical Persian the f> of the accusative is often omitted, contrary to the rules of syntax. As a rule the reason of the omission can be traced to
Fulan
(adj.)
4
&^
the exigencies of the rhythm. Imitators of the style of Sa'di, especially Indians, syntactical mistakes of this description, but no ordinary modern Persian does.
make
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

(3)
131
The
oU*
:
as
(4)
a proper name or of a pronoun (affixed or separate), lir etc. or of a ^'^ ty**>, as c fX*y v
of
;
:
Some nouns
in the vocative, as
U*^.
1
(5)
Proper names, noms de plume
oÂ:ix3
),
personal pronouns, and
and
(d)
In sentences such
as, ^>Jjl>*>
j&
U*}^
or) crtj^r* sarbdzdn (or m.c.
sarbdzhd) du hazar budand "the soldiers were two thousand", the plural makes the noun definite; but du hazar sarbdz $)j* )]y* 3* signifies "two " or " the thousand men two thousand men " vide also example in Remark
:
to
(a).
Remark.
(e)
The cardinal numbers are not followed by a
plural noun.
In relative sentences, a demonstrative or relative ^, often confused with the of unity (sometimes accented for emphasis), in conjunction with the connective *t makes the noun definite vide 42 (6) and (g) to (r).
If
the noun
is
to remain indefinite, the
^ (or
*)
must not be accented
vide
42
(p).
(/)
In the sentences
heard of a
^M^ J^^Lj pddishdh-i rd shanidam (Sa'dl) " I have certain king," and u$ &J* ^s^ ,Jîx> jf ^j> yalc-i ra az mululk
ij
<c it is related 'ajam hikayat kunand (Sa'di) (they relate) of a certain one of the kings of 'Ajam," the objects are to be considered definite though accom-
of unity or so-called indefinite article panied by the affix t> in such cases, vide under Syntax.
(g)
for the rule of the
The demonstrative pronouns,

:
especially in m.c., frequently take the

(for mard-i-ki
place of the definite article, as
dmad
<*-*f
AXJ^XJ)
Anmardki amad <Wf ti .y uT the man who came" hence the reason
;
that Persians
learning English generally say,
"that man
who"
instead of "the
man
who."
41.
(a)
The
Indefinite Article.
(
Harf-i tankir or fd-yi wdhdat

<-j
oiX=^
The numeral
article.
" sometimes takes the " place yak one

*&**&
f^f
^b
or
j*& o^.
).
of the indefinite
Ex.
c^^
guzashta mi-kardam
here
(Sa'dl)
JUG *-**> t-io yak shab ta*mmul-i ayyam-i "one night I was pondering on olden times":
^x
shdb-i could
be substituted for yak shab
v*
-^?>
Vide also examples in (m). In m.c. this yak meaning. for the indefinite article than is the <^$ of unity.
<J*> is
without altering the more often used
Remark.
certain person
Yak "
:
-X>
can also be joined to the
of unity, as
"one, a
OA-.I
^f
C5xj u$Û>
Ûî v i,sf &+*>y jVva
az jumla-yi dddb-i
Poetical nom-de-plume.
132

ast (Sa'dl)
nudama-yi muluk yak-i In

of the
" and
this is
one of the (good) manners
companions
is
of the kings."
There
nothing to distinguish from each other the ya-yi vahdat
or the ya-yi tankir ^., and the yayi mawsul difference in signification. When the signifies unity
j&
J>^
o^j ^b
42), except the
in this case its place
can be taken by the numeral yak it is known by the first name. When the is used before a relative clause and is equivalent to the demonstrative pronoun,
it is
known by
Remark.-
the last name.
The
e? that follows
j*> is
probably not the demonstrative
ttft
but the (^ of unity.

(b)
The
ya-yi tankir
^^ (^t or ^
of indefiniteness acts as
is
an indefinite
emphatic,
article.
This cf, which has several uses, and
more or
less
either in magnifying or in minimising,

1
was
in classical Persian
pronounced
In modern Persian it is pronounced *, and with with the majhul sound. 40 (e) is unaccented, in order to distinguish it the exception mentioned in from the suffix <jr of abstract nouns. Thus in classical Persian mard-e <*j* but mardi "a man" or " a certain in modern
man",
<^yc "manliness":
"manliness." colloquial mard-i ^sj* "a man", etc.; but mardi This c5> is supposed to be derived from the numeral yak ô (or yag
of
^^
<->
which the
last letter
has disappeared.
Yi, for yak
^, exists
&vj
still
' *
in
some
Yi-qadr songs in the dialect of Mazenderan. " is common in S. Persia. a little water
aw
bi-dih
jf ;jj
give
me
it
In modern Persian, however, collective noun: vide (k) (2).

(c)
it
can be added to a plural, making

then, instead of the affixed
is still
If the
noun terminates
is
in silent
<.$,
the
symbol hamza
[vide
superscribed, but in modern Persian
26
(/)],
as
&j
a
bachcha-e (classical)
If
" a certain child."

the
the noun
is
pronounced *, and bachcha-i (m.c.) "a child " or concrete and terminates in <^, the ^ of
* before the
<^$
noun
is
generally represented
(or
I
by
of unity, as
Û mahl
"fish", but uSAU

(d)
Û)
:
mahi-i
tc
a fish."
(1)
If silent
precedes
^^t
ast
"is", the
may be
omitted and the
e*l written
vs^wt.
Ex.
Var shakar-khanda-ist
Astm-ash
' '
shirin-lab
bi-glr
u sham'
bi-kush
(Sa'dl).
But if she be attractive and sweet-lipped Take her by the sleeve 8 and put out the light."
4,
Vide foot-note
page 141.
With
Astin
thefeafat, bachcha-yi kuchak
*-&^X
*^
(mod.): difference in transliteration
and pronunciation.
3
ert^f
is
probably the old hanging sleeve, in Persia
still
worn by some
darvishes.

Banda-Vsl
133
may
be written o*ot
<xv
or ow*t s^v,
and
mdhi-lst
may
be
written ^~l c^^*, etc., or
c
this
Remark.
to the sense in which it
Grammarians, however, give is used. Thus in

:
^ different names according
' '
One and all need each other, Even a small spider can hide a great prophet
' '
the
first
is
called yd-yi tasc/j&r
j**^
<^l>
"the diminutive yd" or
yd-yi
tahqlr j***^
<^L>
"the yd
of
contempt", while the second
the yd of respect." contrary meaning is called ya-yi ta'zim ?*&*> the For the names of the relative definite article in relative (expressing
having the
' '
sentences)
(2)
vide
42.
is preceded by a *, to disAfter final alif -&(, yd b, or vdv j\j, this ' but J^ of the izdfat o**Le| as tinguish it from the ^5^ bu-i a scent
" the scent of the flower " bu-yi gul ^HJap oJji îa. chunm dawlat-i 'uzmd-i *'such a should be inserted as bearer for (m.c.) very great empire." A this hamza. Some Arabic words end in a hamza, which may or may not be
;
( '
'
^^
written in Persian, but before a suffixed ^c, the Arabic *must " desert, or jungle as opposed to cultivation ", ^5^^^ ' " a great desert.'
.
fall
<
a desert
away, thus: " and
(3) If
the Arabic word ends in alif4 maqsura

final letter is
(& or <_$) with

,
or without the
:
tanwm, the
for
v
changed to
l
alif
before the ^'of unity, as
^+e\ a'amq
j^l ) "blind"; Û^f a ama-i "a blind man." The word <y^ is in Persian pronounced ma'm ^*, or ma'nq ^jûo; its final letter may therefore
in Persian
be considered to be either yd (> or alif-i maqsura j^ft* or Û^x ma'm-? (m.c.) "a meaning."
^
Â)|,
thus:
Remark
I.
The
^
'a
is
andak-i jamdl (Sa'df)
little
sometimes added to adjectives, as beauty": chand-l "a few." For

:
^ JU,
vjefe (/) 9.
In old Persian, the is added to the noun when it is qualified by an adjective, and not to the adjective, as: mard-l khub <->j^ <**j* "a " dar andak zamdn-i (class, and mod.) good man ^JU) ^<*l j* (class, and " for a little is generally added to while." In modern Persian, the mod.)
II.
;
Remark
the adjective, vide(k).
(e)
The
of unity
combines with
written
vi~*l
in pronunciation, but
ast.
may
be
written separately in
full,
or combined with the

is
Ex.
khub mardl-st
*->j*>.
" he (m.c.)
is
a good
man "
o*t ^ty
v^,
or c^*j^x>
134

(/)
Examples
5f^
*
of the various significations of this

1
<_$
are
(1)
^dl*
cgr"^
<^* t
[ ' '
pddishdh-l
pisar-i
bi-adtb-i
dad (Sa'di)
king handed over a son of his to a tutor "; pds-l az shab " one watch of the *-*-" J' cr* ^ night passed." guzasht " U^> I have no special business (2) fjl^ (^ft kdr-i na-ddram ^ A|J** " I want x>< khidmat-i kunam mi-khwdham bi-shumd (m.c.) ruju' ptf 9}*-j t5^
certain
"a
^'*$
to entrust
(3)
you with a
(special, or
*j*>
ctf^
tft*
hwh
tadbir-i
a certain) commission." no-bud there was not a single plan

' '
' ' ;
*t e^**=
f^ ^-
c^L?^.? ejIfaij^JLi
jt
u hawdshi khidmat-i mu'ayyan ast (Sa'di) "for every single one and attendants a special (or a separate) duty is appointed." (4) ^Z ytf IsJjf jt is)j*> Jt^Jt *$ o^t ^\ (jtyv bihtar-ash in
bi-tawr-l az
^jjit ji bar har yak-i az sd*ir-i bandagdn of his slaves
ast ki al-hal
mjd
kindr kashi
(m.c.)
"the best thing
is
that somehow or other
you
at once get
(5)
away from here."

c5;^3jj ruzgdr-i*
<wf ji
^j
elapsed after
this";
i*L. sd'at-i t5
' '
bar-in bar-dmad (Sa'df) "a short time " a short time " or "one hour";
^t)
va
arose
dar andak zamdn-t (Sa'dl)

shakk-i
lest
in
little
time
"
;
U^
1
^*
!x
ham
pay da shud
(but
ki
mabddd
(m.c.)
"also
<x
a bit of a doubt
"
lest
va
ham shakk paidd shud

CXM
I
f^j ^2^ +* j
"there
was doubt
AT 6AxT
");
ci <XlC j
JMÂ ^^Jela.
vyUiJi
o ^^;^ ^*^ ** l -if jl ^*f j ^>T t>*^ <^j) AUUx) dngdh ruy bo-man kard va guft az dnjd ki
1
himmat-i darvishdn ast va sidq-i mu'dmala-yi Ishdn khdtir-i hamrah-i man kunid ki-^- (Sadi) "he then turned to me and said, 'on account of the gracious
magnanimity
attention to
to his
of dervishes
for
'
and
*g
C>
me
"
:
their uprightness in dealings
pay a
little
^jj^? burut-i-ldbid (m.c.)
he gave a
slight twirl
moustache."
(6)
& ^ pv <y^
Ki
j^kf *Z
td
<J*
J*\j>
13
(>*;
Bi-ham bar ma-kun

dh-i jahdn-i
tavdm
dil-i
bi-ham bar kunad.
(Sa'di).
" Distress not, if thou canst avoid it, a single soul, For one sigh to God (from a broken heart) can destroy
even a whole world."
1
5
there is yet no confusion as to sense. \j in this sentence, has the adjectival sense of "a certain" and is followed by an explanatory clause, its noun may be considered definite, and if in the accusative case 40 (/). requires the affix ra, vide
Note that though there is no

this
When
More common
in m.c. Idriara, kunl <^tf
*j^.
In m.c. ruzagar )^}j) 6 It is this sentiment, the fear of the distressed sigh, that so often prevents the punishment of a convinced malefactor in Persia. Some irresponsible person intercedes,
and the Governor, to hide his superstitious fears, professes to be overcome by The idiomi s biham kardan (and not Icandan),
pity.

(7)
'
135
o^
xÛJt
e^.t
Ûa.
**-jJ>)j
Vazir chi khiyal-i-st uftdda ast? (m.c.)
'
into
fallen I
(8)
what a way wonder ?

'
'
of thinking (into
what kind
of a fancy) has the
Wazir
^f <5-*
0*1
<Xx&*
' '
isfo? afat-i-st
" love
is
a great calamity."
'
&x
->>
eAjlj
is
^""l A**! C5*^ C5 **

4
ti
ji
In despair
many a hope
dark night
The
For
(9)
close of a
is fair.
bas-i
<e
many
" a
vide
39
(ra).
Wf ^
^y j^ ^L, sa/" this

;
dw 6ar in 6ar araad
(Sa'di)
' '
"a couple of years
or so passed after
a couple of chapters." j* fasl-l du (Sa'dl) For (^ with the plural in modern Persian, vide (k) (2). " " a Phararoh (10) t^-yy Fir'aun-i ^l^ (i.e. cruel and overbearing ) Hatim-i* "a Hatim", a man generous as Hatim (but Jiatimt "genero1
;
^^
^^
sity").
(11) ^\j>
AfesJy>j
-?
^fyk 1*^
Af
^.suuo
^7^
LJî
3j>)
^^
amddl
Oô^J
c^^^ *!/
1
**
<3o-~jL
<^jU-
x^^
^ AJ}
?ia giriftdr
bi-dast-i
javan-imu'-
jab, ki har
dam
hava-% pazad
wa har
va har ruz yar-l gtrad (Sa'd!)
"you
lahza ray-i zanad va har shab ja~i khuspad fell not into the bondage (of marriage)
with a youth vain * * *, who at every breath starts a fresh fancy, and each moment states a new opinion, and every night sleeps in a different place, and every day takes a new love."
(12)
^y
x
ujj^t^k
li
o*t ^^ji^ ;<*U* qalandar darwsh-l-st na-]charash%da

is
na-tarashida (m.c.)
"a Calendar
a kind of darvish, rough and uncivilized."
U Jtcy oJm) fct'Tiaf 6ar misZ-i shumd Musalmdn-i " curses on (13) Ûi oi*^ ?a'7ia< bar musalmdn-% misl-i Muslim like you" or U Ji* UJU*x3^j
;
(14)
<îCMJ ;Kj>>.
eH er*
f
^ ot^
^
javan misl-i
' '
man in
' '
jur Tear
namt-kunad
t^!^- ex-
(m.c.)
is
a simple statement; but javdn-l misl-i man-i ^j^
(&
presses a considerable
javan
a)\j*>
and man
same
idea, but in
and brag and lays a stress on man-i hamchu javan ^XAJ^SV** vy^- expresses the there on the word javan o^. would be stress no speaking
amount
;
of conceit
(g)
The noun with
its
of unity is often in m.c.
preceded by the
later ones.
Fir'aun dJj*j* a title common to the ancient kings of Egypt, as Ptolemy to the The Pharaoh of Moses' time is known to Muslims as Valid. Fir'aun has
come
to
mean a
cruel tyrant, insolent
In Persian sometimes
Hatam
lived before the Prophet, but his son, who died at the age of 120 in the 68th year of the Flight, is said to have been a companion of the Prophet.
8
^^
and unbelieving.' an illustrious Arab

:
of the tribe of
Tayy who
Dust *"*jt>, in Persia,
is
only used for men, but yar
)\$ is
a man-friend, or a
mistress. ;
136
indefinite

yak
^,
for additional emphasis, as:
oj <.>**.
->
Ui
dghd yak
chiz-i
bi-dih (beggar's cry)
"
gentleman, give
l
me
trifle
"
;
0^1^
from
H 2/a& muddat-i btmdri

qadah~
*$
ddsht "
Û*
it
:
^jT-c cjj *r
so that he
was
ill
quite
an age"
JL>J
(more emphatic than muddat~i alone). of unity does not admit of the izdfat after it, thus (h) The i
vt
ÂJ
barf-db (Sa'di) "a cup of iced water (i.e. water and ice mixed); s " he saw a certain A t5 ^/ guruh-i mardumdn rd did ki f; cjko.y (Sa'di)
knot of
men
who"
vide also
(/) (1)
*#\)tf
safid dvarda guzardmd (Jehangir's Memoirs) Cheeta and presented it to me. '
'
^yf <*>* ^c^> <M; Raja yuz-t "the Raja brought a white
in
For a
(b) (5).
classical
example vide quotation from 'Umar-i Khhayyam
95
tive or before another
In classical and in modern Persian, a noun before its qualifying adjecnoun in construction, even if indefinite in meaning, "a sometimes discards the ÂU> dustan of
(i)
party of friends
4
"
;
unity, as
&&j*
bd
ta'ifa-yi
(Sa'di)
but <ylXî Jt
(
^Lb b
td'ifa-i az dustan
!x>;^ *UA* jf ^Cj
" a (Certain learned owAf,>jl^j yak-i az ulamd khuranda-yi bisydr ddsht (Sa'di) " 6 man had a large family vi,s' *x-^to <>y C5 ;^ u?-*-^ (*^ ^ ^5*^^^ pddishdh-i bd ghuldm-i 'Ajami dar kishti nishasta bud (Sa'di) "a certain king was
;
seated with a Persian slave in a boat
"
;
"a b jÂUab pddishdh-i bd vazirjjj
king with his vazir ", but pddishdh-i bd-vazir-i a vazir (perhaps the vazir of another king).
^'^
jt
t?
^^^
it
"a
king with
Remark.
Note that
' '
one of
' '
requires
(1).
after
in all cases
it
cannot be followed by the

(j)
izdfat.
Vide also
(<^) 1
unity but the first in writing is usually represented by a *, as Sufi-i bi-man guft *zJ (.j+j ^*y* in such In m.c., however, the indefinite *J^> usually takes the place of the
Concrete nouns ending in
may take the ^ of

:
cases.
Remark. Singular abstract nouns in the indefinite <-> is substituted.

(k)
^ do not
admit
of the
^ of
unity
In modern Persian the ^5 of unity is generally added to the qualifying adjective [unless the adjective end in ^c, vide (m)] following the noun and not to the noun. Ex. ^,^3 qushun-i khub-i budand
(1)
:
^^ ^^
(Shah's Diary) "they were a pretty soldiery *>*j$ L$^J <3^ nutq-i kardand (Shah's Diary) "they delivered long speeches."
;
"
ziydd-i
tÛjJ
2
3
(note accent) would
mean he kept a
'
sick
man
in his house.'
In m.c. qadah
is
a basin.
is
Here ra
\J is
necessary though the object
indefinite,
because of the
A> following.
*
6
In modern Persian <^l*~*? )j&*
O^ nan
Tchwur-i bisyar-l (or bisyar

\jg*><*&
In modern Persian this would be ghulam-1
and
kishti-

(2)
137
to
The
"
Diary)
sense. (Shah's ^<*ij* ^M*^* chakushhd-yi ghanb-% " zanha-l ddrad Kirman they are (were) a strange lot of hammers 5l ki zarda-yi tukhm rd az miyana-yi saflda mi-duzdand îu b;3 *t c$ tO &Ux> jt \) (m.c.) "Kerman has a class of women so tricky jjjjojuc x<xjjL
collective
'st
l
;
can also Ex.: o-f
refer
to a
plural
and seems
give
it
^f
that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of the white." In English, the indefinite article is still common before a general
noun
denoting a
sum
of
money
or a space of time.
The answer
to a question,
#*& (me.) your pay?" * * * * to his deathbirth "From his "nothing; a paltry two tumans" of stroke on the field Jena, what a seventy-one years" (Carlyle),
is
"what
might be: Inch, du tumdn-i
<^*y
j*
o~jJL
j ÛiA AA. IXAA. y)fe )& (jj* f& 13 *Jy Jt az tavallud td dam-i In du farsakh-l btshtar wist dar kdr-zdr-i Jena chi haftdd u pan) sal-ist. marg-ash t-.Aiy&.>j âu*jf J& (m.c.) "it is not more than a couple of farsakhs,"
,
the
has a diminutive force."
(3) If,
however, the adjective
is
of the simple
noun,
the
is is
mard-t-st
'-'he
naturally affixed to the " a good man (m.c.); ^sty j*
kind that can precede the noun. Ex. o->^ v>^ Mwb
pir-i
mard-l (m.c.)
"an
old
(1)
mdn didam "I saw a body

fjt> v^lxj^c
jt
j
In modern Persian the constructions f*>& of men" or jam'-i az

;
^^*
,
c^*4"^
jam* -I murdu-
marduman dldam L^^-
didam
(h)
f^
(i).
and jam'-i zanhd didam ^33'^**^ "^ saw a body
or jam' -I az zanha p*$* ^) c?**^ of women ", are used. Vide also
and
is generally added (m) In modern Persian, as stated in (k), the to the qualifying adjective if, however, the adjective itself end in <_$, the
;
numeral
C5
is
preferably substituted, as:

or
" an Abyssinian
milk"
slave girl
"
>j^ uj
tX>
^x^ yak kaniz-i habashi (m.c.) Note the following m.c.:
^^^ ^sJ^
1
kamz-l habashi
(a)
"a
spoonful of
(m.c.).
(J-ÛI
yak
qdshuqshir, or (b) j*#> ^ÛJ qashuq-t shir, or (c) " "a glass of water gilas-i db-i, or -/f ^f
"
^5^
(3^ ' qdshuq-i shir-t:

1
^^4 s
^^
qilas-i db, or
<j^
cXi
t-f
yak
(n)
gilds-i
Note the absence
db or in apposition yak gilds db. of in the following:
^
a
o^b
^b
"
;
zakhm-i
p3*.j
8 palang ddsht (Sa'dl)
"he had
(the)
wound from
zakhm-i shamshir khwurda (m.c.)
" " he got a sword wound

Note the present
a leopard
1 i.e. the women of Kerman generally are of such a class. tense with the idea of " can (and consequently do) steal."
For gashiq <3^*t T. Here zakhm is used as the description of wound and it therefore becomes p^-j az definite. It would be also right to say za]chm-i palang-l <^^j ^J, or better zakhm-l
3
palang
^Jj jt
138

AjJy/c
xa
va u-rd dar churiin martaba
did
(Sa'di)
"and saw him
possessed of
such great rank." In these examples the noun

not take the
the
It does not
is
considered generic, and, therefore, does
^. wound of ten. Similarly (o) The construction ÂX kitdb-l " it seems to mean "a book, a good one dddam (m.c.) " I paid a thumping sum."
mean the wound of one leopard; it might be o~t Jfcb JÂ hanuz tifl ast " he is still a boy."*
khub-i
j*afd
^^
is
occasionally
met with
<Îfii.A
^^
digar
pul-i hanguft-i
(p)
As
dlgar-i ^cj^*
means "another person", digar meaning "antake the
other" does
yak
fiot classically
i*> chiz-i digdr j^.*^***-
" another thing, one thing more"; and in m.c.
^ of unity
8
:
chiz-i
j*$
_j**>
or
4 (vulgarly) chiz-i digdr-l ^sj>* J**-.
As in m.c. the distinction is not observed, asp-i digdr-l <^&d -**t " may mean " another horse or "another person's horse": but as already
stated the former
is
a vulgarism.
*\&
vide
For an example of ddgh-i digar-l ^sj*.s 94 (i) example from 'Umar-i Khayyam. The following are m.c. cu**i Ûaj^ 8^-J ^j|
:
"another misfortune",
" this pisara shaytan ast
' '
;
m
;
boy
is
a devil
' '
,
but <-^t
v\k*Z> Lsj~i
l '
he
is
a devilish boy
^*-
pisar-i shaytan-i-st
"he
is
the son of a devil"
adam-l khar-l-st
;
or tn
*if
adam khar
ast
o*t
ptf
^] "he
is
an ass "
*i\
marduman-i khar-i and

(.#\.
tej*
^^, or in mardum
It
is,
Tchayll
khar and
^ <J*. ^^
Remark.
<_c,
kitab-i digar-i ki
(q)
however, correct in modern Persian to add the *^ ^ e other book which (or that) c5^>
relative
v^
' '
"
.
The
AjlAx:
\\
following construction dar mashra'-i az mashari
is
1
borrowed from the Arabic:
(class.)
"in a road
(lit.
in a
road of
the roads)
"
;
tj+*
jt
^sj*' )*
dar mamarr-i az mamarrat

;
(class.)
"in a place
**
of passage, in
one of the places of passage"

c5 U;^3f
JlM
jt
tff^
^*> ^1*^
^^
numayad va dar-i az darha-yi ruzl bar ma bi-kushdyad (mod.) "it may be that God on High out of his gracious good.
nagdh az
ness
j*j;
2 ôUX Lo^ ^j)

altiaf-i
LS)*J
** +>
l
^*^
cA^
bashad ki Khuda-(yi} ta'dlq
Wiwish
lutf-i
may
jf
suddenly open a
way
of livelihood (out of his
ot^fct
ij*?^ bi-taraf-t* az atrdf ravam (m.c.)
many ways) for us "I may go in some direction
"
or other, somewhere or other."

1 In modern Persian This is the incorrect reading by incorrectly martdba-i **lr*. modern Persians, even when th e * is omitted in the copies of the Gulistan. 2 The LS could not be added to tifl.
In m.c,
Also yak
Shaytjan
2 LSJ^* U^
shakhs-i d&gar-l " another person
"
is
common vulgarism.
*
6
chizl-l digar j&.<5
L&fS- ^lt
(D^^
is
really
Erroneously
t.arf
o>fc.
an adjective here. In Arabic tarf <Jj.fc
is
the
"eye", but v3^t
taraf
is
"a
side, extremity,
margin, etc."

(r)
139
:
The
is
occasionally added to Arabic phrases, thus

tartib
' '
jj^y .-*xy
ma
of
hazar-t az ta'dm
kardand (Sa'dl) "they set out a

;
something
what was ready in the way of food here ma is the relative hazar and Arabic "that is the 3rd person singular, which", j**^ pronoun Pret. of "to be ready." masc.,
(s)
When
only
^^
at
substantives are coupled together, the
*Jfj
of^
va
3
is added to the last 1 *f da* j J^*l f&j& &\j<)i>j> fj tot} J*>s* ^*b*jp4*j J>>~^
Sarhang-zada rd bar dar-i sard-yi
UgMamish
11
didam
ki
aql
u8
kiydsat-%
(?)
fahm u
firdsat-l zcfid^l-wasf ddsht (Sa'dl)
"I saw
the son of a certain
officer
the door of the palace of Ugbjamish, that was possessed of an

all
understanding and sagacity, and an intelligence and ingenuity beyond
description";
i&f ^Csu ^f/U ^ IsJU ^ <>i.^j j^yf â^&Jjt xx/o Ai^Ls bi-hukm-i an ki maldz-l mani az qulla-yi kuh-i bi-dast dvardd budand wa maljd u mafvd-i sakhta (Sa'dl) "because they have taken possession of
c
o-*
îU
an impregnable asylum on the summit

safe refuge.
' '
of a
mountain and made
it
a place of
In m.c. the first substantive may, however, be preceded by yak t-j, as: kdrd u changdl-l bi-dih * ^Ki^. j &jtf***, or kdrd u changal-i bi-dih * *>k yak a. " give me a knife and fork."
Remark I. Similarly, in modern Persian, the ^c is added to the second only of two adjectives qualifying one noun, as: safar-i dur u dar5z-f ) ))&j*~>
^jlj^ (m.c.)
"a long long journey."
of
.Remark //.For an example in classical Persian of the added to both two adjectives qualifying one noun, vide last example of (c), 125.
(t)
When
its
noun does not as a
the ^c of unity supplies the place of a simple indefinite article, rule take the t; of the accusative. Ex. ^s~$ o>^ u**i^
:
some one to his father." aULy In the sentence Axif^^j ^JtLo jjjj^ \^ ^^^ zamin-i ra kanda sang barddshta " (Afghan) the sense requires the definite sign I; having dug up a (certain) special plot of ground and removed the stones." Note the distinction in meaning between the two following <^j>3 LT^ " but khdna-l atash zadand (m.c.) "they set fire to a house *>*) J2of \>
pish-i pidar-ash kas-i firistdd (Sa'di)
"he
sent
khana-i ra atash zadand " they set fire to one of the houses." In the following *&\*j ^)3>. b i^***~^ f <H^ shumdam gusfand-i rd buzurg-l rihdmd (Sa'd!) "I have heard that a certain elder released a
:
sheep
,"
the rd
is
necessary to distinguish the object and
make
the sense
Probably a copyist's omission; sarhang-zada-l ra \) l<itj *&dy If sarhang-zada ttf) be the correct reading, it means " the son of *S*&j referring to a local celebrity.
l
" an
officer."
the Colonel
"
^
&
The son
of Chinglz
Khan
he reigned in Turkistan about 656 Hijra.

of j.
Note these two pronunciations
140
clear
:

omit
it
and buzurg-t ^jj> at
first
sight appears to be an adjective

.
qualifying the nominative, gusfand-i ^txiJL*/
Remark.
unity.
1
It will be noticed that the
I;
immediately follows the ^c of
(u)
&i\je
The
^^ ÂJJ^J ^Lo
me
(m.c.)
like
Ex. &;* f^f " a man adam-i chun man-i bar zamin nami-khwdbad (m.c.) adam-i misl-i tu-l *vot ^jy Ji*> does not sleep on the ground
:
^ can be added to some of the personal pronouns.

' '
;
dmad
act
"a man
*tf
like
you came"
**i&
eH^ ^^
"
a
cf-^-*
<-&
(**'
adam-i
misl-i shuma-i na-bayad
chunm bi-kunad
thus"
^ ^ ^|
e^f ^^
(m.c.)
man
u-i
Jt* fif adam-i misl-i
you ought not to kdr namt-kunad (m.c.)

like
"a
to
man
,
like
j*j>f
but in this case
him won't work." In these examples the ^3 could be added it must be omitted after the pronoun.
not added to
The
(;)
is
U ma "we"
?/a&-
nor to
u>&>t
wAaw. "they."
{i
J*' it* 1
fk
one of these here who

single."
(w) In
"
c^
but
man-am
yak-l
dar in miydn ki
ff
man
am
(Sa'dl)
am
&*> (m.c.)
"I am
alone,
a negative proposition the must be translated " not a none." Ex. d^xi (^^-^ laJf anjo kas-i no bud (or anja hich kas no-bud " there was no one there " c -) ) ( *& cT^ fi& d^*i c^L^^ " there was not an animal there." hayvan-i na~bud (m.c.)
^^
^f
(a?)
The
' '
indefinite
chunm
such an one as this
can be added to the substantive qualified by " or by e;l^ chunan such an one as that
k
'
' '
or to of***, chandan
much ", as: Û* &i^ <j^ ^ ^^^ dar just u ju-yi chunm ja-i budam ki (m.c.) " I was in search *>o^j ." of just such a place as this ^\ AjUi ^/Aiui ^lia. chunan \*jf )j shakhs-i na-bayad in tawr karha bi-kunad (m.c.) "such a person like that
"much,
so
& pty
^^
man
ought not to act in this way" fJ&J ^^l* o^j *J c$^J c>U^*- chandan rabt-i bi" I do not know a zaban-i Farsi na-daram (m.c.) great amount of Persian."
:
This
^ can
c/f
also be
added to the substantive
chunin, c^^ to these words themselves.
an chunan,
^\^^
ham-chunin,
e>^ ^
qualified by A ham-chunan,
e^^
e*?'
but not
For the
chandan, vide
(y)
definite or demonstrative
(relative with
&
with chunan and
42
(s).
The personal pronoun 1st pers. sing, man "I" makes its accusative o*-o_Hi*t I) u^j?** hamchu man-i regularly when the ^ is affixed, as ra asir-i dast-i tu kard "he made a person like me a prisoner in your
:
^y
Similarly in the dative case

gah-l in nawbat naml-rasad
(class.) (in
magar marduman-l ra
ki halat-i mutawassit darand *

\)
H-;
14+*
c*
'^
modern Persian
hlch vaqt instead of gahl)
" but to men possessed
of a
modest
competence only, such a thing never happens."
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE
141
hand
will
"
l :
^ ^v
^
lijif
c^**i
l>
<j*
&*"*
**>
\*^Haji Baba "God
by
as
:
not select a fool like

\j
me
as a
^xj JjL* â+a.1
|^.
gr-iufc
' '
Prophet." This could also be expressed In neither case could mard \j* be substituted.
' '
' *
(z)
The
^vift? jt;
can sometimes be added to the infinitive used as a noun, but rdz-i guftani a telling of a secret a secret rdz-guftan-i
,
to be" told."
Yak-didan-i
(i
one
visit
"
t:
;
yak-kushtan-i
one
"
killing
(of
one
person or of many).
(aa)
For the demonstrative

42.
as a definite article with the connective
*$ in relative clauses, vide
42.
The Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or

Relative
<?.
(
HARF-I
(a)
MAWSUL OR HARF-I
3
( ) .
SILA*
*!*>
o,*. or Jj*V>
).
There are no relative pronouns.
Jjj^y <-J^ '' The man that came yesterday, came to-day ", would the English sentence, From this it will be be " The man that (ki) he came yesterday came to-day.'
'
,
ki is
used as a connective
Instead the indeclinable particle *f Thus the Persian construction of

.
seen that in every relative clause there is a pronoun expressed or understood. If this pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, it is usual
except for the sake of special emphasis or for clearness. In oblique cases it is often inserted. In m.c., however, it is oftener omitted than in the classical language, as <jr>* j'>-* oly **$*' asp-i ki bar an savdr " " the horse that ride on it horse which
to omit
it,
:
^
it
mi-sham
(class.)
you
(the
you
ride)
in m.c. the c/G? would be omitted. a Persian relative clause (6) The noun that precedes
may
often be
article
regarded as definite, even if in English J^xs t^ *). 4 In Persian this noun

1
(
be preceded by the indefinite
is
:
made
this
specially definite
it
by
affixing
a demonstrative
^
P.,
even to the plural
^ connects
with the particle
Marii
(^/0
is
also
sufficiency that is peculiar to God 65 man-l thou art with me.

' '
a subs, "presumption; egoism; also the quality of the seminal fluid also man-*, as in, mani, Ar.
' '
* *
' '
' '
Persian
poets frequently
play on these
various
meanings.
2
Sila
*A0
:
conjunction
note that this

130
&
is
not a pronoun
s
for fuller explanation vide
" Relative Clauses."

as
considered a particle
*-J^*
and
&&. chi is
also
considered by
it is
some grammarians
of
a connective in
relative
sentences.
As, however,
only in this use
*-H
omit
and does not moreover admit and

to treat the
" the
found joined to j* or cJl, as *^j* and relative ", the author has preferred to
it
words **-j* harchi and

etc., are applicable
*^T
anchi as single words, indefinite
pronouns.
if
only to inanimate objects in the singular: the antecedent is a plural noun, rational or irrational, *& is the only connective. have * Thus "a fool who lights, or the fool who lights, a wax candle by day"
Anchi, harchi,
the
much
same meaning.
If the
sentence must be arranged differently
noun before the relative vide (p) and Remark

:
is
to be kept indefinite the

(r).
to
142
ki.
BELATIVE PEONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE (S
As however this ^, unlike the of unity, 1 admits of the accent in modern Persian for the sake of emphasis, it is perhaps an extension of the Ex. ***&* shakhsi-ki (nom.) izafat that connects an adjective to its noun. " a man who " or " the man who, the man that, etc." &f \> (îi-i shakhs-i " a whom." It will be noticed that the demonrd ki
:
(ace.)
(or the)
person
strative
^
;
followed by *$ corresponds to the restrictive relative pronoun in

(r).
English
(c)
compare with
This
is
called the ya-yi sifat or

' '
^ of
' :
qualification
and implies the
force of the demonstrative
pronoun
that.'
This 4.5, however, in such sentences as o^f ^JÂ kitdb-i ki ^jjiuA> A^ltf ml-khwdham ham-in ast " this is the book that I require ", is distinguished by some grammarians as ya-yi mawsul J^* ^b ) or ya-yi muzmar â* ^b " the yd of the pronoun (the noun that is kept in mind)," or ^Jf <^L ya-yi dm " while in such sentences the yd equal to the demonstrative pronoun an
(
' '
:
as
oJl-jo e*} e g*A
they consider the
ya-yi tawsijl <^***j* relative sentences vide
* <J;* 3' ^*yi J j such a and call it to be the equivalent of chundn " the further lj of For remarks on yd description."
&
*$ )t>
fj
o*
*lw
' '
' '
130.
In writing, this
thus
Axjj-Asui
can either be joined to the *$ or written separately
or
Remark.
The
'
after
'
j& and e/I^
is
^,
in
but the
of unity
as in *$ ^JjJ
f&*
probably not the demonstrative * vide under har _^> (^**!
Pronouns.
(d) The pronoun in the relative clause may be either expressed (but is seldom expressed) or understood. It is better to omit it unless necessary to
the sense [vide
(/)].
In the following examples, words in parenthesis do not belong to the examples, but may be inserted to show the complete construction
:
Nominative
sham'-i kdfuri
8
day"
Â^/O
<y nihad
:
^M
(Sa'di)
)
***
cA)
JA>
t5^'
lights
&&*-*
r&z-i rushan
" the
^l^f
fool
who
wax
candle in broad
{ j\
;
if
^jg
(
gdv-i-ki (u) shir mi-dihad (m.c.)

)
"the cow
mashq
k^
that gives
milk"
AUA/O
mi-kunand (m.c.) " the soldiers who

Genitive
1
:
^^
a^jJLikjlj^ sarbdzhd-l ki (zshdn)
drill."
*
^?
e/
t5*#
^^ jj) **
:
<^
** e;T
an na man bdsham
of
However
i.e.
in classical Persian both this
45-
and the
41
(6).
^5-
unity had the same
sound,
ft
the J^^F-*3 majhul sound of e

u.
vide
For ki
camphor." The adjective is frequently applied to anything white. Falconers even apply the term to a variety of hawk that happens to be unusually light
3
From
kafur
"
coloured.
4
<t/
*^
and not na-man
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.

ruz-i
143
jang bmi pusht-i
man
of
* '
(Sadi)
;
am
not that kind of

s$
man
"
whose back
ki habb-ash
you'll see in the
day
bimdr-am hard (m.c.)

e**!
^jj
^j a$u5U)(w " the stars whose &\& sitdraha-i ki partav-i shdn rawshan ast (m.c.)
ill
;
:
cc
fj+V <J^ the doctor whose pills made
" battle
^^
me
tatiib-\
rays are bright/'
Dative
&f+>j*a-
oJ^
<>I=EU
(:
(Sa'dl) (shakhs-i
*,iia
man
turn)
^\ ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqlr namud " oh thou to whom my form appeared mean
9
;
Jjj (JW;AJ
LSf~i
pisar-l> ki bi-pidar-ash put

'
dddam
I;
(m.c.)
"the boy
to whose father I gave
'
:
money
^t
*&/ v^
*A
ÂJJ
UiJ(>.j
axJU^
" the
shahrhd-l ki bi-danjd (for bi-dnha) raftam hama-ra ab cities to which I went, have all been washed away."
girifta ast (m.c.)
Accusative
/<^
fj^f
^-aiuA shakhs-i ki (u ra) didam (m.c.)
ce
the
person whom I saw" (lit. that I saw him) ;-^>*^ anki chun pista didam-ash hama maghz (Sa'di) "he
like the pistachio-nut
U*
<J***i* &i~.> &j*. aCif
whom
I beheld all kernel
"
]
;
kushta
budam
\j
oAj^'
had,
" ^t^> a&oUw " the snakes which we killed yesterday " he sold all the things he *** asbab-i ki ddsht hama ra farukht (m.c.)
(m.c.)
:
jOjj
*&$ jjj&
aCxJbkjlc
marhd-i ki diruz (dnhd ra)
all his
property."
:
Ablative
khatar ast
o^j^-feu^ ^xk* <jj
"the
proceeding in
)
aw Mr A;i <Zar vay* mazinna-yi* ^>^ *^y^ e>T which there is a suspicion of danger " *&
;
&
^s^
cUti (c;Tj^
khdna-i
ki (dar
(
an
or <fer M) dakhil shudi (m.c.)
"the
house which you entered

(m.c.)
<xju* gjjj*o
"
;
îx-SJu/o
^f^^ )*r
y^ ^2/-* ki(dar an) mi-nishim

^l^f
^Liofji
^3L>JLj|
"the place where you always sit"; p# *_^

Hiyat-i ki az ishan aspha-yi khub
biham mi-rasand (m.c.) " the black."

*>"
tent tribes from
whom
good horses are obtained

4
Locative
o^t*i| aja
;<^ ifjji aî AA&^ c^f ^J

' '
^-^
gillm-i ki bar
an
khufta bud, dar rah-i guzar-i duzd anddkht (Sa'dl)
he cast the rug on which
he was
(or
had been) sleeping on the way the
thief
would pass
5
' '
eA*>J
e*f jl
**> *^ t>to s azan bustan ki tu (dar an] budi ^+*>\jf ^nji ((*fi jt) jj* md-ra chi tuhfa karamat avardi (Sa'di) "what rare present hast thou in " generosity brought us back from that garden in which thou wert ?
(S^
turned out to be skin on skin like an onion," had sterling qualities proved a fraud.'
1
'*
'
i.e.
the
man whom
thought
2
3
Also mazanna *Xtt*
or az vay.
pile.
A pd&
gilim
is
a cheap carpet without any
*
5
But )&&\j Rah-guzar "

Another reading
is
traveller, passer-by."
^5*^ *^ cjULy? of ;i dar an bustan
ki budi.
144

*f
]
<.$
v^
(
c5
r~^
ast (Sa'di).
Tar aam na-rasl bi-Ka ba ay A'rabi

K-in rah ki tu mi-ravi* bi-Turkistan
I fear
thou wilt never reach the K'aba, oh Arab, For this road thou goest leads to Turkistan."
ghulam bdshad. [This common construcnow but construction has led to the following erroneous tion *^j W.JA. jjycf &$ \j*s* mard-i ra ki imruz chub zadand duzd bud,
i.e.
kas-l ra ki iqbal ghulam-i
u bashad, or
iqbal ura
^^
t^^
where
mard-l ra
is
is
the object of the verb in the relative clause
vide(e)].
another means of declining the relative (if in the dative or (e) accusative case) commoner perhaps in modern than in classical Persian. It consists in putting the noun first in an oblique case and then the connective
There
&f
its
in this sentence the
pronoun cannot be inserted in the

[
relative clause, as
place
is
:
Examples
'st
taken by the substantive in the oblique case at the beginning. ** I; kishti-i ra ki Nuh nRkhudattA^-b jt ^v *^ -=~l \*^ *
chi bak az tufan
"what
^^
fear
from the flood to the boat whose Captain
is
Noah
"
?
case at the
in the dative In this example, instead of placing kishti-i and the it in the could be nominative; commencement, put
^M
pronoun in the
relative clause, expressed or understood, in the dative, as: **. c*w| lai. lj *$ iJ&^S kishti-l ki an-ra Nuh nakhuda ast ul^-ijt tSb ^.^J tjif tf \> chi bak az tufan ; ty*> jjj*\ 00^3 mard-i-ra ki diruz chub j.a.
zadand imruz murd (m.c.) 6 " vide end of (d). to-day

:
V ^j*> "the man who was beaten yesterday, died

t;jt
^^
(/)
An
I
expression like
better omitted.
relative cannot
^x^
*r
âT
adam-i-ki u-ra didam "the

!^|
is
man
whom
sense,
(q]
saw", though
The
correct, is
heavy: as u-ra
not necessary to the
it is
be joined to the singular demonstrative pronouns
1 Ka'ba, lit. "a cube." The cube-like building in the centre of the Masjid at Mecca it contains the black stone (hajarVl-aawad), white as milk when it first descended from Paradise, but now black from the defiling touch of sinful man.
:
2
3
The broken
pi.
is
v^'
the
pi. of
<^j
is
^j*.
Poetical for *;
^|
&? ki in rah.
*^ ki tu (dar an) ml-ravi. ( df J* ) -*"* This sentence, though grammatically incorrect, the noun at the beginning being the object of the verb in the relative clause, is not uncommon in modern Persian. The
4
6
L?r**
construction in H>!3^
bi
it
(
(**
*~^# **
^^
H/T -&^j'
t
cS^r**?
t5^*J A dust-l ra ki
'* to a friend whom chang arand na shayad ki bi-yak dam, bi-yazarand (Sa'di) has taken a lifetime to make, offence should not be given in a moment " is different,
umr-l
farci
as the accusative at the beginning
is
the object of the verb ^>'jl# biyazarand.
^c.
145
an
and In ^t, nor to har j* " every." It is best to consider an-ki an-chi *^T, m-ki <*&*!, har-ki *$ _>*, har->chi A^Â as single words. However the plurals of the demonstrative pronouns andn uW anha
c/f
,
fJf
take or omit the L c, thus a^^f ariha-i-ki, or lîjf, may *** Ifif anha-ki, etc. As the demonstrative pronouns are already definite, the definite ^c is a pleonism and may be omitted.
and
maw
e>^'> inha
1
The personal pronouns too are

of the
definite in themselves
and do not admit
relative
(m.c.)
^;
vide
41
(u).
raftand
"they who went*

'
sentence like &&*) &f " is incorrect; the
^(^
tshdn-i-ki
should
be
avoided.
As the relative " ^ before &t is used to make nouns definite, it can be omitted when the noun is already made definite by the demonstrative pronouns [vide (g)] or by^ har. Ex. cu-Jf ^jj tXJJuj +ty &l^ p #> î*^ e/Tj va an
(h)
:
" and those skins pusthd ki dar khana-yi gazh-dum bmand asr-i an-ast (Sa'di) " ^Ji? that are found in scorpion-holes are the sign (remains) of that p*&9 8 4 * k-^Ju iiA va *-În man &^* IÛA fulan-am )* ^( j gf^/< <>*) a?* J** j- f^-)^
;
'
sang
*
haman sang
ast ki dar fulan tarikh
bar sar-i
man
zadi (Sa'd!)
"he
said,
am So-and-So, and this stone is that very same stone with which you struck me on the head on such and such a date " j( ^& cfi^^jy y ^Â*- ^t o*if fjîi ^ fjî^ ar l^jf guft ay Sa'di tu mz sukhan-i bi-guy az anha ki dida-t va
I
'
shunida-i (Sa'di)
"he
said,
*** i^ A*Af^ c^^ ^j 31 cuiuyf *-&j* bidan band-i gharib ki az vay nihan dashta bud ba vay dar avikht (Sa*di) " he closed with him by means of that tricky artifice (or throw) which he had kept
:
you have seen and heard
"
'oh Sa'dl, do you too relate some of the things
^ ^b
&
&^
to
himself"
5
;
5JuUJ
j*t<^f
î^îo
^ af ^
t^
liar ja ki
ravad bi-khidmat-ash
;
" " wherever he >& it laof j iqdam numayand (Sa'dl) goes, he is well served lj>**' vo ki ast vs*^.( jtî. durr-i shahvar nihang-i mardumanja ^L^* j*^^
^V
khwar
ast
(Sa'd!)
"and where
the costly pearl
lies,
there too
is
the man-
devouring shark."
i Sa'dl generally omits the <_$ ; az anan-ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash dusti bud (Sa'di) " one of those
who had mutinied

2
had a friendship with me.

a
' '
In
tar ast
<X>lj *ixj^3 j ASict^j v^^.fy j^)/^ AÛ^j' ^^? 2/^-* va mardana va zurmand bayad ki (Sa'di) "any one of you
*$
*/mma
is
dilavat-
who
braver than
the connec-
the rest, and
manly and strong
of
arm
"
,
ydk-i though
it
has a
before
tive *S is in itself indefinite.
If it
be required to
ki az
make
*'
the pronoun definite, some such
phrase as
U&3t *^ LST^J^
^ r nafar-l
shuma
the
one of you
who
is
",
would
be used.
s
If the
(^ were inserted cu~ACk

tarlkh-i fulan
ojU* haman sangl-at (m.

)& could have been said.
c.).
*
6
Or dar
**
c^
i-jjlj
But compare
10
oJb o^,^
ya/t (Sa'di)
to-day by
^&vJ<> ^lV3-?y*' Mnrffis bidan daqlqa-l bar that one single artifice he overcame me."
^j
mandast
146
could be inserted. In the above examples the the following examples the ^ is inserted: (i) In oj ^ ^Lui JLj ham-chu an nd-bind-i ki shab-i dar vahal uftdd va guft (Sa'di) "like that blind-man who one night fell in the mire and exclaimed ";
1
o*i
^Jli. *+&)j&-
o2**t
u*x
^5*
** ^sj*^*
in dukhtar-i-ki mi-bint ism-ash
Khanum ast Khurshid Khanum "

Khurshid
:
(Mod. Pers.)
<x5^ja jf
of this girl that you see is ** xj\*>b <XÂJ oî^x* *$ y> har kas-i-ki mi-
"the name
khwdhad bi-pushad bi-anddza-yi qadd-i u bi-burand (m.c.) "let according to the size and figure of whoever is going to wear it
har
Teas ki,
it
:
be cut
s '
or
*>
y> har
ki,
or
^rO* nar âs cou ld be used
instead of
har kas-i-ki.
In the above examples the could be omitted. are As names definite, they do not require the ^c unless some (j) proper oj **f Jjâ *> tj+*n.> Mahmud ki diruz amad special distinction be required
guft (m.c.)
Mahmud, who came yesterday, said "; but ^^jis ** ^zj**^ Mahmud-i ki diruz amad " the Mahmud who came yesterday" (it being
is
"
understood that there

sentence *>x>
vus'at-i
more than one
of this
name).
.iUi^lj
Similarly in the
o&<^j v^L^
ki
^ c^;_# o^'
'avayib-i
'
^**j
U|
amma
bi-i'timad-i
akhlaq-i buzurgdn
zir-dastan bi-pushand
(Sa'dl)
trusting to the breadth of nature and magnanimity of the great, ' the defects of their inferiors cJ^)_V buzurgan does not require
,
"but who hide

the
*&^x>
(k)
buzurgan-i-ki
If the
would mean "those who noun with this-^ is qualified by a simple adjective that can pre(that section of the) great
."
cede
as:
its
noun
(vide
under Adjective)
it is
better for the adjective to precede,
*y*
v'^
^-^tf cJ^t^r*
ishdn tdkht khwab bud (Sa'dl) " the " the J^' avva l kas-i-ki (m.c.)
** tj+*>*
^x-^
nakhustin dushman-i ki bar sar-i

to attack
'
:
first first
enemy
them was
"
asleep
;
**> ** person who' &J* )^^> **<#-* j*i " dildvar-tarin zan-i ki dida am (m.c.) "the bravest woman I have seen " ar the greatest ^f Jij^y J>^ buzurgtarhasrat-ianbashadki* (Sa'dl) ' &*. will &f *$ be that J^ *AiU na-bini-ki regret f&y ^j^jf
:
^b
'
^^ ^^
ûw
bi-andak ranj-i-ki burdam chi maya-i ganj dvardam (Sa'dl) " dost thou not see what an amount of gain I have brought in return for the small stock of
trouble I underwent
"
by the former friendship that we had ." cannot precede the noun (vide under Adjective) it (I) If the adjective follows it taking the relative ^, as: <Wf j, *&$ u*^ j*^& dukhtar-i
khush-gil-i-ki diruz
"
^**b
**
<^j** &jUj
bi-sdbiqa-yi ma'rifat-i ki ddshtim
amad
:
(m.c.)
" the pretty
girl
who came yesterday."
(m) Sa'di says

1
Similarly
' '
,
dashtam (m.c.)
had
2
: do not require the anchi asp u mal-l ki anchi asp u mat ki dashtam) " whatever horses and property I appears to be a confusion of two constructions.
the nouns after *apj
(for
In modern Persian
ki.
this
would be
*>>
o~| ^t
e^.*ak \&.j&)j* buzurg-tarln hasrat
in a^t
147
hukamd* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwish ast na barddar ast no, khwish ast " the wise have said that a brother who is wrapped up in himself
is
neither brother
nor kin."
In modern Persian this would be
*&i)*\j>
Possibly Sa'di considered )&\j* baradar in the above sentence as a generic noun, or the copyist has omitted the ^. The reading in many Gulistans is a&^fjj barddar-i-ki.
barddar-i-ki.
it
si
can accompany a substantive preceded by a numeral when *&$ is required to make it definite as j<xi.< ^fjb j* j| fi-C \j of " I broke sanduq-i lei az sarbdzdn bud dn-rd shikastam (Afghan colloquial)
(n)
The
the three boxes belonging to the soldiers," but "I broke three boxes belonging to."
(o)
**"
cb ^* a ~ *
4
sanduq ki
The phrase
is
" as
^^
:
&*** *tyj* $ az
qardr-i ki
ma'lum rm-shavad means
appears." (p) If a noun
it
indefinite before
a relative clause, the verb occurs before
Ûo ^f ($(&'>\ ittifdq dtj&* l&*> ** <*xoy dar an miyan javdn-i bud ki miva-yi 'unfavdn-i shabdb-ash naw-rastda (Sa'di) " there was in that assembly, by chance, a youth, the flower of whose youth
the connective ki, as
1
i>^
<vof
^ ^^
had but newly bloomed"; tunity came which ."
A*'
^V
mawqa'-i dmadki (m.c.)
"an
oppor-
Sahmgin
'*
db-i ki muryjiabi
dar u iman no-bud
Kamtdrm mawj dsyd

Such a
terrible
it.
sang az kindr-ash dar rabud (Sa'di).

(a)
expanse of water that even the
water-fowl was not
safe in
Its smallest
wave would have swept away a mill-stone

is
off its
banks
Vide
"
;
in this
example Remark.
(r)
understood after
db-i,
hence db-i
is indefinite.
(r)
Note the absence
of
^ in the following non-restrictive relative clauses

'avdmm uftdda
ast
jamil-i Sa'di
baslt-i
ki
dar
afvdh-i
va
sit-i
sukhan-ash ki dar
it) is
zamm
rafta (Sa'di) ''the good repute of Sa'di, which (and
in the
mouths
of all,
and the fame
of his
words, which (and

^fe*i j*>*
wide world
."
^1^
^+*)j
^T j*j*> ^ A>
har du
it) has gone out into the oâ^. ojUcî dar 'imdrat-i
hazrat-i sadr-i
of
a'zam ki
md
dmad u
raft
ddrim
(m.c.)
:
"in the palace
H. H. the Grand Wazir where we both have free access" ^jlb ^ AJU. ijj ûr j* IJ&&9 jur u ajJU c^3 <*&&*j ^J-X
(
AikU o^t jlk ^^> ojwc ar Uy faA; to)b qasrhd-yi khub va kushkhd-yi buzurg u kuchik az ru-yi saliqa bd kamdl-i qashangt dar kindr-i rud-khdna va
^l
1
*
Should be
tj
^f
anha
'
ra.
;
2 i.e.
"a
certain youth
'
the
noun
is
hardly indefinite.
148
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.
kuhhd ki mushrif bi-rudkhdna ast sdkhta and (Shah's Diary) "here and there on the banks of the river and on the sides of the hills, which
bdld-yi
(and they) overlook the river, are erected fine palaces and summer residences both large and small, all in good taste and of exquisite beauty." In the is not added to kuh-hd, as the hills are not last example the restrictive
particularized;
^
The
would signify "those

indefinite article
hills
that."
Remark.
as
:
o*t
Diary)
^ eP+w *J^j "
yak will also make the noun indefinite, *;> tX yak naw' zird at-i ki ism-ash rap ast (Shah's
l
a kind of crop, which
is
called rape
."
indefinite article, as:
However, a <^ before &f may represent an English
ÛLut ji~jb ,>^ Ô-J^SA. ja *&r~^ (J*jt )j**** ja dar huzur-i u misl-i pisar-i ki " he stood in his dar huzur-i pidar-i khud bi-istad istdd (m.c.) presence as a
son stands in the presence of his father

<yiA*Alj
1
"
:
Jb^'f
e^ ^/
*f %tf
<Ji*>
y^J
Ûj
tÛ tamdm-i lashkar misl-i galla-i ki gurg dar an uftdda bdshad Âjt az ham pdshidand "the whole army scattered like a (that) flock of sheep
attacked by a wolf
(s)
."
Chundn ^^- "like that, resembling that, to such a degree, in that " and chanddn cM**- " as many as, how much soever, etc.", may, manner, so in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia, take the demonstrative ^c with Ex. y( 5^/f J>ji^ eJ^<va p** J^li , o-i v lsouô ÛÎfexj Îp^ **\ or omit it.
;
jj^siyo
^f
&>
\*fa$-
xiÛ du a-yi
l
is accepted and the cry of the distressed heard, even though they be infidels, as was the case of that prisoner (previously mentioned)" here instead of &Ua. chundn ki, A&â- or <*apJU. could
;
dldagdn maqbul agarchi kdfi,r "the prayer of the oppressed
mazlumdn mustajdb ast va ndla-yi sitambdshand chundn-ki dar haqq-i an mahbus (m.c.)
be used
nazd-i
<xUyo
oîjj) Jx>
ÂJ
***
vi^cfjj
t^
^ ^ AôUa.
chundn-l ki dar
shumd zird'at ast plsh-i md niz zird'at mi-bdshad 1 (Afghan) " we have " <i"cT just the same amount and quality of cultivation that you have Û^Jk ^JÂ. \jl* Ji AîUa. tufdn-l dmad chundn-i-ki dil-i md-rd khushk kard s " a storm came such as struck terror to our hearts " (Afghan) (Afghan)
:
" howevermuch guftam qabul na-kard (m.c.) I said, he did not agree; in spite of all I said, no matter what I said, he ."
t>j& J^**
p& A^JfAXA.
chanddn
ki
An Afghan might
For
with the
cAi-a<_
here say chanddn-t ki

is,
Hamchundn-i-ki
however, correct Persian.

indefinite substantive
chundn and cJ^J^ chanddn qualifying an

41
(x).
of unity, vide
1 Note that a plural verb after a collective scattered individuals.
noun
is
necessary here
to indicate
2
3
Chunan-i-ki A
class.
rarely used in
modern
9
Persian.
In modern and
classical Persian *'
<^f
ê>
el^ chunan tufan-l amad ki
would
be better.
THE ADJECTIVE.
(t)
149
40.
For remarks on the
definite article, vide
(u)
For the use
of the demonstrative
pronouns of an, as a definite
article before a relative clause, vide

(v)
40
(g).
As with the
of unity [vide
41
(j)
Remark], abstract nouns

:
in
the singular do not admit of the relative ^. Ex. Javdn bi-gfrurur-i dildvari ki dar sar ddrad ^*s")t*f ^s)#3)jj** c>'>^ (Gul. Chap. Ill, St. 27).
The
relative
45-
may, however, be used with plural abstract nouns,

az
as: cu*f ifojjM Ujf A&jSlfjjUy li ndfarmdriihd-i ki xJ tojf U^ Ax5lfAJyk khublhd-i ki shumd karda id.
ma
sar zada ast (m.c.);
Concrete nouns however in

** 5>;t> jr )*
(w)
last only, as
may
take the relative <^
as:
^^:
ji
**
^n
^"t
^xÛ
*' (Gul.).
When
substantives are coupled together, the
is
added to the
magar ikhtiydr u 'izzat-i-ki Khan Mid bi-u ddda ast kifdyat-ash nami-kunad? ->i&4J ^îjljif o*| aâÛ ijl^ ÛL *<AJ> j ^^\ j^ (m.c.) " but the authority and importance that the Khan has already given him are they
not sufficient for him
' '
CHAPTER
43.
(a)
V.
The Adjective.
is
Ism-isifat
)
The
(
adjective
).
called sifat
oJLe
and the substantive
qualified
mawsuf
o^jA5
Persian adjectives qualifying nouns are as a rule indeclinable.

struction, they usually follow
as
:
In conizdfat,
asp-i qizil-i
(b)
izdfat.
u/ J>* my grey In old Persian prose, the adjective preceded its substantive without the In modern Persian, some few adjectives may precede their nouns, and
1
man
^f
and are coupled to their nouns by the " horse."
in this case the izdfat is discarded.

'
This construction
).*
is
called the
inverted
epithet
izdfat-i
maqlubt
^.^ Ûi
<
The substantive has usually
the
"^
of unity."
tj\*
Examples:
man";
lîjf
cP(j*
^^
khub mard-t (m.c.) "a good 'ajab havd-l Injd ddrad (m.c.) "this place
/0
v^
^
has a fine
a good climate." The adjectives ^&o mk " good

air,
" and
bad
"bad"
"
frequently precede
their substantives in this
manner.
With the exception

'
of the simple adjectives
good
" and " bad ", the
inverted epithet
'
is
used only in poetry or in rhetorical language, or in
modern
colloquial for the sake of
emphasis
in the last
by position emphatic and

(m.c.)
1
signifies
"a
really fine air."
ig example above, zan-l Darakhshanda
^^
"a
bright,
cheerful,
woman";
sharir
mard-i
(m.c.)
Can this be a translation of the Arabic rummanl "scarlet like Qizil, T., "red." the flower of the pomegranate," the epithet for a nutmeg grey, or is it applied to a grey horse because in Persia the tail and legs of a grey are usually dyed with henna ?
2
Vide
117.
m.c. for durukhshanda.
150
THE ADJECTIVE.
Ls&j*jtj
"a wicked man,"
etc., are
used in modern Persian and are more
emphatic than the ordinary collocation. (c) Arabic adjectives and compound adjectives should follow the nouns they qualify, but vide 117 II (e).
Turkish adjectives precede their Turkish substantives, as: <J^ Jj* (m.c.) "red-head," a name for Persian and also for certain other settlers in " the 1 golden eagle" (lit. the black bird of Afghanistan: tyi qara-qush prey);^ty qard-kahar adj., "dark bay (horse)." In JjL? ty qaraqaval,
lit.
uV
m.c. for qarqaval

(d)
"a
pheasant," the
first
word
is
perhaps not an adjective.

(class,
The
of
;
adjectives Ichayli
(mod.) and bisyar

:
and mod.) "much,
many,"
take either a singular or plural, as
"a lot cJ; women "
women"
Ichayli (or
also zanha-yi bisyar )\*~>
zan ( ;U~j or) ^$1^ " zanha niany bisyar) 1^3 ( ;^~-? or) csVj, but not zan-i bisyar zan-iziyadis,
Ichayli (or bisyar)
J^
however, used. Note that Âia* unlike ;U~j cannot follow
its
noun.
it
Note too that J; >j "
;lj~*J
"
jahazha-yibisyar-ibuzurg
^^> jl^
^s
ambiguous, for
may stand
either for
many
large ships," or for jahazha-yi bisyar-buzurg
ships very large, very large ships." 89 (I) (2). vide

(e)
For examples
of bisyar as
an adverb,
Ghand î^ is followed by a noun in the singular, vide 39 (g) (1) to (7). has many meanings; "many, as much, how long, (/) Chandan e>f^" " etc." When it signifies much, many it is followed by a singular noun and in Modern Persian always by a negative verb, as chandan sarbaz anja no-bud " Uof jbj*. cjt^va. (m.c.) there was not a great amount of soldiery there ":
:
chandan sar-rishta-i dar zaban-i Farsi na-daram o\* oVj >t> &)j* &\**" I don't know very much Persian." (m.c.) Remark. Chandan sarbaz anja budand &ty l->f jb j* ^**> " there were many soldiers there", is old. (g) In modern colloquial, one or two adjectives sometimes precede their
substantives with the izafat, as pir-i
:
^^
mard Zj^j** * "the old man ";
ffir-i
mard-i
The young
Pir
is
of the
Golden Eagle
is
black.
:
any religious sect cu&J jb AJ plr-i t&riqat " a Sabza-Maydan, a square in Tihran, is vulgar for Sabz Maydan. spiritual guide." Sdbza >Xvo is also used as an adjective, "dark-complexioned," of people; rang-ash
sabza ast o**l
L>J(
also a founder or a chief of
" he looks green, ill." <J*^) (m.c.) but surat-ash sdbz ast: 4-U \) ^*A t i3XA kJU3 Â* cJ^J Ij^f j-UJ ;i i^JJ >J^f ** There was not a dark face, bad-looking, in the whole of Ind.
*)***
;
^'
'Twas as though Ind were created of salt." " [The word green," sabza,' adj., is applied by the Persians to a dark complexion, while a pleasant or good-looking face is said to be " saltish" or " "ull of salt" ^JU or
_
:
the play on the words
is lost
in English.]
The Arabs, however, do not

G
consider the
word ..JU "good-looking about the ^
mouth"
to be connected with .JU "salt."
THE ADJECTIVE.
iJ
151
" the grey-headed old woman" " but " *j a and class.) pir-i fartut-i (m.c. decrepit, worn-out old man " the old *J pir bdghbdn, or û cjUcU bdgkbdn-i pir (Afghan and m.c.) gardener" fo^lJû pir nd'khudd, orû ÎÎJ nd-khudd-yi pir (Afghan and
"an
old
man"
pir-i
zdlj\)^
" the old m.c.) Captain."

Pir-sdl
JLsû "aged"
is
an Afghan expression
L
for <JL AXJ^,} dirina-sdl,
er j))
**4ji* dirina-ruz,
or *<i;>^ JL- sdl-khurda.

f j^v
For the modern colloquialism

>>
marhum-i shah
J^
' *
the late Shah

& ***
' *
and bachcha Turk

Turk), vide
^y
**u or ^wA? bachcha

,
*aeu
Jy
(for
^3
is
<Xapj
bachcha-yi
117, III
(6).
In classical Persian, the

pir-mard-l
(h)
t'za/al
in
the above cases
omitted,
thus
i&j* j**
:
etc.
Adjectives, without an izdfat, may precede or follow nouns to form " compounds, as <_&; <j^ khush-rang "of pleasing colour ; toj ^d dum-zada ' " " docked " (of horses) j^ long-tailed, i.e. donkey jl;^ ft dum-dardz
' ; ;
gush-dardz (m.c.), more

gardan-kuluft, adj.
vs*^K ^,^5 commonly u*^ 3 ^ dardz-gush donkey "of strong-back (in a vulgar sense)"; also "a man of
1
"
"
^^
power, no weakling."
(*)
When
several
adjectives are
attributed to the same
noun they
:
may
(1)
Be connected
is
to their
tansiq
'
construction
called
u'
noun and to each other by the izdfat this s-sifdt ( eULJf <JHr^ ) "the stringing, or
:
arranging, of the epithets.'

;t<>
Examples
kuh-i buland-i sangi-yi barf-ddr (m.c.)

ydr-i
gul-
Ojj
(.5&U*
vUj Bjf
"the high rocky snow-covered mountain":

*'
badan-i shirin-zabdn (class.) c>^3 (îs**
C>AJ
J^^lj
the mistress with delicate
body and honied speech."

(2)
tion not
The adjectives may be coupled by the conjunction vdv j common. Examples Ja *> fj ^ o*-f^ f&= ij[y 5
:
tt
a construc^-JU t
^t
" B., Chap. XXXII) though he was of a fine r^ ^ ^ Tr> soldierly appearance, he was in reality the most timid and pusillanimous r^r
e^3
*r*3
of
men."
(Gul, Chap. V.,St. 20.)

' *
gallant youth there
Pledged to a
was and fair maid beyond compare."

(East. Trans.)
ti^ &*-jk
itoj-i^
\)
-fj*xo
JU
A^ Auxxx) A^. (Afghan)'
" what
From
!Xi.jU
*
.
In modern Persian
-ft*
*^^
';
152
THE ADJECTIVE.
does he see but that Ayaz has opened a wooden chest and taken out some old
and dirty clothes." (3) The adjectives may follow the noun
junction
j,
in apposition without the con-
vide
139
did
(b)
(2) or with the conjunction j, vide
90
*>p
(a)
(5).
Example:
l*l**t
shakhs-i
siyah-fam
za'if
andam
(Sa'dl)
j-liaU*
^îuS,
iJU0 "he saw a person dark-complexioned and

^1;
feeble-looking":
fall
^b ux~ j jj3j~
Remark
I.
fc^ j v?^^ c^L^
o***j
LS^ )îfi
*^
" thou didst not

fickle
into bondage to a youth, vain and foolish,
hot-tempered and
"
(Sa'di).
In modern Persian
it
\)
would be necessary after
îui
shakhs-i, otherwise
(j)
might be mistaken for the subject.

also qualified
affixed to
by an affixed pronoun, the pronoun is to the noun, as the adjective awqat-i 'aziz-at eUjy " e>)4j* [or awqat-i azlz-i tu] thy precious time." The I; of the dative or of the accusative is added to the last adjective
If
is
the noun
l
and not
only, as
(***})*
L>
^j* w*-l robbers L$)^* **&*' *& *&) (Jv=*~

tj
*)&
t;
' '
carried off the

I sold
' '
^>jj ^L the large finely-coloured moth;
Arab horse "
eaten Afshar 2 carpet."

(k)
If
izdfat
is
a predicate after the verb " to be " (in English), the of course omitted, as barf sard ast va atash garm
an adjective
is
For a predicate plural in English (substantive or adjective) and qualified by an epithet, vide 119 (o). the predicate is a noun qualified by an adjective of the class (I) If
in (6), the adjective may, according to ordinary rule, either or follow its noun, as: pidar-i tu mard-i Tchub-lst o^j^. precede ^3 ;<>j, or pidar-i tu khub mard-ist ^*~ j&s ^ n sucn cases the noun of the >*
mentioned
v^
}*v
predicate has usually the

(ra)
^ of unity.
in the plural, as
ast in
:
An adjective used substantively may be
*\^v
is
c>^^?
of the
"the sages say": o*t ^t^^l<| jj az alcabir-i Bagjiddd influential people of Baghdad." In such cases the plural
this plural is not rigidly
gilJia-yi majlis
is is
"he
is
an
usual; but
Jchush-
adhered to
in
speaking:
^^^
;
c^MÂA
m.c. and incorrect: W^JJ buzurgha properly "big things" sometimes in m.c. applied to persons for size (soldiers) as opposed to
t^y kuchak-ha;
(3)
buzurgan "the great in rank forefathers." In English, adjectives may occasionally take the place of nouns; vide
but
c>(f;JJ
(p)
and Remark.
1
'
The
singular duzd aja gives

'
an
indefinite
sense
equal to the passive
either
a thief or thieves stole

2
or
'
the horse
was
stolen.'
Many
are
carriers
Turkoman tribe whose head-quarters are said to be in Azerbaijan. nomadic and live on the produce of their camels and flocks. The men act as and the women weave carpets. Nadir Shah was an Afshar.
scattered
THE ADJECTIVE.
(n)
(1)
153
modern
In a few instances in classical Persian, sometimes imitated by writers, a plural substantive, Arabic or Persian, animate or
is
inanimate,
(2)
qualified
by a plural adjective, Arabic or Persian.
The use
of a plural Persian adjective to agree with a plural

is
noun
denoting rational beings

copied.
(3)
in imitation of
4.
the Arabic and should not be
For an exception vide p. 122, line It must also be recollected that,
in Arabic, all
broken plurals are
collective nouns,
and may, therefore, be grammatically feminine singular, and that the commonest Arabic feminine termination is * sing., and oi>f pi. 1 (4) and (5) Examples: &u~^ j^j ^^jt ^^z &]tyo (Sa'dl) "the brave
men sprang out of their ambush": *i;U? j t; ,MA iyLfexL* (Sa'dl) "they appoint coarse ruffians ." Bishtar-i ishan dilavaran va bahaduran-i kar-azmuda*1 j o^jita e>lil î&jj *^xjT fi cJâltf (Trans. H. B. Chap.) here eJ^ Jb dilavaran and u^ltf bahaduran are treated as substantives and predicates to olijf ishan, and are qualified by
,
:
the adjective kar-azmuda
lty$ j.
uliiA| (mod.) "persons, grandees,"
vide
(7):
Ashkhds-1 akabir j&\
[akabir-i ashkkas "the great ones of the people," would be an ordinary
construction],
Qasamha-yi ghilaz
l*jj^
^(f)^
^fxi
"solemn oaths"; (mod.) "I swore strong and mighty oaths."

s
^ ^l^
(m.c.)
&* ÎAJJ!^ In the Quran
strong and harsh," and this probably accounts for the plural Arabic adjectives being (incorrectly) used
occurs the phrase
*u> ô> &&c &$&* "angels
after \&&&j+*
and
l^*-*^.
Common
nesses "; (jj*
in far mans are, fUke Ûiy-^/o

(rare) *iiy=
and
(or
flk*
^tjijj.
Shuhud-i muvassaqa
Jl^.;
,^w
et^r ^*) "trustworthy

rijal-i
1
wit-
or AJy JL=-; (but not in Pers.
aqwiya* tk j$\ J ^;)*

is
"
strong
(6)
men." The regular Arabic masculine

:
plural of adjectives
:
sometimes used
for
b men, but always in the oblique case, as Ghuzdt-i mujahidin ^<Â\.=SUO %e " "true warriors of the Faith Icubaraf-i 'arifin ^>jU *\ji "great mystics."
regular Arabic masculine plural substantive
may be
qualified either
a regular Arabic masculine plural or else, less frequently a masculine broken plural.
(7)
in
Persian,
by by
broken plural signifying rational beings may, as in Arabic, be
In some copies of the Gulistan dilavar occurs and not dilavaran.
Or K>rjf J6
)*(tf
jj$*
(I}
\J)JM
or
S^jf
^ )^> j )* c^îy^
bishtar-i
ishan dilavar va bahadur-i kar-azmvda or blshtar-i lahan dilavar-i bahadur-i kar azmuda.
&
Shidad ildA plural of ShadU *?.**, and ghilaz &%* plural of ghattz But (*fj^ J^; is used in Persian.
Not eyAAlaRx n om.
pi.
154
qualified
THE ADJECTIVE.
by an adjective in the masculine broken plural, " the Imams." &*5(
tahirin)
!
as:
A*imma-yi athar
(or reg. pi.

(8)
;l(J
As stated
in (3), Arabic
:
pure broken plurals are collective nouns and
grammatically feminine
tybUe Li\
;
it is
therefore also correct to say cfimma-yi tdhira
but *>y JU;, however, does not appear to be used in Persian, though correct Arabic. If, however, the broken a singular plural is not applicable to rational beings it is usually followed by " the 99 = *U*l husna asma*-i as a broken &*>*=* feminine,
hukkam-i 'azima **AC
etc.
;
,
^,
rarely
attributes of
lp cjUjf, vide (4). exception a!> is usually qualified by (9) An Arabic regular inanimate feminine plural a feminine singular, less often of a masculine singular, and very rarely by
-***""
;
by God; *&**
plural,
a feminine plural: darajdt-i 'aliya &Jl*
"
s>\+)*
still.
high ranks"
is
commoner than
as
' '
:
Û eA*), while
olaJL*
the
ei>UJ'b
regular Arabic feminine plural

first
However, by a regular feminine plural, " eUM* cÛlA/o high places pious works that are permanent
cs*la>p is
oUH*
rarer
in a few instances a
is
qualified
' '
t <
occurs in the Quran.
dual denoting rational beings may be qualified by a dual, as " noble âJfj wdlidayn-i mdjidayn parents."
(10)
^Û
dual
denoting
irrational
beings
or neuters is
rarely qualified
by a
masculine singular, as tarafayn-i muqdbil Jjlo/o î^fc. but generally by a dual. (11) An Arabic feminine singular denoting a lifeless object is usually
followed by an Arabic adjective agreeing with
it,
as yad-i bayza
'
^ " the *^# *
white hand
ulya Ule &>; It does not, however, always agree, as yad-i vdhid <3^ *x
(of
;
Moses), a miracle"
rutba-yi
of highest rank."
"monopoly."
is
If
the
noun ends in
e*, for
the servile Arabic

(3).
is,
the adjective
usually
masculine; thus
Û
CXA, vide
(t)
When, however, an Arabic feminine rational noun is followed by an the relative adjective ending with (ya-yi nisbati), the adjective w feminine: if irrational it is masculine or feminine, as: isyj*" 1 ^ ut
v^
*jjXJ^
^J^
^l+e O^^CA.
but
*JjiUl
oJ^,i
(12) If a singular
Arabic substantive denotes a rational being, the Arabic
adjective should always agree with it. It will be seen that the concord of Arabic substantives
and adjectives in Persian usually follows the rules of Arabic grammar. (0) Summary of rules of concord of substantives and adjectives other than the ordinary Persian concord.
regular Arabic masculine plural denoting rational beings can be qualified either by a regular plural or rarely by a broken plural.
(1)
(2) A broken plural denoting male rational beings may be qualified by a broken plural, a regular masculine plural, or rarely a feminine singular.
But
*0!/e
THE ADJECTIVE.
155
(3) A broken plural not of rational beings is usually qualified by a feminine singular, rarely by a broken plural. (4) A dual of rational beings is qualified by a dual agreeing with it. A dual of irrational (or neuter) things is rarely qualified by a mascu-
line singular, generally
by a dual.
(5) singular Arabic feminine of lifeless things usually has the adjective with it, but not always. agreeing If the noun ends in o for the servile 'i, the adjective is usually masculine.
An
(6)
Arabic noun
If
adjective ending in the yd-yi nisbati and qualifying a feminine rational is feminine in form; irrational, masc. or fern.
a singular Arabic substantive denotes a rational being, the adjec-
always agree with it. Persian nouns should not be qualified by a plural adjective, neither Persian nor Arabic.
tive should
(7) Plural
Persian adjectives are also treated as substantives, as: " *>** jfjjt) 5 (thou wast ibyojf fUf *j*j f,/J **** &\& j *J^ (Sa'dl) most fortunate that thou fellest to the lot of an old man) experienced and
(p)
(1)
A few ^j cJUi
travelled, one
who had seen
the ups and

)
downs
jy
of life,
,
bad."
so used.
(2)
The
adjectives &ij
& and
,
*z**\)
and tried its good and and ^xb j o~J are often
,
Adjectives, Persian and Arabic,

of
may
stand for substantives, as:

,
ot>|
(pi.
oo)
:
" the dead "
also
(3)
An
' '
:
adjective standing for a substantive
J&&&S and cX^x> may be
vide
(r)
and
115
(r).
qualified
adjective, as
sick son
^ u^j
*b*
<*$r*i
t>
î^: <*sj&'& (Sa'cK)

Uiiîl *f
" a certain rich
by another miser had a
ot^
cd';
^#2>
&1
(Sa'di).
Remark.
" the past."
In English, -adjectives occur as nouns, generally in poetry, as: " and the "irreclaim" George Eliot talks of the painful right
able dead," but only a master of English prose can so introduce an adjective
qualified
(4)
by another adjective. Sometimes an adjective
is
better, or as well,
is
known
"
as the substanJ>j
'
;
tive it usually qualifies,
and hence
used alone, as
<J.u BNJJ
^ j ^^&^
for
'
Hindi here stands for

blade."
(q)
tlgh-i
Hindi.
Compare
"my
Toledo
my
Toledo
few substantives are in modern Persian treated as adjectives
also,
as: *|f (*tjf ;**-** kishti bisyar aram bud (Shah's Diary) "the boat was (^*A' 4< this chair is very calm, did not roll ": o-i o^.!; ;U-j ^î^ (m.c.)
comfortable."
That dram and rahat are
considered
as
adjectives
and
not as substantives forming a component part of a compound verb, is shown by their having in modern Persian a comparative form dram-tar and
rdhat-tar.
TamizJ+>
(for
JA^J judgment, discrimination) in m.c.
signifies
"clean."
156
THE ADJECTIVE.
(r)
(1)
The noun
of agency,
and
as in English
participles, are used as adjectives.
With
the present and past these must be classed the verbal
adjectives in a.
(2)
The noun
of
agency
is
not
much used.
*ii^;a
JJ-xL^
In modern Persian
îJ*i.j
it is
nearly
liberal
always an adjective: shakhs-i bakhshanda
(m.c.)
oaiw
"a
man";
ru-yi darakhshanda (m.c.)

'
^; "a
face"; mard-i 115 (r).
ata-kunanda (m.c.)
Ikp
bright-looking,
cheerful
"a generous man."
Vide
Even
classically, the
noun
of agency
was used as an adjective:
"In synagogue and

Hell's terrors
cloister, mosque and school, and Heaven's lures men's bosoms
rule.
0.
K. Rub, 49 Whin.
is
Remark.
obsolete verb
The adjective JJM*^ sharmanda "ashamed" &^*>j.

is
from an
t
The
Pers.,
adjective farkhunda l****j
connected with
"
beauty, lustre ",
and
rukh, Pers.,
"
Pers.,
fromy
far,
cheek, face."
4
In charand u parand ^jj j <H>* "grazing beasts, and birds," the a is " dropped. In m.c., charand AJ^ alone, is an adjective, meaning' bosh, rot
Manand,
"
prep.,
" like "
(in
India vulg. manind),
is
from the verb
to be like, to resemble."
A few
agent form, as
(3)
other adjectives, possibly derived from obsolete verbs, have this " slow to act. " diranda (m.c.) a-*^
: :
Present Participle
"
I
o|>^ er'
you are
IÂ**
o]>ft^ J <d**j (Sa'di)
said
like the fox
who was
seen fleeing
away
and stumbling blindly

(4)
in its haste."
:
Past Participle
fj^l
ibU**'
lt>(M j
(Sa'di) *'in short

:
none had ever seen
table
spread"
(Shah's Diary)
them":
^j^J^ ***} f* {&*& " the cherries too were ripe and (the trees) well laden with kar-i na-pasandida kard (m.c.) "he committed ^/ j^jÛjlJ
&U?Jf ÂJ** ^-' \)$ his house with open door or gilds-ha ham rasida va pur bar bud
&^
^^
a displeasing
(or reprobated) act."
(5) According to Platts, mast, dust, and a few nouns and adjectives were once past participles. (s) (1) The Persian adjective j* appears to have a feminine sû
:
e>3
' '
*j%
w* j
LSfy'
j^
**
(^
j>
jj)
e^;^ c5^/i
(Sa'di)
Thou wouldst not have
treated
me
roughly in these
days
When
It
thou art a strapping youth and / a poor old
woman."
Pira-zan &j j^xj is also used in m.c. must be recollected that Persians sometimes express or emphasize an
THE ADJECTIVE.
izafat
157
*
by writing
it
as
*.
Possibly, therefore, this
may
stand for an izafat,
vide
(g).
"
" or In modern Persian, AJ^ is used by women for the pronoun " I me when writing to a superior, vide pages 51 (/) and 69 (e). In classical Persian, <*W" kamina is generally used as positive masculine,
(2)
"
"mean,
vile."
,*xx
J
o^tioj
*-ft
j&
li
îj,
f*-i
(Sadl).
&
$"
^(OJo
(t)
(1)
"Permit me for I am just a humble person To rank and sit amongst the slaves." As stated in (ri) (3), all broken plurals are grammatically feminine
.
singular,
and the Arabic feminine termination singular is is frequently added to Arabic participles and (2) the noun even if is Persian. Examples masha*ikh-i adjectives qualified
This feminine
:
mazkura *)*> ^5Ux>
(class.)
" the Shay khs mentioned above";
4*^09/0
Ûj
"the women described"; fyjf** e*UUK3 "the duties mentioned"; w&o {>s>aj& &oj5j* mulcataba-yi marquma bi-dusii (class.) "correspondence written
in friendship."
(3) If
the
fern,
rational beings, or
<~U*J,
if
nounis Persian or Arabic, singular or plural, and denotes the qualifying Arabic adjective is of the form cUl or
is
the adjective
usually put in the feminine singular: aJUK

o^;<JJ'
^+**
of
or
(perhaps incorrectly)
LUK o*a. "perfect wisdom," but et(
man's
power and
(4)
it
&*&
or
If,
ej*> of divine power; vide (n) (11). however, the Arabic adjective is separated from the Persian noun
if
qualifies,
it
is
a predicative adjective,
<-Ul*
it
masculine form, as: o*(
^l^
-
&) y\
>
"she
is
is preferably left in the a very intelligent woman." it
In
)^^' j<f }t> &j eîl "this woman would be better to substitute ;>^ /0
tXw
(5)
became famous in the town,"
It
appears that
it is
optional in modern Persian to add a

* is
1
to Arabic
adjectives and
participles: in speaking the
writing
writing)
it is
>!J* xÛa> (m.c.), or ?>!j* IJÂ (in writing). There seems no sufficient reason for adding the to faJchir in the previous
" rich
generally inserted.
Examples
^l
generally omitted, but in <j-UJ (m.c.), or ^^'(j-UJ (in
apparel'
';
example, as libas
in
is
masc. in Arabic
is
in
*j*>
^^ the
cu*JbL
is
Û
o^LL
is
the
correct,
as
Ichil'at
has
itself
never added; but the feminine
termination.
used as a substantive signifying " a woman (in m.c. especially a married woman)," the feminine termination is only added to -**** when
As aA**^
the qualified
1
noun
is
a rational being: Ju*-
cÛ
is
madiyan-i
za'if
"the
adjectives
The author is of opinion that it is better to add the 8 when they qualify a noun, Persian or Arabic, that
to all Arabic participles and feminine either logically or
grammatically.
158
THE ADJECTIVE.
weak mare," but madiyan-i za'lfa " the mare of the woman" " the feeble lady" is commoner than *AX*-C îU>. (m.c.)
In
AjJ*i^
word
is
generally translated "a court of justice." the second noun formed according to rule, from the relative abstract an Arabic
jjJL^vxs,
adjective.
(6)
The advantage
:
of
adding
to Arabic participles will be seen
from the
of
following
&Gy*j#
())
S
:
"the deceased woman," but fj^j* oj "the wife S
the
" the river Jjl^ deceased intervened," but *# o;jj y &^ *?; here <J^ could be (mod.) "the intervening river prevented an assault" substituted, but Atfl^ clearly indicates that it is a qualifying adjective and
"
^^
is not feminine. not predicative, though or Arabic participles that are adjectives (7)
commonly used
is,
as adjectives
seldom inflected for gender. Persians that pride themselves on their Arabic,
in m.c., are
There
will
however, no rule; for use Arabic constructions,
even when contrary to Persian grammar and idiom. The Arabic past partic. in m.c. means "pretty," and hence is rarely inflected: however
is
" used in m.c. for pretty
'
girl,'
as well as Jâ/oî<^.
(8)
In d&L* <^/ ) *^j$
(m.c.), there
for the feminine termination.
appears to be no grammatical reason Possibly the explanation lies in the fact that
'
most
of the
common words
x
' '
in Arabic for
conversation
'
are feminine.
*
(9)
Musamma
&+"**>
named
' '
(in
Persian written and pronounced
and
<^+~*>
musamrm} has
' ' ;
for its feminine
musammdt
U-c
is
+ oi>U-~x>
cc
called Haji Blbl
but
^ ^
l
b Isof (m.c.)
*ili
there he married a lady

U
j-aw
>>>
îui
^ ^ ^l^.
almost every
l
In India, in written documents
oi,U~/o
prefixed to
woman's name and =

(
Mrs., or
Madame,
is
or Miss.
ulya-jah
(10)
9
Ali-jah
l-suJU is
l
used as a form of address for men, and

the feminine of
4
i.e.
*U. UA* for
women.
Vlya UJU
^\
the elative of
to
The construction appears

1
to be Arabic,
'
laU Uie "high as

'
,
rank."
it
Nikah
in its literal sense signifies
conjunction
but in the language of the law

part. fern,
implies the marriage contract

4
and
its celebration.
'joined in legitimate wedlock
is
applied to
mankuhah Aaîx) a woman married by the ceremony of 9*&
The past
as opposed to that of **^ (lit. usufruct, engagement), which is a marriage contracted for a fixed period and for a fixed sum a kind of legal prostitution. In Persia the word
**^>
used only by the learned, the term ***** sigha being substituted both for the ceremony and for the temporary wife. The children of a sigha wife are legitimate, but
is
do not rank equal with those of a

law.
*A^X) mankuhah
'
wife,
'
Though the Prophet sanctioned

still is
temporary wives
its
as
except in the eye of the a preventive to vice and
the Shi'as
in Persia,
practise such marriages, the Sunnis consider
them unlawful.
Kirman,
noted both for the number of
**"
sigha
women and
of its prostitutes.
THE ADJECTIVE.
159
In India, and probably in Afghanistan, U ^l(e is still an address for nafib valdls, etc. persons of position, but in Persia it is used for J*?j is often used to qualify a feminine noun, (11) An Arabic feminine elative " " the most Persian or Arabic, as dawlat-i 'uzma ^k* oJ>^ great empire smallest sister" <M*c j fc*&* O*AJA> î j& o!*xu* ^ d^f
^^
'
J<^
*?
a^
ofy (3*y
~^
** **
^^ Iq- Ndma-yi
an
J.,
Ed. Bib. 2nd., As. Soc. Beng.
Remark.
If
an Arabic adjective
of the
measure J*f has

;
elative
signification, its feminine is
on the measure î*>

s<js^
but
t
if it
denotes colour or
fern.
deformity
its
feminine
fern.
is
on the measure *3U,
asî
"
yellow,"
,"
(u)
Arabic participles used as substantives

as
3
:
make
(male)
their feminines
in
* '
according to rule,
friend (female)"
jjîAxj
:
(^ v^
:stx3
' '
niy friend
"
;
er^
and
ASJ^JUO
"deceased (male)," fj " a divorcee." afllk/o
A*>^
"deceased (female) "
&&^
my
;
In
of
classical Persian
and Arabic,
it is
while Jjy^*^ or
necessity,
v^ ^
5
" the beloved"
Û
is
generally used for the male lover, generally considered to be feminine

is
and hence
not necessary to add an

' '
to distinguish it
as feminine.
In classical Arabic, it is a rule that " nouns which by their nature can do take the females not feminine termination. to Sa'di, neglecting apply only
this rule,
writes
(
AL/oU.
"pregnant," but observes
it
in the
:
word
"mistress."
Umar-i Khayyam, however, uses ma'shuqa

)
vb
j.
ft.
vi^
^'
" In Paradise, they
tell us,
Houris dwell
:
And
fountains run with wine and oxymel these be lawful in the world to come,
'tis
klf
(v)
Surely
right to love
them here
as well."
0.
K. 185 Whin.
(1)
Mushkil J^kxs
(pi.
mushkilat)
is
in classical Persian both a sub-
stantive
and an adjective. In modern Persian it is generally used as an adjective only, Jfc^ ishkal being usually used in writing and in m.c. for the substantive.
, (
both a substantive and an adjective: t***J-*5- **an excellent thing"; ^y p&jLL* |<X*P jfjt (mod.) "he was one of my best
(2)
is
Umda
***
Great offence was once given to a Persian Governor by the Afghan interpreter of
official
a British
ignorantly writing to
him
as 'ali-jah *^>
^^.
160
THE ADJECTIVE.
*\)j)
customers";
t**^
3'
"
" of the best of the ministers"; f&j*&*
fo.**
my
real object."
(w) (1)
Two
substantives are often substituted for an English substan-
tive with its adjective, as:
^ O^ÔA+A ^.xxJUjfor ^
,
o^/c
' '
: ;
jjjb
oj#
was endowed with high aspirations a noble ambition U (Sa'di) " by the previous acquaintance we had " ajj
e;U/o
tf <^y*>
"he <&U
O**AJ
'J^-^
(Sa'di)
"by
former beneficences, by previous favours"
fl?' Jfclj-*
(m.c.)
"former
days";
the felicity of the companionship* of dervishes and the purity of " their nature, his evil qualities became changed to good ones Lc$ (m.c.)
(Sa'di)
"by
is
necessary for a journey "; ,/#<x> LCJ$ (m.c.) "what planning is " O.AXU* " what is the ; (Sa'di} proper to right course to take necessary, <{ ^**>i ( a is wonderful this ^Jlax^ y or) good companionship";
"what
^K
^^
exploit"
^-^
health"; JUT
"
oy> j
AJJ^
Jl*^;^ (Shah's Diary)
"
they are in perfect bodily
"the highest perfection";
^*>\j
complete error."
j*9
(2)
^T^W J^ Ar., and
jx
jj-^
Per., are substantives; while
^K,
fern.
an Ar. adjective.
In sentences such as,
sf
*<,j**
^
+>
' '
JUia.1 (m.c.)
" there
is
every probability that
",
kulli is
sometimes mistaken for a substantive.

' '
Kulliyyat **& is also an Arabic abstract noun also use kulli in the same sense.
o
totality
the Persians
*
its
(3)
The Arabic substantive &*** and
antonym
*j~ are in classical

:
and in modern Persian frequently used instead

j-
of adjectives
*A5Us
î
JJ
f
(
o>^ti
this
^jJb
^Je
.?~A.
(Sa'di)
"he
entertained the very

9
1
highest opinion of
sect"; vJ^JU
'
^^-.^
"upright conduct"; v^
LT*^ *'good manners";

/
.
jjUjf îr-
3^
"
by great good fortune, or very luckily"
fLkLt ^y-A.
is
"good
is
ad-
ministration, a/so good discipline, etc." " " the good thing about him is this
m.c. phrase
*&*!
vulgarly also <J^~i*
er*^
used.
bi-kar-l sabiq
of **^ the fern, of <3?'** ) "precedents " based on a precedent." 2 In m.c. o*A:x\*e means " mention " conversation, also " he terms about him." in strong (m.c.) spoke (P 1
-
"
Jj^*
CSî"*^
masbuq
*^-*t^
o-ksu
ûiu-^t
j\
Zama 9im
)
(pi.
of
A+J^)
"misdeeds, reprehensible qualities:
" hama 9id

'*
(pi.
of
" laudable
actions or qualities."
in ^** distinguishes it
the Turki su " water."
Note that the hamza
from the Pers. sw
direction
" or
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Similarly with 5r " bad ^
:
161
e^
*r* "evil thought, suspicion";
<JU*^
*y* or
t '
"evil
*y
'
doing"
(x)
*y~
plight"
"
;
" rudeness
pa*
' ' ;
*y*
indigestion";
' '
^f
^t
' '
;
&$&>
f?~>
"evil end
<J^ ty
^
bad temper or nature.
The
in
classical
Û
^s^
<<
common
>
or well-known matter
or
"
is
not so
common
Persian, as ^*?+* e>-, fb îua (m.c.). 'Umumi is an Arabic adjective. A few Arabic adjectives and some Persian and Arabic participles are (?/) before a substantive, followed by an izdfat instead of by a preposition
modern
ow J
'
JUt/o (Sa'di)
"it
is
contrary to reason"; oodi ^fy

vs~;-
oHi
(m.o.)
contrary to sound opinion
"
;
^'
A-^^J (m.c.)
" this
is
not like your
usual good sense."
Muhal-i
mumkin ^+*
Jlax/c (m.c.) is X
a vulgarism, apparently for muhal
na-mumkin
(z)
^*.x)6 ^ Jlsxx;.
but JU means " "smooth, level"; c>^ *J -, however, is to strain %mcZ through cloth," and <J^*o j ^b is " clean." " Indians and Afghans use u*b in the sense of "pure only, and oUe in
l
In m.c. u^b means " clean, and religiously pure,"
the sense of
' '
clean
' '
;
also
( '
completely wholesale
(of
a thing)
121
' '
.
Remark
(aa)
I.
For the negative use of

of
^ andy ^ vide
(6).
The addition
ana
*i.'
to substantives forms adjectives,

y
tifJTjJU
Ailflj'^ -
and to
" adjectives forms adverbs, as: **t<ô manly, virile ": " " " muluk, pi. of king") Ai[^Jd bravely, boldly 108 (a). also
wa^
"royal (from
ailawuf
-
ai&U
After a 'vowel,'
etc.
the usual euphonic change
is
made,
as:
dandyana
ai|alLf
adverb
is
"in a more masterly way" seems to be an exception, as the here formed from a noun.
44.
Compound
Adjectives.
**>
.
Any noun with a particle prefixed may become an adjective, or a " the man whole phrase may be an adjective Jl/o b ^x> possessed of
(a)
:
property: owÂjj^li (Sa'di) "poor-spirited": dar manda: [>A;^^- sar dar hava (m.c.)
ear bi-ginban ^xjjJoô "full of
JtfÛ pa
:
dar
gil (m.c.)
=
:
"awkward, thoughtless" anxious" ^'^^ *r^> "ignoramus" thought,

;
kun-ma-kun
&* (.f
<
' '
"fearing none":
hesitating x) -rrt \j^ kas

j
a?so
command
" out
' '
:
o;i*>
kas ma-tars
outlandish
ma-purs
of
the
way,
Jlsuo^)Aa. "impossibility."
11
162
^."
"on
In
sar-i
dast e~;>
^
is
"ready
at
hand,"
sar-i
zabdn
the tip of one's tongue," sar
practically a preposition.
:
of a whole clause, as " " slave with a bi-gush (Sa'di) ring in his ear
An epithet may consist

"
u>&
:
AfcU>
<u*/
1^ banda-yi halqa -&^^ -^ mulk-i dar

/0
Aw&i tj*&f ^j+X) country taken in isrfjdilAj (j*jjj " **-*& (Sa'di) a merchant whose ship has been wrecked and an heir who has " associated with Kalendars
jang girifta (m.c.)
: :
war "
Jl
*J
JJ
-J^ji
lgA**
0*9,} UftT
Itol
jj
Uj
XA
^t
(Sa'dt).
"
Oh thou
that displayest thy virtues, but concealest thy defects."

bi-lchalvat-i cjwp &~) <^y & Ls^jf OÛRJ yo dar-ash bi-su-yi haram gushuda bi-lchwast Tr. H. B.
owwl^xu
kuchak-i
jj.vUy fj*. <^y~>
mam
si su-yi basta-yi
Chap. XVIII, "he called me into a private place, closed on three with its door opening into the harem."
sides,
Note the position of \j in: p\ **& jfe h ^2** ^l <J$\j*t>Jtj* " I have never encountered such a difficult law-case as this." (b) Compound adjectives are formed
:
(m.c.)
(1)
Of an adjective or participle prefixed to a noun

j of ugly face
it-
i t, A broken-hearted
4.
>
both elements, Persian.

both elements, Arabic.
of gentle disposition
.
-)
in
wretched circumstances
>
j
^
of pleasant voice
- : ill-tempered
with moustache just coming
|^
mixed elements.
pure-hearted simple-minded, rather stupid J
Remark I. Compounds with cJî and ** are rare in modern colloThe compound j*t* -^ is common. quial. Remark II. The adjectival member can qualify two substantives, as: JU^ JL. ^y jt^ fj;4- (^- -B- C'Aop. FT) "a muleteer stout and fGÛi " here strong, 'All Qatir by name Jlj j JLj ^y stands for Jb ^y j JL In modern Persian the former construction is preferred.
(2)
Of a Persian noun prefixed to a Persian adjective

sad, bored.
oppressive.
In modern Persian, both in writing and in speaking,
kf
and
or
UUW C*J=
and
(pi.
ÛJ
Jl^.
of toAn)
" notes"; *7A5n
infin.
{<
chanting."
*/
jl)i
(>]***
'
163
round-toothed) e^li vulg., a thief.

(lit.
one that drives hard bargains.'
Fide also adjectives of resemblance, No. (25).
Remark.
j or
(3)
The members
*jJk
of the
^j
"grey-beard, old
vide also (16)
:
compound are frequently man, etc."
inverted, thus
Two
nouns
lion-hearted on-earte
,.
.) >
both elements, Persian.
fairy-cheeked with the appearance of
an ~V
[both
Arabic.
an S eL
JUL
,j)lkx
<-*J
diabolical in thought
J*J
ruby-lipped
scattering pearls
.
!
...
billowy as the ocean (of a

large army).
...
J-
Persian and Arabic.
munificent
)
[
^J oyt|
Remark.
as
2
Arabic and Persian.
ruby-lipped
v'^T
(4)
ertfl.3R.A3
Rarely the compound consists of two Arabic broken plurals, " vide also " ^jcUfci^f people of exquisite manners (16).
:
Of a substantive, Persian or Arabic, prefixed to a Persian verbal

if
root
scattering
fire.
~\
^ heart- afflicting.
Isubstantive Persian.
^ world-conquering.
Ik*,
fault-forgivmg.
\subBtantive Arabic.
assembly adorning.
"Pardon
these hands that ever grasp the cup,
These feet that to the tavern ever stray."

(0.
K. 884 Whin.)
(<*.
This
compound has
:
khuda bakhsh "given of
often a passive, not an active, sense, as: <_. God": i/&"*J!> ru shinas "known by face,
:
i.e.
J ' " tamed acquaintance jj./of ^*& dast-amuz (of wild birds, etc.)" " pay-mal trampled under foot."
JU ^b
1 *'
In modern
as
well as
classical
Persian,
shir
' '
lion
' '
is
often an adjective
brave."
*
Mahaain t^la^/o p i. o f ^^Â., beauty, any good quality; the moustache and beard": adab v'^T, pi. of adab îf manners.
164
(5)
Adjective (P. or A.) or adverb prefixed to a Persian verbal root
.
sweetly-singing.
well-wishing.
f
-*J
quick apprehension.
thinks after the deed
is
^prefix Persian.
who
done; imprudent. mild looking, but not so in ^

reality.
.
,
...
Ut
(>** apparently oppressed, but

reality a tyrant.
in
Arabic. ^-prefix r
i
Some
of these
compounds have a passive

:
signification, as
j^f jJ
experienced, a beginner" wlj f> ''difficult to be obtained, scarce." (6) Of substantive (P. or A.) and past participle
:
^
a.
experienced.
tried in battle, proved.
,
I
j
substantive Persian.
one that has seen trouble.

shame-stricken.
^
Y substantive
i
Arabic.
whose owner an animal).

In a few words the
final
is
dead (abuse to
dropped, as
is
^f
*-&j
"foremost, perfect; also subs, froth, scum; a chief":
ato l<^-
"rusty" "given by
God."
Compounds
(7)
of Arabic
nouns and past participles are rare : ^-^

^
-
*'of ill-omened fate,
unlucky." Of substantives with prepositions,

?
*J
(^
-^ -^3
ji)t
tc.
irreligious.
unjust.
cowardly. unwise.
imperious, tyrannical.
subordinate, oppressed.
jfe useful.
^felj
JtV
useless; vide (10)].
t (m.c.) of robust frame.

lj
jj
wealthy.
t b
with
salt
pleasant-featured
pleasant of conversation.
possessed of sense.
a Persian verb from the Arabic root
khajlat.
From
c^-fc+f*
Properly
olsu^
(8)
165
Of a substantive, or a Persian verbal with the prefix p&

ri~j
*\)
** bed-fellow.
>
Persian substantive
.
p*
fellow-traveller.
*+c +*>
of the
same
age.
}
}
Arabic substantive.
^ Persian verbal,
_,
f
5j
school-fellow.
J
"I
/* travelling together.
/*A
JV
(9)
playing together.
J
]
A substantive
OA==U
with the prefix
^ as a privative
"|
^
^
,*?
unfortunate (contemptuous).
> Persian substantive.
weak.
inexperienced.
_
J
. ,., ,,
.,
,
,
^.>
possessed of little capital.
Ârabic substantive. J
U* prefixed to adjectives, substantives, Persian verbals and past participles (compare with 12)
(10) 2V
:
U displeased
(mod.).
LJ
(class.);
unwell 1
!
impure;
(of
in m.c. saucy, roguish [-adjective, Persian.

j
a woman, in a good sense),
k jJb
l
.
not liked.
under age, immature.

u
v Û
>
S,
>
3
A adjective, Arabic.
,.
,.
,.
rough.
k of
U inconstant
IJ
impure intent. not durable.

;
"1
useless.
)
I
various compounds.
U out of place.
li
of
mean
resolution or ambition. J
ignorant.
not understanding.
G rude
L>
;
rough.
unpraised.
unabridged.
j^j
viA-J^
^Lâ. j^
lxf
S^
l>
Was
Li
e'er
man born
that never went astray ? O. ^. 391 Whin.
>!
unmanly, coward.
worthless.
hopeless.
l^
IS
121 (6). For the negative use of and vide f f*, In compounds usually na and not na. Before an infinitive either U or
*>.
166
In modern Persian
&
is
frequently used instead of
li
as
*ioi
o~^
in
modern Persian
is
preferred to
*io
IJ
o*~^
*<xx>
j*a
J>j "rice not steamed
(after cooking)."
In negative compounds, when part of the compound is a verbal root, the r< Godless v!^ aÛ negative should immediately precede it, as (j^Sli \**> "not having slept." Sa'dT, however, has <^l* jfÔ for (jji^lj J^.
' '
:
Remark
(11)
/.
In speaking, na-ghafl
l
is
often used for *Jl* ahaflatan
The privative^*
yhayr-i
:
prefixed to Arabic nouns, participles,
and
phrases, and Persian adjectives
oUeJf j? ghayr-i insaf contrary to justice (not unjust). x
o^p
ghayr-i tahqiq
" not verified."
absent.
A* unconditional.
&
J.P
ou ^
or êr or proper arrangement.
not in use, obsolete.

(fern.)
i/o^jjp
jjp
unmarried
(wife).
uncultivated, etc.
.AP
involuntary.
not allotted.
uneducated,
ill-bred.
** (m.c.) unofficial.
^-J^
*
incapable of being cultivated.

irrecoverable.
t;
sp
' '
î ojj ô (Shah's Diary) men and women without number were everywhere drawn up in lines on
' '
o> ji j^ L^ 4UA cujl^JJi^jjp
'
both sides of the way.
Remark.
In 4-o^xaxjÂc "not taken possession of, unappropriated" and ji "immovable (property)," the participle is feminine to agree with
viz.
:
a broken plural understood,

feminine
is
^JU.
In *yiLc
^
X
it is
not clear
why
the
used.
In Persia, but not in India, the izafat always

Persian.
f ollows
r**
the use
in
modern
# In Arabic j*p
t
oi^f
is
is
rare
is
a substantive, and when privative
followed
by
is
the genitive, as: tjaJLk j**
"impure."
Possibly the izafat of the_>-i* in Persian
corruption of the JL of the Ar. nom. case.

2
In Persian often incorrectly written and pronounced V
ala.
Sometimes the participle has the
inherited."
(12)
167
it,
added to
as:
^))y
j*?
"not
Arabic
})
"no, not"
;tj
<_jib
Of a Persian or Arabic substantive or adjective prefixed by the [compare with (10)]:

;
$ belonging to
'
no one.
3J
unique.
>
->
A*
helpless, without
remedy
'
;
ijLa*
Remark.
et
Ld-ubali
Û
"-.'*
il,
adj.,
careless,"
),
is
really
an Arabic verb
do not care," from

(13)
J#U/o (root
*(,*
wfe
(15).
*'
Arabic substantives prefixed by the privatives, *>*, adj.,

" non-existent past part.
void of
"
and
"
(*><***,
Â^JI fjAc non-existing. yî fj<*t* (m.c.) lost to ken, disappeared (of a thief).
A~:sJ| ^cxxj ôVi
(as the
*>^y
" known by name but non-existent,
i.e.
fabulous
"
Simurgh)-
Remark.
UjJ>
,
<4xc,
Ar.,
The substantive f <xc is used for forming substantives, and ^ .*xc Per., " want of fidelity."
5
as
(14)
Compound Arabic
-
adjectives,
compounded
]
:
of
an adjective or a
participle and a substantive in the genitive case
JUU
tjAj*
(15)
(m.c.) of noble dignity.
known by name
2
only.
*jJf
v
Arabic
phrases,
as
AJÎ
Û^ "mentioned above";

"
' '
:
t^>c8
"
mentioned, hinted at "; f

'
K
9
31
U
' '
"
beyond expression
' '
c^
^1
"immortal "
:
'
(lit.
he will not die

(lit.
"
)
:
Jj^
uncultivated
(lit. it
was * not sown)
i^M/t^
(lit.
"boasting" what he
"
you
:
will
not see
me"):
<-&
x
,
'
possessions," subs.
cj-'U*'
possesses)
Ja*->
J(
^Jbftij
$ "unceasingly, adv.
Jjj^l
[lit.
adv.,
"as
for-
merly";
o^^
mast-i la ya'qil
" dead drunk
drunk (and) he knows
nothing "].
Remark.
ta'alq
Uii *JJt
When
"
the phrase contains an Arabic verb, such as in Allah God, may He be exalted," the Persians, if the first word is
vowel of the genitive
is
The
final short
omitted.
1
Many
of these are substantives as well ae adjectives, vide
10 (n).
In m.c.
ilayh *
muml
ilayh'
*\
*
^*J'-
Mushar un
ilayh
**l,*
can be used alone, but
&
}'
must qualify a noun.
Lam
in Arabic gives to the Aorist a preterite sense.
168
:
Persian, frequently but incorrectly insert an izafat, as

^)Ui> x>j|<*L
;
Khudawand-i
ta.'alq
mast-i Id ya'qil.
(16)
Adjectives of resemblance are formed by affixing to nouns certain

(3)
:
words, chiefly substantives, vide

J
like
li*>
L^ ^j
L
an angel, angelic. acting like a fairy.

like
shaped
like
a boat.
(old) like the sky.
a h ouri'
like the
is
with a face
moon
beautiful.
&xiHxj;
Manand
*siJl,
adj.,
"like",
derived from
and, affixed to a
t;j>
substantive, forms an adjective, as: darya-manand xiJU (gen. to signify quantity).

' ' ' '
"like the sea"
Rarely, a broken plural is used, as: haza*ir-i falak-nazaîr jtt& t-Jj^5lfe^ enclosures high and inaccessible as the heavens ty&i JU.J falaJc nazira (or nazir) would also be correct.
:
(17)
In a few compounds, a numeral
is
prefixed to a
noun
very
&.
alert.
;
four-cornered
square, oblong.
U.
four-year-old; vide
98
(b) (4).
Remark. Adverbs and substantives are also so formed, as: &&} (JS " to to sit tailor- fashion ": go at full gallop": îô y|j ;U. "a market-place."
(c)
y^
;^
The following words, chiefly Arabic, are frequently attached to substantives and adjectives to form compound adjectives
:
(1)
" can be mended " (prop,

(2)
*j?.*t
"receiving,"
as:
jj*j JÂ*.
"possible";
jjlw
;
ji*$ j*+*>
(m.c.)
of buildings).
slu
pandh "asylum,
ma-ab
lit.
refuge,
shelter", as:
ci^ft*x:
"asylum
(^ or
of
pardon"
(3)
(an epithet for kings, governors or mujtahids)

5
VU
*r
"
c; t-^
kin^gs).
place of
return": J(*
yfij (mod.) "Europeanthat
ized."
(4) ){*& shi'ar,
lit.
"outer
garment; anything
envelops
the
body"; ; UA
o,J^x) "clothed with justice."
from kardan
}&j? ,
when one would expect kardar

*'
In mod. Pers. ishtibah JiU^/ means

S
doubt, error."
of
Hurl LS)^
is
Pers.
Hur }j^,
:
Ar.,
is pi.
^, ^^
fem. of
)îs
In Persian
huriyya
*
used as a singular
pazlru/tan
*
though Ar.
pi. in
form, this word
not used in Arabic.
From
From
^^0
or pizruftan
"to
receive."
*-Vl
VI "to return
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
(5)
yiif
169
" trace, sign" yi asar

asar, pi. of yi
^jUto
:
yi ojl^ "inspiring awe, majestic.

"
friendly
:
;L>T
o^/o
"
(of people).
e^j.c
(6) (7)
'
nishan "sign,
W<SM&
mark"
^^
= o> ,_Û.
:
31
vi^t
"arrangement,
(of things).
manner"
"
:
v_^.U>f
ytf
0-^
(8) ;ty>
"well-shaped" "
âroV
j
dwelling, fixed abode
(9) âcui^c
mashjiun
" "filled
j^ "dwelling _y> " wicked." oÛL ^s^/o

"place
' '
in Hell."
(10) ^ri***
oj&i
"
wwwir (rare in mod. Pers.) unfortunate."

3
of returning,
going":
(11) ^f^/o
^5 madar "centre, pivot " j|^^ o>c

;
centre of respect."
(of
(12)
&&C makan "
"
place
:
&&*
^*** "dwelling in Paradise
Muslims
only).
(13)
v*^
naslb
"portion, fate":
v*^ oâ.
"having received the
award
of Paradise."
(14)
*ôj pishd
(15)
^^3
qarin adj.
"trade "
"
:
*AJ
la^
(k*.
"
"
tyrannous."
c)jj7^
joined, contiguous
and
maqrun
past. part.
&**
Note
oJj.i
also
"fortunate, wealthy"; CJLJ^= o^l*** = oal*** U. the following qarln-i maslahat ^y*L6.& ^jS "advisable":
j*<o
"healthful, etc., etc."

is
The verbal adjective in alif " jddu-kund (obs.) practising- magic ":
(16)
very rare in compounds: Ui'Û^ l^J 0^? (old) "wandering in the
desert."
i5-
Intensive Adjectives.
is
(a)
(1)
An
intensive adjective
jective a
final alif* c&lledalif-i kasrat *j&
formed by adding to the simple ad^f, or alif-i mubdlagha AÛ>c c^J, or

,
alif-i ta'ajjub
v ? ^N ^
;
<Jt-*
Kbushd
is
bi-hdl-i
sulh-kunandagdn
c^*u*
ct
Blessed are the peace- makers."

alif,
This intensive
which
probably the vocative

'
alif
;
and
is
of
rare
occurrence, except after the adjectives o-A - ^ and ^. usually precedes the noun it qualifies ; but ' vide basd Adverbs of Quantity (I) 3.
In old Persian, the substantive so qualified has often a as well, as khushd Shwdza " oh delightful is Shiraz! " <&> j& ty tjy
(2)
:
final
alif
J<*
^.^
(6)
(1)
The adjective may be
intensified
by adding an adverb or adjec_
There are several final alifa, as:
AJX> oifj uUf,
K ^^sJ
tJJ
,
^ e p.
12
170
tive, as
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
:
cU*^
:
'
Âxk
(m.c.)
"
very pretty"
V;^
;
"
very bad
:
"
"a
great eater,
glutton": JJb ^^j

"
"a
perfect fool
"
jt^li
oi^
"very
^2 oicwo y u sakht shad unpalatable" Jt^*> cJoJ (class.) quite easy" <x " he became sliud (m.c.) ^*> very delighted": ojlîji p"*^. Jrlf-*' Jj* c^VK)^ " the c**a in j>j+xxx j vs*&xj my eyes extremely terrifyprecipices appeared 45: y>xh$ ing "; vide (m.c.) "an accentuated ass, an ass and an ass
^^
*
again."
C5~^
For
L5 J J
!
O*
t$~*#
<J?L>
C5
CT"^
<JT
*^!
*^
f**
(3).
^k*
U*^
"
this
bas, az baz, etc., vide Adverbs of Quantity
(I)
(2) It
is
may
be intensified by the
fine colour this flower

(c)
a very beautiful flower has."

(1)
fcÛ
" =
of unity, as
*J
^; u*A ^ ^
' '
In gul chi rang-i khub-i darad
what a very
Repetition
may
^tAfL j
" pa^ w pakiza very clean"
give a continuative or intensive signification, as: j)t>j)jt> dur u daraz "very far
;
away
(a)
"
:
*i^
" tidied and cleaned rufta shusta
(lit.
swept and washed)."
Sometimes the meaningless appositive gives and Remark.

(2)
this
meaning, vide
140
(3)
^li^xj
fuqara*
The repeated adjective may be in the plural, as mast-i mastdn OM~XI "dead drunk": faqir^lÂft^jjaJ faqir-i faqirdn, or tX3&kji "a
:
In the
title
pauper of paupers, very very poor." ÛlioLL modern Persians and Indians insert the
izdfat.
Mons.
" Raymond, the translator of the Seir Mutaqherin," Indian holder of the title, used the izafat. 3
who knew
at least one
In Turkish, Mir Mir an ^)[^^ ^.^
is
title
equivalent to
Amir
'
I-
(d)
(e)
For sar mast, sar

(1)
(
sabz, etc., vide

Li
117
(j)
(4)
Remark.
form
an
ism-i
The
j&*>
prefixes
p**\
),
*js
-ji& to a
substantive
mukabbar
*tj
giving the idea of size or fineness, etc., as: shah-rah

'
(of
etc.
"main-road": *^ l "a big cup or pot " ^ " " a large variety of mulberry oy l wing) y^ *&,
"flight-feather
j;ti
'^,
^*-jJ
Ui,
Khar-magas ,j*Xo^L
' '
' f
"horse-fly":
' '
:
pavilion
._i*yk
a large stone
^^"
"crab":
lf^
"
large tent,
' '
:
*-^Jj=^
a species of large mosquito
The comparative and
**
much
2
8
"
superlative can also be so intensified, as:

140.
'
prettier.
Vide Repetition of words
He however
Khar ^^
in
'
Ray-Rayan (an Indian Pahlavi means "big, ugly."

writes
title).
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.

Div-savar jtj*}j
171
" bold horse -man "

ck j>&
&&j*& "a
large kind of
wheat":
"
hearted."
(2)
large clod":
"whirlwind, frenzy":
u^.^
"
brave, hard-
In the following compounds,
khar-as
^^
j*
j&*
"
signifies
' '
ass
,
' '
ass-mill
' '
:
a&a
hog-backed
u
" and not " " a tomb

:
"
large
il*>*
:
JA.
"asinine": c~~cji
very large penis."
(3)
"
stupidly drunk ": upftj**
vulg. "having an
ass-like or
Whether jJ^/^L means "big-eared"
or " ass-eared
"
is
a disputed
point.
46.
Degrees of Comparison and Comparative Clauses.
(a)
(1)
The Persian comparative

9
is
formed by adding
y
:
to the positive,
" " more pur jam'iyyat-tar j OUA+A. (Sa'di), in (m.c.) y populous Mod. Pers. y e;>c U, "more honoured ": in Pers. Mod. o*!? (Sa'di), " more delicious." eA> t, _y
as
:
^^
(2)
(
The
superlative, which
is
not
much used
in
Modern Persian
[vide
r ) (3)], is
formed by adding farm <^.y to the positive, sometimes contracted
to
in, vide (b) (6).

:
(3) The comparative can be used in the plural, as " those greater than us." (4) The superlative has no plural.
UÛy <-^>> (m.c.)

y
Remark. Note that the comparatives of the past participles u^f " more comfortable " " " more humble " " more wlwf y &M+f> intelligent
;
are in
use.
common
use
but not
y awl?
^jL*3,y js^jjJl^jy
î^, which are not
in
(b)
(1)
Arabic adjectives, in Arabic,

<J**f for
form both the comparative and
suparlative on the measure

lative
1
the masculine, and <^** for the supersuperlative
feminine,
as: kabir
f
j#f "great," comparative and

-
^> masc., and kubra $sj$
em
When
lative
comparative, the elative
is
followed by &*> " than,"
when
super-
by the genitive, (2) The Arabic elative (so called because ft includes both comparative and superlative) when it is a comparative makes no change in Arabic for gender
,
or number.
(3)
The Arabic
elative
is
used in Persian. 2
vaqt-i
Note the superlatives in: dar
ahsan tj-^
oJ>j
"in the most
'
The Arabic comparative has no feminine nor Both as a comparative and a superlative.
plural.
172
propitious time": ^^J &**' )* dar as'ad zaman-i "in a very fortunate " as ad~i zamdn " the most fortunate of the time ej^3 ^*~ age."
(
f
(4)
Sometimes a cognate Arabic noun follows an Arabic superlative

*t
JÛj^Cjsl
pjftyt&ytfc!
(5)
*M y>
is
fit
oljblfo ai^jji
no, such an honour

(Tr.
for
H.
B.,
Chap.
^ ^ (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXI) "no, me who am the most skilled of physicians VII) "I am the most poetical of poets."
' '
:
Generally speaking, Arabic adjectives in Persian form their degrees of comparison in the Persian manner: cL*l* J* diet* ^.y cUU.
tarin is sometimes contracted (6) The affix t^y or "the least": or e^t "the best": &* greatest": <^ .-or &ij*ji "the highest": these words
j
to
%n
as:
3
t^tf.
^J^
^^ orÂ*
" the
or
are classical
poetical only.
double comparative is sometimes formed by adding the Persian Arabic elative ci~*!y J^'f p}& Ûcjf AX^ (Sa'di) "he asked what is the best kind of worship " <^y J-a (m.c.) " the most excellent" cu~y Vj! d)tjf !=&A: cA^*t ;l*> } J~i was? w tabar-i IsTian munqati' kardan
(c)
affixes to the
aula-tar^ ast
(Sa'di) "it is better to destroy their stock, and root it out." Than with the comparative is expressed by (d) &A& jyL^c ^ îuwoy cu*j ^t 31 (Sa'di) " you (1) The preposition jf, as have never in your life spoken a truer word J&cm this " jfy A- ^'3' <^2 m cJî 6âr (m.c.)=y ^t *^ ^j}' az w chiaula-tar 3 m.c. " what better than this? "
:
Remark.
Note the
3;
signification of
3'
" one
B.,
of
"
in the following
cW
me
JU.; *^J&Uf
k$
*& ALJf.i
[Tr.
H.
Chap. VII)i
' '
:
"
that he was a
man
of the greatest
shn'ara* sakht (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII)
consequence " he made me one of the chiefest of
became known to mard az guzidagan-i

it
poets": vide
(2)
(e) (4).
Nisbat
o->"~J,
or bi-nisbat
o^J &
"in comparison with,"

:
as:
nisbat
bi-digardn (or nisbat-i dlgardn)
^**
>V
(3)
)\
ast (class.)
u bihtar-ast (m.c.) ( ^j&is o*>.-> or) ujjjA?*? CUA-S> " in comparison with the rest he is good" bi-nisbat-i u bihtar " she is better than he " vide
;
(w) (6).
In classical Persian, **" " he AJ (Sa'dl) said,
is
'
sometimes substituted
for
j\
^jj**t
^+&
dismissal
from
office is better
than employ-
The
plural
could be substituted for the Pers.
pi.
i^^-t, here.
" Mihtar, the comparative, also means, prince, lord," and is the title of the ruler a of Chitral. In India a sweeper is by euphemism styled Mih-tar, just as a tailor, In Afghanistan and Persia mihtar etc., is called Khalifa, and a water-carrier Jama dar.
2
1
means
3
*'
a groom.
' '
" ^)\ aula more

9
or
most deserving "
is
an
*'
elative without a positive,
and must not

gii,
norkumm
*
be confused with &^)\ ula the feminine of Jji "first." " it's best for us to hold our (m.c.) tongue."
Plural of
-ksf, elative of
Aula an
Tel
dlgar gu/t u

ment
death "
'
173
"
is
" x *? ^ty* murdan-at bih ki mardum-azari (Sa'di) thy <^yjt (*^ ' ' better than thy afflicting of mankind
:
:
thou desirest the truth, then it were better that a thousand eyes should be blind (like the bat ) than that the sun should be darkened."
If
l
For the use

(4)
of the positive for the comparative, vide
(i).
:
Occasionally the comparative is followed by an izafat, as bihtar-i u jihtarin guzin-i hama &** <^,_$ '&*jW-j^ (Nam-i Haqq of Shah Sharaf 'dDm, Bukhari the Prophet) "better than the best and chosen of all "; =
az bihtarm bihtar, vide
(e)
(ri)
(4).
and
"I
superlative, Persian or Arabic, is followed by the genitive, * tj o*U* &%**> i^/*& generally by the plural îai (Sa'd!} the rule over this country except to the meanest of the will not
(1)
The
grant
slaves
' '
:
*Uxi:
o^t
" the most illustrious of the prophets
' '
:
^ti*^ j^j (Sa'cR)
"the most noble
of created
things": sl>>^x>
Jif
(Sa'di)
"the meanest
of existing things."
" the best of In J^5/l <.r~^f shapes, the best shape" and like construcArabic the in noun is second the genitive plural. tions,
In
correct.
oJiLi. t-rî ahsan-i khilqat'
"the best
of creation," the singular is
For the superlative followed by *+* hama and for

comparative, vide
(2)
(1).
its
substitution for a
the superlative qualifies a noun absolutely, it is treated as " the an ordinary adjective, as pkc- &f) greatest support": ÎjcX-c "the
When
Prime Minister"
or o~-t
u bihtarm mard
is
ast,
ormard-i bihtannast cu
^
tc
**
*'he
the best
man."
"
(Sa'di]
Such a
terrible
water that the water-bird was not safe in

mill-stone from its shore."
:
it,
Its least
wave would sweep a

it is
In old poetry and prose
sometimes merely intensive
not say I have given a most noble pearl (lady) to a most 8 husband." renowned (3) Such sentences as "go to the nearest village" may be rendered, oUa of jt Â^ (^jy -^!>>V (class.) but more usual *Al y 2j>
I
will
;
"
^^
(m.c.).
Mush-i kur )j
(j
is
"
the bat " and not the
" mole "
4
'~>
But
khilqat-i
This construction
the best creation." ahsan er*^"' is not used in this sense in Modern Persian.
^*^
"
174

" This
(i)
is
the largest house in

(
Buzurg-tar imarat-i
Kirman " may be rendered in ki dar Kirman ast in ast cjU/ ^
five
ways
&
(ii)
Buzurgtarin-i makanat-i ki dar
Kirman
ast In ast
(in)
Buzurgtarin makan-i ki
aii/o
(4)
1$ (iv) Makan-i buzurgtarin-i ki ^.j^^. In makan-i buzurgtarin-i Kirman ast (v) " One of the most is expressed by jt
' '
^
"
Rustam
yak-i az dilavar-
Iraniydn bud &# c^-Jyl îr* )$*$ C5^ (***"> vide (d) (1) Remark. can be strengthened by prefixing the adverbs (/) The comparative vide Intensive 45 (6) (1) j^JUt j>*~> <Û A Adjectives, ^JUa. and jLjrr etc.
tarin-i
1
' '
(Shah's Diary)
peaches of a very excellent kind

(m.c.)
:
much more fitting" is much better."

(g)
y^j ^^ ^
alone, as
this is " this in khayli bihtar ast (m.c.)

:
o*! ^^\ jU~j
' '
The comparative can stand
o**
:
*-**>
(m.c.)
"
this is better, this is the better course
*>
<&&*, oroî ,\Jy &$+*> o~-if f^ji aula an ast ki

I
." is o^ty^j J/( of and Persian The "perfect" (a supersuperlative comparative (h) lative in itself) are vulgar or poetical, and correspond to the incorrect English more perfect, most complete, more unique, etc." The Persians expressions also say y *>j farid-tar, but noty U> yakta-tar.
(m.c.)
**
c^
-^
hamdn
bihtar ast ki
" the better course
'
'
(1)
(1)
The
positives
ju
AJ - *
&*>
and
parative:
(
f
*^
are sometimes used for the com1
j^.^
[the
e^l
Jt
eÛp cup(y
^jj
t5*
C5l^
for
3*
jr* ^^
in the
(Sa
di)
"we
king]
will
make ready accommodation
you
'
by you worship better than this may " this is better than that in bih az an ast (m.c.) o*} ^j] &> ^1 JU^ ^jJ; " * JU^jU-^3 V andak-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mat (Sa'di) a little beauty oi*.*. t$ & oiu is better than much wealth bazu-yi bakht bih ki
leisure for city, so that
' '
: ' ' :
be obtained
"
^jb
^jb
bazu-yi sakht (Sa'dl).

(2)
Vide also
(d) (3).
:
Bih
AJ is
also
a comparative or optative in poetry
"
traitorous army, let
it
be disbanded,
' '
One that seeks the

(3)
ruin of his country, let his head be cut
off.
The
positive can also be used in such sentences as,
" come nearer,
&Jty
or) *Jj>i, nazdik (or nazdik-tar) biya.
(4) Ziiyad
&j
M
is
a positive, and ziyada tdtj

"
is
a comparative for
y
;
for
facilitated." properly means Muyassar J 2 Here t^s'fer**. might be either an adjective with the (^ the sake of euphony (number of syllables) Persians make
1
of
it
unity, or a
noun
but
a noun and say
bisyarl-yi.
mat.
3
In Modern Persian ear afganda l*i&! j* meana
4i
ashamed. "

ziy ad-tar
:
175
x&
"
^)
or
a*y
"
abj
give
me more,"
rottft?-
ziydd-i
âbj
(m.c.)
' '
a long
l
people.
" an excessive concourse of speech"; but -^*+^ <**> Jf tobj i^ m odern is a hadd for az jl >kj vulgarism Ziyad ziydda (or ziyad- tar]
J^
az hadd <^ y
(yo>b J or) tob j. and 6*5^ (5) Afzun c^>'f

tj*o->
-
<_#
" more " are practically

also a
comparatives.
Pish
"before
(of
time),"
has
comparative sense.
However
y
Jf
e>t>*i
^3 iJte
and ^ Ji* are
also used.
(6)
The comparative "more" can

mutajdviz az, jlÂ^
also
be expressed by the words

;
Jjlau/o
<*'
digar az, y. *fa 'aldva bar
f;|sj ^1>,>
l^Xi
maw
?/&& harf-i digar
na-daram
lei
bi-guyam (m.c.)
"
o^x
cJO <^>c
have not a single
word more to say."

(;')
An
English
adjective
:
qualified
positive (as in
Urdu)
" This tea is too weak " o*t

:
by "too"
(
is
expressed
or
)
by the
*&j
1
cjCx*,
in chay subak (or kam-rang) ast (m.c.)
e^>!
eî* ^5^ e^
(m.c.)
"
^(^ ^\
this tea is
too strong." (k) In m.c., the adverb bdz jb

C5^
ci*f'
is
used in the sense of "better," as:
jb
0^! v
t5^-i^
"these carpets are bad

good)."
(/)
W^* <^' in qdli-hd khayl^bad ast,baz in yak-l (m.c.) but this one is somewhat better (but still not
is
When
"
:
a comparison
drawn between a person
or thing and the rest
of the class, either the
follows
o~vo|
They say the

lAjy U guyand
ass is the
comparative may be used, as " A+A & meanest of animals y ^xj^
or the superlative
^
1
y o~o
Iftj^jl^.
ki khar az
hama-yi
2
jdnvarhd past-tar
This could also be rendered by:

&+&>
o^.^;Û.
:
ast (m.c.).
r o~*j
>
t$ *ujZ
or tf
*v^
A*.
^jy ov-o
is
.i..
(m)
The following
a vulgarism
-- <-6^
^)j*
^
az
oJit^
y ^,
kuchah-tar.
^^
dukhtar dasht, yak-l buzurg, yak-i kuchak, yak-i kuchak-i Prof. S. T. "he had three daughters, one big, one little, one
si
smaller than the

$
4UA
jt
or
The third term should be kuchak-tann-i hama &+*> e^y^^j-^.

little
one."
hama
kuchak- tar
(n)
(1)
The Har
.
superlative can also be expressed as follows chi tamdm-tar &*.j& "as complete as possible": oôfjj b
:
yxU
"
I
fU3 A^tb (m.c.)
came out with
feelings of the greatest regret
in
my mind."
(2)
kiazdn
jjî l<xu m c .) "a diamond ^;>^f3t fJU ; aa> o ( ^-Ul &b has been found here, the largest in the world (lit. as large as any in the cJOx: ;<> ar world)" *>*y*y cxjlic ^b v lk^ V U^ 31 y^fb
t
^y
buzurg-tar
(or
kamtar, etc., etc.) nist (or nami-shavad)
^f
khitdb-i
l
Rdmrdj,
ki
dar mulk-i
Dakan
bald-tar
^f; fy az in khitab namibdshad
indyat farmudand.(Iq. Nama-yi Jah., p. 244, Bib. Ind. Ed. of As. Soc.
1
Adjectives ending in
are sometimes incorrectly written as
y^r>
(&j*~j,
etc.
Batar
y? is classically and a No izafat.
colloquially used
176

*
Beng.)
(Tr.
H.B., Chap. XXXIII) "the water-carriers had so sprinkled and swept the roads that their work couldn't have been better done."
(3)
By an
intensive
*
word signifying ''extremely,

"
b (m.c.)
perfectly,
unique,"
etc., as:
^j o**3
li
bi-(jkayat zisht-ruy
:
" " of extreme beauty
"*
JU'
extremely ugly " " in a perfect rage

' '
of utmost prettiness khush-gil "he excelled all the îÛ 31 J.x* ;> khushgil: jU*o nihayat "he was most the sovereigns of the age in justice": d#) *z#* ^jf f&\ j* 'Urn yagana (or bi-nazir or bi-qarina) ast dar Muslims": the of pious OA*| ( e^r t5 or j-h&H^ or) *J^ )*" he is unique, or alone, in knowledge":
â yhayr n 'nihayat
"
^c
yakta-yi 'asr ast
o^fê s^^"
= ^t*?j|
2 6as
<;
he
is
unique in his age

JM
"
<JS^
&
&*.j#
(vulg., m.c., abuse)
c^?,
Azhadd
<^ji,
^y
(^)
bi-shiddat OA^J dar kamal-i martaba

,
AAJ^/O
JU^;j>,
or dar nihayat-i martaba t^j* oolâ are similarly used. bihtarin bihtar J^> ^(/^j* "better than the (4) ^l
bihtarin,
(5)
best"
(or bihtar-i
i^t?^) v ^ e
By the positive,
*'
4 ) etc (
:
as
^-r j-^-i ^l*b
' '
he
is the
clever
man
of the city
"
:
e^^t
= |*y ;^^
(6)
he
is the
bravest of his tribe."
In
classical Persian frar^j is

:
it a superlative idea, as
(0)
(1)
The To participles,
sometimes prefixed to an adjective to give bar buland *&> ^ (class, and rare) very high." comparative or superlative suffix is also added
'
:
jf^jAi^jU (Sa'di)
*UU3f^ "sin, by whomsoever

it is
as:
0*0! aa^wjli ,^>

it
may
^(^ &fj&j\ be committed,

"
:
oa/*2Jt*>
is
objection-
able, but from the learned
especially objectionable
^jy
Jj***> (m.c.)
"the prettiest": crty <3^ sabiq-tarm musta'mal-tarin "the most used."

Remark.
"the most ancient": (^^ JUAWÔ
^jy is seldom added to Persian participles. The comparative takes its place, as in rang az hama girifta-tar ast &+& )\ ^-&> ^Jt o^t ^3 i&tjZ (m.c.) "this shade is the darkest." Asuda-tarm ^.^ J>rT,
superlative suffix
:
The
mahbub-tann ^j*
(2)
V_.ÂXL/O
are m.c. only.
To a few
tr-i^
,
prepositions
or j- (
^lb
"
)
and adverbs: bar y

y.}
"upon,"^
1
"higher":
or t^jj
:
highest":
"below",
^0 and
c^-ir
^3
J(b, etc.
(3)
To
in modern Persian
and
vulg.)
l
"more comfortable
a few substantives: asudagi-tary " l Ojlwf ;i foryu^f asudatar:
^^-f (m.c.
^j
(
Uff
Dam-i dar
+& (m.c.)
" threshold
of the door."
*'
Radd mi-shavad does not mean

JK
that
he went through the door."

retort, repartee."
jj
Radd, Ar. "driving

ty
back, repulsion":
v'^
i)
"a
In m.c.
' '
&&>
means "
to pass, pass by, miss the
mark," and
radd-i
pa ^
&) is
' '
foot-print.

j
177
(Vazir-i
Lankuran, stage
door
on
the further side of the
J^J?
e>T
"a L>**
little
"Taymur Aglja crosses at back " " a little more this ojJs ^\ <^*$ way " " " more that way more comfortable OA.IJ
"
direction).
:
than a lion": dush" man-tarin-i dashmanan (m.c.) cA*<* <^y (?*& the most inimical of one's enemies": dust-tarm-i dustan &&*jz e^L;^*?^ (m.c.) "the most friendlike of
(m.c.)
is
all
e^(y^x^jf
"he
more
of a lion (braver)
one's friends."
(p)
may
an adjective and substantive, the comparative suffix sometimes optionally be added, either to the end of the whole compound
To compounds
first
of
or to its
(Sa'di)
member,
as:
x<V^
cAf^
;* <^^>
y ^)j>. >^
Jf
*&&
\)
Û?
*jU>
they asked Hatim-i To,** if he had ever seen anyone with a more nature than himself." In this example buzurg himmat-tar cuwb J^>> generous could be substituted for buzurg-car himmat CU*A ^ ^;^, and this latter
"
reading,
more pleasing more usual

to
to the
modern Persian
suffix at the
ear, occurs in
some
editions
of the Gulistan.
It is
add the
end
of the
compound.
Remark.
The superlative
is
O**A w?.j&) v buzurg-tarm

:
himmat (and not
^y
eu*
^;jj buzurg himmat-tarin)
but
'
ali-himmat-tann
^y
O**A
^Lc
is
correct.
A>
*b ^f
of
*
The comparative sometimes gives the meaning of the superlative (Sa'di) "the greatest regret on the Day j.; ^ J*j~s*j> ^)JJ. " than that a Resurrection will be
(q)
(1)
OV^LJJ'
this,
(lit.
regret greater
others:^
:
O~AXC y J^j o^'^ ^&su (Sa'di) "in the sight of enmity excellence is the " 8 ^>yy>. greatest blemish" ouy^ ^'*> lîjt j " which of these is the best ? o^l AL[^J:;3 A^^l *y i/j* j j* (m.c.) " the biggest and strongest horse in the
:
stable
A' O~~A> c^^jrt^^ t*/*j**l)? buzurg-tar mard-l dar skahr kas-% hast ki " the ." (m.c.) greatest man in the city is that man who In all these examples there is an ellipsis of az hama &**> j\ or az dlgaran
:
"
^j}& 31.
(2)
Note the
^ of unity.
^.y <J^
y.
Buzurg-tar az buzurgtann
"
:
<s
^;jj
higher than the
highest
(3)
vide (d) (4).

in (a) (2) the superlative is rarely used in
As already stated
:
modern
Persian.
usually
In compound adjectives, the comparative with az hama &*Ajiis " this substituted as JUJb ÛJi cl JUb &**
o~*iy
^jA^l.^
î
(m.c.)
nightingale has the best note of all."
Hatim
To,'
I
is
in Persian usually
Hatam.
In India the izaât
is
omitted after Hatim, as
Hatim
2 3
Û ^^.
*8t.
9
Or
o*~o-vxc 'ayb-i
Or kudam yak Or
12
bih-tar (not bihtarln) ast
178

(r)
The phrase " and what was stranger still, etc." is rendered: y &fj a.- ^jf *&f y (mod.). (class.), and double The (s) progressive positive in English is rendered as follows " " He worse and worse oy<5J j^ )^ (m.c.), or more correctly got
v^
two or more comparatives or superlatives occur together, the suffixes can be added to each, or to the last only in the latter case the clause may sometimes be ambiguous: ^T JtJ-j^ j <^^*' j* &\* p* v^V -' -&*f 3M y ^X&~AD j jj^jjlj (m.c.) he (the king of the gods) is more ancient even than the sun and the moon, and is more lasting and enduring than they." In hhana
(t)
(I)
If
'
'
buzurg va vast' -tar ast

is
large
and more spacious

&*&>
o}y"
j
x*j ^
u%
this
*Jl^ ^;i
may mean
larger
either
"
this
house
' '
:
or
'
house
is
o*;
IfJLk
(jjy
x^
<J^
is
aili.
î
(m.c.)
and more spacious "this is the largest and most

criticism.
j ^)j>. jt*
spacious of all the houses," Note that in j->.t>
open
to the
same
o?
^^^
** e*Lr>
<5^
(m.c.), digar
should be omitted.
(2)
In the case of superlatives, the
first
may take
the comparative instead \\
of the superlative suffix, as:
LJi/vi*****
c^^^t^ (m.c.) and most populated cities

could be substituted,
as a superlative.
^ o'yl
^ ^y ^*Ux
^ Ûy
j^*.*
-,
&fc*U
Ût ^^
"formerly Kirman was one

of Persia :" in this
all
of
the most important

or i^jij***,
is
example
but in
three cases the
adjective
regarded
" Locutions like " the quicker the better are rendered as follows " tlie " farther you go, the deeper the water becomes o**oty ^^3 <-^f LS^J*)^ ^J*
(u)
:
(m.c.)
"the nearer we approached the shore the rougher the sea became"
l
iXi-jj/oî^jo
lei*
Uja )
îxiJ
/*J^T t^* J? ^&t*y

ast
*;^
o~
*^ )**
j* (m.c.):
o,**?
ztrd
har
'^3
nazdik-tar
ast
parishan-tar
11
(m.c.)
is
yJL^.^J
y^J^V *v*
the
" because the nearer one

(v)
is
the more
one* distracted."
are
illustrated
Comparisons
:
between
clauses
in
following
examples
(1)
"
kings are
^lAl&ab *->y& ÎcXi/oijA &' JOjJ r-liaa.'O ijfcMxs^^ OSXA-OXJ ÛUs^lj (Sa'dl] more in need of the advice of wise men, than wise men of associa-
tion with
' '
kings": )y***
&\&jz>
)& *$ cu-tîJ^f
is
o*x^ j* ^**L. ^jia. ^t^t (Sa'di)
the performance of such a service
better in their absence than in their
presence":
friends'.
*6
^yS'U-kjdJi
Lî
^^
^t
y,
^/o
^^b ^f
(Sa'di)
"0
"
:
I'm more
t
afraid of this escort 4 of yours than I
am
of the robbers
Aj^liJf .-AD
j^k^.^j,
^j,j
is
a construction to be avoided though occasionally

of the indefinite
heard in m.c.
*
3
" takes the Note that &'^& " whoever place ^+J ? " *^***f absence, but
Ghaybat
ghibat
<
pronoun
" one."
back-biting."
In Mod. Pers.,c)>^ &*)<^ means speeding a friend on a journey by accompanying

or so on his journey
him a mile

c~~a.
179
&a> bisyar
;^;
y>>>>l ^ dar
aft
chust
u chalak bud (ki) man bi-an miqdar na-budam (Afghan) " he was much than I was." quicker and cleverer at the business " o~f than die rather "I would beg ^\<^ j( o^/o ^* J^* (m.c.), (2)
or more rhetorically bi-mlrad insan va gada*i na-kunad <*& " " To be like, equal to (3)
:
(J>\*&
\^*~J\
^&j
c;tJ>yc
^0 ^l
xu
&
to
<*f
o**!
c) 1
^-
&*J
c>t*
t^y&
(Sa'di).
"To do
(4)
kindness to the
as
evil, is like (equal to) ill-treating
the good."
"She was
much renowned
and
"
:
for chastity as for
jiiU (m.c.
incorrect):
now "
I '^y ** c^^j (m.c.) hich vaqt an qadar na-khurda budam ila in vaqi *^;>J >Afiif oJj " he was as brave as Rustam * and as wise as Luqman" ^j (m.c.)
l
:
much right as you " have never eaten as much as I have
beauty
" o**^ ; ^y
"h|
has as
i j^
_,
^ ^Lo,
OÛL^ ;^y
6
"he was
as beautiful as
f
Joseph*
and
Majnun" &j*?-*> ^5^5-5 ^^'^ '^**^ ur**^ ^ ''he was as patient as Job and as afflicted as Jacob" u dar tahammul Ayyub va dar huzn Ya'qub bud 6 ^yuj c^;^j v>-!' JUad'^'j*: "the carriages and horses of this carriage city are neither as numerous nor as good as those of
as faithful as
:
Russia
' '
c5^~f "
So
7
<-^
vi
l^f (Shah's
as:
Diary).
(5)
^
1
^J>f
ûol^
by
*}
" Never would a father act so kindly to a son," " As Thou hast acted to the race of Adam."
Or
fehurda
am
+\ *J>;>^.
Instead of
oJu ^jf
it
would be better
to say ^/L^
:
^.
the
Sigzi (^$_j*~ /*i-j Jlj /*i-; Hercules of Persia: his exploits are celebrated in Firdausi's great epic, the
Called also Rttstam-i Zal
and Rustam-i
he
is
Shah-Nama.
of
In Mod. Per ^si+a>

5
is
pronounced hamchi.
of the East, said to
Luqman, the sage

Fables.
have been a black slave and the author
has been identified with Êsop. Others state that he was a son of Job's sistv a son of Job's aunt, a disciple of David, a judge in Israel. " a second 4 Yusuf-i sarii .IUOU#^ Joseph is the ideal of youthful beauty Joseph,"
Luqman' s
He
and Yusuf-jamal JUa. -S-^ :,

(
adj.,
mean "extremely
:
beautiful."
it is
Majnun
of
Layla
6
signifies
"possessed by a jinn 1^7^"
the
name of the
celebrated lover
Tahammul
(J-
*3aj
"
:
enduring a burden patiently."
The
grief
of
'
Jacob
'
is
pro-
When amongst Muslims from mourning for Joseph his eyes became white. and his sons he its a shirt three was odour, perceived days' journey distant, Joseph's yet said he doted. The shirt was the same that Abraham wore when cast into the fire, and it contained an odour of Paradise: it was on Joseph's neck as an amulet when he was in the well. Joseph, by command of Gabriel, sent the shirt to Jacob for it shall not be cast on any one afflicted with disease, but he shall be whole.'
verbial
'
Khanadan
for
khandan.
180

it
" such as In this example t$ may be translated ", or ' a of relative connective the sentence. as merely
'
may be
considered
o ^^ &U~ j
1
cJ&J~
j'y
as
*$ t5*A*v5
had
*'
I but feared
]
God
v*hyou do the king
i!^
*5
^*Z* jt
wj\
(Sa'riR)
would have been one
of the
Faithful Witnesses/'
(6)
oo~J ^*w.< ÎkLo otei* vide also (d) (2): îaf "I OA-O H. J5l>b B., ojUsuuj VII) said, Chap. (Tr. compared ;k> to the generosity of our king the generosity of Sultan Mahmud is as a drop
Compared to"
^~*' lj)*
'
to the ocean.'
(w)
(1)
'
" How much

"
If
" the more," and
Arabs die of eating dates,

or]
how much the less " how much the more must Englishmen,"
:
l^y
yî-?
Afy
*~
*>*?\
H>W
^j=^
e^;>^ y
^y
$\
(m.c.)].
If
"
(2)
you
fear your Mulla like this,

70
how much
tear
God"
"
(3)
mi-tarsi
!^ Jt xjbjV9 A&. t^-^H ^jt y az tariq-i awlq azKhuda bi-tarsi. bayad

^5-*^
the more ought you to or iw fct" 2 Mulla i^fljpjfl

;
then
how much
()>~^
chief seat of
(4)
"
^^
^^ &
^y
the more with regard to

3
me who am
seated in
\j*
<*&>&.
"If
coffee
intoxicates
so"
^
4 *
you how much
the more
o
must opium do
^
(5)
" If Persians can't pronounce the letter 'ayn,

''
Lp*j*t j***# J** *$ or)

6
^ ÂI^
AÂAJ
*s^3 ^J
(ôj^
|H* J*'
less
^t> j ^^j^ ^ly Englishmen ^t (J^li;J^j/ti much the less will coffee how If then will not intoxicate (6) opium you
îyi^
<x&
how much
can
' '
oJta
iWkt^ski^l
ôjk
^ 8^jl
yi'
C5 *j ow^x>
y ^"by
^ff (m.c.),
or agar tiryak turn
mast na-kunad (or nami-kunad) qahwa bi-tariq-i aula mast nami-kunad. " It has been said that there is no reliance on the friendship of (1)
friends,
how much
the less then on the flattery of enemies

(Sa'di).
"
^^^> j
&>l
ns&j
j^
In m.c. this would be
* '
(8)
kill
If
Rustam could not

*'
***J
kill
<x
the father
how much
>!^w
the less could he

(m.c.).
the
1
son" *&& b j~4
*$
^-? bj*$
the
&jjS)
;
There are four grades

;
in Paradise
;
first for
the *Uxit
the
second for
the
the third for the

txxa. &>
!i^*!o
and the fourth
for the
ÂsJl^.
Or bi-chand
Fa-Tcay1
a
is
only exceptionally used in Persian.

*'
(also called pad-zahr j&j isb, from pad a stone found in the stomach of certain rumiÂj "poison "), " between health nants. Tiryaq-i faruq is the best kind of antidote, or "discriminator " " is and disease. In Mod. Pers.
Tiryaq-i Farsi
the bezoar stone"
"
protection" and
zoftr
opium
generally -^Ljy
and antidote o^y.
Awly ^jf
ft
"
worthier, better" Ar. elative of
J)
not to be confused with
^j
tily
the
fern, of
JjL

(9)
181
it
"I was unable

sea"
to
move
**AJU)
it
even
how much
c/f
the less could

AA.
1
be trans')
ported to the
(Afghan).
*xiaô
(^
&'
^L^
^Lîya
^(X^Li*.
e)f
In Mod. Pers.
(
this sentence could be,

Ijj*^
af
<Û.
**>>+*>*>
o,^
^r" gjjjlw) or)
fJI-~^J
an ra na-tavanistam harakat bi-diham
f*~*[j& tyf chi ja-yi
an
ki bi-darya bi-rasanam (or rasanlda shavad) ?

(10)
(^^J (~? L^V

J
.
AiAJjil^jji.
*xiL)
JÂXM
ÎxilA
A^
^f
O-^
Id j^>^
jj>;
,
oj'Jb
ci>j^
*a.
jsÂ.
îj/ojti^
Aa.
>îiuG cu^Xi (Iq. Nama-yi Jan., Bid. Ind.

<ioU
As. Soc. Beng., p. rpr).

(11)
In Indian
and Afghan
less
writings,
Uso
is
sometimes used for
'how much the

"
This
less."
He doesn't smoke, much
drink."
<->\j
lo
v
xi.^
c) 1
(Indian).
is
perhaps a translation of the
Urdu &# t^J
In m.c. jumbanidan ^<iaJUi^
is
a word to be avoided
it signifies
a kind of
posturing in dancing and also gadan
CHAPTER
THE NUMERALS
(a)
VI.
'
Ism-i
adad
numbers (^^ and ordinal numbers ( ^liu) *> p] ^\ The thing numbered is called j^*** "numbered." " The cardinals consist of ahad ^^.f "units 'asharat o|^ " tens" mi*dt oil* hundreds" wZ-S/ o^Jf "thousands." ) (
or <yfi or (Jlk* &**
)
.
(
The numerals,
ism-i 'adad, are divided into cardinal
47.
Cardinal Numbers
l
a dad}.
1
j&*
sifr
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
hafdah (or
v
183
ll
or hivdah\
haft-
{havdah
<3
or
'
'
hashdah
(or
18 (hajdah or hijdah
[d
I
hasht dah)
or)
.
nuzdah
(or nu-
19 Mod.
Pers.
nuzdah,
vulg. nunzdah. 20 sometimes incorrectiy
O-AJ
6s w
?/a&
or)
184
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
KJA
x*
sad hazar
..!
100,000, in India the word <J^

to* (for ft?** l ) is also
used.
.
kurur
. .
500 ,000 in India a

Za&/i
tow = 100
ten millions.
milyun (or milyun)
,000,000 modern only, from the
French.
Remark
otiy,
I.
The masculine Arabic numbers from

f
to 10 are,
^f
or *^tj,
&>,
Ajy
llii., AJU.,
**}*.,
<*>iUj,
**~3
}
SSU'>
From
3 to 9 inclusive
Arabic numerals (masculine) are used in Persian as adjectives to " the four elements qualify a plural noun, as: 'anasir-iarba'ah **j;i ^clxc
these
;
awqat-i khamsa *~+^ olf?:
"the
five times
of
prayer"; havass-i khamsa

A*A~ v^t^S" "the seven " " the eight Paradises
4U^L ^js* "the

stationary planets
aflak-i tis'ah **-3
five
senses"; kawakib-i sab'ah

jannat-i samaniya, *Ûj oli^
;
"
;
^$j
" the ten angels (of kingdoms (animal, vegetable

Gospels"
world."
;
"the nine heavens" 'uqul-i 'ashara *j2*c J^ " mavalid-i salasa *&* " the three philosophers) *\j* " and arba'h " the four
;
mineral)
anajtl-i
ayyam-i
sitta *!*
li
fU
the six days in which
God
created the
The Arabic
writers,
ordinals
but the use of these ordinals beyond 10
up to 20 have been employed by some Persian is by some considered
inadmissible.
The word for 100 is written o^> instead of <x- to avoid any confusion between it and the common Arabic word sadd " boundary." 60 is written for o * which means " thumb fish-hook." Similarly, o*a
II.
;
Remark
In grammar, this
or obscurity."
is
called
^^
**
daf-i iltibas
"removing the confusion,
Remark III.
" one "
;
The vulgar say

shisht for
yeg,
;
shish
and
" six "
and more commonly ye or yey for " seven and eight haf, hash for yazza,
* ' ;
duvazza, sizza,
(b)
punza, shunza and nunza.

of counting ceases at five
6
The Persian system

'
at half a million or one kurur
thousand
1
they say
si
express /kurur )jjZ &~, and so on.
To
'
one million,
hundred thousand, i.e. five hundred
Also
^Lsp tuman
la\ch (in
(obsolete)
and c_J
lak, vide (b)
and
(c).
Persian lak} and karor (in Persian kurur) are of Sanskrit origin, and have been borrowed by the Persians from the Indian system of calculation. They
2
The words
are terms to be avoided in Persian, as the ideas as to their values differ

(pi.
In Persian lak
lakuk)
8
is
correctly a
hundred thousand.
numerals assume the feminine form
for the
i.e.,
in Persia, a kurur is only half a million.

3 to 10 the
From
i.e.
masculine,
and
vice versa.
6
half million according to the Persian calculation.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
While
in India.
185
in Persia, a kurur j/" equals only half a million, in India it equals
ten millions.
This must be remembered
when reading Persian works
written
The word Idk J^ is rarely used by Persians. In India it signifies a hundred thousand, but according to Dr. Rosen it signifies only ten thousand in Persia. The Zardushtis and merchants trading with Bombay give the
word
its
Indian value.
a myriad (10,000), or a sum of money equal to (c) Tuman &vcy, T., signifies 10,000 Arabic silver dirham hence, also a district supposed to furnish 10,000
;
fightingmen.
The
chief of a
Baluch tribe is
still
called a
Tuman-ddr, corruption
of
jf<x>U> y. In Persia, the word tuman e>Uy is only used for a gold coin, or its " commander of equivalent of ten qiran, or = the word Ûy } **\ Amir tuman
tumdn-ddr
(a
nominal) ten thousand."

(d)
From twenty upwards

number expressed
:
greatest
first,
the numbers are arranged by having the and the lesser added by the conjunction
.
Example u nuh }
&'>
[Though deviations from this rule " eleven hundred and
may occur, they should not be copied]. " is hazar u sad* u navad ninety-nine (1199)
Such expressions as
is
' '
^3
**> j yy*>
8
(
i
).
eleven hundred
' '
are
never used.
The use
of the conjunction^
obligatory.
In the Tilzuk-i Jahangiri (Jahangir's Memoirs) the following **1^ &jj* xU.xx Jlalc ^jo ^ O*A Â *J^ s$ *)J y,ib ^ x*eâ. chahar sad u panzdah tola ki yak hazar si u haft u misgal mi-bashad
occurs:
Remark.
mm
ba-wazn bar
tola ki
dmad
si
in
Modern Persian
this
(.?"
would be chahar sad u panzdah
hazar u
u haflmisqal u
mm* j
noun (without the izafat) and the noun is in the singular, as: &j* jj& hazar mard ** one thousand men", but " ÛwStîi to dah nafar ashkhas ten individuals." An hazar mard "the
(e)
cardinal
number precedes
its
thousand men."
Very rarely the ma'dud &}&*> precedes the

:
adad
5<xc
in this case the
former has usually the indefinite ya, as <>*T j* * Û* sal-i du bar " dmad (Sa'dl; about two years, a two years or so, elapsed."
&^
m bar
Vide note
2, p. 184.
2
?
Amlr-tuman ^^j^^^-\ (without
iza/at) is
a Persian
title.
Yak hazar u yak sad

is
<3*A&
j'^fCj is
also used for emphasis,
but ordinarily the
numeral yak
*
omitted except in Indian Persian.
Notice the position of nlm in the second instance and the insertion of j between
si.
hazar and
186
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
In poetry the cardinal sometimes follows for poetical license, as
:
and
The ma' dud
is
occasionally understood, also by poetical license:
In Modern Persian at any rate, an Arabic plural, or Persian imitation " ten workmen" broken plural is sometimes em ployed, as: <*A** te dahfa'ala
l
, ;
vÛJUx
si
*J
nuh 'amalajat
" three forts
;
"nine workmen"
or
"artificers";
olâl*
all
&*
qal'ajat
for chahdr taraf
bi-sad mushkilat
"; ot^} ;l^ chahdr atrdf (m.c.) "on ^^Ci^ &,& (Afghan) for bi-sad
sides," mushkil, or
bi-sad ishkdl (m.c.).
definite
In the rare instances where the numeral stands as a predicate to a " the men were two thousand noun, the noun is in the plural, as
'
:
^&}* mardan du hazar budand. The noun may be in the plural after sadhd Ua^ "hundreds"
orhazarha
hazaran
thousands," as f;^ (c5 l t-^ f* or better) ^'^ p* (&)]\& hazarha ham-jins-i'1 (or better ham-jins-ha-yi 3 ) Jchud ra khwahand " sadha award (m.c.) "they will bring thousands of their own people fll*
: :
"
U^
cUi U^^> (or incorrectly

after sadha, etc.,
is
fiL-lia]
hazaran
(or hazarha)
fil
(or fil-ha).
The
plural
probably incorrect, for, as already stated, sadha is rarely used in m.c., hazarha or hazaran being substituted: hazaran kurur. (m.c.). "thousands of Tcrores" hazaran hazar (m.c.}, or hazar hazar (m.c.) 'many " " thousands of a thousand " and "a thousand thousand ") thousands
(lit.
chandin hazar " several thousand."

(/)
tj
substantive preceded by a cardinal
of the accusative unless specially definite, as
of partridges
kardam, both of us
)^> *-** *ita to-day" ra 6 firistad (m.c.) man du but har
^/
^j^
I;
number does not admit of the "I shot two and a half brace imruz panj dana kabk b shikar
:
^^
$j*>
tîU
& j*
" he sent
(def.). *.y> "I sent all three [The dative, however, can be expressed either by (j or by the preposition
(def.)
har
si
ra firistddam
{t&j
"
*^
as
j>^
t^,
j>;"
^^
^f aw
c?w
mard ra
bigu, or ^^J
^ &k ba an du mard bigu
There
;
is
as singular
2
3
wU^t
a tendency in m.c. to treat some of the commoner Arabic broken plurals 29 (c) asbab, for instance, is sometimes treated as a singular vide also
:
Remark and
footnote
(1).
But u hazar ham jins darad (not ham-jinsha). Here the plural ham jinsha sounds better also
;
it
conveys the idea of hazarha az
ham-jinsha-yi Jchud.
*
8
The word hazaran or hazarha is used in m.c. and sadha rarely. Or Tcabg m.c. Or har du-yi man ra, or har du ta man ra, or ma har du ta ra.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
189
Remark
rendered
I.
A
si
j-oj
"ura
II.
is phrase like, "I struck him three blows with a sword *or si zakhm-i (or zarb-i) shamshir zadam faj-'**"^ ; r
!
"
shamshir zadam
^-^*"*
v^
or )
f^j
*"
(m.c.).
is
Remark
tf
In ordinary conversation, ^si> nafar
used for persons and
ta or
*ji,i
tftma for things.

:
"a
dah
I7^ is also used in forming nouns of number, as " score ^\\^ <_. yak davdzda td*i (m.c.)
;
Ûu^j
>
c<
^jO
" a dozen
yak bistd^ (m.c.)

:
^13 *:>^j yak
td*i. etc.

of
^ of
number, as: davdzdah-1 (in " two and two " yak-i is a pronoun
;
unity was sometimes added to form nouns " a dozen" dwvspeaking duvaza-i ) (class.)
:
lt
one,
some one."
as in the case of the
Remark
III.
It will be noticed that,
cardinal
numbers, these determining numbers are usually followed'by a singular noun.

a pair; s&d linga is the odd one of a pair, or the load of one side of a transport animal &j)t> c t/a& darzhan (or dajan)
(h)
Juft
oJiA. or
j>J
zauj
is
things generally sold by the dozen); " a suit of vJL; ?/& âs^ ^6a*' cuî ^">* clothes" J^^j Û) yak dost kdrd u changal 'one set consisting of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or
(m.c.)
is
"a dozen"
(applied
to
'
one place at table
')
yak dost zarf
Jî= ^~*
'
one set consisting of six
yak dast finjan rialnaki ^^l*j ^lôj o*^^ uj "a set of six cups and six saucers"; muqamir ra si shash mi-bayad va likin si yak mi-ayad (Sa'di) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
plates
and
six
' '
cups
coming up." (i) The emphatic phrase '^ j A^ &*> man yaka va tanha " I single and alone quite by myself; unaided."
;
signifies
(j)
The phrase
Ex.
:
c>x
;l^.
edly."
^vx;U.j>
;
j^ du char shudan signifies to encounter unexpect" we met each other"; Âb ba ham du char shudlm
' '
du
u shudam, or urd du char shudam (m.c. only) "I met him." 3 l*^^ hundreds of hazdrdn &\)}j*, hazdrhd U^KA signify (k) Sadhd thousands of." Ex. cu^: <x>U IAJ) o^t JU U^x^ 4 sadhd sdlast mja mdnda ast
chdr-i
; :
(m.c.)
"it has lain here for hundreds of years" 5 (Afghan) "hundreds of kos."
%jj>
U<x*>
sadhd kuroh
'
In India si shctmshir zadam,

Juft
si
chub zadam, etc.

'
naml-khwaham
linga
mi-khwaham pA\}.** iXU Âtîu^J oJu.
want
.single
s
(odd) carpet, not a pair." The plural -an of this word not used.
:
na dah nah Hazaran would be more usually substituted in colloquial idiom sad hazarha (Qa*ani). 5 A kos is an Indian measure of distance supposed to be about two miles it
*
:
however, varies in
districts
and
may
be anything from
H to 4 miles.
188
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
.
.
Sheep, goats
shaJch;
dana;
ra*s.
,
shakh
' ;
' '
horn
c ;
"
;
u-r
'adad;
a grain"
;
adad
dana = "a
1 '
number"
Fowls
.
ra*s
"a head.
dana
qilada
. .
Dogs
"a
dast
collar."
Hawks
dast; bahla
..
= "hand"; bahla* (classical) "a falconer's

bazu
glove."
Falconer
bazu
'arrada
..
(classical);
="arm."
Guns (cannon)
Sails
,
..
"a
kind of small balista:
farvand>
a cart (modern)." " a sail " vulg. farund.

:
Money
dana
^j-^j*
&
8
&* sad dana
tu-
mani
rn an
(m.c.)
100 gold tu-
pieces.
Jewels, fruit
dana
saub
sardari (also less correctly
Clothes
Guns,
etc.
.mil, lula, qabza.
mil " a bodkin for apply-
ing
lisk
:
colly rium
an
obe-
a milestone; probe, a etc."; lula "a pipe

;
barrel."
S words
daggers.
and
' '
qabza
hilt, qabza a handle."

*'
of
a sword
Books
Shawls or piecegoods.
jild
tiiqa
volume."
stani
wit
corresponds to the Hindu-
word
;
than.
' '
Carpets Felt
or
fard
takhta
" a unit
one person.
to, etc.,"
..
"aboard."
vide
For mablagh 139 (h).

i
sum
(of
money)" and muwdzi "equal
Also used colloquially.

i
In m.c. dast-kash jj*^ cu^^ s used for a falconer s or any other glove. In India " an assistant " the hawk. this word signifies falconer." i.e., " one who strokes " a 5 Panj hazar )[$& gold five "fiveqirans, but panj hazari ^L**
qiran, bit
nine qirana). 4 Carpets in Persia are woven and sold by the pair, each pair being identical in pattern. Persian taste requires everything in a room to be in pairs the same pictures
(value
:
"
now
even (coloured prints of European women of ample charms only partially concealed), " an account repeat themselves on both sides of a doorway or arch. Fard also means
r '
or
"a
' '
list.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
189
Remark
rendered
/.A phrase like,

si
(
"I
or)
struck him three blows with a sword

si
"
is
"ura
II.
shamshir zadam f*)^*"-** ** l>r, or
zakhm-i (or
zarb-i)
shamshir zadam pt>jj-^~
^y*
^3
A ~ (m-c-)' 1
is
Remark
l
In ordinary conversation,^ nafar

for things.
:
used for persons and
ta or
AJt.v
dan
"a
dah
score
â is also used in forming nouns of number, as " " <-j ^& davazda tafi (m.c.) " a dozen ^5G j$y,fjj>
;
^>
**>J*>.
yak
ta*i, etc.

of
^ of
number,
"two and two "

Remark
as: davazdah-1 (in speaking duvaza-i

;
unity was sometimes added to form nouns " a dozen" duv-i (class.) )
:
yak-i
is
a pronoun
"
one,
some one."
III.
It will
be noticed that, as in the case of the cardinal
numbers, these determining numbers are usually followed by a singular noun.

(h)
Juft* oJia. or
>j
zauj
is
a pair; &&) linga

;
is
or the load of one side of a transport animal

(m.e.)
is
&j)&
^ yak darzhan
sold
the odd one of a pair,

(or dajan) the dozen); by
"a dozen"
,JL;
(applied
to
things generally
' '
;
Û)
'
d**o
yak dast
libas
" a suit of clothes
J&a- j
^~*t>
^ yak
dost
" (< a set of plates and six cups yak dast finjan n'alnaki ^>UJ ^\.^9 o^ci u^> six cups and six saucers"; muqamir rd si shash mi-bdyad va likin si yak mi-ayad (Sa'di) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
;
kdrd u changal 'one set consisting of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or one place at table ') yak dast zarf <J^ o*a Jr! " one set consisting of six
;
coming up."
man yaka va tanha signifies unaided." quite by myself; shudan signifies to encounter unexpect(j) The phrase cA^ ;^ jo du char 4( we met each other"; Ex. ba ham du char shudim edly." j,)jA;U. ja Û du char-i u shudam, or ura du char shudam (m.c. only) "I met him."
(i)
The emphatic phrase

and alone
;
'^x>
*& e^
"
I single
(k)
Sadha s U A:
hazdran
e)f;!>,
hazarha
UjKA
' '
signify
hundreds of
thousands of." Ex.

(m.c.)
0^' sÛ
Isdji
o^t
JU
U^*o 4 sadha salast Inja

;
manda
ast
"it has lain here for hundreds of years" 5 (Afghan) "hundreds of kos."
_____________
;>/
U>^
sadha kuroh
____
______
^^
:
gle
s
In India si shamshir zadam, si chub zadam, etc. Jw/ nami-khwaham; linga mi-khwaham f* [>** ^^^4^^ (odd) carpet, not a pair." The plural -an of this word not used. Hazaran would be more usually substituted in colloquial idiom
" I want a
na dah nah
it
9ad hazarha (Qa*ani).

5
kos
is
however, varies in
an Indian measure of distance supposed to be about two miles districts and may be anything from 1 to 4 miles.
190
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
chunm
hazarhd daf'ah bihtar mi-shud (m.c.)
Carnal
mi-kardam
"had
done
so,
it
would have been
thousands of
times
better for
me"
oJL? j* )j> lab-i gur y ;Uj 4*0 sad sand-fold"): " a hundred sick have a sick returned from the bar gasht has) (many person " hundreds of but Umar sadha when death of brink given up)," (recovered
(better
hazar
chandan, bimdr az
"a
thou-
sick."
instead of sadha
The Afghans sometimes (incorrectly) say sadha- yi mar dumdn^^^^â mard a/ (&**>. " we the For two, both," etc., vide 39 (/) (3), ma du nafar expression (1}
har du & j* ^> or har du-yi man Û <ô j*>. 48 (m) The cardinals are used to express the year, vide,
or
j&>
^ U,
ma
(i).
This
life is
(
often, especially in poetry, referred to as In panf ruz )j)

jj)
> CJ--'<-Z+&A>
-ij <^f,or
In du ruz-i
umr j+*
haft
the next
*
"
:
qalam
p&
Dar du dunya ^J2 î;^ means "in " " is the seven of
styles
this
world and in
writing
haft iqllm /î|

' '
;
cuAA
the seven climes of the world

,
*
"
;
haft darya
b)& cufiA
'
'
the seven seas

(each
of
haft
jahannam
lA
^Xt.^ oJte
the seven divisions of the Muslim Hell
which has a separate
name)"
eight.
haft bihisht ^-^*V
Â
" the seven Paradises

or Falak^l-Aflak)."
of Islam (exclusive of the
Kuriy
are
or Falakv'l-Buruj,
and the 'Arsh

jjUftA for
Ac cor ding to the vulgar there
Haftad u du j& j
seventy- two
haftad
:
u du
millat
oJx>^>^
ÛJlA occurs in poetry for the
religions of the
world
Jang-i haftad u du millat hama ra 'uzr bi-nih Chun na-dldand haqlqat rah-i afsana zadand.
(Hafiz.)
Haftad u
is
si firqa
&*f &^ j
(sA*
is
the seventy- three sects of Islam.
Muhammad
but
reported to
have said that there were 71
sects of the Jews, 72 of the Christians,

five
that there would be 73 of Muslims.
There are
more.
There are ninety-nine attributes of God called al as na^ l-lmsna or " the excellent names," but commonly Persians talk of the thousand and one names of God. Allah is called the Ism^z'zat or essential name of God and, with the ninety-nine attributes,
'
'
completes the one hundred names recited by means of the rosary in the exercise of The Ism^'l-A'zam, or " Great name of God," is supposed to be known only to zikr.
'Ali is supposed to have one less, i.e. 1,000 names. There are supposed to be 1,24,000 Prophets. The world it is supposed is 8,000 years old, and will reach the age of 50,000 years
saintly persons.
Farda
M az
^^
In dayr-i
kuhn darguzarlm
Ba
haft hazar-salagan
ham
safar-lm.
To-morrow we shall quit this inn, and march With comrades who have marched seven thousand
'
'
years.
(0.
K. 312 Whin.)
THE ORDINALS.
48.
191
The Ordinals.
(a)
The Persian
This
ordinals are formed

is
:
cardinals.
(
termination
turned
^(k*> fx*) or mim-i ta'ym-i ta ddd ( adjectives and as such can precede or follow their substantives
1st
.
by adding the termination urn to the by Grammarians mim-i sifdti alJ*3 e^*-* They are treated as p** )
:
Jji
|*j>
*>
2nd
3rd
4th
fX> or
2
-or
o*-io
^^ M
+**>
awed (Ar.) yakum, duvvum or duyum.

;
or nukhust.
*y> or
..(*; l^
. .
sivvum or siyyum. chaharum.
5th
p-suj
.
panjum.
shishum, classically shashum.
6th
7th
f
fxfi*
haf turn
hashtum.
8th
^.iÂ
9th
10th
.
^
.
nuhum.
dahum.
si-um.
AJ>
2
30th
(b)
(*l.'t5"*'
When
there
:
the last only, as
more than one number, the formative affix is added to " ^;^ ^ Jâ. ^ ^^ sad u chihal u chaharum the hundred and
is
forty-fourth (144th)."
(c)
The Persian
^,
ordinals can in addition take the affix
w, sometimes
J^;
contracted to
eî
as: Ex. nukhustin, c^*<?^ duyyumm, etc. 6 " former avvalin' raunaq-i (Sa'di) brightness (or splendour)."
^-u
Remark.
an ordinal,
(d)
In poetry a cardinal number sometimes
takes the place of
as:
The
ordinals
^fr^rsuj/o
\)
may
be
followed by the rd of the accusative,
as:
Question:
^^
f\&$
kudam
yakl-ra
mi-Tchipahi
"which one
who have
pre-
Inn, as we stay only a short time. Haft-hazar salagan " all the dead ceded us " May khur lei 'z dil kasrat u qillat bi-barad
,
F' andlsha-yi haftad u

*'
Drinlc wine to root
du millat bi-barad. up with a metaphysic's weeds

(O.
And
tangle of the two-and-seventy creeds."
K. 194 Whin.)
Yakum /?
is
yakum
is much less used in Persia than avval Jj'- In India and Afghanistan Nukhiist o~acu generally used instead of avval for the 1st of the month.
and nukhustin ^-J^ 3^ are classical, and only used in writing nukhust zad " 2 Note the distinction in 3rd and 30th in Persian. writing between
' ' ' '
first
born."
cri/î J c^-^f
Here avval Jt could be substituted for avvalln cj-irj'. In avvalln u akhirm " ancients and moderns " the terminations are the oblique case of the
regular (classical) Arabic masculine plural.
192
' '
THE ORDINALS.
:
do you want ? Answer I; ra 6^'& chahdruml **? t; ô;^

'
^
'
^ OU..AJ bist
(m.c.)
u yakum ra " the twenty- first "give me the fourth."

also adjectives, are to
'
'
'
'
:
(e)
The Arabic
^
ordinals, which are
a certain
extent used up to
.
"the tenth."
"
These are formed on the

the first
measure of
the agent
JÛ
(masc.),
and
<*JUb*
(fern.),
excepted.
MASCULINE.
THE ORDINALS. The Arabic ordinal Jy avval " the first" is generally used "the first of Ramazan." &l"4.*) *^ Jj avval-i mdh-i Ramazdn
(g)
1
193
in dates,
as
The feminine ^>f

,jj
is
rarely used in Persian even in the

g^
names
of
the
Arabic months; thus ^j}\
Ûît
is
less
used than Jjl iÛ*-,
4waZ Jy
substantive.
is
an adjective and
When however
Kirmdn
coupled by the izdfat when it follows its precedes a substantive it is generally to be

is
considered a substantive, and
dar avval-i khdk-i
followed by a genitive, as: &\*>j> (_!, Jy j& (me.) "at the commencement of the district of
is
Kirman."
plural of J> avval is J5.y avasil signifying "the beginning; the first first ten days of every month," as opposed to yîy avdlchir the part; " the plural of j^T akhira ( and dkhir ends, latter parts; the last ten
The
j^
days of each month."

beginning of his reign
his life," avval shah
of the night."
Ex.
oikU
"
;
Jjty
^ dar
avd*il-i saltanat-i
^tjjj^ty
first
;^ dar avdkhir-i
zindagl
*i
u "in the " at the close of
" the
night," but avval-i shah
v* Jy
"the beginning
L$)J*^ (r* &.$ y (**^;W Janvari ii-yhdyat-i chahdrdahum-i April (m.c.) "from the 3rd of January to the end of the 14bh of April." * Remark. Via ^(jf, the Ar. fern, of avval Jy, must not be confused with
j/jf
J^
&*)
az tdrikh-i sivvum-i
awla " more or most excellent" which

ulq.
is
the elative form from
waU
<Jj
and has no connection with avval,

(h)
which properly " blaze on a horse's a a or be covered by "star too to forehead," signifies large the thumb-top, the new moon, 2 etc., etc." The last of the months is also
first
The
of the
month
is also
+9 called tj* ghwrra, Ar.
salkh,
Ar.,
which has for
its
original
meanings "to skin,
flay;
to shed
the skin (snake); to shed foliage and grow green again."
Not an uncommdh-i 'umr-i u az
mon
tin time
phrase
in
writings
is
<Xx-o;
JLo
31
y j+&
lit.
U>
ghurra bi-salkh rasid

travelled
"
its
his
days drew to a close,"

its
" the
month
alô
of his
life-
from
the
ghurra to
is
salkh."
The
first of
-d the
(i)
month
also called ti*
Jy
avval-i md-h, or
sar-i
mdh,
last |Lo^Lf dkhir-i
mdh.
ordinals are used in computing the year of the reign of a but the cardinals are used in expressing the date of an era. sovereign, (j) The ordinals are sometimes vulgarly formed by adding digar to a
cardinal, without
The
tawdnd
J
(Tr.
an izdfat, as: lily ^ *** j &> j&* ** si-digar tanumand u H. B., Chap. VI) "the third was a man robust and strong."
Ramazan, the ninth month of the Muslim year and the month of fasting. The new moon is hilal J^>, and badr )** the full moon in speaking mah-i '* chahardah te )^ff> -^ is generally used for the full moon." 13
*
shab-i
194
FRACTIONS.
OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS.

49.
(a)
Fractions kusur (>}~$)
pi of kasr\
(,
Persian fractions are usually formed by placing the denominator
after the
numerator, as:
^
. .
^&*> haft du "two-sevenths"
).
In mixed
:
numbers, the whole number precedes the fraction as in English.

'
Examples
/jjj
mm
chahdr yak chahdr
si
in
m.c.
only
used in com-
pounds.
J.
.
Jo
yâ.
vulg.
^;L$-
chdrak
(used
in
| i
A-câ.
^_j A<*
^jo
fc-Ai
si
weights and measures). not used in Modern Persian,
yak
.
seldom used in me.

used in m.c. used in m.c.
i
i
îj
0*"**
.
panj yak
shash yak
haft
...
^, oiA
AJ
>
<x<5
yak
, ,
hasht yak
da^ nuh
sac?
/*
not used in m.c.
-J-.1-0
c_j
AJ
/a&
_?_9_
j>y **o
^
d
..
sad navad u
nuh.
used in m.c. " in a hundred,

nine."
m.c.
ninety and
YoVo"
..
^.^.j*
hazdr yak
.
..
,
^
f
f
da& d%
m.c.
*&*>..)
\JL> uu*.jj
.
dah nlm.
bist
not m.c.
m.c.
yak
Remark I. must be used

;
For
si
f,
etc.,
the Arabic fraction du suls, f sih sumn, etc.,
hasht yak or hasht si would be wrong.

:
The fractions are followed by the izdfat, as w ^-^t & khhums-i In rd bi-man bi-dih " give me a fifth of this" dah yak-i in haqq-i man ast (m.c.) "a tenth belongs by right to me." The Persian fraction J si yak is not used, and |- chahdr yak is only used for
Remark II.
:
" the Arabic fraction weights and measures f or give me a fourth of this ***** nisf-i and not the Persian would be used: similarly half of this' " mdhut. u \f in, but ^ yak gaz 1J yards broad cloth" ci>>tU
' '
;
'
^
:
mm
Kusur-i
'amm "
is
vulgar fractions
"
:
kusur-i a'shariyyah "decimal fractions."

1
is preferred. compounds in speaking nisi ^-ANlma A+JJ is also used as nlma-yirah (m.c.) ) &+& "halfway" nlma-yi mah >^ A*-Jt*" the fifteenth of the month " nlma alone is used in m.c. for " half a brick": (m.c.)
2J
Nlm
/H^
generally used in
*2-*
H>
vide
117
ejiij,}
(/).
&+# vSAjliT kitabat nlma-yi dldar = olJ'^Jl ^flai wi*jU^ kitabat nisf-ul-mulaqat does "writing (a letter) is equal to half a visit,** i.e. correspondence with friends away with half the pain of separation.
Ar.,
FRACTIONS.
(6)
195
The Arabic
fractional terms are sometimes used even in speaking.

(e.g. *i*Jb
In the singular, they are generally of the measure Jta
"a third")
and
in the plural JU?f.
Examples
l
.
.
cA*ai
nisf
Used
in speaking
instead
of
riim.
9
*Q
| J
..
rub' or ruba
si
1
PL PL
l)t
arba
(rare).
Q
JJj,3
-
<!uo
rub (orruba')
. .
suls
asJas (rare)
also
the
three-thirds).
îiS
sulsayn
Dual; (the dependent case in

the
classical
language);
du
T
J
suls in Persian.
u/*^
uo>-o
.
.
khums
suds
st*6
s
5*^
PL uU^t akhmas (not used). PL ^jp|Ai asdas (not used). PL Û^t asba' (not used).
PL c>^f asman (not used). PL *UJ( aâ' (rare).
4
^
ej*"*
sumn
/ws'
~>
y*^
'ushr
PL
ji^^
'ushur
'
and
;lAc
The duals and

Remark.
'
6 plurals are very rarely used except by Mullas in writing.
*'
A quarter to' is sometimes expressed, thus: chahar ilia rub' four minus a quarter," etc., but the expression is perhaps incorrect.
(c)
In m.c. <jy^jj
-ft*ai
nisf-i ziyad-tar-ash, or better
u^y^j
^^
ji
az
nis/ ziyad-tar-ash signifies
" more than half."
(d) In Modern Persian, nisf *Jt^J is generally used for the substantive "half" while mm is preferred for compounds, asijlwui^J msj-i qutr
"radius
asleep."
of a circle
(lit.
half the diameter)," but
v>^
/*^
riim-khwab *'half
as
However, in m.c., riim-shab nisf-i shab and riima~yi shah

:
is
occasionally used for

*
"
midnight," as well
riim-ruz (class.)
midday.'
Bil-munasafa <WUUJL.
<*
n halves, equally between

/c
'
two":
dar nisf-i fariq
"
halfway."
ff*
2
In Arabic the forms

.
>)
and
(J^Jj
but in Persian (and similar measures) are found,
the measure <J*> only

3
is
used.
si
In speaking du suls, du khums,
khums,
etc.,
|,
|.
used for the singular T^th. " so 5 In Arabic, the fractions above a tenth are expressed by a paraphrase of out so parts many parts ( )."
pi.
In Persian, the
)j&*
is
many
*^
196
(e)
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS.
Such expressions
as
"
5%"
&>
are
^
(/)
ft
sad panj.
Yak
bar dah
uXj
rendered by " ten to one
î(in
*o sad panj, or
betting)."
-75"
u
g>\
Decimal fractions are rendered by a paraphrase, thus ^.+~* x*>jf o**~J' sad* haftad u <panj-i inch, or
^Jf
=
î&* haftad
ÂJ^
u panj qismat
(g)
az sad qismat-i inch.
Fractions
of
may
or
also be expressed
as
follows
a jl
^Cj
?/a&-
daA
"one out
ten,
one-tenth"; a^j
d% az
si
"two
out of three,
or two-thirds."
50.
Adverbial Numerals
(a)
The
ordinals can be used as adverbial numerals.
Ex.
^^ a&f ^&
^ e^ ^ ;U cJo
A[^J
^;tj j uîAJ <*&f ^Jj^
-plif ?/a^-*
anki garmi-yi aftab bud;
duyyum anki tufang u barudugulula yak bar bar man bud, "firstly, there was the heat of the sun; and, secondly, the rifle with powder and bullets was
quite a load for
(b)
me "
in this sentence avval
could be substituted for yak-l.
The Arabic
:
ordinals in the accusative case are also used in Persian
as adverbs
y
IjJb
amal- a *, "
saniy~
an
,
firstly, in
the
first
place."
"
secondly, in the second place."
UflS salis- (jn , etc., etc.
(c)
The Persian
.J**^
ordinals,
with the exception of yakum
added
to
*fyo martaba, second time,"
daf'ah, or jL bar
:
"time,"
Â^-/O
etc., etc., signify "first time,
etc., as
Axi/^
fjt>
Jy, or Jjt
*',>
avval martaba or marlaba-yi avval

e
"the
first
time,"
etc.,
daf'a-yi
duvvum
(or daf a-yi sani), *y
%**&
daf'ah-yi siyyum.
etc.
Remark. Bar-ha U|b (pi. of &o>) means " oft-times." " twice as much," vide Multiplicative Numerals.
(d)
For du-chandan,
The
etc.
cardinals prefixed to the
same substantives
;
signify
(classical
"once,
only)
4
twice,"
Ex. Ex.
:
;b a^ si bar
j>>
"thrice"
;b
"seldom."
^)j*>
*-
^^ ruz-t
" he used to si\bar khwurdl (Sa'dl)
kam-bar
eat three times a day."
are not used in
The expressions found in old Persian modern Persian.
fl
dah
bis'
200
and
fi
dah yak, or yak dah
2 /Sad <**,
8
i.e. per 100. [As -75" is singular, it is wrong to say -75 inches.] The Arabic ordinal avval supplies the place of yakum. In modern Persian ju *> kam-bar is an adjective signifying "of light weight
or
load."
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS.
.
197
(e)
" " Once again is^jj>
'
,>Jj yak daf a-yi dlgar, or ;|/& bi-takrdr*
("
bam. by repetition "), or )j* mukarrar, or *>V^>> (/) Such expressions as "twice two makes four,"
:
etc. are
rendered as
follows
2 x 2
ast o**ot
du martaba du chahar ast<+*\ ;l^ 3* AJ^J*, or dy bar du chahar
)l&'.j&j*j&, or
5 + 5 joaw?
d% rf% to chahar td % paw/ dah mi shavad

Jj.
^j^
^ j> 3*
-.u
te
.u,
or panj td
upanj
td
dah
**
ti
J^
13
5 pew;
ezz
panj hlch
,
&*
J^>
^ ^
j
Jij ÂJ ;i
5-^-5
paw;
c?ar
panj, yak
51.
(a)
Multiplicative Numerals.
:
The
multiplicative or reduplicative numerals are as follows
"
Single
"
îuc mufrad,
tJicUax)
liC>
yaktd,
3
&&
yagdna.
"Double"
A>'fj^
muzd'af, *** j*
cfot
du chand,
a)
<^
^ du
chanddn,
dugana,
^^
jta>
rfw to, S/j,i
/a.
'Treble" ^Jli^ musallas; U *chanddn; AJ!f A^ 6* gdna ; $ &^ si ld. s
5*
â;
o^.
A->
s^
chand; ^*x*. &>
si
"Quadruple"
chand, etc.
^^
o* w
murabba
1 ,
oU^
Aiu;t
arba'a az'df, **
& o^^jj
chahar
"Twenty-fold" ejf*^
6z-5i
o-# &^
muqdbala.
<>^
chanddn,
&?$
ia,
Jjlaxs
OA-JJ
muqdbil,
ALliixj
6^5^
"
A^hundred-fold" c>l^^
:
sad chanddn, &tliU

'*
A-O S U x*, etc.
Examples
cu! ^f ^5^^ v^ ^'

" this
this is twice as
much water
as that
' '
:
is
twenty times the amount
of
wheat
' '
:
parishdm-yi
(m.c.)
^s*j*^
1
ma
chahar chanddn izd/a shud

si
"our alarm was

a^
i
.
increased four-fold": In
is
bardbar-i
an
ast
c^Tyy
p
jl
^ "this
*t>yjt>
(m.c.)
three times as
much
as that
"
si
*j*-j
or)
hakim) ddda am (me.) " as the Hakim gave
maw 6i-fe 5* bardbar-i hakim (or "I have given him three times (or twelve times) as much
;
p*> jty &^^ ^x> duwdzda bardbar-i

muqdbil ziydd-tar
jy <u*o!^ ^&t y
dddam az an " he asked

:
ki khivdsta
f to's
bud
"
(rn.c.)
^t^y
cLlax)
A^
si
gave him more than three times what
^ ^ Aivotyk Asuf
(m.c.)
Jblax:
^ ^x:
man
si
muqdbil-i dnchi khwdsta
bud
bi-u
(6)
ddda
am
"I have
given him
three times what he asked."
above, the Arabic multiplicatives are seldom used. In ordinary use are the compounds of U td, V Id, ***. chand, ^***- chanddn and
Of
the
muqdbila.
2
3
Or bar j O r martaba In India the word takrar

Colloquially dulla, silla.
is
also used for
" altercation, dispute."
198
52.
RECURRING NUMERALS.
Distributive Numerals.
:
yakdyak, or <-j <*> yak yak, or " " one or o& c>& ijj ^j yak-i yak-l (m.c.), yagdnyagdn (obsolete) by one also j& }& huva bi-huva (m.c.) 8 ^<v jj> du badu, or *^ du du, or Uj,> Uja du td
distributive numerals are
l
The
-j&
du
td,
or dugan
"
" by twos
' '
*-
<*^
51 si
;
chahdrdn chahdrdn](old)
four at a time
"
*:>
" " three by three, by threes

to
daA daft
:
' '
by tens
'
'
yagan u dugan
^jcxiujx:
"
(old)
by ones and twos."

iaeulLa.
Examples
^^
;&*>
&jfj;^j^
t^j) ^ ^j^-^f ^xs j^
^jl^jj.o
^f
bi-nawbat jihat-i shikar
du du ddam me-raftem chundnchi du me-dmadem wa du-yi dlgar me-raftem " we* used to go out shooting by turns, two of us at a time, viz.. (Afghan)
when two of us returned two others from amongst us started in their place." The Afghan idiom (&j ({& ^ &j)\* j**> j** k^j^/t-V /^(^ x mannimnimsir,
" I (oaded the bdrud, dar tufangha kardam (Afghan) guns with " half a seer or a seer each would in m.c. be expressed sir yd yak sir yak
yd
sir
sir
mm
sir
bdrud dar tufang-hd kardam

(2)
(m.c.).
etc.
Adverbs and Adjectives such as xx*u takhmin an " about,"

express approximation,
as
:
are also used to

t$
*y
takhmln an
:
blst sal
shuda ki
*^
JU
^*/*ojj
Uu^!i " about 20 years have elapsed since

teji^
"
^j ly
o^y
&&U
panj tumdn ki muwdzl-yi pdnzdah ruplya ml-bdshad " five tuman which is equal to fifteen rupees (m.c.) qarlb-i sad (or bi-sad) "there were nafar shutur dnjd bud (m.c.) Isof^xi jk> x^ (*^* or ) vir*
A*J^;
;
^"
(3)
about 100 camels there."
English
And *i; (connected with ^J"^ andak and îa. chand), corresponds to "odd," as: x>fj Îxy ^^ s tumdn va and (class.) "thirty odd
!
tumans."
53.
Recurring Numerals.
:
" " The recurring numerals are L^J yak dar miydn; alternately "once every ten days" <**VC -l 3j; *^ j* har dah ruz yak martaba, etc. Ijj come every Û^^ Examples yak ruz dar miydn biyd 5 other day "; "cut down every third tree" du biguzdr siyumln rd bi-bur
:
^^
^ ^
' '
Also means " suddenly.'
Some Afghans
still
say yagan yagan vj&
&&.
The termination an appears

sevens
to be
adverbial rather than a plural:
C;&A
:
haftagan
the
"by
"
(obs.)
eM^ ^^
1
bam-
dadan "
s
"in the morning"

Means "
in detail
(Sa'di)
Afghans say cA^lj rastan for

1
the
adverb
straight."
or exactly.
In modern Persian
'i
f&*j&jî*j&J* J
nafar)
6
'
(+'.**
In Indian pronounced j&j* huba-hu. ^*J f&*j*' (^ j&* j&> jt> or) jAJ j* *^=? fi*J.i *j bi-du dw bi-nawbat du shikar na/ar 6* O!M jihat-i (or t^*^^^
"
mi
%t
f
raftim ya'rii
du nafar ml amadim va du nafar-i digar mi-raftlm
(m.c.).
k*
ghibb
an
,
'
"at
;
alternate days
visits of
a friend.
intervals, occasionally," is also sometimes used in writing for from a saying of the Prophet who was somewhat bored by the daily The Prophet suggested to his friend that he should visit him ghhibb- an
.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
*
&
199
or du dar
miydn
yak-i rd bi-bur
j^> <-*Ur^ *-^ o^L
-*>
y>
" take one dose every three hours."

54.
(a)
Approximate Numbers.
:
*jt du si, Approximate numbers are expressed as follows " " U or or U ju ^ rfw s* /a (m.c.) two or three ft- chahdr panj, î " " '* A o^ cA-^ shash haft, six or seven. chahdr panj td (m.c.) four or five Ex: o^Jo etc., etc. ij^l^ chahar panj angusht, "four or five fingers'
;
^^
breadth"; du si musht-l bar kalla-yi u zadam ftj " I boxed his ears once or twice for him."
Remark.
{
y fa y ^^^
*~>j* (m.c.)
In du
si bar-l
^t &*>j*
= "a
two or three times or so." the
is
the indefinite
<^$.
13
(b) In the m.c. phrase haft hasht dah td ten," the number nuh is invariably omitted.
^ oÛ
a*-Jrf
OÂ
' f
some seven or
a few," (c) For *i^ câ^cZ, " about 20 or taqrib persons,"

' ' *
w'de
39
(^)
îi
-^^ gar?6- to wa/r,
or tdkhmin
bist nafar.
55.
(a)
Numeral Adjectives.
:
Many numeral adjectives are formed by means of the silent h *JU t_r " Jl" of six shash-sdla, p* r- * ? a ^ M panjdh sola, years old l?^ ^ tx*e " " " an old man of 150 seven coloured (the rain*&> O.AA Aa/^ ranga, years " 2 " a ^w bow) sang-i chahdr-ruya, square stone." In *^ji -W3 Aj^^t^
:
tufang-i du-lula,
" double-barrelled is already a portion of the gun," the word lula, " a spout, etc." AAUÂ har mdha, " of every month." The adjectives Jjtj^ du-bara ;b *- si-bdra can also be used as adverbs,
;
vide
50
(6)
(d).
jw
Professional
' '
story-tellers
yf *j**
"
ma'rika-gir,
or Jl&i
naqqdl)
often express
AlL, ^liiA U
A*^ e verybod37 old and young by the phrases oJw jt '> *J^ aJu âma âs az haft-sdla td haftdd-sdla, or AJU ^^ jf az panj-sdla td panjdh-sdla, or *JU ov*a G aJL ji^ jf az shash sdla td shast
^-
sdla.
The following idioms

Memoirs
"
of the
(obsolete)
:
occur in the Tuzuk-i Jahangin (the

<\i.~&y o>^
Emperor Jahangir)
^&^l
<
**
;
^^^ &U*jt? ^
jL>
(i.e.
they are somewhat larger than the

lj
common
wild pigeon
j$^
"
i=o
&**> jt
y ^K
Bjsjlj
they
pair
of
!Tagr*&- *, adv.,
means
**
at an estimate."
The Arabic
adjective
^*
is
murabba'
"square"
is
also
used, particularly in
mathematics.
8
The term
qisaa-fehwan
seldom used in Persia.
200
ARABIAN MONTHS.
newly-hatched sarus cranes) are somewhat larger than the young of a goose, or about the same size as pea-chicks a month old": possibly
these idioms arose from the everyday Urdu idiom ikkis bis Tea farq hai, " the difference between them is very slight (lit. the difference of 20 and
21).
(c)
>
Arabic numeral adjectives are

ruba'i,
"
triliteral,
triangular, treble"
"a
four-lettered
word; a quatrain; "quadruple" and so
on.
CHAPTER
56.
(a)
VII.
Arabian Months.
!
are arranged to consist of 30 and 29 days (usually alternately), so the whole year consists of 354 days (and 9 hours). In a period of thirty years an intercalary day is added eleven times, i.e. the last month is eleven times in thirty years made to consist of 30
The Muslim lunar months
days instead of 29. (Hence the Naw Ruz would fall every year about 1 1 days earlier than the previous year and not, as it does, on 21st March.) As with the Jews, the civil day commences at sunset, and the month
commences on that evening when the new moon * is visible. [Hence the early Arab writers reckon not by the day but by the night.] The ordinal numbers are used to express the day of the month. (b) The following are the names of the months, which do not in any way
correspond with the English months
:
ARABIAN MONTHS.
or
r*^
Muharram
Safar Rabi lu
2 3
_r&fcJ|
L* or
^>
JjVf
$0
'l-avval or
Rabl luni
'l-Awwal.
i'
'l-Akhir or Rabi' uni
now, but about
is supposed to have consisted of 12 lunar months as system of intercalation was introduced, one month being intercalated into every three years. It is, however, related that the Prophet on a certain occasion said, "A year is twelve months only as at the time of the creation," and by There also existed amongst the this saying reintroduced the old lunar year. Arabs a system of commutation by which Muharram, the last of the three continuous
1
The ancient Arabian year

A.D. 412 a
sacred months, became secular and war lawful in it, and Safar sacred. " " " 2 Hilal J3U is the new moon and badr j&t the full moon."
in 8 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally speaking by the Persians.
4
Or ayn-iryak ^j ^xc
(
'ayn-i
du
ARABIAN MONTHS.
5
1
201
î(;
Û.
or *-/A;
..
Jumadq'l-Ulq
Jumadq'l-Akhir
Eajab
y^5f c5iUo*
..
..
.
Sha'ban
Ramazan
Shavvdl.
.
Zu'l-qa'da
or
Z
Zw
qa'dah
'
l-hijjah
or
Zi-hajjah
Remark.
The fourth month is also

a
called ^M^j
and the
fifth
S
and sixth
ungrammatically
JjVl
c^^^*^ jamadi 'l-avval,
and
^wj
^,>U^
jamdd
u 's-
san% orîit îl*^ jamddi^l-akhir.

(c)
The Arabic word

O'
for
" month" is^^ shahr* and the plural
o ^
is
o^ ;^
shuhur
(d)
or^^f
Four
aslihur.
of the
above months are held sacred, Muharram, Rajab,
Zu
Qa'da, and Zu'l-Hijja.

(e)
is
(1)
Muharram
it
v-
/c
is
the
first
*
month
of
the Muslim calendar and

'
so called because both in the
days
of ignorance
and
in the time of
Muhammad
The
first
was unlawful
Husayn,
6
ten days of this

of
month
(*|^ haram) to go to war during this month. are observed in commemoration of the
is
martyrdom
strict
and the tenth day
called f;jAl* 'dshura
some
Sunnis fast on this day. very a "to be empty," either (2) Safarj&>* is said to be derived from safar because the Arabs left their homes empty by going to war, or because they
,
left
those
whom
they attacked empty.
Another derivation
leaves
is
from
first
sufdr,
its
"yellowness," or the tint of the
autumn
when the month
got
name.
Or jlmriryak
,JL>
^. and jim-irdujt
***..
The Arabs say î,
$j ;
j Jjjlf
& j and
2 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in speaking by the Persians. 3 In Persian the forms with ^^ are usually used. Jamadi incorrect for Jamada.
* Not month is
to be confused with the Persian

jU>
?
word
shahr,
"a
city."
The Persian word
for
mah, which
is
also signifies
"moon."
Mah-irqamari,
" a lunar month"
also shahr-i hilali;

6
mah-i shamsl, " a solar month."
Husayn
than FStima
called Sayyid* 'sh-Shi^hada. 'Alavi.
The descendants
of Ali
by wives
other
202
It
ARABIAN MONTHS.
was in
this
month that Adam was turned out of Eden, and it was during this month that the Prophet was taken ill it is the most inauspicious month in the calendar. Hence the month is superstitiously called j*Jf J'SL*
:
or the lucky
(3
month.
Eabi (uni
'l-avval
JjJIi
uni 'Lakhir j^J' *> the first and &>) a,ndRabt second spring months were so named when the calendar was first formed.
&
4)
The Prophet died on the 12th day

(5
of
Rab1 lu
'l-avval.
&
6)
Jamddq
'l-ulq
^^\ c5Û^ and Jamddq

"a jdmad, dry year
or
'lakhira
^3lt
cg-Û^
are
probably derived from aUa. which no rain has fallen."

(7)
" season
or
"dry and on
*
Rajab v^;, the honoured month, the root- meaning signify ing veneration with fear.' Good Muslims spend the first Friday night (the English
Thursday night) in prayer.

Sha'ban c;U*, the month of disbanding or separation, is so called because the ancient Arabs dispersed at this time in search of water. The Arabs call the middle or fifteenth of this month, " the night of the middle of Shab-i Bardt " the Night of RegistraSha'ban," but the Persians cu^
(8)
tion," for Allah on this night records the actions of men to be performed during the coming year, and those who are to be born and to die. Strict
Muslims pray
(9)
all
night.
ii/Ua*),
Eamazan
the
month
of the
annual
fast, is said to
be derived
from a root-meaning "to be very hot." During this month the gates of Heaven are opened and the gates of Hell shut. In Persia, night is more or less turned into day and a great portion
of the
day
is
spent in sleep
the bazars are barely stirring before noon.

fast will not
most
irreligious
become devout and read holy books aloud.
The Even those who
make a pretence only of keeping the
touch wine, 1 perhaps through
the fear of being detected by the smell. Some Persians who secretly break the fast, cover their lips with dust when they go abroad, to give them the dried-up appearance of hunger and thirst.
(10)
of this
Shawwal Jtj* month.
lit.
" a tail."
/
The Id" 'IFirt* J&\
***
is
on the
first
(11)
Zu
'l-Qa'da
*<xa*Jf
ji the
month
of
"session" was a time
of truce
and peaceful occupations.

(12)
Zu'l-Hijjah
is
(
a^sJtja
is
the
month
of
the Hajj or Pilgrimage

sacrifice," called
to
Makkah, which The ^s^f

1
made in
the 8th to 10th of this month.
id tt 'l-qzhq (vulgarly zuha)
" the feast of
The Persians maintain that the custom

Called also the
of drinking
wine has come down from
Gdbr times.
2
"minor
festival
"
;
fitr signifies
"
cleaving; breaking a fast."
THE TURKI YEAR-CYCLE.

also
203
1
"the great 'id,"

it
is
celebrated on the 10th of this month.
Muslims
are of opinion that

to offer
(/)
was instituted to commemorate Abraham's willingness
'flight
ing to
earlier
up Isma'll. The Muslim era dates from the morning after the fc^* hijrah or of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah, which occurred accordmost on the 16th July'2 A.D. 622. Each succeeding year begins
5 '
than the preceding, and an anniversary, occurring one year in the

Thirty-two English
hot weather, will, sixteen years later, fall in the cold. years are nearly equal to thirty- three Muslim years.
(g)
The
1st
May
A.D. 1900 corresponds to A.H. 1318.
(h) (1) The number of Muslim date = (current year
der
answer.
have elapsed since any given the given year) 3% of the remainFor example, to find the number of years that have elapsed
solar years that
of Hijra
is
since A.H. 800.
The current Hijra year
1330
formula (1330 of (1330 800) i.e. 515 have since 800 years elapsed
A.H.
(2)
- 3%
= 1912 A.D.]. Thus according to the - 15 = answer, 800) = answer or 530 A.H. or 1912 - 515, i,e. 1397 A.D. = 800
[
To
+ 3
find
the
equivalent
A.H.
year
of
an
A.D.
621-54)
of A.H.
is
A.H. or (A.D.
621'54) H- -970225
(A.D. year For answer.

:
example, 1330
the current Hijra year.
equal to (the current A.D.

evident.
(3)
621'54)
According to the formula - 621 -54, -970225, i.e. 1912 970225

13.
it will
be
is
which
To
find the equivalent A.D. of
an A.H. date, vide
57
The Turki Year-Cycle.

Sanawdt-i TurTci.
This consists of twelve solar years each named after some animal in a fixed order. The following old Turkish terms are the names of these
(a)
years
JL>i
^lasixwo
..
sichqan-il
ud-il
..
..
..
" The mouse year."
2 3
JLjt
ay
.. ..
"The cow
year."
Jjt <j*;^
bars -11
4
1
Jjf
eAay
..
tavishqdn-U
..
" The leopard year." " The hare

year."
This feast
is
**f *j& Baqara' Id

'Id-i
known by various other names. In India it is generally called "the cow 'id," and in Persia c^' *** 'id-iqurban. In 1902 the
l
qurban and the )})?> **f

^d-i
or
ld-i
naw
ruz
fell
on the same Friday, which day
is
called
Vuhammad:
this concurrence of three 'ids is considered very fortunate,
j^*^' ^f "The Day

of unity is slsuat
is
of
Victims":
sacrificial
cr*^
being a
collective
noun
*
of
which the noun
"a
animal."
Another date
20th June, vide Hughe's Dictionary of Islam.
204
5
Jjf
JLjt JLjf
THE ZODIAC.
^y
&&\
oJjj
<jpjl
..
.
lui-il
..
. .
6
7
ilan-ll
" The crocodile year." " The snake year."
..
.
.
i.until
..
. .
"The
horse year.*
'
J/
'
gw-?/
blchi-il
9 10
11
<-t
t$?4J
..
dji
^y>
liu
takkdqui'il
JLt o*l
..
..
M
1
" The sheep year." " The monkey year." " The fowl year."
..
.
.
"The dog
year."
1
12
(6)
Jbtjj&o
In Shaw's
"Grammar
:
"JThe hog year. of the Language of Eastern Turkish tan"

tanguz-ll
the names are as follows

(1)
Sachqan,
(6)
(2)
Ui,
(3)
Bars,
(4)
Tausqan,
(8)
(5)
Balik [The Fish or

(9)
Dragon],
Ilan, (7) At
["The
called a
Horse"],
Qoi,
Maimun ["The
Ape"],
(c)
(10)
ToSi [" The Cock"],

entire cycle
is
(11) /*, (12)
Each
sal-i
muchal
in
Tunghuz. tTigh,ur, but by the Persians
davazda
(d)
Turki.
in the Spring,
The year begins and ends
when the sun

it
first
enters
Aries.
When
(e)
A.D. 1851
the cycle of twelve years is completed, = A.H. 1267-8 " the
commences
again.
Hog year."
j^;
The
Bars-ll J* ^r;lj
.
commenced with the Persian
y naw ruz
of
March
21st, 1902.
58.
The Zodiac.
(a) g jjjJi (Jî* mintaq^ l-buruj (or ^j^t ^'fik^c ). " The Celestial Girdle," the Zodiac, is a belt of twelve constellations about 8 on each side of the ecliptic. extending " tower or bastion." A is called Ar.
single sign
^
.
.
burj
pi.
buruj)
(b)
1
The names of the cU^ Hamal 8

. . . .
signs or constellations are:
"
.
.
Ram "
2 3
4
>J
Sawr
Jauza*
Saratan
" Bull "
Aries (Nawruz) Taurus.
*j^
ejli^
..
..
..
..
"Twins" "Crab"
"Lion"
'
..
Gemini.
..
Cancer
(1st
of
^/
5
<-wt
..
. .
or ii>U~jG Summer).
6
7
<xJUx^
&\yt*>
..
Asad Sumbula Mizan

'Agrab
..
,
..
.
Leo.
Virgo.
Ear of Corn "
..
"Scales"
Libra (1st of J^lJ Autumn).

Scorpio.
^7^ cr^
..
"Scorpion"
.. ..
Qaws
..
..
"Bow"
"He-goat"
Saggitarius (1st of
Winter).
10
^c^
l
Jady
..
..
Capricornis.
This dialect of Turkish
is
called also Uighur.
*
3
Bars
is
properly the white leopard.

J^5
!
J*^ Jy uLH-
are used in speaking, but
all
are used in writing.
THE SEASONS.
11
205
..
..
>b
..
.'.
Dalv
12
e^
(c)
Hut
to
..
"Bucket" "Fish"
Arabic
Aquarius.
Pisces.
In addition
the
:
names, the Persians
make
use
of
the following Persian names ^ 1 barra *?>

. .
2 3
j$
..
gdv
du-paykar
The lamb. The ox or bull.
j^j*
,_&. jL.
.
..
.
"The
' '
two-faced
crab.
' '
"
or "two-figured."
4
5 6
7
khar-chang
5^?r
The
j^
îyL
j)ty
f$'$
..
. .
..
'
"The
'
lion."
or barley."
fcte/ia
tardzu
..
.
,
..
gazh-dum*
..
.. ..
c;UT
?
*
fomaw
buz-ikuhl
dul-i'dsiyab
The ear of wheat " The scales." " The scorpion." ''The bow."
" The wild goat."
10
11
^yjj
v lwf
J^.s
..
The feeder
of the
hopper
of a water-
mill; bucket."
12
Û
..
mahi
is
..
"The
fish."
divided into twelve equal parts called s^ras and (d) named after the constellations, and the first point of Aries begins at the vernal equinox, which is the Persian Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day, about 21st
The Zodiac
March.
(e)
The Sun spends a month

It
is
in each of the
above
'
mansions.'
supposed that the Zodiac was formed about 2000 B.C.

59
The Seasons.
(
>
The seasons are "Spring" ;l t bahar) commencing with the j^J " " Summer " Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day (Û-^G tabistan or garma ^) commencing when the sun enters 'Cancer'; "Autumn" (s*fy)p5fo or " * sarma 5 and " Winter zamistan or
(a)
* ' ;
khazan or khizan)
jf
(Û-*-o}
l/o^.-
).
(b)
Chilld
AJU.
or &*
is
a vague period properly of 'forty days.'

is
The
lL
chilld-yi
kuchak or "small chilla"

after the ^;_);
a period of twenty days

is
of slight cold just
u. chilld-yi buzurg, which latter

chilld-yi kuchak.
the
forty days of
" greatest cold preceding the
"
The
chilla-yi
Ktj>usha also
= " a bunch
f*^.
of grapes
'
'
Or kaj-dum
occasionally dated from the appearance of Suhayl or" Canopus,' in Persia occurs about the beginning of Mi? an.
S
A season is
'
which
In writing
also
shita
and
-ft-^ seyf for
Winter and Summer
^^*and c5*^
and
Adj.
are applied to the Winter

;
and Summer
crops.
The words *-*^
are not
used in speaking
6
Garma and
they are often used in poetry. sarma mean " heat " and " cold."
206
tdbistdn
is
ANCIENT PERSIAN YEAR.
the forty days of greatest heat in summer, and the sun enters Saratan.
(
commences when
or <j^H.j ), and qishldq, T. Jj^fij (or <jj&iup ), are (c) Yildq, T. <jÛj " " summer and "winter quarters, quarters" especially of the wanderand Turkish others. ing tribes, 2 (d) The times of obligatory prayer are 1 Subh 4?^ Dawn. 3 2 Zuhr j% Noon [less common riim-ruz or n ima-yi
1
:
.
ruz
3
or nimdz-i pesJiin Afghan]
'Asr
..
..
j<&*
Between noon and sunset; [namdz-i digar*

Afghan].
4
5
Maghrib*
'Ishd*
..
^j^ "Sunset": namdz-i sham."
..
&
" About one- and- a-half hours

(namdz-i khuftan).
after sunset
":
The three periods

1
of voluntary prayer are

..
Namdz-i ishrdq
Jfî Ûi
When
the sun has well risen,
i.e.
about
9 A.M. (Sunni prayer).

2
Namdz-i chdsht
Namdz-i tahajjud
..
oJ5>U*jlJ
About
11 A.M. (Sunni).
(Shi' a or Sunni).
..
<xxyjUJ
say
the
"After midnight "
The
Shi'as,
however,
Zuhr
and
j*&e
'Asr
prayer
together at either of the two times, and with the *-^*^ maghrib Similarly,
^yjî/o jUJ
five.
name them namdz-i Zuhrayn

and J&c
'ishdz,
(^s^fejUJ.
namdz-i maghhribayn.
they name They thus pray three times a day and not
which
60,
(a)
Ancient Persian Year.
The
ancient Persian year was Solar
each of thirty days.
Five days
means "
and consisted of twelve months, were added to complete the year, and, as
to migrate" (of birds).
vaqti is
or namaz-i panjArabic ^L^> salat, Persian jU* namaz. Namaz-i panjgana a sort of liturgical service repeated in Arabic. Prayer according to the
l* is best rendered by the word In addition to the daily du'a. are special services for special occasions. Shi'as usually pray only three times a day but perform the same amount of prayer they can combine the noon and evening prayer which is then performed any time between noon and sunset, and in the
Christian
idea
prayers there
maghrib they
include the
isha
prayer which
is
then peformed any
time between
maghrib and midnight. 3 The Afghans often say

*
riim-i roz.
This
is,
perhaps, thePanjabi word dlgar meaning evening, and not the Persian
word dlgar "another."

6 6
T
Maghrib is hour after yhariib. " Solar Year " Sal-i shamsl t^*^> JL=
Panja-yi duzdida
8ti>Jj>'o
it
was
bi-sextile
and
fasli.
<^-V now a
so called khamsa-yi mustariqa
&LWX:

1
207
The new year commenced with us, a leap year occurred every four years. about 21st i.e. March. Thej^y <^ 'id-inawwhen the Sun entered Aries;
ruz, or
above
festival," is still the great day in Persia, though the been superseded the Persians changed their calendar and their written character, with their religion.
solar year has
:
" New Year's
supposed to have commenced with the mission of Zoroaster. Some A vesta Scholars maintain that Zoroaster flourished 12,000 years before Christ :
It
is
others 8000 years
and others
later
still.
None, however, places him

that
less
than
4000 years ago.
Some modern Zardushtis maintain

was
originally
^ Day and
:
not
cM^y
Farvardm
the
first
month, but
all
agree that the year began at jj;4
Nawruz.
(6)
The following
are the Persian solar months, each
month being the

April.
name
of
an angel, who presides over the month
Farvardm
March and
this
is
The
*id-i
1st of
month
(21st
March)
naw-ruz.
the Persian
Ardt-bihisht or Urdi
,
April and May.
-bihisht
4
5
6
7 8
$ ^)^ j>
^t^c
)jJjf*
Khur-ddd
Tir
May and
June.
Murdad*
Shahrlvar
June and July. July and August.

August and September. September and October. October and November.
five
8
jô
cM
Mihr Abdn
The
in.
in leap-year six
tercalarydays were inserted at the end of this month.

9 10
11
12
)itf
.
Azar
^
(&+-tf
Day Bahman
Isfandarmuz or
November and December. December and January.

January and February. February and March.
of the
ix>;txvi-.t
..
(colloquially) Isfand.
(c) The following are the names nounced by the Zardushfeis of Persia
-
of the
:
days
month
as
now
pro-
Urmizd or Hurmuz
..
Bahman
Irdibihisht
.. .. ..
also llth also the
o^yj^t
..
month. 2nd month.
STiahnvar
1
also the 6th
month.
Kablsa
*****>>
"
* 3
Amardad
Vide note
^>\ô\
Leap Year." former more common. 9 or murdad ^^^:
6, p< 206.
208
5

Isfandarmuz
also 12th
month,
month,
6
7
Khurdad Amurdad
also the 3rd

also the 5th
month,
8 9
or
j
Day
Adar Aban
Khlr or Khurshtd
also 10th
month,
also 9th also 8th
month, month.
10
11
12
13 14
15
Mah
Tir or Tishtar
also the 4th
month.
Gush
Day
-**
ufetr
also 10th
month,
month.
16
17
Mihr
iSurush
also the 7th
18 19
.
Rashn
.
Farvardin
also the 1st
month.
20
21
r y>
or
fjf.
Bahrdm
or
Virahrdm
Ram
Bad
22
23
&
..
.
.
Day
also 10th
month.
24
25 26
27 28
or
jyt
Dm
Ird or Arashvdng
Ashtdd
.
Asmdn
Zdmydd
Mdntarasfind
29 30
month, is the principle Good, as opposed to Ahrlman the principle of Evil all the remaining names are the names of Angels who preside over the days named after them.
or
Urmuz
Hurmuz,
etc.,
Andrdm the name
of the 1st of the
of
It will
be noticed that three days in the month are called Day, distinguished
as Day-ba-ddar, Day-ba-mihr
and Day-ba-dm.
Christians of the Eastern church use the
call their
SYRIAN MONTHS.
ecclesiastical
European calendar, but they

their
modern months by SjTian names. Their year still begins, as formerly, on the 1st October. The names of
: .
months are
Kdnun u-s-,Sam
Shubdt
^î
-tU
ij>l
January.
February. March.
April.
Azdr
..
jkM
n* 1
..
Naysdn
Ayyar
Hazirdn
or Nisdn
..
;l^
t
May.
June.
.jtj
YAZD-GARDI YEAR.
209
.
Tamuz Ab
Aylul
Tishrin u -l-Awwal
&*
wf
JW>!
.
July.
August.
..
September.
October.
J^l
.
Ti shrinks- Sam
Kdnun u -l-Awwal
(d)
^ oy
JWfc
L^* L*^
K
. .
November. December.
J^)> also called Malaki and Malak Shahi, is reckoned from Jalal-ud-dln Malik Shah, son of Alp Arslan-i Saljuql, and The year begins with the Vernal Equinox, i.e. with the A.D. 1079.
The
Jalall year
(^^
begins Persian Naw-ruz, and consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min., 15 seconds, and a fraction. The names of the months are the same as in the ancient
Persian solar year, but the intercalary days are added after the end of the 12th month. The Jalali year is entered in Indian, Persian, and Turkish
almanacs.
61.
Yazd-Gardi year.
and the Parsis
of India
(a)
The Zardushtis
of Persia
have gone astray in

(
calendar: they reckon by the z or Yazdagird ( oj*> *% b & Yazdajird Persia of the Sassanian race, but the
their
of
Yazd-Gardi
year
&*
&
JL
).
was the name

is
of several kings of
name
specially
applied to the
Nawshlrwan (the Just) the last of the Kayani kings of Persia, grandson The era commences from his death at the hands of a Kûrasani miller (he was treacherously killed while asleep) about A.D. 631 but, the leap-year
;
being omitted, their calendar has fallen into confusion. (6) The names of their months are practically the same as the ancient
Persian year, 3 but their year commences five months later than the Naw-ruz. 4 The year consists of 365 days only. The last five days of the year are not
included in any
distinguished stolen days
4 '
month but
special
are
added on to the end
of the twelfth
"
by a
name.
The following are
month and the names of these

5
(î>wx5 JU*5^)
khamsa-yi mustanqa, or
AJ^
û
panja-yi
duzdida
(1)
(P.)
aîaf
,
ahnawad,
(4)
(2)
safdntaman)
j&^bj
tj&'f ushtawad, (3) <XfriJJU safantamad (or wuhukh-shatr (5) jJ^yli^j wahashtu'ush (or
,
wahista-wisht) (Bir, p. 34).
One Khayyam.
1
of
the astronomers
who
assisted in reforming this calendar
was 'Umar-i
3 They, however, call the second month Iridibihiaht the fifth Amurdad; the ninth Azar or Adar the twelfth Is/and. Azar means fire and is supposed to have been the name of the father of Abraham. The Parsis consider it to be the name of an angel. * The Persians, both Muslim and Zardushtis, however, keep the festival of Naw-ruz
;
;
at the
Vernal Equinox,
but not so the Indian Parsis: their
festival lasts
20 days,
commencing 5 days before the khamsa-yi mustariqa. 5 i.e., after Isfand (Is Bandar muz).
14
210
DAYS OF THE WEEK.

62.
(a)
Days of the Week.

are
:
The days of the week Shamba Yak-Shamba Du-Shamba

. . .
Saturday
. .
1st
day
of the
Week.
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Si-Shamba
Chahar-Shamba
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
. .
.-
Panj-Shamba
Jum'a
or
The Muslim Sabbath,
or
(
A^f
(b)
Adina
the night precedes the stated, the day begins at sunset an Englishman wishes to say " Sunday night " in Persian, he
:
As already
if
day.
Thus,
must say " Monday night " instead. * 8 (c) A week is *&* hafta, from haft "seven": in usbu' Arabic^-*? " from A.o and *****, sab' and sab'ah seven." Ruz in Persian and nahar (pi. j^ nuhur) in Arabic mean (d) j " " as shah* P. and JJ layl " night time. day opposed to night
:
^
is
9 '
(e)
Yawm ty
Ar., a day, has for
its
plural ptf
ayyam "days,
time,
season."
(/)
Shabana-ruz
jjj
*iU
eight hours' journey (by rail)

(c)
"
the civil day consisting of 24 hours; "fortywould be " du shabana ruz rah ast."
1*1}
The longest night is
called
shab-i yalda,
and the longest day

ishkamba-shuy,
^\)^
)j) ruz-i jawza*.
In Kirman, the shortest day

i.e.,
is
called
is
<^*
<ui^*f )j) ruz-i
the day
is
is
so short that while one
washing a sheep's tripe (shikamba),
the day
(d)
gone.
last six or ten
days of cold before the jjjt* Naw-ruz are called u in the almanacs jys^Jt^ bard 'l-'ajuz, Ar., and by the pepple 6 sarma-yi pir-zal, from a popular legend.
The
1 The Zardushtis generally use *^?J>i Adina (old Pers.) in preference to A**^- Jum'a, the Muslim name. 2 Though the Muslims of India reckon in the same manner, many of them have also
vide Phillott's Hind. Man., adopted the English idiom for speaking to English people The was dark before it was causes Muslim world This sometimes confusion. 225. p. The Zardushtis, however, say the world light; therefore the night precedes the day. "with God was from all time and has no beginninor." With them the day precedes
:
the night.
3
Used
It
is
in writing.
:
*
6
Plural shab-ha and shaban
*ijJ Ar.
'
a night
'
has for
its pi.
remark that there are no railways nor even roads hardly The toy railway at Tehran, about 4 miles in length, can scarcely be counted. Persia. 6 The Persian Almanac of 1902 gives the period of the bard* 'l-'ajuz from llth
necessary to
in
to
17th March.
DAYS OF THE WEEK.

(e)
211
the phrases *A^>
In m.c., for Tuesday, Friday, and Saturday
shab-i yak jam' a, and *AX shamba are used. Superstitious people do not commence a journey on these three days. Should a guest sleep at the house of a friend on the night of any one of the above days (English computation), he ought for luck's sake
shab-i chahar-shamba, ***-^
shab-i
^^
;^ ^^
to sleep the night following as well.
This superstition has nearly died out.
CHAPTER
63.
(a)
VIII.
Money.
The following are the moneys now current in Persia. Dinar fy* an imaginary and infinitesimal coin, used in accounts: there are 1000 in a,qirdni
or qiran.
I
Îfc
Shahi
,,
20
10
tuman &(*y. ^ly Qirdni coin The qiran, and half giran is The tuman a gold (rarely met with). " two girara bit," are (jfcU ^ dah-shahi), and the c5-;!> j^ dw hazdri or
1
.
= = =
50 dinar.
1
qiran rfjS (or <y]^
),
or ;|>
^ yak
hazar.
silver.
(&)
jjLxô
PSJ-i
5a/te2
<x*^ JjJ "white
Jjj "black money

its place.
"
is
" money copper money
is silver
money, and pul-i siyah the nickel coins that have or

**>, is
taken
Sannar, a corruption of
;lij,i
a two-s&a&e nickel coin

are not
(formerly copper).
The following terms are occasionally used, though the values now represented by actual coins 4 = 5 dinar. jU Ghaz
(c)
:
^cx+xus
Muhammadi
'^66a^
^cÛft.^)
^-Uc The ÛAUj (or tuman (10 qiran).

^^Lxc jl^.
= =
100 dinar
2 shahi.
200
,,
5
= =
a
panahbad
rather less than half a
ginm
23
chahar
abbasi
depreciated
qiran
16
instead
of
20 shahi.
the Spanish dollar. qurush or ghurush, the Turkish piaster, value about 2d. of owjî or u*^ English money or 17 J shahis: the term is used in certain places though the
Jl>;
n'2/?
1J g^raw
6
originally the
name of
coin
may
A
not be current. 7
European gold ducats,
called j^*>
majar and
Also called
isrfj*
-*a>U3 sahib qiran.
The gold du hazari is now worth 4 qirans. 3 This term was also applied to the nickel coins (introduced by Mmaffar-ud-dm Shah). * Yak ghaz bi-shuma nami-diham "I will give you not a farthing," the speaker probably not knowing the real signification of the word ghaz.
2
6
Properly panah-bad but pronounced and sometimes

8.
is
incorrectly written with or
without
In
is
Kerman and Tehran panah bad

,
is five
shahis,
but in Yezd the term
panahbadi
7
used for ten shahis.
Probably an Ar. pi. of o^y the German groshen. The term is used in Kerman' but the coin is not seen.
Piasters are said to be
current in Beluchistan.
MEASURES OF LENGTH.
bdjugktt, are worth a tuman: they are rarely met with. C5~jj&l \jjj Ura-yi Ingtisi, and
little
213
a
little
more
or
less
than
the
Û^c
%jJ lira-yi-' Usmdnli, are the English
and Turkish pound: the former (in 1901) = 51 to 53 qirdn. " the a rupee/' fluctuates from 3J to 3J qirdn. Qjj) rupiya,
(d)
ci>fjj
ÛCif Askinds, a Russian bank note;

Bardt, a cheque or
bill
also
any cheque.
of exchange.
JlÂxij
Impiriydl,
"a
Russian imperial (gold), present value 28 to 33 qirdn.

district.
Mandt, "a rouble" = five qirdn, The above terms are not all current in every
oli
(e)
There
is
no postal money-order system

for
in Persia.
Money can be sent
3 by post, insured, in a sealed bag
are called
territory.
^jj.^
sifdrishl.
is
Registered articles by post Insured articles are sent only within Persian
10%.
A
:
parcel
called
oJU|
amdnat or basta
is
" to insure"
1*,^
t
<xx^> jjowf qabz-i
rasid
^f
(
"a receipt."
r ) *"*'
^^ U# bimd
kardan
l**j|
g*.
umdm
(/)
bimd kardam, " I sent 100 tumdns by insured post." For the system of keeping accounts by (Jl-ir vide Woll. Eng.-Per.
5
c^^y
\r*
*.=yak
Jdsa-yi (or surra-yi) sad
Diet,
and
also
14.
64.
Measures of Length,
distance a shout can be heard."
6
() (5-^
<-j
yak
jiq,
"the
(rare)
y& s?
>=- jaw,
mu-yi shutur
"the breadth
of a camel's hair."
"a
barley-corn's length."
<c
ou|
angusht,
^
joint."
bahar, length of
zar'.
a finger's breadth. one joint of the thumb (about

ia/M^ angusht (about 1J inch)
1-J-
inch), or the thirty-
second part of a
^~t>
<xij
^J 6
yaA;
"the ZewÂ
of a finger
^ girah
y3
âr'
,
2 bahar (or about 2J inches).

(of
orjf gaz, the Persian yard a span.

' (
about 40 inches)
16 girah =
zar 1
' '
Khiyal ml-kunl ki yak bajughll bi-man dadl (m.c.) " do " you think you have given me a vast sum for this ? The revenue of Beluchistan is paid to Kirman in rupees at the rate of
in 1902.
qirans a
rupee, the merchant exchange being 3

3
The insurance
This term
is
AJU^Ji Jj^. haqqw 'z-zamana. used in Persia for insuring within Persian limits to a foreign only
fee is called
**
|j
country /Â^Xxx juU)Ji

this."
6
AL->
^f
In basta ra haqqu z-zamana mi-diham.
"I'll insure
is much used by the black-tent folk yak jlq-l rah ast. " nail," Also colloquially yak band nakhun: by the vulgar the word nakhun,
This term
is
used for
' '
' '
finger.
214
araj
7
.
WEIGHTS.
or <j; arash )^
la cubit, from point of the elbow to the f of the middle finger.
tip
or a short pace. <* pte qadam ' J*j bagjial> the space between the tips of the fingers of both hands
when
the arms are extended to form a cross with the body.'
JM
yak
sar, or *>
yak qad (or ai^ kalldh), the ordinary
stature
of a man.
J*~j* farsang or &*j* farsakh

miles.
y-w|
<^)|tXxx>
6,000 gaz
12,000 qadam
3J English
maydan-i asp
is
In addition, there
Persian yard.
a vague distance, about half a mile. the Turkish ell, ertT) arshin much the same as the
1
Remark.
of sandals
made
:
In Baluchistan, distance is estimated by the numbers of pairs of the dwarf palm (phis) that will wear out in traversing
etc.
*
the distance
(b)
they say yak phis rah-ast, du phis rah-ast

is
the Afghans for a measure equal of to about the joint of a finger. According to the dictionary it is a weight 2 or of 4 barleycorns; or the twenty-fourth part of any weight or measure,
Tasuj~t
a word
much used by
dirham and hav65 (d). [Ar. J of a danaq, the latter being J of a the of a ing weight habbah.] 'Arz (j^jf and tul J^t are the two words commonly used for (c)
vide
^^>
" " breadth" and " 1*^ length " (adv.) by length." (d) Shash gaz dar shash gaz
:
'
arzan
adv -) " b y breadth" and
i>
tul**
Ji,
>* J> <J>
way
(square),
six
yards
square"
six
(not
six
''measuring six gaz each square yards); but shash
gaz, murabba'
&j*jf (J^
"
square yards."
65.
Weights,
(a)
is
In Persia, as in India and Afghanistan, everything, liquids included,

' '
;
sold
f*
1
by weight and not by measure. " gandum, a grain of wheat
about 3 go to
nukhud 8 weight.
two:
in
Care must be taken to distinguish the difference in pronunciation between these is not sounded, and the i is *)<?, the pointed by fatha. This measure is
roughly taken to be the distance from the tip of the fingers of the left hand when the arm is extended to the tip of the nose when the head is turned to the right. * In the Anjuman-ara-yi Nasiri, a dictionary of old Persian (Furs-i qadim), tasu is
given as the equivalent of
8
sa'at.
In India, grains of rice are sometimes used for weighing minute quantities of drugs. The lowest standard weight, however, in India is the rail, the seed of abrus precatorius, which in appearance resembles a small scarlet bean with a black spot on the end it is used by goldsmiths, and weighs about 2 grains. In Persian works written in India the
:
rati is called rj**
surkh
WEIGHTS.
215
yi^ of
io nukhud, a small chick pea or grain of gram, said to weigh about an ounce = 3 gandum.
24 nukhud. Jlavc misqal _A^ sir 16 misqal. ^ * -* /

jjj'f
J-
.
-
uqiyya (abbrev. *>? wuqiyyah or
AvSj or
waqiyyah)
90 misqal (about
14 oz. avoirdupois).
oOtrf' u"
man-i
Tabrlzi
" a Tabriz
maund
"*= S"vaqqa" =
maunds
720
misqal (about 7J to 7| lb. av.).
Û ^/o man-i shahi or " Royal maund"

to 15" lb.).
nearly 2 Tabriz
4 Tabriz
(14J
<_U ^
is
4.5;
cr
wflwi-i .Ra?/
or "
maund
of
Rai
" =
maunds (about 30
lb.)
;
lb.).
maw-*'
Hashimi
16 Tabriz maunds (about 116
this
weight
only used in the South. " jl^ kharvdr or "donkey load

>J)(*.
charak
is
100 Tabriz maunds (725 lb.). the quarter either of a Tabriz or of a Royal maund.
k>)\j>
The
carat, i^jJf qirat (br. pi.
qararit) originally J\j3 qirrat, is
an
for
of a misqal : it is used Arab weight and equals about 4 grains or the word qlrat to the weighing jewels. The Arabs sometimes apply anything and colloquially they apply it to a measure of about an inch.
;
^ of
In
Kerman
NisJ-i haft dirham
.
.
p*)t>
..
. .
oJw>Ji^j
oJi*
^>>lj
10 J misqal in weight.
,,
, ,
Haft dirham Panzdah sang

Si-sang
f*;^
J^~
..
. .
^-* tû^
=21 =42 =84
Charak
Nim-man
Si-charak
^ p#
J[;U.
^;U
<^
)
Yak-man
(Tabrizi)
x^ dirâw = In Yezd, ^;^ charak. In Yezd, the word ^fe charak
(<jpjlj$
u-^
^=
is
=2 -2 =3
4
,,
Si- sang
Charak
Charak
Charak
t^^
J&,
.-&*-*>*
i^
nim-man
(Tabrlzi)
little
used, Â;^
*lx panjah
dir-
ham
(etc.)
(6)
being used instead.

is
Water
measured by the sang

of
i.e.
turn a mill.
One sang
water
*Jf
by a quantity
sufficient to
is
(with or without izafat)
supposed to be
sufficient for
one hundred
and a
cAaraA; is a fourth part
of this quantity.
(c)
Water
for irrigation purposes is also

'
tascha
l
or u~oLb
(asa/fc
('
little
cup
"
) ;
i.e.
borrowed or bought by the fcÛs a metal cup with a small hole in the
man, but the standard man of India
:
Persian for
Ibs.
mann
Ar.
the Anglo-Indian term for
^
is
The word maund

In
is
80
3
Kerman
&zafoa, forty of
which go to 12 hours
also in
Kerman
30 jurra go to
12 hours
216
WEIGHTS.
is
bottom
measure.
floated
on water and the time

if
it
takes to sink
six
is
the unit of
certain
For instance,
cultivator borrows
is
tasak of a
channel, the whole of the water in the channel
the time
turned into his ground for that the tasak takes to sink six times. The tasak is not a
standard measure, but varies locally, according to the requirements of a

village.
(d)
Another vague term

is
part of anything.
each of which
is >-&!<> dang, which may be said to be the sixth Property of all kinds is divided into six imaginary parts, An owner of J share of land, a room, called a dang.
l
or a horse would be described possessing
' '
two dang "

C
an owner
of
the
whole would say, ''all six dang are mine": dang khana mdl-i man ast.
1
But generally only houses and
lands.
CHAPTER
66.
IX.
(
The Verb
68)
:
FM
J^
).
The verb "to be"

(a)
l
(vide also
is
The simplest form
the affixed substantive verb

.
ft
<jri
am
(I)
I
am
$
^.\
. .
1m (We)
are.*
(*or)
(Thou) art
is
*!
U (You) are.*
^1 emd (They) are. (He) be (b) (1) These affixes may joined to a pronoun, adjective, participle, or substantive, and sometimes to an adverb and the same rules that apply
0-.I [-ad]
. . ;
to the written forms of the affixed pronouns
31
(6), (c),
(d)]
apply in the
main
here.
a Sultan
c^*f i<Mu
''
"
;
Examples: oîlbL* OWM| ajju y u banda

or (old)
j\
sultanast
(for
cu*f ÎkL*
y) "he
is
ast,
or (with the
1st
o~o
&vj
w banda
" he
^
is
of unity) o*~jf **ij
a slave
"
y [or ^^ddnd-yam
am learned";
tu banda-i
W e are
dand-yand
'
' ;
but fi'^b dana*im "we are learned"; c^ " art thou a slave 8 ? " man-am or ft ^*ix> " " dana'st u ddna-i thou art learned
:
^^
^y
;
or
' '
;
am
Ûf^
is
cu^Gf^ji
^JoLJf^ e>Lij^
il
khub ru'st ^^>^
V>S^
^1,
or khub-ru ast cu*t
(not khubru-yast
***
which
poetical only),
but
Ishdn khub-ru-yand
**&.
Maîm nihdda sar bi-farmdn-i sharab Jan karda fidd-yi lab-i khanddn-i sharab. " 'Tis we who to wine's yoke our necks incline,
And
(2)
risk our Jives to gain the smiles of

(0.
wine."
K. 21 Whin.}
rd'st
The
alif
JUi of the third person singular ast *a**i is frequently elided

U>,> )
;
in contractions, as: 0*4?; a (for 0^='

(for
dushmandn-am
OM|^ îU*>
nikust;
o^:
ij
îli^^
).
After u and
kdr-Vst
(3)
^.~~jj
this alif nearly

y^
K; mudda'i'st o^Jsc<>/o In the other persons, the

as
:
always disappears, as: " he is a claimant."

alif
c^&
can be retained or changed into (^

;
for
euphony,
f!
f<>^
x>v, or
jf*^ x*^
^t
>l*Jst,
or *^\*>\
*J
*^->i
or
This
affix is called
mim-i
isbat i
fi'l
<-U'
oUif
^.
Jjt^
majhul
ft
In classical
ed.
full
Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these are

generally used after final alif, as:
sounds em,
3
The
*>\
form
is
Muluk
az baray-i pas-i ra'aya?
and
might
(Sa'dl) ) kings are for the care of their subjects also be used in modern Persian.
^j
"
"
;
**&**} r&aya-yand
218
THE VERB.
before ast o~w| (4) Alif-i maqsura sometimes becomes u MusVst, but better o*t fe*yo y u Musa ast "he is Moses."
as:
of the second person is preceded by a * over a " where art thou ? " In other words, two syllables ending and \s^* with a vowel are a hamza acting as a hyphen. beginning coupled by
(5)
After a vowel, the
as
(6)
The
final * of
Arabic words
is,
in Persian, sometimes written
and
sometimes not. If, however, an Arabic word ending in * precedes the first person am <*', the * must be struck out to preserve the distinction between the singular and plural of the verb. Thus the plural of ^c& shd'ir a poet is *U* shu'ara*, but man ash'ar-i sh'uara-yam " I am the most j*Af
frff/C
poetical
of
poets'': were the hamza retained,
the
word might be read
shu'ara-im p\j*>. (7) The contraction
is
generally observed in speaking and reading, even
though
it
may
be neglected in writing. Ast o*l

' '
Remark
or
is
" and mst o-xi

.
' *
is
not
' '
are termed
*k)t;
"copula."
is
the copula sentence.
In the proposition "Religion is indispensable to happiness," of the joins the subject religion to its predicate, the remainder "
Any verb can be analyzed into into "is" (the copula), "living"
(c)
the copula and a predicate

(the predicate).
thus
lives,"
In the third person singular and plural, the euphonic

:
inserted
c:
>
v^
need not be
is
khub-ruyast
2
(poet.)
or
o^; _^
:
khub-rust " (she)
fair-faced";
o*~jUfa
;
dana-nd
oÛ
ki-e
dana-st Îta dana-yast or o^ttta o-oUi shuma-st (for md-st (for o**t U )
;
danayand
or
Remark.
"
it is
' '
Vulgarly, instead of ast o*l.-a (pronounced

;
e) is
used as khub-e
good
" who
is
is it ?
"
t
(d)
Tu
ast
OAÎ^J
if
contracted into
o-^
Kist
fust
(or
pronounced even
written tu ast o~*t^3.
^
(g) ]
o^^y ) and is so and cliist ^~~*- are

chi ast <o
I
regular contractions for kl ast o~>:
^ chiyim
1
' '
what are we
"
;
^*
[vide
6
' '
37
and
?
***.
chiyam
what
am
î
"
Kujcfl
(t^x^
is
?
an adjective "of what place":
<^j?^y
'*
of
what
J
place are
you a native
not used.
"
or colloquially
^^l?^
kuffii-i ?
This form is for ^$[
^?^',
which
2
s
is
Dana-yast o~~JUta no t m.c.

In modern colloquial, to the
is
question (^k-F^
is
Icujcf-i
" where
are
you?
"
is
the
Inja
answer
ff
^M'
\*f*&\
inja
or
am: (inja-yam
ml-basham
considered vulgar).
The
"
correct reply
hastam (&~&
*
fî*.
as well as *$
)
c5^
"who"=
*^.
Kl
(.5^,
H,
signifies
who ?":
*^-.
similarly, ^<*-
chi
all
(perhaps contracted form
of chiz _j*%-
is
another form of
In modern Persian
forms are used.

5
Better
THE SEPARATE SUBSTANTIVE VERB.
219
As a
;
rule, either
the contracted or the full form can be used in writ-
ing but in either case the contraction exists in pronunciation. Similarly, the final silent * of other words sometimes disappears before o^>t, as c^*x^jjt u barahnast "he is naked."
Note the following forms or contractions, etc., tix^j cu^J zisht-ruyand "thou art": f'y x<xiu banda-yi tu am "I am thy "they are ugly ":
slave
"
^^
u *im " we are his slaves "
^f i^
banda-yi u
yam "I am
:
banda-yi tu mard-l-i (vulgar for tu mard-l hast-l ^$^x^3

:
his slave
"
^Jy
|xu
U ma
"Who
jy
:
are they ? ishan kiyand &>>* <^ **" ishdn kiyan-and &^.\ ? (m.c.).
1
"
&^
*,
or ki
and
**
*f, or kistand
(e)
The
"
of the
' '
:
second person
final
is
called the yd-yi khitabi
^kL.
the
y of address
with a
and
silent
or a final
^,
"
?
:
it is
(
written as a
kirmarii-i
or &j-'2 " who art thou superscribed hamza, as: "art thou a Kirmani (an inhabitant of Kirman) ? "
(^
&
J^^^
(/) The above suffixes form the six persons of every tense of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, when ast becomes ad. (g] The negative form of the simple affixed verb is nearly obsolete, or else
occurs only in poetry.
*> nayam
3
"I am not"
thou art not
is
..
. .
/*& nayim
*&> nayid
"we
"you
(or
are not."
are not."
*&>
or ^xi nayl
riist
' '
"
. *
" he
not
"
<î nayand
<*it
w na and) "they
are not."
Angar ki dar Tchak naî bar khak-i. " " But now you are above earth, not below
!
(0.
#.457
sometimes says: are you there (here) or not ? person mst oûjjj is in regular use.
villager
' '
' '
Ua;!
Îwijl
tu inja-i
Whin.) ya inja na-l
Villagers also use
nayam ^.
found for
The
ast
third
(h)
In old Persian (imitated by c'fa),

67.
aste ^Ju-t is
The Separate Substantive Verb.

hastan and
e>cxjJu,A
(a)
From an
obsolete infinitive ^^X-A
hastidan
"to
exist," are formed
hastam "
/wis^
am, or I exist "thou art, etc."

I
'
"
. .
.
" {*-* hastim we " <^.w> haslid you
are, etc."
'
are, etc:'
hast " he
is, etc.'
*&~*> hastand " they are, etc."
Or bandagan c;^-V.
:
Vide p. 92, note 6 thou art a king.

2
'
&
is
as probably the more correct form,
(^
should
mean
'
Vulgarly pronounced nahi (^^-
220
THE SEPARATE SUBSTANTIVE VERB.
Hastam
it,
^*,
etc., is
substituted for
am ^ whenever euphony
requires
or whenever the verb has to stand alone.
Gar man
"Am
hastam p*~* could not be repeated.
may-i mughjina mast-am I a wine- bibber? what if I

zi
hastam
am?"
(0.
K. 334
:
Here
used as the verb has to stand alone

:
the
ft
am
Also
danam u
u, chunanki hastam hastam.

,
"He
Hast cu~*
is
knows, as well as
I,
my
sorry case."
(0.
K. 315 Whin.}
:
used for ast ^~-l when euphony requires the former, as in khana chunan ki hast ta sad sal davam mi-kunad <x* $ *^
*
x>
(*!>>
J^>
if
the &' ki of A&U&. be omitted, chunan ast ki
must be
written.
Hast O~~A also means "exists," as: Khuda hast o~ God": Izad hast O-*A ^t "there & a God." #as o*~* is also more there is emphatic than ast c^f as kishtl ra khalal-Vst ow-jjU^ \^ ^^LlT
' '
something wrong with the ship (a simple statement) reply would be, kishfi ra khalal-l hast O~A i;
' '
but
' '
to
a denial the
'
î^
^J&T
there
is I tell
you.'
The above
(b)
is
the only tense
now
in existence.
:
The negative form

Jji
of this tense is (by contraction) as follows

.
nistam
nisti
' '
am not "
**>~y nistim
' '
we
are not.
' '
fci
^~~jj nlst
" thou art not " " he is not "
^*i-^ nistld "you are not." AU-JJ nistand " they are not."
Probably, there was an ancient infinitve idan &&\ or &**] istan signi" to be " from which one or more of the above tenses are derived. fying
(c)
Sa'dl says
man
were
^plj ;fjjj>^ an-asii ki ba zagh-i bar diwdr-i bagk-i

fitting
:^^ ^ Û|yk
my
^5^^^ cs^
"
^) L i$ ^LJf ^^
'
$$ ld*iq-i qadr-i
dignity to be (I
khiraman hami-raftam/i (Sa'dl) to be) strutting on the wall ought

OÂSL^S
"
it
of a
garden in company with a fellow magpie."

J^- (J^.j&*
tashvish-i
iJb*-
suhbat-i gul khush budi gar msti
no fear
hastam
of the thorn."
khar (Sa'd!) "companionship with the rose were sweet, were there Similarly, Sa'dl uses *&*&>& shunidastam for shuriida
jjîi
I
Â
have heard."
Other instances occur in the old
poets of this contracted form of hastam ^~fc (instead of Perfect tense.

1
am
pf)
with the
Zagh
is
the English magpie,
common
in the gardens of Persia.
The chough
is
called
*^*!.
Here
asti
and
nistl are Past Conditional.
THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
221
In
kdr-i
jahan agar
bi-taqlid-asti
Har Har
' '
ruz bi-ja-yi Ichwlslitan 'Id-asti;

Teas
bi-murad-i Ichwish dast-i bi-zadi

tahdid-asti.
Gar 'zanki na in bi-huda

If this life
were indeed an empty play, Each day would be an 'Id or festal day,
And men might conquer
all
their hearts' desire
Fearless of after penalties to pay!

(0.
"
K. Rub. 434 Whin.)
Gar
man
'Afv-i tu
gunah-i ru-yi zamln kardastam umid ast ki girad dast-am.
Though I had sinned the sins of all mankind, I know thou would'st to mercy be inclined."
(0.
K. 333 Whin.)
Man
nist
I
shudam dar Tu, az

Thine, since
I
anam
hama Tu
Thee."
" And
Hastl
i-^
is
am
am
lost in
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 400 Whin.) a substantive signifying "existence," and ^-H^ nistl

:
Hast CU-A and nist o-^J are used as adjectives
Chandan
ki zi-khud nis-tar
am
has-tar-am.
" The more I die to
self, I live the
more."
(0.
K. Rub. 351 Whin.)
68.
The Verb Transitive

(lazim
'
(muta'addi (j?****
and Intransitive
).
cjjl,
or ghayr-i muta'addi
simple.
^^bojic
(a)
The Persian verb is
called irregular verbs

(
present no
but one conjugation and the soEvery Infinitive or masdar difficulty

is
'
There
ends in &s -dan or in ^y -tan, and the shortened Infinitive or third person singular Preterite is formed by cutting off the termination -an
;^/AXJ
)
'
are formed quite regularly from the root or ( Ûj ) shortened Infinitive, 8 and from the second person singular Imperative the
All
tenses
zaman
In India, lazimi
^'^
intransitive.
2
3
Zaman eJ^j " Tense

The shortened
or time
infinitive is
" masdar " Infinitive or source." always identical with the third person singular of the
;
Preterite.
222
persons are formed by the affixed substantive verb. Every verb has thus two stems. As in most languages, the Imperative is the shortest form of the
verb.
It
few verbs are both transitive and intransitive.

in
must be borne
'
'
mind that native grammarians do not consider the

can
it
Infinitive a verb.
"How
be a verb/' they say,
"when
it
has no
tense or time
(b)
?
1
(1)
There are two verbal prefixes

first is
Aj
(or
and
^ mi
^
(or
â
hami
2
).
The
the same
prefixed to the Aorist or Present Subjunctive (one and tense), to the Imperative, to the Preterite, and to the old Past
is
Potential or Habitual tense that

Preterite.
formed by adding an indefinite

to
to the
The second
it
is
prefixed
the Present
(or
distinguish
Preterite.
from the Aorist, and to the Imperfect to distinguish
Present-Future) to it from the
In the following
Infinitive
:
example
(poetical),
AJ
is
added
to
the
shortened
,3
.v.
&J-3 j
fj
Bi-bazuvan-i tavdna va quvvat-i sar-i dast

Khata-st panja-yi misldn-i natavan bi-shikast
(Sa'di).
"
By
strength of
arm and power
It is a sin to crush the
hand, poor and helpless."

i.e.,
of
\Sar-i dast
o*o_y-
is
the end of the dast or fore-arm,
the hand.]
Dar
An
magar bi-t(a)vdn yaft 'umr ki dar sawma'aha gum kardim?

(0.
Tcu-yi Icharabat
K. Rub. 339 Whin.)
In the following, to the definite future

.itîJ^
o^J
>.A|îu AixJLkjf
^^j
^w
AJU.^
A^ Avc
Jjb
^/î x9 *f^T
J*.
Ear anchi ml guzarad dil ma-nih ki Dajla bas-i Pas az Khalifa bi-khwahad guzasht dar Baghdad.
11
Set not thy heart on that which passeth away; for the Tigris Will flow on by Baghdad long after the Khalifas."
(Oul Book
S,
Maxim.
105.)
Called ba-yi zayid.
The same term

j^ LJJ^
in
is
applied to the
&
in
such words as bi-juz
"
*
except
"
;
also in
There
is
no
difference
signification
between ml
^
;
and hami
(.5+^
both
are probably contracted forms of, or connected with, hamiaha these can be joined to In poetry this prefix is sometimes, by poetical their verbs or written separately. license, written after the verb.

In the following, to the past participle
:
223
^4?/ cfo7
hama
asbdb-i jahdn khwdsta gir
Bdgh-i
tarab-at bi-sabza drdsta gir
Binshasta
" Oh soul
Vdngdh bar an sabza shab-l chun shabnam 1 u bdmddd bar-khdsta gir (0. K.)
!
lay
up
all
earthly goods in store,

;
Thy mead with pleasure's flowerets spangle o'er And know 'tis all as dew that decks the flowers
For one short night, and then
(2) It will
is
seen no more
"
!
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 243.) thus be seen that the prefix ml (in old Persian also haml a It in continuative sense. ) is, gives poetry, even added to the Imperative with this continuative sense, as *Ax*A *fc Ol:>y^ \) *jr* vfeUj* ) O^t; ô ^\***> Gar rdhat-i jdviddn tarn mi-dan Mi-ranj hamisha va ma-ranjdn kas rd.
(0.
K. Rub. 15 Whin.)
In yak
nafas-i 'aziz rd khush rm-ddr.

(0.
K. Rub. Whin.)
indeclinable (3) The prefix & is omitted in verbs compounded of an " from " khiz and a bar as bar-khdstan particle verb, get up >>Ay (^^^j " if I return," from bar-gashtan j&$j.*. Before f^j*.j%\ agar bar gardam verbs beginning with a 6 v_ ) the prefix is in modern Persian often written
:
separately and not joined to the verb. The verb &ty budan does not take the prefix shudan. c;<x
(4)
(c)
AJ,
nor does the Imperative of

as
<xUj ^/o mi-bi-bdyad.
Very rarely do both prefixes occur together, The auxiliary verb* ^^ budan " to be " is
is <j*^
slightly irregular, in that

infinitive is bud.
the Imperative
bash
8 '*
be thou."
The shortened
TENSES FROM THE IMPERATIVE

THE IMPERATIVE (yt
I.
3
It
(j*\)
).
"be ye." Bash tj2b bethou"ba8hid With the exception of the second person singular,
^^
all
persons of th
Imperative are identical with the Aorist q.v.

1
Bi-nishasta AL-Aij agrees with khudra \)&j*- understood.

Fi'l-i
mu'avin^
Bu > was
still
said to exist
in
auxiliary verb." It is another form of the second person singular of the Imperative. " is found ki bu or perhaps," **J bu in out-of-the-way districts: J.
(
iDjLxx) (J** )
<
mod.
Persian,. in poetry.
224
Remark
hami.
It
I.
is
The continuous Imperative is formed by prefixing ml or usually affirmative, but Qa'am uses it negatively also.
coll.),
Mi-bash u^-H- (vulg. remain.

' '
or hami-bash <j^
(obs.) ''continue to
be or
" Remark II. The Present Participle (cMlJ bashan being") and the " <xll> be-er ") are not in use. noun of agency bashanda 1
(
II (A).
The Aorist
or Present Subjunctive
2.
^b
basham " I may be [or let me be " thou bashi rnayest be,"
bashad s "he, she or
be, etc.)."
it
"
].
may
be (or
let
him,
2.
<i*t
"we may be (or let us be)." be ye ')." bash/id "ye may be (or Imperative, bdshand " they may be (or let them be)."
bashim*
'
In modern Persian this tense does not take the prefix

it
*j.
In old Persian
does.
//
(B).
The following
f
1.
5
is
an
old
form
of this tense
|*jj
buwam
buwi
' '
" I
may
be."
be.
' '
Singular
2.
-j
<JTJJ
6
thou mayest
it
ijj
buwad "he, she or
may be
"
(or
\
it
bada or
buwad or
(*^ buvem
Plural
. .
^b bad). 8
2.
AJ,J
^
(plural
is
"we may be." 6wi;e^ ye may be." buwand "they may be."
"
Bashanda
35^Xab
bashandagan (j^&i&lj
in
is
"an
inhabitant"; d&t
commoner
,
modern
colloquial,
<>xLrt>
a substantive signifying as: Ishan ahl-i Kirman
hastand 3AL-A &(sOjf JlAi

ic^xXcUj
j
e^Luljl
is
or
whan Kirmanl hastand
(Ûe^ i^^t.
Bashanda
n India bashinda,
is
used for "inhabitant" in Persia in writing, only when
avoiding Arabic words. as a sign of the first person of the verb is called mlm-i mutakallim. 5 Bad or bada or buvad or fewwadand 6?tva the Precativeor Optative are still in use ; Bashad is not used as an Optative, &c. (in m.c. bad and buvad). 4 Classically (and in Afghanistan and India still) these terminations of the first and
the author
4
This
mlm
second plural are em, ed

6
majhul sounds.
is
The Afghans use this tense in speaking. Note that ) and a v. In m.c. it bad and ity buvad are both used.
6
pronunced both
like
To be
distinguished from the third person singular of the Preterite <i^ bud.

III.
225
The Present Tense

r
1.
JU
Îxjj )
(in
Modern Persian
also a Future}.
Singular
4 2.
mi-basham " I am (or will be}." mi-bdshi " thou art."

mi-bashad "he, etc., is." mi-bashim " we are."
Plural
;
mi-bashid "
you are."
mi-bashand "they are."
The prefixes mi or torn, written separately or joined to the are used with this tense in writing in modern as well as in old Persian.
Remark.
verb,
-
Me-buwam
fj*}* is
an old form of this tense.
TENSES FROM THE SHORTENED INFINITIVE:

IV.
The
Preterite
jAfe*
budam " I was."

Singular
ft
6w^ "thou wast."

bud "he,
etc.,
ii
/"
was."
1.
budim "we were."
Plural
-)
2.
you were.
budand "they
Imperfect,
C5
-*
(3.
were.'
V.The
Singular
etc.
(
11
U5 C
mi-budam
" I was or used to be.
thou wast or used to be. mi-bud " he, etc., was or used to be."
we
Plural
were.
'
mi-budid " you were.' mi-budand "they were."

is
This tense
also used as a Past Conditional agar
mi-budam " if
had
in
m, etc., etc.," and sometimes as a "Future Conditional." The Preterite, budam, however, is generally used,
speaking, instead of the Imperfect.
1
especially
In poetry often contracted into
******
tXJ
bud
Dar khwab budam mara khirad-mand-l
guft
May
khur ki
bi-zlr-l
khak mi-bayad khuft*

(0.
obsolete or poetical with the Imperfect of budan. to Except in the Continuous Imperative, vide 68 (6), foot-note, ml is not prefixed
Ml
<j* or
haml
K. Rub. 51 Whin.)
',
haml
is
this tense in
modern Persian.
15
226
VI.

The Past Conditional or Habitual
(
budame "I would have been

Singular
..-{2.
or used to be."
-,,
^^
budi thou
,,
,,
bude he,
etc.
,,
, ,
,,
.
,,
budeme we
Plural
.
, ,
..{
2.
*-.*>tybudede ye
budande they Remark.

This tense
is
,,
,,
,,
obsolete in
modern
colloquial, but
is
stillûsed
even in speaking by the Afghans and Indians. In old Persian, the prefix me or home is also added. It will be noticed that the majhul sounds of the tense have been retained in transliteration. A modern Persian, however,
would give the vowels the ojt;**) ma'ruf sounds. The second person singular and first person plural are very rarely used, and the second person plural
is,
perhaps, not in existence.
VII.
The
Definite Future
1
cUi~*>
).
9t^L
"to wish, desire," has for its Imperative consequence ptij*> Tchwaham. The Definite Future of all verbs is formed by conjugating the Aorist of khwastan with the shortened infinitive.
khwah.
Its Aorist is in (
1.
The verb ^yu*!^ khwdstan
ty
p*^
khwdham bud
" I shall or will be."

,,
Singular
} 2.
j# c**!*^ M*>wahi bud thou *y AAÂ. khwahad bud he, etc. ty p&\jA> khwdhim bud we *j> *&^ Jchwdhid bud you
,,
^3. fl.
Plural
. .
-j
,,
,,
,,
,,
2.
,,
V3.
&
is
iJiA!^L
khwdhand bud they
,,
,,
seldom used in modern colloquial, the Present tense taking its place on all occasions it appears to be dying out. It is, however, still used by the Afghans and Indians, who seldom use the Present
This tense
:
Remark.
tense for the Future.

of
By
Persians
it freely
it is
used in correct writing.
The people
Kashan
VIII.
are said to use
in speech.
(
The Past Participle

shortened Infinitive:
tojj
Jj*s*>
buda " been"
p*>\ )
is
formed by adding
or " having been.'
1
to
the
IX.
The following tenses

The
1.
are derived from the Past Participle

(
Perfect Tense
/' itey
^j5 Û>
).
buda-am " I have been."

buda-i " thou hast been."
Singular
2.
x^
3. o~of
*^j buda-ast "he, etc., has been."

Note that the j
is silent.

/
227
1.
2.
fjf
*^
buda-im " we have been."

buda-td " you have been."
Plural
<
**t &>jj
oif *j>y
3.
buda-and " they have been."
Remark I. In poetry the final S of this tense is sometimes omitted, and the verb contracted into one word, thus; o**^j budast.
az
man u
tu layl
u nahar-i
bud-ast.
"Days changed to nights, ere you were born, or I." (0. K. Rub. 33 Whin.}
Remark
II.
Note that the

*,
full
forms of the affixed substantive verb are
written after the silent
vide
66
(a)
and
(6).
Note the form
of the second
person singular
66
(e).
X.
The Pluperfect Tense ( <v.*j (Buda budam f^

>
<j^*>
not in use.
JK>J, etc.)
XI.
The Future Perfect

('\.
"
)
:
(with
agar
"
Perfect Subjunctive-).
*^l) *^3 buda basham " I shall or will have been "; " I must have been."
Singular
I
2.
M
3Û
buda bashi thou
,,
,,
1.3.
/
^
j^
buda bashad he, buda bashim we
etc.
1.
îlj
A>Ab
Ai<ilj
Plural
..2.
3.
j^ buda bashid you jj^y buda bashand they

Infinitive a
By adding
to
the
^,
called
by grammarians the
;
a-yi Uyaqat or
"^
of possibility is formed, thus
" " what was to be, or to happen <y^j budani
of fitness," a future participle or substantive
plural
lây budam-ha
Bar lawh nishan-i budani-ha buda ast. " 'Twas writ at first, whatever was to be."
l
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 35 Whin.}
Bad
j>U,
as
ab
jt;,>
o^*
and in poetry lib bada is an Optative or a Benedict! ve form, 'umrat dardzbad " may thy life be long." Buvad (old) is
another form of
*(>
bad.
chi bada
'
signifies
The phrase (modern colloquial and classical) har " happen what will, let happen what may.'
bad
f,^ **;*>
tions of
Lawh Q) the tablet upon which, according to Mohammadan mankind have been written by God, from all eternity.
belief, the
transac-
228
THE VERB TKANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.

(e)
mabdd) "let it not be; by no means; away; be treated as a conjunction. (Note that, contrary to custom, the prohibitive &*> ma is retained with the third person Precative). In modern colloquial, the phrase IÛx? )^ bardy-i ruz-i mabdda
)&{**>
Mabdda
(or
God
forbid;
lest"
may
^j
signifies
(/)
"for a rainy day, for a day God forbid that it should come." Nist u nd-bud kardan o^y tyfi j o~.J (lit. to make is not and
'
'
was
not
'
' '
signifies
to destroy utterly.
' '
(g)
It will be
remarked that there are three forms

In modern Persian there
is
of the Present tense
of the verb
"to be."
thus,
no difference
in
their in
signification;
modern Persian
f<
"I am always here" could be rendered equally hamisha mjd mi-bdsham, or hastam, or am, 3uLx*A man by
Mp-S?!
1
^
;
or
,Ju(fc
or
/-^: /c
means " Oh that! would that.! " o~t l^*" & ki man an dirakht JuJ|*j t; o.;j> i^f ip* &f * <itf <*a. chi bude ra biddnistame ki kujd ast (Sa'd!) " Oh that I knew where that tree was to be
(h)
Chi bude
l
(budt)
(class)
^^
**.
found."
(i)
In modern Persian, the Preterite of budan
is
generally used for the

jo^j/c
Imperfect and the Past Conditional; thus cuÛ.

<i*jjj*i
agar dardn waqt dnjd mi-budam mard hdjat-i qabr name-bud (Afghan) "had I been present then, I would have had no need of a grave (for I would have been buried in the ruins) " in modern Persian, budam and bud (without
;
t^/o
l^f
oiij e/f
the prefix mi ) would ordinarily be used here. In modern colloquial, the Imperative (j)
^b
bash
is
is
used for "halt,
stand
here,,"
still,"
or
"wait." Mi-bash
o*^*
S5~->
(m.c.)
also used for
"stay
Compare:
t5~H &\j~*K ^j~

J
x)|
ScX
Als^/c
j|
J^
1)
^jj
tjd
Yak-i imruz kdmrdn bini, Dlgar-i rd dil az mujdhada
rlsh.
Ruzgah^ chand bash
td
bi-khwurad.
(Sa'dl).
Khdk magjtz-i sar-i khaydl-andisli. " One to-day you maj^ see successful,
Another broken-spirited from striving Wait a short time till the grave
Swallows up their fancy-weaving brains."
Majhul sounds.
s
In m.c.
J>>
^5"
&<* chi
ml-shavad
*>&*
chi
I;
chi-ml-shavad kiln kar ra bi-kunam,
"I wish
I could,*'
khub bud agar in ra mlAnother, and
danistam
%
**
&
-X
;
gh
for
8^*
note that the

is
final * in the
(
former
is
aspirated.
probably the correct, reading
uf)j) ruzak-l
dimin.).
ACTIVE VOICE.
229
fa dast-ash bi-bandad Ruzgar, Pas bi-kam-i khipishtan maghz-ash bar-ar.
(Sa'di).
The Afghans
live."
still
use the present tense of budan in the sense of "to dwell,

1
Some verbs are both Transitive and Intransitive, as amikhtan'1 îu^f "to mix, be mixed"; rikhtan &**uj "to pour away, be poured away, etc."; dukhtan* <î^:> "to sew"; angikhtan* îu&t "to stir up, rouse"; amukhtan î^^f "to learn, teach" sukhtan îa^, "to burn" avikhtan'1 (^*awyf "to hang"; gushadan* &Z3 "to open"; gusistan, &*~$ " " to break" " to 1 pushidan' &*&jJ "to hide" payvastan e^>^ join 2 3 afrukhtan ^J^-^V "to kindle, inflame"; afsurdan &*j>~i\ "to freeze,
(/)
:
congeal"; afzudan
tired, etc."
;
e>jy?>f,
" to increase"; Ichastan*

(in
^.Ûi.
" to wound, be
also transitive
mandan e*^* "to remain"

vide
81).
Afghan Persian
"to place,"
69.
Active Voice
<*-}*<o &***
the regular
The following is a conjugation 6 kandan " to dig, root out, etc."

:
of
transitive
verb
(a)
Infinitive( j<^*>
^t
7 )
&^kandan
a (the Infinitive can also be used as
noun)
(b)
(
negative Infinitive, cJ<^^ na-kandan or (ôJ> na-kandan. " 3 lean Imperative dig thou, etc." (or bi-kan}. Past Participle
JÂ&XJ
^t
(active
and passive
\
Present Participle (iÛ
^tiT
86^ kanda* "dug" " kanan "

digging
or
"having dug."
(indeclinable).
Noun
2
3
*
6
Muehtarik, i.e. "shared, common." In modern colloquial, Transitive only. In modern colloquial, afsurda (with shudan) only used. In modern colloquial, Intransitive only.
i.e.,
of
which the agent
is
" known.'*
tasrlf
Sarf
oô
"conjugation,"
conjugate." In India, gardan \*)\>j> is 7 For the Infinitive as a verbal noun, vide
8
kardan &*j? i*>j**> or gardandan used for a " conjugation."

<?
e^t^ " to
115
(h),
*i
and
(r)
Remark.
amr-i muiarrad to dis-
Siyha-yi
it
amr "Imperative mood,"
also called
&j^* j*>(
tinguish
from ^xj'i^^x:' amr-i mudarnl **the Continuous Imperative."
The second
persons are called
j*0^ j*\
amr-i
tiazir,
while the third persons of the Aorist or Present
Subjunctive bi-kanad "let him dig"

wnr-i-ghhaib.
9
**&
,
bi-kanand "let them dig," are *e*$*j*t

Parti-
In such sentences as
is
^*) l&j^
(
which equals ^*j
%3j>
*
)^
u>.^,
this
ciple
called
mazi-yi
ma'tufi
(
^jJ
**
)
(.r*'
70
),
the final
being considered the
equivalent of the conjunction
-flbs
<Jj^
va )
230
of
ACTIVE VOICE.
Jcl*
l
agency
p*\
iwitf
kananda
"a
' :
digger
(declinable).
Noun
of
Possibility or
be dug up plural fit to be dug up."

;
"
Future Participle ^*X kandani "that is to be dug up, fit to (&& kandaniha " things that are to be dug up, or are
I.
Aorist or Present Subjunctive
muzan
gjLa*
(or
*tf or
up "),
+&
or
kanam or<bi-kanam "I may dig up" ^J kani or bi-kani " mayst thou dig," etc.
"let
me
dig
termination ^ of the 1st person of the tenses of tranmim-i mutakallim ( sitive or intransitive verbs is styled by grammarians
Remark
/.The
r KJU).
The
(
suffix
*j>x> ),
am
as in
['vide'
66 (a)]
c
is
termed
mim-i
isbat-i
fi'l
U*J
cL-bjif
shddmdn-am
^.H/o^li
am
rejoiced."
Remark
end
II.
In old poetry a pleonastic
alif is
sometimes found at the
of the third person singular of this tense.
//. Present (zamdn-i hal JU.
Ûj
).
"I dig up, or
am
digging up, etc. (also I will dig up)."
Remark.
Present tenses can also be formed by prefixing participles or
a verbal adjective to the verb " to be."
/// A.
Imperative
sigha-yi
' '
amr j
' '
^
The
Remark.
If
or
(^ a
lean or
bikan
dig thou.
tutf or <xxx>
kanid or bi-kanid "dig ye."
other persons are identical with the Aorist.
the initial letter of the Imperative has zamma for its vowel, the vowel of the prefix * may also be changed to zamma, as bu-guzar or
:
bi-guzar.
Such contractions as bugzdr occur in poetry and in modern

72
(a).
col-
loquial, vide
///. B.
The Continuous Imperative (amr-i muddml
^/ot<
Â/O mi-kan (class.), or e^**^ hami-kan (class.), or <j^ ^-^ hami bi-kan " continue to dig up keep on digging." In modern colloquial (class.)
;
^^
Iwy bi-kan
is
used.
or
<g*
<-
|**f
guished from Adjectives and

Participle.
2
Compound
the realor regular Active Participle as distinAdjectives that have the sense of a Past
In modern Persian the prefix
&
j
is
nearly always used with the Imperative.
It is,
however, generally omitted before
O^k the Imperative
of
shaw the Imperative of c^<^ , .and always before (D^, and often before kun "do."
ACTIVE VOICE.
231 that
Remark.
classical,
The Precative kanad
"Oh
tj>U/o is
he
may dig"
is
and
confined to the third person singular.
In old poetry, howclassical
ever, other persons are found.

colloquial.]
[Mabada
both
and modern
III. G.
Prohibitive Imperative ('vide' slgha-yi amr-i nahl
j>>
&^>).
ma-kan "dig not up (thou)."

i
ma-kanid " dig not up (ye.)"

the
(The remaining persons are identical with
Negative Aorist.}
Remark. For an example, in classical Persian, of the Past Subjunctive used as a Continuative Imperative, vide 125 (j) (6).
IV.
The
' '
Preterite (mdzi-yi mutlaq (j

2
C^f kandam
This tense, in
for
dug up. writing, when
"
affirmative, frequently takes the prefix &,
euphony only.
V. Imperfect
3
(mdzt-yi istimrdri
^^*^t
t5-*k
" I was digging up, fîf ^*A hami-kandam. or (**.**> mi- kandam to dig up." (This tense is also used in past and future conditions.)
VI.
used
The Past Conditional or Habitual, or

^**\f kandame
(class.),
the Optative
41
^^^ ^^
or rarely
me-kandame and hame-kandame, vide
68 VI.
Remark.
is
This tense can take the prefix

,
<Jy.
The second person
singular
first
The rarely used, and the second person plural perhaps, does not exist. is rare vide exist and, perhaps, should not Remark, person plural
;
68
VI, Remark.
<&
tense.
fAtja.
The
vide also
dig up." sometimes khwaham in this added to the auxiliary prefix In poetry, the full and not the shortened form of the Infinitive occurs
AJ is
VII. Future Definite (mustaqbil câwx). khwaham kand " I will
^^
80.
In modern colloquial *J
classical
form
of
is preferred, being less peremptory. the third person singular is formed by adding
t^- 3*' -^
attf-i
S
tahsin as rafta (for raft).
When When
Sa'dl frequently uses Ufif gufta, which is also m.c. preceded by agar this tense is called <J*j& mazi-yi sharfi.
preceded by
oiK
kash
^K
^^
kashki, etc., this tense

to
is
called
mazi-yi tammaria'i.
same term appears Pluperfect when preceded by kash, etc.
The
be applied to
the Imperfect and
^W Û
232
VIII.
ft
ACTIVE VOICE.
The Perfect (mazi-yi qarib

''I
*iJLn
kanda
am
have dug."
In the third person singular the
ast is often
omitted, thus to^" for
Remark.
(for !<xtf
An
old form of the second person singular
is
^JU^
occur,
kandasti
cu**xif
kanda-1] and a contracted form of the third person singular is

[vide
kandast
so they are rare.

of the Perfect.
the perhaps In a rarer form still, a

(d)];
66
other
persons
but
if
^ is found affixed
to the auxiliary
This form seems to be always Conditional.
IX.
Pluperfect (mdzi-yl ba'id
kanda budam
This tense
is also
"I had dug up."

form
uatf
used in past conditions, in modern Persian only.

of the Pluperfect, used in Conditional
Remark.
a verb,
the
is
little-used
and
Optative clauses, is:

added.
kanda budami, i.e., to the Past Participle of Past Conditional or Habitual of budan, instead of its
^^y.
&&
!
Preterite,
Example:
awal Khuda ra
X.
paristida
^^ budami.
*i*^J
l>
Jjljf
oK ^
ay kash az
Future Perfect or Past Subjunctive
(maziyi shakkl
^^
^^
).
ik*tf kanda basham "I will have dug up; must have dug up; j*b have dug up." This tense is also used as a Past Subjunctive.
(c)
may
The
following tenses are rarely used
(1)
Continuative Perfect cu*lj
ji*V mi-kanda
digging up
"
;
ast (m.c.)
"he has been

125
(t)
the Imperfect
is
ordinarily used for this tense, vide
(2) f^-Hf
WJ^ (/t)
is
(agar)
is
kanda me-budam
(old) "(if) I
the Imperfect or Pluperfect
generally used instead of this
had dug" tense, which is of
doubtful accuracy and
not used by Persians.
The second person

This tense
is
is
written
X, and
^^
also (but rarely)
<
also called ^yl+isM
mazi-yi ihtimali, and
c^J-k-"
^^-^
mazi-yj
maznun, and
1
iJTjX^xj^^lx) mazi-yi
mashkulc (or tashkik) from \haml "imputing," zann

in old
thinking, suspecting" and shalck "doubting."

S
Or
:
(^ty
<t&*f
Persian)
me-kanda budam
kanda budame (not used in modern Persian, and rare is another form
:
L^
*?*
^ li-^
cc^*
i^jj/o
^fc^l
ÂJ
Qazi-l tanha shab-i mi-rafla bud.
Su-yi bustan did duzd-l hamchu dud. One night a Qazi was going alone towards a garden. When he saw a thief (pass him) like smoke."
ACTIVE VOICE.
233
In the following example t*^J ai^L* && &i~. j>\ (m.c.) kar sakhta nami-shud "if you had remained sitting still, agar nishista budid the Past Participle of the intransitive verb nothing would have been found
Remark.
&
' '
considered an adjective and not part of the verb; both verbs are, therefore, correctly in the ordinary Imperfect to express a supposition.
is
(3) txiluxj
am
According to Forbes, "Let him continue digging." unable to find any examples of such a tense. Such an expression
aîr.
in
modern Persian would be taken

jjyju
just as <xU>>o
(4)
dug."
It is of doubtful accuracy.
used by the Afghans and sometimes by the Persians. For example, vide 125 (;') (3). " I must have 3J^ kanda buda am dug." This tense, (5) fl ^> which is also of doubtful accuracy, is used in modern Persian. For example,
is
ty **\j This tense
to mean "it is kanda" a^tf (engraving), " it is silver." mi-bashad signifies nuqra jwtf, a Future Perfect, "he will have dug, he must have
vide
125
(/)
(?) (5).
The
third person singular of the Aorist
may
Benedict] ve, by lengthening the fatha of the final
be made Optative or J syllable; thus &# buvad
becomes
vy.
1
buvad or
bad:
*tf
kanad becomes
'
kanad,
"
Oh
that he
may
"
ki Izad-at tauba dihad aUa ay oa>>i \j* *ty " K. Allah to aid thee 172, Whin.) (0. repent They say may be made by prefixing Parti(g) Paraphrases of some of the tenses can
"
dig
Guyand mara
&
'
ciples, Persian or Arabic,
and Verbal Adjectives, to the verb "to be," khwahan-i an bud kit* &# of c^*l^ (m.c.) "he was desirous of
raftani hastam
ast (m.c.)
-- "5
murda
as:
(m.c.)
" I
am
ow.t
about to
go";
^=~t
^
is
"it
is
dead "
(also
"he has died"); ^~t
ast
known." knowledge"; (^l*x> sadad-i Dar follows as To be about to do can be a (h) expressed thing, (or khayal-i) raftan budam f^ Âi> (JU^ or) *&*)*, or dar sharaf-i raftanbudam " also in modern " P&U ^j o^>;^ I was on the point, eve of, departure "he is on the point of going colloquial by, mi-khiyahad bi-ravad ki u dar kar-i murdan ast (m.c.) "he is dying"; *$ (*i^ c>T )^ )* when
"he
v-^lbjt
ast
tdlib-i 'Urn
seeks after
ma'lum
"it
:
t$
j*j3Jo )\jt,
yj
("*;f^J
\*tey *J.*^
"
"I was on
:
the point of approaching

;
her and jumping over the wall when (Trans, of Haji Baba, Chap. XXIII) lj kar also to be 3 means (dar actually engaged in) ft>>* )\j& y u^~^ tf "I was about to (Tr*H. B. Chap. XXIII). leap over the wall."
^^
(i)
The Imperative can
also be expressed as follows
e^y
it
*** )*&
s(j zinhar dast-i tu takan na-khwurad "don't let your hand shake" *r ; fiJU ma-guzar ki bi-yuftad "don't let it fall" *:^ )\^>. bu-guzar
;
biydyad
(:
permit (him) to
come "
^lj;l*& bu-guzar bashad "let

du'a or
alone."
This
alif is called alif-i
alif-i
tamanna.
234
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
(
" " Gu say, suppose, let much the same signification as

Gu-ki *&
Imperative of guftan) occurs in writing with
bi-guzdr.
f
I.
(conjunction)
"
although."
O
-
Remark
mazi-yi
The
Preterite Potential
vU ^JLJy
(
imkdm
II.
or mdzi
ma
'l-qudrat
( j**>*>
t5
)
(vide 77) is called the ^^ X)> L**^ or &j*&^ g c^k )

,
Remark
Sarf-i saghir
^j*
is
an Indian term applied to run-
ning through the
moods and
tenses of a verb, giving the Infinitive, the third
person singular of the Preterite, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Aorist, and Present, the second person singular of the Imperative and the Negative Imperative, and the Present and the Past Participles.
Sarf-i kdblr
( j**f *-^> in both voices.
and Tenses,
is conjugating a verb in all This term, too, is Indian.
its
Persons,
Moods
70.
(a)
Verbal Adjectives.
From
the Imperative stem of some verbs a Verbal Adjective (or
Substantive) with the termination a is formed, which differs little in signification from a Present Participle, thus: cA^ didan "to see," Imperative
^jj bin
"see thou,"
binayan
verbal adjective
(classical)
)
;
(plural ijljUu
Ux'
bind "seeing, clear-sighted" " blind " or "a blind man"; li#U na-bmd
U-jj
bind shudan " to get sight, recover sight."
;!> j
Dar kargah-i kuza-gar-l raftam dush, Dldam du hazdr Tcuza guya u khdmush.
" Once in a potter's shop, a company Of cups in converse, did I chance to
(0.
see.
K. 283 Whin.)
Vide also examples in
43
(r).
;
" holding fast Similarly, from ^x&k ddshtan and^ta ddr, comes \j\tdara " a possessor, a lord, rich or and ju juy, comes (m.c.) from c^J^ justan
:
ij^.
]> "
guftan and etc." For an speaking, example of * 77 (c) and Remark.
juya "seeking"; sazd : and from
from
&&y*
sazidan [saz]
e^
gu or
L>|y
tavana and
^ c;^
^^
"to be worthy " comes,

l
guy, comes L?/ guya vide' ria-tavan,
Pazira
I^JAJ
has a Passive as well as an Active sense.
Some
of these
Verbal Adjectives are not declinable, and are equivalent to Participles. from ^^ pahn (6) A few nouns have a similar termination; thus rawshan from "clear, pahnd "breadth";
Poetical for tA. x
khamush.
NEGATIVE VERBS.
bright" rawshana Ujj)
1
235
also "Roxana" the Greek "brightness," form of the name of the wife of Alexander the Great, who was a daughter of the
(old)
king of Persia:
Lp
tarsd a
"
Christian.
"
71.
(a)
Negative Verbs.
Fi'l-i
Fi'l-i nafi
cUj negative verb and
nahi
^ J*
prohibitive
verb.
(3)
fHJ
The Negative prefixes are: (1) /o or f ma*; (2) *i or 8 c> na; and & na.* The prefix *? is always omitted when the verb is negative, as: & bi-bmam " let me see " na-binam "let
;
^Ju*i
me
not see."
with the second person singular and plural only of the with and the Negative Precative, as: <uj** ma-purs "don't Imperative, <*x\Co ma-kunid "don't do" and (with the Precative Aorist) ^xa* ask"; " ma-bmad may he not see." It is always joined to its verb in writing,
(b)
;
Ma is used
and
compound verbs immediately precedes the verb itself, as: eJ> ^~=i fl don't touch"; vide also Remark to (e). The &y> ^*t benedictive forms ma-mdndd ,xUU* ma-kundd ali&o etc., are sometimes used
dast ma-zan
, ,
in
in m.c.
Remark. The ma occurs in the conjunction mabad or mabadd (the Optative of CK>J); as also in the adverb magar "but, perhaps," which is
compounded
(c)
of
ma and
agar.
na A
is
In modern colloquial, however, ma &* is falling into disuse; and generally used instead, as it is less imperative and therefore civil.
Na *J is correctly prefixed to all the tenses with the exceptions of the second person singular and plural of the Imperative [vide (b) ], and in modern It is also prefixed to the Past colloquial it is even prefixed to these also. Participle, and to the Shortened Infinitive as well as to its full form, as:
(d)
*j*
*j j?^>J
|*^
cî
I;
;(
^f
n kdr rd na-kunid Khudd na-karda bad
mi-shavad (m.c.) "don't do this (God forbid it), it may not turn out well." It can, in writing, be joined to the verb of be written separately.
(e)
-^&
na-guft
If,
immediately precedes the verb or its prefix mi. Example " he did not say " nami-guyam I do not say." hami and not however, the prefix be ml, the negative is
AJ
(C
:
The
^^
f
prefixed to the verb, as:

1
^*A hami na-guyam.

are
The usual forms, however,

is
' ' '
pahna
^'-^tv' rawshana'i
(j&*J)-
colloquial panha^l
used for pahna-l.
In India roshna-l generally means
In modern "ink," and
roshnl
2
*
'
brightness.
Called
Nun
^
na/y
f*x>
nilm
niin-i nahy.
For
^^
nun
nafy.
it is,
but with the Imperative

is
or should be, called
yf->
^
is
this
Interrogation, vide
is
73.
In (.5^
*
the negative
called *j&*>
^j^^
or
cW^
but when written
** it
But the negative
of the
Past Participle used as an
adjective takes
na & only.
236
Similarly, in
NEGATIVE VERBS.
compound
as:
<_c;f^
to the verb
itself,
remove your hand ? " or " won't you cease doing ? " f*>j*jt\ agar bar nagardam "if I don't return"; fty harf na-zadam "I did not speak," 85 (c). vide
:
^j
verbs, the
o*o
dast
follows the prefix, being joined bar nanii-ddri "won't you
o^
Remark.
standstill."
The same
rule holds
good for
**, as
o~~jU>
\^
va ma-ist "don't
(/)
This rule
:
is
sometimes broken in poetry, and by the Afghans
in
speaking, as
Chun
riist dar in zamana sud-i zi-khirad Juz bi-khirad az zamana bar ml na-khurad.
" Small gains
to learning
on
this ear^h accrue,
They pluck
life's fruitage,
learning
(0.
who eschew."
K. Rub. 224 Whin.)
Ndti occurs only in compounds, as: *Û na-dida (adj.) "unseen"; v-JJbo ^jj jtji u az In matlab nd-khwdhan ast "blind"; oi ÎA^ :< he does not want to do it." (local and incorrect)
(g)
Uuuli
li
Negative Infinitive is In often treated like a compound, and formed with L>, seldom with &>. modern Persian, however, na *> is preferred to nd ^.
Infinitive
The
being considered a
noun, the
In &*jS t#bj cu~jj nlst u nd-bud kardan, the a shortened Infinitive, or a verbal noun.
(h)
j>y
is
probably considered
only
is
correct, vide
In Persian, two negatives are sometimes used where in English one 123 (6) (5) and (e) also for the negative verb with
;
A hlkh, vide
39
(d)
(1),
(2),
(3) (n).
and Remark.
For the
negative
after a verb of prohibition, vide

(i)
122
With the
cxiXJ
to the
bdyad *jl, etc., the negative is sometimes added bdyad ki naauxiliary and sometimes to the principal verb, as
auxiliaries
:
kunad
a' oob,
or na-bdyad bi-kunad
&iCj
5yUJ;
na-bdyad raft**)*>\to\
chird bdyad bi-hukm-i shar' rdzi na-shavand ?

>J
<3Jji ^^1;
*?
ffc
3**.
H. B., Chap. VI) " why shouldn't the dispute be

Mulla present)
(/)
?
^^
(Tr.
is
legally settled (as there
Kam
:
and andak ^*>\
usually in poetry,
can give the idea of a
Negative, as
Not
ci
EUPHONICAL RULES AND ACCENTS IN THE VERBS.
237
Chandan ki justand kamtar yaftand (Gul.) "in spite of their diligent search they couldn't find him," or' the more they searched, the less they
1
found him."
Vide also
121
(6).
72.
Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs.
differs in
the Imperative of a verb ends in j, this letter sometimes pronunciation in the Imperative and in the other tenses. If the j of the Imperative is pronounced w, it becomes a v before a, as shaw " bey
(a)
1
:
When
come, go"
"go"
run"
If
(Imperative shavam, Aorist;^; raw (or ro) (Imperative of e^>; raftan), <+$) ravam, Aorist; cAJja davidan "to (Imperative^ daw), Aorist davam ^.
of shudan),
the^ of the Imperative

guftan
latter
is
pronounced
u, a
as: <^M
The
namudan, U-> have two forms

as:
"to say," Imperative^ bigu rule also holds good when the Imperative ends in a, as: &^+> nama "to show," Present ^l*j ô mi-namayam. Such verbs
"
inserted for euphony, say," Aorist bi-guyam.

is
^&
of
the
Imperative, one with and one without the
Ai~^ justan "to
seek,"
>?
Imperative^
^5^
ju
or
^^
;'%; guftan
;
speak," Imperative
&t>j*i
,
gu
68
or
gwi/ (classically
go or go,e)
"to namudan
nama
Ui
or
namay
in
Û
(6) (3),
the prefix îs omitted in verbs compounded of an indeclinable particle and a verb. (c); If the verb begins with alif without madda, this letter is generally
(6)
As stated
changed into <_c after the prefixes <*i, <*J, or**, for the sake of euphony, as: andakht "he threw/' VÂJ^M nayanddkht, " he did not throw, "
>t
(also written o*-M<*iUi
î*f
uftam
3
"I may
fall,"
pi&x bi-yuftam: ;K
"consider," mayangar, I^Jux). ^) If the verb begins with an

remains, the
the a^'/ alif marked by a madda ( f madda of course being rejected: *j\ arad "he may bring "; " do not Lu biyarad "let him bring" ;U*> maydr bring." namad (for (e) In poetry, the *J often unites with the verb, as: " he came not." This license is of ten taken Umar-i naydmad) Khayyam. by The contraction occurs in modern colloquial also. (/) The accent of the verb falls on the last syllable of either stem, except
) ,
;
<i**l->
'
iere
be one of the prefixes
AJ,
*j,
or
&<*>,
or the verb be a compound with
less
1 In the modern 9 language, both j" shaw and common.
3** bi-shaw are used, but the latter

*
:
is
Indians, especially Punjabis, have a passion for using

I n i*M*;lc fj V a ma-ist,th\s
they intrude
it
after every
alif or ya.
3
euphonic
is
always omitted.
238
INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
1
a preposition or an adverb;
in the
latter cases,
the accent
(6), (1)
falls
on the
prefix or the prefixed preposition, vide
21
(a)
and
to
(4).
73.
Interrogative Verbs.
2 It is usually expressed by the tone of the voice. " or also expressed by prefixing to the question L>t dyd "whether? " or ' Examples magar but ? by suffixing the words AJ l yd no, or not ?
(a)
Interrogation
is
^
:
' *
'
' '
AJ I
ow*: *i; ra/to asZ

#2/#
Hta
jjj
" has he left the place or not ? i/a na ? " Fdrsi naml-ddmd Persian ? ": .don't know what, you
<tf
"
^*i c5*;
'
.tf
he doesn't speak? " &t^ fancy you must be mad."

;
o^
magar murda
ast
ki
harf nami-zanad
?
"is
^x ^x> he dead that

I
OA*|
magar dlvana-l
is
" are " you mad? ", or
In modern colloquial, bf dyd
its place. Interrogation magar is idiomatically at the beginning and
seldom used,_rô magar usually taking both positive and negative, and is used
end
of
short
?
<(
Examples
^^j^ ^j^yic
lit.
?
magar shardb khhwurdi
drinking,"
" but have you been drinking
"
went there, didn't you

(6)
"
_>*
^j rafti magar
exclamative phrases. I think you have been " ?
you
:
(a sly question).
by ydna &^. also signifies "whether or not," as 8 &>(j vjuî naml-ddnam ki murda ast ydna "I don't know jj^ & whether he is dead or not the yd na at the end cannot be omitted.
t$ followed
Ki
f^^
' '
Remark
/.
Interrogation
is of
course also expressed by the interroga-
" how much? or by the intertive pronouns or adjectives, as: chand Aia. , " " (s^ ? chi where or sabab ** ^ji as ; kujf bardy-i kujd rogative adverbs,
:
"
-***
"
for
what reason, why

II.
"
Remark
answer
is
simple question with the object of obtaining a direct If the question indicalled ^^â-iwci ^l^fti^t istifhdm-i istikhbdri.
JU-^
cates negation, as in, ki mi-guyad ki khaydl-i safar ddradl
Wj^x
&
"who
called
says he
is
thinking of going
If
istifhdm-i inkdri.
is
on a journey?", it is called the question expects the answer "yes," it

c
f~
'
as in: ^1^51 $\fi*\ istifhdm-i iqrdri,
*KjJ ^
9 c-"
"Am
I not
your
Lord? "
Examples: ^.yt^J bardashtan, (&&'j^. baz gashtan. In negative interrogation as (^jj ^^ nam--rav4 "won't you go
"
the
3).
nun
is
styled nun-l istifham-i nafy
(^ plîi^t
oji),
:
v^ e
71 (a) foot-notes (2 and
This
negative interrogation can imply assertion, as

f;
8d oljff
*A jjj(l_ Jo
^13
uiby> <^(r^ ûj ^î

is
(Gul.)
Indians for Id might substitute aya, which, however,
incorrect.
BOOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VEBBS.

74.
(a)
239
Roots or Stems of Simple Verbs.
The number
oâi^
the
Infinitive
(
of simple verbs in Persian is small. As already stated, ends in dan or tan. Such Infinitives are called masdar-i
munsarif
Infinitives in
fatha, or else
as opposed to the Compound Infinitives, vide 85. dan are preceded by the long vowels a, i and u, or by by the consonants r and n.
)****
)
tan are preceded by kh, $, sh or /. In the so-called (6) irregular verbs the irregularity consists, only in the from the root of the Infinitive. Thus didan :c to Imperative differing
Infinitives in
o^
see
' '
has an Imperative
^j
j>
bin "see thou
' ' ;
&*j* kardan
c '
to do
"
,
^/ kun
e)ib
dadan "to give,"

(c)
dih, etc.
The following
lists
are the rules for forming the Imperative or stem, 1
together with
of the exceptions.
obsolete in m.c., while those

(1) Infinitives
in
Verbs marked by an asterisk are marked with a dagger are regular: adan or idan? and Infinitives in tan preceded by s,
in the
reject these letters to form the root;

reject this termination,
Infinitive.
i.e.,
same way,
infinitives in
adan
dan and the fatha preceding, as:

Root or Stem.
m.c. firistadan m.c. pursidan m.c. zlstan
to send
to ask
firist
purs
zi
to live
^J
m.c. tavanistan
to be able
tavan
azhadan
azhidan
*
ajldan
EXCEPTIONS. 5
Infinitive.
240
m.c. (vulg.) gddan
ROOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERES.
^(f copulate ^
only)
.
(of
men
. .
gd
If
orgdy
m.c. (vulg.) gd*idan f ^>5(f j m.c. dddan &^t> to give m.c. shanldan ^H^*
\
^'/^ z^
shanudan
m.c.
m.c. gushadan m.c. kushddan
m.c.
to hear
shunaw
or shinaw
^
c
to loose
&f
or kushdy
m.c. dldan &**& to see
6m
^
kun
m.c. zadan
to strike oj>3 *bakhidan c;j*iu to stitch
saw. cJJ
bakhya
(m.c.).
&*
*istdndan
m.c. sitddan
seâra .oUuo
m.c. sitdndan~\
m.c. sitdnidan^ m.c.

to adorn
drastan
prepare
m.c.
f
or
my ^
(dmdda kardan in m.c.)

to grow, increase
.
*bdld*idan-\
m.c.
m.c.
>
to stand
firm,
endure
pd b or
pa?/ c^^
(pdyistan
look stedfastly at; to
very rare).
*pdyistan
m.c. bdyistan
t
trample under foot. to be necessary

'
^b
not
Imperative
exist.
does
payrdstan^
(plrdstan)
itf
to adorn
clip.
to prune
to
pird or payray ^LAJ or in m.c. plrdstan.
m.c. payvastan
to join, to be joined
payvand* *>?%,
intr.
;
tr.
and
tr. is
in m.c. the
payvasta kardan.
*tanidan'\
*v>
)
to
draw
tight
to twist
tow
<j
*tanudan
be twisted.
The only verb

from the
in
which the Imperative appears to be derived from a verb totally

joint,
different
*
Infinitive.
signifies
Payvand also "
subs,
"a
connection
mark
of
a join
"
:
payvasta
(Participle)
always, continually."
ROOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

*jistan
241
e^J^
m.c. jastan
jahldan-f
^L
&**,*
to
um P
jah
'
m.c. justan v*~*> to search (in m.c. = to find).

m.c. chidan lai-*^ to pluck, cull
also
ju 9 s*> or juy
..
chin IÂbarkhiz
m.c. bar khastan

m.c. khiyastan m.c. rastan
1
îÛ^j
to rise up, get
up
>k^
i^.
i^Mji. to wish, desire

to be liberated, to escape to let go.
9 %to
;
..
.
khwdh
rah
;
&*^
trans,
and
intrans.
m.c.
ru^dan^
c;*^;"|
grow
. .
ruj) or ruy
^^
(intrans.
ruyavl. adjective).
*ristan
}.
to spin
or ris
m.c.
nwdtmt
8
(risman
m.c. rishtan
thread)
-
m.c.
to ease nature, to stool
*mtot
****
m.c.
m.c. shikastan
^ (and
/
"
in m.c.
nn <^.J;).
(j-^)
(
crude word, only used by the vulgar. 4
o live
to break (trans,
trans.).
..
and
in-
shikan
<j
trans,
and
intrans.
m.c.
kahidan^
to lessen
m.c. kdstan
6
tr.
and
intr.
*giristan
>
to
m.c. giristan"f
m.c. gusistan
^
? ?
weep
gin ^/
f
;
(^rya kun m.c.).
to break off, to snap

tr
gusil
intrs
<J~^
.
trans,
and
*gusustan
m.c. guslkhtan
1
^~~?
and
intr
in
m>c trang<
^^^ J
and j>**[j^ though
grow
;
Note that
f
(ji**>l^-
2
3
O'H-'JL) rt* tc?an to
spelt differently are pronounced the same. " to go, travel, walk." cr"^^ ratywfon or ravidan (old)
*Ruahtan
*'
(old),
to colour, dye."
In polite speech sar-i qadam raftan
(^ s) ^^j^
(to
squat)
or bi-kiriar-i ah raftan
In modern Persian
<D^ j~->
o*jJ
'*
or value:
Ai^l^
Û
jf
kasr kardan is preferred for tr. for lowering of price az qlmat-i qall kasta ahud m.c. "carpets have gone
Nigarist
" he looked
and
na-girlst
" he did not weep."
16
242
ROOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

*manistan
l
Tto resemble
J
man
^
e/*>.
intr.
mdnd
vl-
adjective.
m.c.
mandan^
to remain,
fluous;
be superto be fa-
man
The
is
participle
mdnda
used as an
tigued; to resemble.
adjective, "fatigued,"
especially
by the
Af-
ghans.
In India it also
means "poor, worn out" (of animals).]

m.c. nishastan ^.yL^J
a
to sit
..
nislim*
*nigaristan
^yL^J ~\
m.c. nigaristan
*nigaridan-f
&&**>
I-
to look at, view
..
nigar^: (nigaridanvery
rare).
oty&j
^
*yaristan
i^;L
to be able
(in
dictionary
also
ydr ;^.
other
given)
m.c. bastan <ji~J to bind
meanings
. .
band *u
[basta
shudan
pass. m.c.].
*nisMstan
m.c
in
m c> = starch].
or
shu*idan
m.c. shuslan m.c.
to
6
wash
(shur
is
shundan
the stem most

in
in
use
m.c.,
but
both are used).
Remark.
It will be noticed that
some verbs have two forms
of the
:
and one in a vowel without as a f or Imperative stem, one ending in In both forms are used but in is modern ^f ay. writing, colloquial the
;
nearly always discarded, as
^j
bi-gu
"
say
"
(not bi-guy
^^
}.
adv. (misl) " alike, resembling." The Afghans use these verbs a transitive, " to put, place." 2 Nishasta oat is both Perfect Tense and Past Participle with ast for the English Present tense: ^~*\ *i-^J laajf anja nishasta ast "he is sitting (seated) there," but
1
Manand
also as
î^MJ ^^M t-ôf anja ml-nishmad

3
' '
that
is
o~ojW
" he looked " or nigarlst
where he always sits. else na-girlst " he did not weep."

{t
'
'
The Gabrs use

Shurldan
Khuda
^
this word in writing, oJb;^ iSjUi ^-/ \) |i>oL ra kaa-l na-yarad daryajt " none can perceive the greatness of God."
)y.
buzurgl-yi
eAij^
(m.c.) also signifies
to
grow mad, be distracted."

(2) Infinitives in
243
reject
udan e>^ dan and change u into a or

'
of
which there are not a large number,

:
ay, as
m.c. situdan
to praise
sitd
ULo
or sitay*
^&~*.
m.c.
namudan
to do, to
show
nama
UJ or
namay ^5^,
intrans.
trans,
and
Exceptions.
m.c. budan m.c. shudan

* shudan
to be
bu
or
(jjjlj
6a5/^.
to become, to go
"}
5âzi;
y^.
*tanudan
*tanidan-f
to
draw tight,
be twisted.
to twist,
<aw
<j3.
shanudan
m.c.
shamdan
*zinudan
****
vto hear
shanaw j*.
zinaw
m.c. shanuftan
to neigh
^
*.
(shayha kashlcollo-
dan in modern
quial).
*darudan
m.c. darawdan-f
to reap
daraw
the
(In
mod.
Pers.
infinitive
is
daraw
kardan
m.c.
preferred).
ghunudan
g&unavtdan-f
to slumber, doze
ghunaw
Remark.
to
The following
;
are regular
m.c. azmudan
(j^jf
and
" to try,
(intr.)
;
prove"
(tr.)
asudan
or
&^1
" to
rest,
be
satisfied,
be at ease"
(tr.
m.c. afzudan &t>jj*
fuzudan \D^ "to increase"

polluted"
:
intr.): m.c.
(in
aludan
c^f
"to
stain, pollute; to be
(tr.
and
8
intr.);
m.c.
intransitive
smear,
gild, to
(tr.
pure"
" to give, bestow, forgive carry off; withdraw oneself

:
cA& ^T ) m.c. andudan &t>jW "to plaster, twist": m.c. paludan* cJ^^ " to strain, filter; become and intr.) m.c. bakhshudan ^Âiu (also m.c. bajchshidan ^jjîu " to rob, " m.c. rubudan or *rubudan
is
aluda shudan
o>i>?;
()&#))
m.c. zadudan &&j&) from sight" (trans.) "to polish, scour; wipe sadness from the mind": *sudan &t>j< (also m.c. sabldan u;<>Û. and m.c. scffidan "to rub, wear, anoint" (tr.) 6 )
:
u^^
Sita fish kardan
is
also in use.
a
3
Vide
72
(a).
is
In modern colloquial andud kardan In m.c. foyi*' ialuda-yi (or
preferred.
v^
paluda-yi
b^^
sib
sharbat of minced
The Afghans use this verb and &*s}(j palidan for "to apple, rose-water and sugar.' In m.c. this search." in Paluda m.c. is also a sweetmeat made of starch and sugar.
verb
is tr.
5
;
the intrans. form

9
is
paluda shudan.
stfida ahudan.
Intransitive cx*-*
)PÛ
244
farsudan
to
BOOTS OE STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

to rub, wear; to be worn, old
:
"
(tr.)
" order
kushudan
^^
m.c. farmudan
)
:*
:
(also
kushddan
&
" " to open
m.c. gushudan &&jZ3 or gushadan &&($.

(3) Infinitives in
tan preceded
to cook
!^} to
by kh
reject tow
and change
into j
pukhtan andakhtan
(
throw
Exceptions.
paz _) andaz
Jf&if.
*akhtan
|
to
3
\
draw a sword
geld.
to
dkh
^f
*akhtan
m.c. shinakhtan
m.c. gusikhtan
to recognize
shinas
m.c. gusastan
!>
to break
off,
snap
gusil J~?, tr.
and
intr.
*?
*gusustan
*sukhtan
m.c. saw^â
.- 7
to weigh
*pikhtan
m.c. plchidan f
to twist, to coil
p%ch ***,
tr.
and
intr.
Remark.
The following
raise
are regular
m.c. afrakhtan (.^\j3i (or m.c.

:
afrashtan (ji^fy^'-'to set on fire" (m.c.)'* to

to
to
on high; to exalt" (tr.) afrukhtan ^y^yt 4 m.c. amukhtan "to learn' (tr.) (^kyof
:
teach"
"to
m.c.
(tr.
and
intr.):
(tr.
m.c.
amikhtan
^.iitAXjf
"to mix,
mingle;
be intermixed"
)
&**&]
(tr.)
:
angikhtan (î^^Jt (also angidan excite, rouse": m.c. avikhtan ^jisuyf "to hang, suspend"
:
and
intr.): m.c.
tan
(tr.
m.c. pardakh<jJ^lj "to play, to lose at play" (tr.) be "to to to perfection; finish; bring busily engaged" ^Lkf^ and intr.) m.c. parhikhtan ÂSU^ 6 (old) " to educate " (but parhizidan]
bakhtan
Imper.
JjjA^j,
''restrain oneself,
abstain"
(intr.):
m.c. bikhtan
a
3
Usually the participle l&fj* with an auxiliary verb is used. Also in compound verbs used as a substitute for kardan, to indicate respect.
to geld" only. In m.c. to learn only: amuzandan (*)&>)jj*\ or
cJtbjS
'
But akhta kardan

'
<u^.l
<
4
' '
amuzanidan cJ^fj-^
'
(m.c.
to teach.
5
Man
bi-m kar naml-pardazam

l
$&j$
t>
^s*^
ft
man
In kar ra pardakhtam az
(m.c.) "I completed this" p^ j$ L> ft namaz pardakht (m.c.) " he finished his prayers "= farigh shud. J "abstinence" and pahrlz kardan &&jfj*j$ only, are common in
&&
(^
(m.c.)
"
cannot do this
"
:
modern
Persian.
245
1
"to sift"
' '
;
(in diet, also

:
to hasten to assault (old " m.c. dukhtan " to " <^k^ to sew" (tr. and pay a debt; to wish, to want " to 4 " intr.): rikhtan (^^.) pour, diffuse; cast, melt; scatter, disperse (tr. 8 and intr.): m.c. sakhtan ^KÛ "to make" (tr.) *supukhtan <j.i=>-> "to thrust one thing with force into another m.c. eukhtan <jJ^-*> prick, pierce " to on fire" be to set to and inflamed, m.c. gudakhtan burn, (tr. intr.) "to to melted" be m.c. gurikhtan îiy^ " to melt, ^.y^-t^ (tr. and intr.) " m.c. navakhtan* <j.J&-fy flee away" to soothe, caress, etc.' to play upon an instrument; to sing"; (and with an instrument of punishment) "to
: ; :
"to enslave; become weak") (tr.): takhtan to make to gallop tokhtan e>vi.y (tr. and intr.)
' '
' '
chastise."
(4)
Infinitives in tan preceded

r,
by
<J sh, reject
&> tan and change

ddr
<Jb
sh
into
as
m.c. ddshtan u&*\& to have
..
)\&.
Exceptions.
m.c. gashtan
m.c. gardidan-f
^-v^^ to become, to saunter .. &**&) to return; be inverted

;
gard &}
*aghustan
wyt.V WlSfVVWW'V
\^
'--y
||
yto embrace
T
. .
"
'
/I
aghush cA*T
246
m.c. nsidan f &**>~jj m.c. rishtan

gpin
*ristan *ristan
m only
naws
in m.c.
m.c. navishtan
m.c. acfhashton
to write
to
m.c. dgMshtan
*
J^pf (jJ^p o
i,
mix; to mo i s ten; be moistened; to

defile
'
aghishta Tcun
aghushtan
î^f J
Remark.
or
The
anbashtan <jIUif
m.c. ambdshtan (1^(^<\ and following are regular <4 to m.c fill, etc."; (tr.) angashtan ^^î (or m.c. cA!;&l
:
angdrtdan
to
*angdrdan
(intr.)
"to
think,
imagine":
*awbashtan
"to devour, swallow": m.c.

think, consider;
pindashtan (Îi|>ij (or *pindandan be proud" (intr.); m.c. dashtan (^l* "to
have,
(tr.)
:
hold,
keep"
guzashtan
(tr.)
m.c.
&&
;
m.c. guzdshtan
8
t^^}^
c<
to place, put on, leave"

(intr.*):
" to pass, pass

"
:
by"
m.c. gumashtan
"to appoint " to

(5)
for a purpose
m.c. nigashtan <jJ^î (or
m c. nigandan
dan
as:
paint, portray
embroider, to write."
r,
Infinitives in
ow dan preceded by; kan e/

Exceptions.
ore) n
reject
m.c. Icandan
u^^
to dig, root
m.c. dvardan
c^f
&
to bring to count
avar t
or
m.c. shumurdan
&j+&
to
shumar
bar
*.
m.c. burdan
to carry, to bear
m.c. kardan
m.c.
do
.
murdan
to die
to
^
I
wtr
^7^0.
m.c. sipurdan
resign,
commit,
sipdr
*supdrdan m.c. dzurdan
^J
deposit, travel.
to offend, to injure
azar
;|jf
azardant
m.c. afshurdan
to squeeze
'
;
(m.o.).
to express
canal,
afshdr
*farkandan
to
dig
bring
fields.
farkan
and farkand
water into the
" to drink" nushtan (gen. nushidan or nw^^ kardan)

etc.,
but
(j^y navishtan,
"to
*
5
write."
m.c.
Also
o^y ;<^
guzar kardan
'*
to pass
by
(a person, etc.)."
is
In India the past participle,
*Û^
gumashta,
common term
for a
com-
missary, or agent, especially in the Commissariat Department.

(6)
247
Infinitives in tan &* preceded
by
/.
reject tan, <^3 and,
by a law
->:
of
permutation common
to several languages, change the /
o into b
many
verbs, however, retain the /:
m.c. yaftan <jJ&> to get, obtain m.c. baftan ^Û to weave

Exceptions.
m.c. paziruftan
to accept, approve
to bore, pierce
yob
<->(j.
baf oU.
pazir
^..
*>
m.c. suftan
sumb v^
(zf
:
sufta
kun
sufta
kardan
c^y
m.c. nihuftan
to conceal
in m.c.
nihuft
oJy.
**&*>^
m.c. dshuftan
ashub
m.c. kaftan
m.c.
kawdan
to dig, to root
up
a flower)
m.c.
kav$,
o
or
m.c. kandan-\
m.c. shiguftan m.c. shikuftan

m.c. raftan
to
expand
to smile.
(o'f
shiguft
^^
to go
m.c. shinuftan m.c. shanudan.

m.c. shariidan
^
J^
)
to hear
shinaw j*.
or
m.c. guftan m.c. kuftan-f
to say to break, bruise, knock, kub
*kuftan
m.c. &ii&?canj
m,c. ruftan^
*ruftan
-^
^>
J^/J eA)S
i^*; rto
trample under foot
sweep
r6
u^.
m.c. rit6tda7if m.c. fariftan-f

*fariftan
^HJ
to deceive
farib
v^/>
-
^^ dadan
mc
-
m.c. giriftan
to seize
Sw/to *ii^ Past Participle, but s*/to

Infinitive.
AJ
(in m.c.
*^^
'
w/0 "thick,
coarse,
from an obsolete
2
" to think " Guftan (iH^" sometimes means to say to oneself, hence
J5Uc
^
ma
9
Tab' -am bi-namaz u ruza chun
il
shud
Gujtam
"To
All
murad-i kulli-yam hasil shud. prayer and fasting when my heart inclined,
ki
my
desire I surely
hoped to
find:
(O.
180 Whin.)
248
m.c. khuftan
THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
^^
]
('Muft
(m.o.)
m.c. khwabidan
-\
c^'^
cP**~^
(to
I
sleep, crouch
etc.
khwab
(m.c.)
U^-
m.c. khusbtdan-\
m.c. khuspidan f
1 khusb
(m.c.) -*~^
(m.c.)
c^--^
to twist
.
[khusp
*taftan
&*&
Za&
15
m.c. tabldan^ cP^tfJ
Remark.
root shtiab
The following ct*.
is
regular
m.c.
shitaftan
Û,i
to hurry,
75.
Hybrid Verbs.
In addition to the pure Persian verbs, a certain number of hybrids are formed by affixing the termination idan eA-! to an Arabic root. Example
m.c. c*V*t
;
fahmidan "to understand"; &***) raqsidan (m.c.) (and raqs "to dance"; c^>*A^ talabidan "to summon" (m.c.) and a few kardan) " " to was originally Persian Gbaltidan ej^kU (m.c.) roll, to wallow others.
and then given an Arabic form by the Persians. CJiaKdan ^H^ (m.c.) is derived from the Urdu chalna
This hybrid Infinitive Persian Infinitive.
is
"
lU^.
to go."
l
called
^x^;^*,
as opposed to
^M
).
x^c a true
>
76.
The Auxiliary Verbs

>
' '
Ûroot
jUil
Shudfin &*>
to
become
' '
;
shudan "to become, to go" is conjugated regularly. (a) The verb &* The Imperative is^ shaw : in the other tenses, 3 before a vowel becomes v. The noun of agency shavanda is obsolete or else extremely rare. 4 The Aorist or bi-shavam f>*?, both forms are used. The Imperative 8 is shavam pj* seldom takes the prefix
<*J
.
the Present and Preterite tenses is also (b) The third person singular of used impersonally, especially in modern colloquial mi-shavad^ô and nami" and "is it not " mi-shud 4 shavad *j&^ "is it possible ? 6-u*xx>; possible?
;
nami-shud
(c)
"was it possible; was it not possible? " vide 77 (d). Shudan eA" is also used for conjugating the grammatical passive
*Z>*+>
:
Khwabanidan
eWt^L
O r Tchwabandan
t>^ "to
is
lull
to sleep;
to
mak e
(a camel) lie
2
3
down
shaw
to lower (a flag or anything that
raised on high).
Shavanda
%<^j*> is
Gum
J** f*.
sometimes used when translating literally from Arabic. " be off with you," are both used or gum bi-shaw j***
bi-tu tarsu
*?
in m.c.
*
Compare ahmaq ! agar

?
andalchtl
(m.c.)
^|A*I *&**
call
1
**^
mi-guftand chi ml-shud ** *^ *******
^^
^ ^^
Jci
khud-at ra bi mahlaka
C*^
" ass
even
if
they did
you a funk what was
there in that to
make you go and
cast
yourself into danger
"
TAVANISTAN.
voice.
249
In other cases
its
place can be taken by either of its
synonyms,
Imperative gard ^. (d) Note the following idioms &f )&$ u/f an qadr ki (1) îj ^xxj î*) raftan mi-shud raftam " an ki far as I was able karda mi-shud kardam f&j? &&** qadr
gashtan
',
^^
or gardidan
\s)*>&jL,
(i
went as
*$ )*3 izj>
&1
" I did as
(2)
much
as I could.'
'
"it
AAfjio ^&. (Afghan and m.c.) khurak jihat-i just u ju kardan na-khwahad " it will not be shud *> o-Aiîo f ^ j e>~^ -^;>^ -^t ^ (Afghan) necessary to make a search for food."
will
Chunin na-khwahad shud

not happen
ki*Z
v
that"
^^
I; ^1 j!\ &y&& *>* Guftam chi mi-shavad agar in kar ra kuni ? " " I said should not do ? this (m.c.) why you guft agar dar mufavaza-yi u
(3)
shab-i ta khir kardi chi shudi
"he
said,
it
if
i*)Ui*jA^li oif (Sa'dl) he had delayed having connection with her one night what
a*.
^^
^s*j*
j^& ^^ jf
would
have mattered."
Tajir bi-khanda shud *
(4)
&iij
x)
âJ-> -(m.o.)
"the merchant began
to
laugh," vide
(e)
79
(c).
<^-*jj
Ba'd ma'lum mi-shavad
j*^**
**?
(m.c.)
"we
shall
see";
also
ma'lum shudan &&> ^l*x> (m.c.) " to appear."

" to want" (used in the Future tenses of verbs); hastan ^1^* "to be, exist" (used in Perfect "to be" (used in the Pluperfect tenses); tavanistan tenses); budan &*j " " to be able" bashldan &**>b " to be etc.) (used in the ^S&of
Remark.
The
auxiliary verbs are Ichwastan
.jL\ja*
v^y
A
MI
Û,
(used in the
<
if&*
),
and shudan &*
" to become."
defective verb
is
called
uAjj-axJf (.yoJU.
Some
of the auxiliary verbs are
also defective.
The
a*A5li
JUj; are shud
sometimes amad
^,
bud
and bar-amad
^^, j
gardld jj^/ and gasht^^ etc., and They are called naqis u<^'lj because
,
though in appearance intransitive verbs, they yield no sense with a subject ^*^t by itself is really meaningless. alone, thus Ahmad bud
Examples
<(
of
amadan
^^t as a fi'l-i
naqis are
:
khayli puch bar-amad
^^-
it
turned out (was) very useless"
77(a)
Tavanistan
is
^.wJty* "to be able": root tavdn

as
This verb
such regular, except that certain tenses, etc.,

agency, are not used.
is
the
Imperative, noun
(1)
of
In classical Persian, this verb
usually either preceded
by an
An
qadr ki mi-shud bi-ravam raftam (m.c.)
Tavanidan ^^Jly obsolete.
250
Infinitive or followed
TAVANISTAN.
:
tanhd by the shortened Infinitive, as îy <^*J &t>j I am not naml-tavdnam and Indian "alone able kardan to do coll.) (Afghan it" ey&$' \) }\ cuaa^ j ! jj,i ffcfji. I; ^~j ^JD jfff AS' j+x&' |; Qj*- Jt v^~> <^!t jt
;
o.uJ|y *A|j.i6 az
ft,
sabab avval chirdgh ra kushtam ki agar ru-yi pisar ra

:
khipdham did az shafaqat* u ra kushtan na-khwaham tavdnist (Afghan) i>Jiyj ^yS kas na-tavdnad girift ddman-i dawlat bi-zur (Sa'dl) )j*y oJjj> ^<|j>
o^
"none can compel fortune."

and Indians
Remark.
in talking. 8
This construction
is still
used by the Afghans

of the Infinitive frex>
In the Gulistan, however, the

:
full
form
eHi*
quently occurs after the auxiliary, as

ej^^f
v^r
*'
*>&
L5H^
*"***
^j**'^)
c^J
fî>** u>f
y^* f'V 3'^*^ ^^? ^^.jJsl^ OO**A. aâr bi-ma'unat-i shuma

1
jihat-l
mu'ayyan
gardad ki mujib-i jam'iyyat-i khatir
bashad baqiyya-yi 'umr
az 'uhda-yi shukr-i
influence,
an na-tavanam birun dmadan (Sa'dl) "if, through your some means be settled that would release me from this burden,
' '
;
I will be grateful to you for the whole of my life ^j&J ojfc ji ^\j* pti& *^ nazirdn va o*.^ ^3| ^Lwif ÛT *-&ÂJ 'j guftam baray-i nuzhat-i ^fj-^Lx c><^
fushat-i haziran kitdb-i Gulistan
tavdnam
that I would perhaps compose * ." tion 6 to its readers 6 so that

(2)
" I replied the Gulistan as a delight and a satisfactasnif
kardan ki
(Sa'dl)
Or the auxiliary
is
is
apocopated,
i.e.
the stem with or without the

:
verbal prefixes
is
followed by the shortened Infinitive in this case the verb a present impersonal. This construction is modern as well as Afghan and
&f
Indian:
cu*j ij^J *&f ^*fa j j&** îf^l^ ^t bi-hukm-i dn-ki parvdrda-yi ni'mat-i in khdnddn-am va bi-andak mdya-yi taghyir-i 1 khatir bd vati-ni mat-i khud bi-wafd^t na-tavdn
j$ ^^ ^5'^^
(Sa'di)
^ o*i ^ ^y^
7
&*
^^
kard ki
" because I have been nurtured by the bounty of this House, and one cannot be faithless merely on account of a slight change in the regard
of one's
patron towards one
' '
;
Ddni
1
' '
ki chi guft Zdl bd
Rustam-i gurd?
'
'
Dushman na-tavdn haqir u btchdra shumurd (Sa'dl). Knowest thou what said Zal to the hero Rustam ? One ought not to count any enemy as despicable and impotent.'
/*i*J
'
1 2
In modern Persian
Colloquially, the
&
bi-bmam (Subjunctive) would be more usual.
Also pronounced shafqat.
before the auxiliary, thus
Afghans often use the Past Participle instead of the Infinitive dlda naml-tawanam **j.* (for didan nami-tawanam <^+>
;
^y
îy cs^
* I
6
0*^
"
).
am
able to
and D.V.
will
note direct narration in Persian.
Lit.
amplitude."
called the
The book being
" Rose Garden," there

>
is
a play upon the word
nazir "spectator."
7
Taghylr
j&
"change," but taghayyur
j&
''anger."
TAVANISTAN.
A?
251
Imruz bi-kush
" Kill to-day while
it is
ki mi-tavdn kusht
K'atash chu buland shud jahdn sukht (Sa'di).

possible to
kill,
l
For a small
fire, if it
becomes great, burns

in the
the whole world."

:
Both constructions occur together
following
oy
f
^ ^)^j ^
}
&J
? tA-'a
*&
^JLJtyi ^ al&f v=A*la
&
^jjj^ft.
<>*j>
<ji.i/o}U
maldmat-ash
kardand ki chumn sayd 2 dar ddm-at uftdd va na-tavdnisti nigdh ddshtan ? Guft " ay barddardn chi tavdn kard? (Sa'di) They upbraided him saying, such a 2 8 fine fish fell to thy lot and thou coulds't not keep it'? He said, 'my
brethren, what can one do
'
"
Remark
tf"
I.
Sometimes the auxiliary

guft
is
:
not apocopated but
is
used
impersonally in the third person singular, as
ÛLoj
jbjZ-'O ajji
dar zamistdn ki
(Sa'dl)
<ioty**> cfejjA *&T c5"Lr?3' ^^ an az bard-yi ki har ruz-ash mi-tavdnad did magar "because one can see him (the Sun) every day,
except in winter,
when."
The apocopated
:
Remark
II.
auxiliary
is
rarely
followed by the
full
form of the Infinitive
v
Va-lik mi-na-tavdn az zabdn-i
3'
Bi-'uzr-i tauba tavdn rastan az 'azdb-i
Khuddy
rast
mardum
(Sadi).
"
By
the atonement of repentance one can escape the wrath of God, But escape from the tongue of men one can never."
In this example rastan

license only.
(3)
(*)
is
used for rast
o*j
in the first line

i^fy
also
ml-na-tavdn i^tyu </" in the second line for nami-tavdn
is
a poetical
A
:
third construction
is
the Aorist (or Subjunctive) after the auxi-
liary, as
Warna sazd-vdr-i khuddvandi-yash Kas na-tavdnad ki bi-jd dvarad (Sa'di).

" Otherwise
fitting
His Glory,
None
is
able to perform
what
is
worthy
of it."
(This construction
is
used in modern Persian.)
Note the
Preterites for the Aorist
and Present tenses
in a condition, after
chun
Sayd <*** Ar. is applied to any game, or quarry, or prey anything in mouse to an elephant the Persian (and Indian) equivalent is shikar ;&*'.
ft ;
:
fact
from a
Dam
()*
"snare "
trappers
is
figuratively.
By
it
applied to any kind of net, snare, or trap, literally and is specially applied to a noose or set of nooses.
252
TAVANISTAN.
Remark.
is
Tavan e>[y also takes the prefix *. (bi-tavdn m said to be sometimes contracted into tan &ti Shdyad ^.^
1
Tavdn and bdyad

.
*xk are
(b)
sometimes used
(1)
as
synonyms
for tavan c;iy
In modern Persian, the last construction
is
the usual one, but in
speaking the conjunction &> is generally omitted, as: f>\*> ^*J>> C5-*J namitavdnam bi-ydyam "I can't come," or " I will not be able to come" for nami*S &&** cjUf* )* *&[&* <H'il <*xfs cU^ JL\ tavdnam ki bi-ydyam l Ûi p>\j*+> *& dji'o agar mayl ddshta bdshid mi-tavdnid dar mihmdn-khdna manzil kunid (modern colloquial; Rozen's grammar) "if you like, you can put up in the hotel" ki * is understood after mi-tavdnid *&ij* ^*.
:
-> :
(2) The shortened Infinitive after the tenses of this auxiliary is still used the by Afghans and Indians, but in the modern colloquial of Persia this when used it is generally in third person construction is not common u^^ L*?' ^n shakhs in kar ra nami-tavanad *ity singular, as \)
:
kard (m.c.) "this

*
man
^ ^^
can't (or won't be able to) do this."

<^l c>tyu* &j&*-
(iy[^ or) c;ty " cannot believe this
^ ^ }^
(3) The Impersonal construction is also used in m.c., as: " }j^ chiguna mi-tavan in kar ra kard? (m.c.) how is one
to
do
this
"
?
:
^
:
kard
zjS
cuJty
^
The
nami-tavan (or na-tavan) bdvar kard (m.c.) na-tavanist kard ^<~j\^& (m.c.) or namitavanist
" one
(me.)
<(
one could not (past) do this."
Remark.
Perfect of tavanistan
^~Jiy
that govern the Perfects of other verbs, vide tavdnista and dnjd bi-ravand &jj> Isof <3J| ai~îy
subject to the same rules 125: vaqt-i dar Landan budand

is.
^^
is>&J )& <^*j
the Perfect
shows the speaker was not present.

(4) The auxiliary need not be repeated before the second of two verbs, shumd mi-tavdnid dnjd bi-ydyidva asp-davdni kunid? 4*Jta lûf ^>ly^> '4^ HH^^J^v^j (m.c.) "can you come there and (can you) gallop your
:
as
horse"?"
is understood, or tavanistan ^ÛJiy is considered transitive, as: ammd kas-i ki kucha va bdzdr-i Isfahan rd nik bi-ddnad va dar sTiab rdhnumdî bi-tavdnad, ghayr az man na bud **;* &*~f Uf *& cr-* jf j** *>&* L/)^ tij *-^^ ;o j ^!^ vJoJ f; câ^f jtjlj j (Tr. H. B.
Occasionally, a transitive verb
itself
Chap V), "but there was none but me who knew the streets of Isfahan, and who could act as guide in them." Ouftam dnki kuk kardan-i sd'at rd na-ddnad iddra-yi mamlakat rd chiguna tavdnad ? f; oucU &$ vjy A^Jf plsZ ^ty VjZ*. ; o,Ûx5 ijbt *>i|Ai (Tr. H. B. Chap. VII) " I said, how can a man who does not even know how to wind up a watch, manage a kingdom ? "
'
'
'
'
*
v^f
**&
wil
**>
(Tr.
(Tr.
jl^SIb *$
ij^ b
H. B. Chap. H. B. Chap. XL).
XXXVIII):
Man
or
---- ^tyjk+J.
*
qadir naml-basham ki In kar ra bi-kunam
f&
is
Ij
j&
^ ^
*$
this.
Either a simple question cr in the sense of 'it
impossible to do
TAVANISTAN.
253
(c)
An
Indian use of this verb
is
illustrated in the following
u A*J &# oJJiy o)Uxj j &tf)_jj oÛ^ *^~.x> ^jj cUi JU îjtf tavdnad bud at-i va in ahl-i hdl buzurgdn ma'drif bi-hama masjid jamd " I said to a congreare of this the mosque people myself perhaps (classical) If was substituted, the oi*[yx gation of big and well-known persons." *^J would mean "are." sense would be "must be": mi-bdshand
(
example bd khud guftam

:
Shdyad bdshand
(d)
^xb
Û could
also be used.
As already mentioned in Present and Preterite of shudan &*

'
76
is
the third person singular of the (b) used impersonally. It is followed either
,
:
by the Subjunctive or by the shortened Infinitive, as <x ^w a^ ^jo $j*\j> Jjy j*** U jj) oUA bi^vdsita-yi badi-yi rah nami-shud hamdn ruz td bi-sar-i ***>; " on account of the badness of the road it kutal bi-rasim (m.c. Roz. Or.) was
t; ^*^<*J impossible to reach the top of the pass that day iC o^J)j nami-shud'1 lei in nasihai rd bizanat bi-kum (m.c.)
:
"
^t
to
:
*f <x
it
?
"was
**xs
^
not
possible for
4j
you to give this piece of advice to your wife (and not " " *J na no, it is impossible khayr namt-shavad (m.c.) Lf+Jj^
(^J p?s7i a2
me)
"
:
ji-u
cîj zj
'^ 3 nami-shavad
C5
raft
(m.c.)
td
"we
can't go before the

(m.c.)
'Id": f^kj ^MJ

" can't
*-*-*>!
^^
^ nami
shavad
imshab pas bi-giram
I possibly
have
it
back by to-night ?
"
Note the shortened

\
Infinitives
*<. Ûi * j*^2$ jZ agar qasd* in the following: oAiAJt cu^f,>^ t; vîv j^xx;^fc na-bdshad chi tawr mi-shud sang rd barddsht anddkht (m.c.) "were there no
intention,
and thrown
(e)
how was " 5 it ?

able,
I*
it
possible (how did
it
happen) to have picked up a stone

&**=>
f 5U? ;>k A^ *>& ^J AJ&f^j ^^^'j ^.J^^ cJiyU J^ c/ii to^r bi-ydyim,khasta shuda " how can nd-tavdn gashtim va qadamhd-yi 6 md bar-ddshta nami-shavad (m.c.) we come ? we are worn out by fatigue, and cannot even lift our feet (our feet
:
To be
can also be expressed by the Passive, as
cannot be lifted)."
Ddnista nami-shavad bi-mi'ydr-i 'uqul Sanjida nami-shavad bi-miqyds-i qiyds.
"No man
of science ever
weighed
(it)
with scales,
'
:
Nor made assay with touch-stone, no, not one!

(0.
K. 279 Whin.}
Generally pronounced kutal. chi ml-shud agar in nasihat ra bi-zanat ml-kardl (m.c.). Colloquially and vulidea that garly the Imperfect is often used for the Present, apparently from a confused the Imperfect is a Subjunctive or Conditional. An English writer sometimes says,
1
Or
4 '
What
3
were you pleased to order
' '
*
6 8
Vulgar 'ayd. For qasd-at *<**.

This use of ahudan
(*)^
(*tK',
is classical
as well as
modern
colloquial.
Or singular qadam
as a collective noun.
254
GIRIFTAN.
Before a compound of substantive, etc. and verb, the auxilmodern colloquial, often immediately precedes the verbal iary 'can/ member of the compound, as avaza mi-tavdni bi-khwdrii (,j\j&u ^l " can you sing ?", or mi-tavdm (ki) avaza bi-khwdrii ajtyf ( & ) (m.c.)
Remark.
in
(J\S*u (m.c.)
(/)
Tawana Ufy
is
an adjective "powerful," and
its
negative form
is
nd-tavdn oiy G, and also nd-tavdnd

is
Uy U
(old).
Tavdn
stretch
Tavdn-gar j&\ji ^y is a substantive "strength." &**& (g) Ydrastan uJ^;l> or ydristan

out the
an adjective, signifying "powerful, rich."
(rt.
2/ar
;lj )
hand," and
drastan
u^rf
(rt.
dr
"to be able; /f) "to be able;

.
to
to
adorn
' '
occur frequently in poetry for tavdnistan ^>iîy
t;U (subs.) "boldness; power." Ddnistan ^J^ta "to know" is in classical and modern Persian used for "to be able the construction is the same as with tavanistan
Yard
(h)
' '
fcli?
CU*J^> j
O^CÔ
jl
^J^*
maldmat u shun'at, gunah-i dukhtar

ddnl suft
?
chist
Turd
girl's fault
ki dast biJarzad guhar chi
"After reproving and abusing [the husband] Sa'dl said,

'
'
What
is
the
?
l '
How
can you whose hand trembles, string a pearl

?
"
(Sa'dl).
lines.)
U
(i)
ml-ddnad bi-kunad
'
*&> ^\**
j\
(GuL, Chap. VI, last " can he do it does he (vulg.)

;
know
how?"
To be
*y&
able
'
can also be paraphrased by such expressions, as
agar az
2
)
dast-at bi-ydyad
^l# c^xo 3}
^j c>-y
Ux>
or) ^jf
qddir budanbar
^ ^ )^
tô
:
jS\
az ru-yi
man nami-dyad
(or namt-shavad)
} j|
"I am ashamed to
(i.e.,
I can't
"
:
qdbil-i or qdbil bar
dar quvva-yi khud dldan or budan (&ty lj ) c;-^^ kdr rd bi-kunam p& I; $6 ^t A^ /*^~^ ^fy, or tavdndî-yi
budan, ()*# jj * lyj.ii tavdnd nistam

"in
cU* or JjU
ki
kdr rd na-ddram
,*;;iJ
t;
;^
77
(e)
ÎJiy for "to be able."
<^j|
zmâw ddshtan ^JU^ o^f
Fiê also
76
(d)
and
78.
(a)
Giriftan
"to
n
^J.
etc."
;
Giriftan (jJ^/, root gir j*f
seize,
transitive
and intran-
sitive.
The Imperative form

1
g\r j4 is
t use(l colloquially
There
is,
of course, a double
meaning: guhar-i na-sufta <w>liÂ

(m.c.)
you're-
js
a poetical
expression for a virgin.

a
Khayll pur-ru hastl
C5^"~
ru az plah bardasht (m.c.) " he hid himself."
A)^ C5^
very shameless
"
:
GIRIFTAN.
255
In classical Persian, in addition to
its
" to ordinary signification of take,

;
seize," this verb, preceded by an Infinitive, means "to begin," as: " f U^ f; cJXo o^fj> ** ^(ty y u guftan girift "he began to speak bi-zabdn-i ki ddsht malik rd dushndm dddan girift va saqat j o*^
^^
guftan (Sadl)
"he began
to abuse the king

girift
and use bad language
in his
native-tongue: zabdn-dardzl kardan
cuJ/
^y
^jlja obj (Sa'di)
"she
began to scold." This idiom is

nearly obsolete in
still
modern
used colloquially by the Afghans and Indians, but is In a few cases only, in modern Persian, Persian.
does giriftan mean "to begin"; dil-am tapldan girift <^j> " " barf girift o**/ vJ^j, bdrdn girift (m.c.) my heart began to beat " it For " to begin " in modern to rain." it to snow began (m.c.) began
:
^J
79.
Persian, vide
(6)
Giriftan
^3
is
perative g%r
5
j&
(In poetry the Imfrequently used interjectionally in this sense). Examples
also
means "to suppose, admit."

fj4 gwam
ki
u>-j3
p&
u p*
OA~.O ov+* *f
ghamat
(Sa'di)
>Jôf x>
let
me
(c)
anxiety. ( or), va giriftam (or glram) ki p} suppose) that they came": ( +ij
"I admit you have no
gham-i ma ham mst ? Have we then none?" fi*J> 5

nist
:
dmadand
QI
)
'*
(m.c.)
and admitted
(vulg.)
(or
1
mi-girim (or
" we girim] (m.c.)
f#s*f& jy+*
is
hamchi
will
suppose
giriftan
Colloquially and vulgarly
(or let
us suppose) so." used pleonastic ally, as:

fell
^t>
(d)
dalldk girift khwdbid
(m.c.)
"the barber
asleep";
bi-gir bi-khwab (m.c ) "go to sleep." Note the following intransitive or reflexive uses of this verb
JHr^
c^
3'
t^
J^
o^
Jbj** ^\*b &*>*
ptf
***-
Ta chand kunam 'arza-yi nd-dani-yi Ichwlsh, Bi-girift dil-i man az pansJidm-yi Ichwish ?
' '
My
Dldam
that
ki
Oft times I plead my foolishness to Thee, heart contracted with perplexity."
my
(0. K. 281 Whin.) " I saw &> dar nafas-am (Sa'di) nami-gwad *j*h+* j* f~& <J*>j& )* v^ speech (breath) did not sink in made no impression"
^^
" the water stuck in his throat; he choked" " " " 1 y^j vrÂJ nafas-at bi-girad hold your tongue (m.c.) lit. may your breath be caught, may you choke"; oJ^f ^jS )\ f^> tukhm az garml dar girift <k the seeds were scorched by the sun" ^x^y LT^ zabdn-ash mi-girad (m.c.) (m.c.) "he stammers" (lit. his tongue sticks) oJ^^<iJ c^^jf u sar-ash
oJjf db dar gulu-yash
girift
:
bi-divdr girift (m.c.)
"he suddenly
struck his head against the wall"

girift,
nabz-
am
istdda asl t
chashm-am nami-bmad, gush-am

pronounced hamchi. " =" hold your noise, d
;
dh-dh-hay
raftlm (m.c.)
Hamchu
i.e.,
_}*>+*> is
"
may you
*
die
n you."
is
Do
not say nafa, which
generally
8
means penis." The conventional way
of writing this exclamation
<Â U
jjf .
256
THE VERBS, ETC.
has stopped, iny eyes don't see, my ears too don't hear ah! I (the last words of a dying man) gone oJ>/ <J**.y& &>jt girya dar his "sobs choked utterance." gulu-yash girift (m.c.) " ast o^f Aij^f wliif (m.c.) "the sun is eclipsed. 1 (e) Aftdb girifta
"my pulse
am
' '
Girifta
(/)
*uj
In
is
also
an adjective, "dark," applied to colouring.
in sarud) girandagi na-ddrad ( ^^- î b ) o;^^> ^\ " this picture (or this song) has no attractiveness in it." a>|jj J*>J& (m.c.) az harf zadan vd-glr nami-kard (or dram nami-girift) shab tamdm-i (g) U " \j e^j -$;*. jl ( ^J> fiyf lj) JÂ+J j fW $ (m.c.) he ceased not to
surat
(or
v*
chatter
all
the night through.
Ai*^ jîa ^)j* &* (m.c.) (h) Chilla-yi buzurg hanuz na-giri/ta ast " the heat have not yet commenced." of (or greatest cold) greatest forty days and sitdndan In modern &*J(L (vulg. istdndan (i) colloquial giriftan &&
are used for " to buy."
ov
79.
(a)
The Verbs "to begin,
'
etc.
For the use
of giriftan
^}
in classical Persian for
"to begin,"
vide
78
(a).
(b)
The verbs "to begin" are &$ tv s bind kardan ; 4 e>^^j *T dg&dz namudan; &&jZ ajy shuru' kardan; &sj> s)*i*\ ibtidd* kardan (of a CAUv f*jf ^ j work). They are followed by the Infinitive, as follows " I 5 va kardan-i dukdnhd bind kardam bi-tamdshd (m.c.) began to look tfita
(1)
l
:
^^
at the
shops"; p&\
^';
*
8t;
"I began run":

eat
"
:
^
:
to
walk"
&*))&u.
f)*> f&jf
>/
shuru
cs>^ bind-yi rah raftan guzdshtam (m.c.) bind kardam bi-davam (vulg.) "I began to bi-khwurdan namud (m.c.) "he began to
t^l ibtidd*' ml-kunam bi-ndm-i Khudd* (mod. writing) God. " " to (of a work (2) Dast bi-kdr shudan ^^j^j o**o also means begin c^ji *jk \î fardd bdyad dast bi-kdr shud (m.c.) " we must begin only) the business to-morrow."
to cry
' '
"
&z>j
&>.j^.
f^^
^ ^y
iXixA^caî shuru mi-kunadbi-girya kardan (m.c.)
" she begins
begin in the
name
of
' '
oy&
1 Kuauf ^3~& and Miusuf Oj-^ may signify an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon, but the former is specially used for the sun and the latter for the moon. These words are only used in talking by the learned. * Va hama shab noryararrild az sukhanha-yiparishanguftan (Sa'di) Mod. Pers. hama" " all the and hama shab " every night." night yi shab
:
.
Biria* signifies
"building
is
a " mason ": bina bar

*
" " and Una 9 kardan &*j? tfa "to build " and biria bar-an &\j* ^ '* j>^ because of
'
*tij
therefore
banna" " :
the
not written in Persian.
*
5
Aghazidan u>H?*'
Br. Ar.
pi.
(î^lîi
is
obsolete.
is
dakakin
also used in
modern
colloquial.
In
this phrase the izafat is
sometimes
classically omitted,
KHWASTAN, ETC.
(c)
25?
>
Afghan idioms: AJ+J ^w&J ^y ^& kishtl faro colloquial) "the ship began to sink ": Vjt ^\^ i^LU sang az kuh ghaltidan kard " the rock began to roll down the hillside" f^y Uj tj_>yo &j+> jl^b Jji) (^^JjJ 0*3 ^ dar waqt-i peshin roz tayyar namudan-i mez ra bina kardami (Afghan colloquial) "at midday I began to
are
The following
nishastan
namud (Afghan
make
the table
' '
kardam
(Af. col.)
khema ra kandan shuru "I began to dig (the ground) behind the tent " Û*^
;
f&j> ^)j
&*if
tj
*+*&>
v^*
'
aqab-i
aj+j u>>()9 bad-i khawf-nak-i wazidan namud (Afg. col.) [bad-i sakht-i vaztdan " a terrible wind gin ft m.c.] began to blow": * |4Asfcj^4'U â;Jr bi-khanda shud (Afghan, and modern colloquial) " the merchant began to laugh (went
off into
(d)
(e)
a laugh)." Man bi-khanda uftadam
{&)
Jj*xisu ^.ô
<{
(m.c.)
began
to laugh."
There are in Persian no continuative verbs.

prefix
The continuative
mi
or
hami
^*a> is
added to the Imperative
in
classical Persian, or in
poetry only. In modern Persian, however, there is a curious continuative particle or particle of excess, hay ^5*, which can be prefixed to several tenses to form continuatives. This usage is at present considered vulgar, though used by
"we kept on shooting"; pj&fy* j& <y* -)}&* <_?& (to a greedy boy) "keep on hay bi-khur, Possibly connected with hamisha *&&*>, this particle is probeating, do. ably immediately derived from the cry hay! hay! hay! of the camel- men,
Qa'anL
Hay
' '
shikar mi-kardim
hay bi-khur )j^
used to keep a string of slowly-moving camels in motion: it is to camels, what a swung lantern is to a shunting train. That this particle is connected with hami <_<+* and consequently with hamisha *vt&, seems probable from
the fact that hami (^^
is
sometimes substituted, as
o*s<>>j <^+& (Haji Baba, Chap. XXIX) "by this means he jxf Ûi| jjj ÛA.) won the hearts of two persons the one who received the present and the
;
^^
^^
Jj>
J^-b
<^J
other
who bore it*": ura didam hami mi-khurad ^WA*

" I saw him eating and eating"
(i.e.
^4.* j*^^ t;^(
(m.c. or local)
a great deal).
80.
(a)
Khwastanin
^"^
and
"to wish, etc."

the Aorist
of
As already shown
the paradigm of the verb,

Infinitive
in
is
khwastan
(^^ followed by the apocopated
used in forming the

colloquial.
Definite Future, both in classical Persian
modern
Note the majhul sound of the vowels and the InEnitive without a preposition Nimaz-i peshm fcH&^j^ is an Afghan and Indian preceding the verbs "to begin." " is a common word in " Urdu. expression for the midday prayer jl*-b "ready 4 The Shah as a of his meal to his host, and mark of favour sent
i
:
special
portions
they had to tip heavily the servants who brought the tid-bits. Every one was pleased, including the Shah, who could thus pay his servants out of other
to
certain
courtiers
people's pockets.
In the original
8.5
u'"^!
is
slip f or
17
258
(b)
KHWASTAN.
In the Gulistan the unapocopated Infinitive frequently follows the Infinitive in the sense of a definite future, as y jr^** <*i-'f j& * ^\t> AAÂ
:
^.}* LU?x*J e/T
cJ<>*# &* liAfâ- âr C/M cam &i ftar d*ina ma lum-i tu "be not in haste to khwahad shudan bi-pursidan-i an ta'jil makun (Sa'dl)
e
enquire about anything
that you
know
will of a surety
become revealed
to
you (without asking)."
-*
rfmn-t mara gu bi-zaban pand ma-dih

bi-shamshir na~khwahad budan
(Sa'di).
Ki mara tawba
:<
Tell
my
I'll
ancient friend to proffer
me no
advice,
For
ne'er repent even at the point of the sword."
Yak-i ra
zisht-Jchu^-i
dad dushnam
'
Tahammul Jcard u guft ay nik-farjam Batar-z-anam ki Tchwahi gufian an-i Ki danam ayb-i man, chun man na-dani.
' e
'
'
bad-tempered person abused some one.

'
With resignation he replied, Oh thou, mayest thou be blessed! Worse am I than anything thou wilt say I am For thou dost not know my faults as I know them myself.'
;
'
ty AAI^L cjt/^ (^[r*

Khist-l
lei
&\J>\
AVAt^Ly u-JUj-Xr^^^
zi qalib-i tu
Tchwahand zadan
Ayvan-i sara-yi digaran khwahad bud.

"
And
To
see" your ashes
build another's house
moulded into bricks, and turrets high." (0. K. 162 Whin.)
The same construction is used in the Gulistan when Tchwastan signifies "to wish," "to desire," as ^J; Â^ tsof ^lalu JUi.b j va tifl ba-nadanl " and the anja khwahad raftan (Sa'di) boy through ignorance wished to go
:
there":
8
J*j
&
^
3
Note this meaning of ftar c/i* ^^* " whatever." " Stars" (understood) is the subject in the English.
All one adjective.
Ta $
"
it is
not known
' '
ta-yi tajahul.
KH\VASTAN.
259
Ay
hundr-hd nihdda bar kaf-i dast

1
'Ayb-hd bar girifta zir-i baghal To, chi khwdhi kharidan, ay maghrur !
Ruz-i darmdndagi ba-slm-i daghal.
te
(Sa'dl).
Oh thou who
!
display est abroad thy virtues,
But hidest away thy vices from sight, Shame a what wishest thou to purchase, deluded being, With thy base coin on the day of distress (the day of judgment)
Remark
as
:
"
?
I.
In the Gulistan the auxiliary sometimes takes the prefix
Chi sdlhd-yi fardvdn va 'umrha-yi daraz Ki khalq bar sar-i ma bar zamm bi-khwahad
raft
Chundn
ki dast bi-dast
dmadast mulk bi-md

raft
Bi-dasthd-yi digar
hamchumn bi-khwdhad
auxiliary
is
(Sa'dl).
Remark
II.
The verb following the
in classical Persian also

:
put in the Subjunctive [vide end of (c) and Remark to (c)]. Ex. *f guft man u rd nam/i-khwdham ki bmam (Sa'd!) ^Juj p*]j=*'
\>
j\
do not wish to see him.'

(c)
^ *M
said,
"he
'
The Afghans
s
in speaking sometimes use a similar construction,
but
LJ*
place the Infinitive before the auxiliary:
JL^
(
e>>/ <Jty )&)**.
c>^
man
khwdstam (Afghan coll.) "I wished to give him some small present"; turd nds-ib-i khud * kardan mi-khwdham " I wish to make zj&. you my deputy." Lr* (Afghan coll.) ^fâxAX) They, however, also employ the Aorist or Subjunctive after the auxiliary, as ^&> f; c^^ ** o*^f^=cu;A> s*/of JUii dumbdl dmada mi-khwdst ki kishti rd " he followed and tried bi-gwad (wished) to seize hold of the bciat."
cJwz-e
ba-tawr-i nazr pesh s kardan
&^
v^
Remark.
This last
is
the ordinary construction in modern colloquial

is usually omitted, as ' ' to ask you
.
:
except that the conjunction

' '
mi-khwdham bi-pursam
" to send
*?
^*b*H^
want
(d)
Khwdstan
<^W^
(2)
is
also a transitive verb signifying: (1)
for or to
summon,"
"to
desire
(a
thing)" and
(3)
"to
love, to be
fond of."
All one adjective.
Ta
13
"
it is
not known "
ta-yi
tajahuL
(m.c.)
Majhul J^f^'
vowels; plsh-lcash
(J&*$
a present from an inferior to a
superior (used politely). 4 Note that ra is omitted after khud (the second of two substantives in apposition in the accusative case).
260
(1)
KHWASTAN.
o*:so bi-jihat-i Tiamin bud shumd ra khwastam ^L!^k (; U& ajj I^JJ+A that I sent for you" for this reason it was tjS* t;^f o*,i I; Lib (m.c.) bi-ishdra-e dast o ra nazd-i khud khwastam (m.c. and Afghan colloquial) ju.(j. " I called him to me by a signal with my hand.
"
' '
(2) c>^ ^r? LS*>\J*# ^>j* jh agar marg mi-khivdhi bi-raw Gildn (proverb) "if you desire death go to Gllan 1 "; <x>Uj mi-tihwastam bi-ydyad ^Lolîu/o
(m.c.) (vulgar,
(3)
" I wish he would come." Imperfect for Present tense) man urd bisyar mi-khwdham (m.c.) " I am very Âtj.sujA3 ;Uw,j \)j\ ^4
fond of him, love him very much." (e) In modern colloquial, and in Kabuli Persian too, this verb also signifies "to intend," or "to be on the point of doing," as: ^-j ^^^/o
mi-khwdst bi-mirad (m.c.)
"he was
about to die
(not wished to
die)";
AÎj-^^ Uf agjia mi-khwahad chand-ta shalaq bi-ashpaz " bi-zanad (m.c.) "the master threatens the cook with his whip (Roz. Gr.)
;
Ji*k (3^*> ^ A
Uf *> ^j <3.A|j.iuAX} mi-khwahad bi-ravad ki agha (m.c.) "he is about to go 5U &f o*t^wA* o^ oi^xj^ljs tamam-i mihndt-i when his master ": man mi-khwast ki za*i shavad (Afghan coll.) "the whole of my labour was
^
6
:
* nearly being wasted. " re(/) This verb is also colloquially used in an impersonal sense meaning b *Jti. *!J.:SUAO j.x*.J ^jf in khdna ta*mir mi-khwdhad (m.c.) "this quires, "as
:
' '
house needs repairing
"
j.A!îa^ 0*3^ Û-o
U jxa.
^^ JaJ o- tsu ba-jihat-i naql

"much
is
kardan-i chizhd bisyar waqt mi-khwahad (Afghan)
time
is
remove the things"

rang
it
ast qadr-t bishtar

little
rang mi-khwdhad
%. ^x> ^^^ ^)*$ ot ^; ^ ^^(S "

the rug
requisite to
qalicha
kam
;
more colour." To any money," or "do you want such and such a thing?" the answer 7 might be AA|^ ^*J nami-khwdhad (m.c.) "it is not necessary, it doesn't
wants a
matter."
too light in colour (m.c.) the remark " I have forgotten to bring
The following are Afghan idioms:

fdqa kardan me-tihwahad* (Af.) "it imruz bdyad ruza bi-ddram (*;f<^
is
*&lj^* ^bj$
)
tJti
t;
j^/cf
imroz* ra
necessary to fast to-day" (for m.c.

;
*>\t jjj*\
o^f^wô
"it was
^^ ^y jb ^b
necessary for
1^0
mard bar bar blrun

to
raftan me-lchwdst* go out frequently" (for m.c.
(Af.)
me
^^
(*$
**'^
^*- chand daf'a
Gllan
is
said to be the
most unhealthy part
of Persia.
*
3
Or u nazdlk bud bi-mirad î+J ijJ -4i<^ 5\ Nazdlk bud za*i' shavad (or bi-hadar ravad)
&j) ;<^J
'i
j5Uijj
^J,i>J (m.c.).
4
6
Compare the m.c. use

In India
of raftan in
82
(h).
:
^*l *-*&
*i;fi
cu*j.*)
marammat-talab ast
in
modern Persian
in
writing
ta'mlr lazim darad

8 7
8
(*^^***.
Modern
colloquial lazim ast

nlst
Or Za2*m
Majhul vowels.
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
lazim shud
&&\J&&Q ^"i;^ j& j^j^^j u tu har du nafar khwurdk me-khivahad 7 (Af.) "food
:
'
261
1
birun bi-ravam)
^ ^
is
jihat-i
man
necessary for
both of us
*'
both for you and me."
is also used in the sense of (g) In modern colloquial, the Imperfect A \) <jA etf+ Jjt jl t^tj*-** mi-khwdsti az awal hamin should," as:
<^)^.
yak-i ra bi-ydvari (m.c.) "you should have brought this one at first": tX*f mi-khwdst diruz bi-ydyad va likin imruz dmad jjjt* vi^fj-iu-* JJtr*' e>^-' -5
^X
(m.c.) "he ought to have come yesterday and not to-day" [for jj^ o^L* l^yjA&J bdyist* diruz bi-ydyad va likin ], vide 84 (o) mi-khipdstam " less bi-ddnam (m.c.) " I should like to know peremptory than p>\&*
:
mi-khwdham bi-danam "

81.
want
to
know."
Guzashtan
Imper.
dih-,
JUli> Imperative, guzar
j-, Dadan
Ûand Verbs
Mandctn
jjoiU Imper.
"to Permit, Allow."

(a)
Ouzashtan î^til,
Imperative
jt^ guzar*
signifies
"to
quit,
As an auxiliary followed by the relinquish; to place; to perform, etc." Aorist or Subjunctive, with a conjunction expressed or understood, it
signifies
"to permit,
b let," as: *.jU ji<i& bi-guzar biyayad
"let him come,"
(the Imperative alone
would mean, "
let
him come
"):
na-guzdsht utaq-i time) to talk in her

ji<i.l>
u harf bi-zanim
room "
(m.c.)
^^ |y^
;
^^^
" she did not permit us (give us **^ oficv u^*

f*>
p>y
o^y
<J lJst
vi-{A^J
^^
:
Âfîvjj/c
(m.c.) yourself and a trollope what's more; if want to if kill do you yourself why you don't, then let it alone." " " to The Intransitive t-y^*? guzashtan signifies vaqt-i (of time) (b) pass
khwahi bi-guzar
lad zat khudat-i lakata " wicked
ham hasti mi-khwahi
khudat-ra bi-kush mi-
javani guzasht nawbat-i pin rasid ***)

:
jty
^ c*w
o^^f
'*
t^L^-
*^**j
!
youth
6 passed and old age came" azpahlu-yi u guzasht (sî 3 (or guzar kard &f }*&) "he passed by him" az in matlab bi-guzar ;^j ^.iLo ^tjl " let this matter alone." (m.c.)
:
" The Afghans and Indians use the verb dadan '* to give in the sense an mardum ra gashtan diked of "to permit," 1 as: ^*o \) ft>j* *> a about V |;jf o ra bi-dih "let wander them time)" (for (Afghan)
(c)
^^
In modern colloquial
bi-jihat o^-^su
a l so lazim ast
*^H
f3^ instead of
vnl-khwahad.
2
3
Majhul vowels.
Bayad, or bayisi
;
or ml-bayist diruz
amada bashad
jjj*&<~^~>\*
(j*
'
^T
*
^
(m.c.).
is
Guzar ;l^
also the Imperative of
guzardan qpjfi*.
Colloquiallj' often bu-guzar
)\&
m.c. also bi-hil biyayad (vulg.).
6
1
But
of a place kinar, as *^^ $ " " to Corresponds to the Hindustani verb dena give
$&
and " to allow."
262
ki bi-ravad 1
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
(Afghan), or
Mti^j)
I)
jt
ra raftan bi-dih (Afghan)
51
"let
him go." (d) The following

(1) *AJ>
are further examples of the use of the verb
dddan
d^- u*^ ;<* ij y wra dar pish-i khud rah narni-dihad (m.c.) " he does not allow him to come into his presence." M^d ra bi-bastan dad (m.c.) "he allowed himself to (2) at a e>*~.w h
(j^
8 j
!
be bound
(3)
"
(or khud-ra bi-bastan taslim

2te
kard
tj* /**!*>
cA^ *
l)i^
).
The Imperative
modern
cfo'A
is
used as an interjection of impatience

jj
:
or annoyance, in
colloquial, as
^*flaô
" well then! (m.c.) go, you're dismissed."

(4)
<xi;jcx>
jja
dih bi-raw murakhkhas-i
C5
**; ;^
(,5/
cJ>3
dbi dar Rasht bi-dihi bi-duzand (m.c.)
jacket
made
î^X. *A*J
you must get a blue gold-embroidered must (lit. you give it that they may sew it) bi-dihad bi-kushand (m.c.) " (so that) he may get him (13 )(ta)
in
p& "
^^-
buyad yay
nim-tana-yi zari-yi
Rasht"
killed."
(5)
The Imperative
8<>j
(or
more commonly
^^
is
a substantive:
s^X* *^, or ojjlj
^^
signifies
the total revenue of a district paid to the
Shah.
Other verbs for "to permit" are ijaza dddan ^1^ *3^ *S^ dadan & " " a*' ravd cJ^>ti cJ^f, murakhkhas (budan) ki ; permitted to ( tj^ ) (JOL.JJG " dashtan ^xib j; to consider right or lawful"; and (î^f^ guzashtan', and
(e)
'hishtan, e^xiub obsolete or vulgar.

(/)
Mandan
transitive,
(1)
(2)
"to remain," etc., is in Afghan Persian also Note the following idioms <{ Az kar bdz mdnda *^" jb unable to work," " worn out." y, (m.c.) " tired hence in Mdnda xiU left
&*Jl*>, intr.
" to place."
< e
'
'
remained,
behind,"
Afghanistan
and
in the
(3)
Panjab also "thin."

bi-'Id
Du mdh
mdnda *iU
<
j^jtjxl/oj^ (m.c.)
two months before
the '/rf."
(4)
Kam mdnd*
(5)
bi-miram fj& *J &&* + (m.c.) "I nearly died." Azhalakatchiz-ina-mandabud dy? JJ^J'^ c}i^ oDlAjt (Gulistan, Book
of perishing."
II, St.
IX) "you were within a hair's breadth
In modern colloquial u ra
bi dih bi-ravad
<^^
J5^ J \) jt
(m.c.)
would mean "give
him
(the beggar)
2
s
something
to go, to
Ura
bi-guzar (ki) bi-ravad
make him go."

*f jtA^f
})j\
(m.c.).
Yog
Also
vulgar for yak.
commonly but
incorrectly
kam manda bud
ki&?
DASHTAN, ETC.
82.
263
Tne Verb
ft/tftan.
^)
^^Lj
"to go, to continue
Imperative
(a)
raw.
The Afghans
:
colloquially use raftan &ti) as
" to continue," as
az
m ba'is bi-dsdnl kanda mi-raftam (Afghan colloquial), " the soil was sandy, " hence I continued digging m* jtjb ^ (*}** ^t jjjj* &*> up with ease
it
:
pUj*
^ Ût
^\ ji
an auxiliary signifying ^^ ^/o) zamin regi bud
tj
bazar dida mi-raftam (Afghan coll.) j*i^j*o ' I at continued bi-kan bi-raw these looking yesterday things as I went also m.c. on (Afghan) "keep digging." j^j
' l
man
dlruz in chlz-hd rd dar
'
(b)
Raft
amad *^f o*;
or
amad u
raft o*>; ^ **>1 is
a substantive
* '
coming
and going, frequenting;

(c)
traffic."
viJ>
(d)
o*<i^ "itîs done, past; let us say no more about it" (m.c.). " Raftar j&j is a verbal substantive signifying gait, manner of walkin
ing;
conduct" and
"
jy** U jl&j
(adj.),
(e)
(/)
some Indian MSS. " ambling": raftar-i na-hamvar " bad-raftar ;li*; <^? (an inelegant way of walking), bad conduct bad-raftari ^5-;^'; ^ (subs.) "badly conducted, bad conduct."
;
Raw
Rafta rafta *tij kardan

:
*i>;
"step by step, by degrees."

(m.c.) signifies
o^ ^
"
"to
**jf
start,
commence
(a business
or matter)," as
qali ba/i
raw karda
am
commenced
tion,
carpet- weaving
!
"
:
ft
raw kun raw kun
^ %,
^'b
^t
(vulg.)
*'I
have
\&*
vulg. interjec-
"go
(g)
on, go on
In modern Persian, "let

l*^
me go
&?
is
shuma bi-yayam Ûj

ki hamrah'i
(h)
I^*A A>"^fi^j
with you I" isbi-guzar ki hamrah-i " is but " let me go with him bi-guzdr
being on the khwastan <^!^ ],
u bi-ravam
fjjjjl *\j+*
y^L.
also used in the sense of
In modern Persian, raftan
"
point of
as
:
doing," "intending to
do"
[compare
80
(e)
raftam an ra bi-giram ki dldam mdr-i ruyash uftdda ast * pj& \jtf f^'j vj>~.t ^li5t ^jj; ^fjfô f*i& (m.c.) "I was just going to take hold of it, when
'
saw that a snake was lying on it " raftam I went forward or progressed towards.'
;
p~uj
does not here
mean
that,
83.
(a)
Dtlshtnn
^/^
"to have, keep,"
etc.;
Imperative jb
ddr.
The peculiarity
)
simple verb
of this verb is that the Aorist (or Subjunctive) of the (ddram (*;(,} ) signifies "to have," while the Present tense
" to 3 (mi-ddram f)***> signifies keep." In modern Persian, therefore, to distinguish the Subjunctive from the Indicative Mood, the Perfect Subjunctive is as a rule used instead of
" to sweep."
Ruftan
ej*^)
2
;
Vulg. for
rah andakhta am. P~d daram fjli JjJ " I have

5
money
"
:
1
X5 pvl ra ml-daram f;tH
';
J^J
"
keep
'barge of the
money,'
for nigah
ml-daram
(J
'>i"
*^
264
DASHTAN, ETC.
the Present Subjunctive, as: î*b &*)& tLey*. j j** &A* bayad khayli sabr va hawsala dashta bashid (m.c,) "it is necessary to have the greatest " a tf 1$ t_j patience and forbearance l *xi<-*j? &&*jt S\ f\&'j&, Û ( y or) <^^ jiib alfya agrar ta ftar dah kudam bashad* 6a?/ad (or ?md) gusfand yak gusfand dashata bashand (m.c.) " were the sheep ten in number, then all (everyone) " *>* * ought to have one sheep apiece ^)^ (Îxi. &jb ^| by
:
:
^^
fa*
" with 6a in hush bayad khayli shutur va rama dashta bashi (m.c.)
^L?
y^
^^
all this
intelligence
you have, you must be possessed of many camels and (rama specially for sheep and goats). This has led to a modern form of the Imperative dashta bash
flocks
"
;
<j2b
<u-iu,
;
dashta bashid <M-b *x|,} (m.c.) in the simple (not in the compound) verb " don't have kar-i bi-in na-ddshta bash <jwb aX^f5o anything to ^c)^ (m.c.)
^b
do with this."
this."
for
Dar y* is also used in m.c., as ijIdJ^^f "keep this, hold In ra nigah bidar = ra dashta bash (J& &&>\* h ^. Story-tellers say oÛ Ai^!^ f^( lîjf or ) &*] for "here we will leave them the present (while we see what was happening to )." (b) In classical Persian, daram j*>b, etc., is both the Present Indicative and
the Subjunctive
kafdf-i
13
Aijta
î*/0 $
ta
^'^ *^5
' '
:
^ !;
/
^^ ma>Hk farmud ta vajh-i

^^.I'j
u mu'ayyan ddrand
(Sa'dT)
of subsistence
to be fixed for him
"the king ordered a sufficient means padishah amr farmud ki khizana ra

is
mahfuz bi-darand aJyv %fistx: \y tyL. & $y*j j*>\ modern in modern Persian dashta bashand <>ib
;
classical
and
*ifj>
could be substi-
tuted here
j^te
^5**
^5^ j* fy
^1
^^
/a'm in qadr turd bar pay hami-
darad (Sa'dl) "which being interpreted means that this amount (of food) is here nigah mi-darad ^l^* *& could be substitusufficient to sustain thee"
3
ted for hami-darad
Remark
dashtan
I.
t^b
is,
u mard farmud id in me to remove this "

"
tell
In modern, as well as in classical, Persian the Pres. Subj. of in compound verbs, of the form of the Aorist, as " he ordered 9 ^ ra bar-daram
:
f)l&j*
L>
wit
^y^j Ij*
(m.c.)
j^f^ OAASUC
him
to talk with me."
(j^b^j bi-gu ba man suhbat bi-darad (m.c.) But u tama ddrad ^td +J=^f az u khwahish
e
daram
f)\&
talab
L^^L^jtJf; daram ;b
iltimds az
-*ii9
shumd daram
f) &
U^jf owUiJf;
ârz
daram
are Present Indicative.
As long
Note
as I
Ta hamchu tu diist-l bi-daram, Bak-am na-bavad kashad bi-dar-am (classical). have a friend like you, no fear have I that he will crucify me."
singular, bashad
after har
is
>b
ft***'
for irrational animals
also the plural dashta
bashand
x^b
8
kudam
J>.
'
Vajh *^v5
also used in m.c. for
sum, money
"
:
ba'd az mulahaza-yi In barat

**! (m.c.)
j
vajh ra kar-sazl darld *>)\*

of exchange.
^^)^\)
**J*[tf V?J
^>*^3'
written on bills
DASHTAN, ETC.
265
II. Frequently in compound verbs, and whenever the verb " to keep," the Present mi-ddram ^<^ is used, as har ruz bd u signifies " ** U I converse with him daily suhbat mi-ddram JI^Â (m.c.) p)\*x owjauc^t urd dust ddram or mi-ddram (f)\**?) (*jfj> o**ja \) y (m.c.) "I like him (or it)
:
Remark
very much" ; but man hanuz bd u suhbat ddram pj& o^su^y \j jîA ^^ (m.c.) " the matter is still under discussion, it is not yet finally settled": nigah " dast bi-ddr se " cease from " bi-ddr j|<w as& bar mi-ddrand ;t^ o*%o keep
;
:
"
ttojUA&ji
they are removing, carrying away."

III.
In modern colloquial, the Aorist form is also used for the in bardy-i shumd samar-i nd-ddrad a>t*i <jr^ ^** c$itf no ^ Future, as nami-ddrad j^t***^ ), or na-khwdhad ddsht o*b OA^SU (m.c.) " this will be of no benefit to you."
:
Remark
Such forms as sdkhta bash (j&> aii.L (local ? "be ready " and drdsta bash <J&. *it;f " be dressed," must not be confused with the form ddshta bash <J& &&\o in the two first, the participles are adjectives, whereas
Remark IV.
ddshta bash c^L> *^(^

(c)
is
a transitive verb.
Vide
125
(j)
(6).
c *
The Afghans and Indians say mi-ddram fj*y for ^t^ I have." (d) The Imperfect of the simple verb ddshtan (^.h, except in conditional 1 entences, is rare in modern Persian the Preterite, as is the case with the
;
verb budan i^^, usually taking its place; thus if, in the sentence &&j iS the verb f.ôxj JL^ j*^ vaqt-i ki dar jahdz budam khayal mi-kardam ki ddshtan &&]* were substituted for kardan &*} f, the verb would be khaydl ddshtam p*\z J *^ and not khaydl mi-ddshtam JLi..
,
1
j^ ^
pl>i&**o
In compounds, however, the Imperfect is used, as (m.c.) "I used to talk with him." îil^^c e^suejf
lj
:
bd u suhbat mi-ddshtam
(e) In modern colloquial, ddshtan ^Lifîs also idiomatically used with a continuative and present signification, as hanuz ddrad <>/[ ô i>fd
)^
mi-dyad "he
etc.
:
is
now coming along":

it
is
similarly darad mi-ravad &jj* ty&,
ddshtand mi-dmadand
(/)
oJAxjf ^/o xkJLit^ (m.c.)
In some parts of Persia,
also
they were coming along." used in the sense of 'hold/ i.e.,

in miz rd kharida ddram
2
"
'
consider' (for
mi-ddnam
"
(m.c.)
" I consider
ÎAJUO)
fji&
this table as
bought
^j^ \)J* &$ "

:
f;f^
AJ^
:
f;
rd girifta
(g)
ddram (local) The following is an Afghan colloquialism man dar bazar chiz-i kharidan ddram "I have
bazar."
I consider that bird as good as caught

f;!^
ô ^f ^.ô"man
an murgh
\^f
.
= ft *i^
in
cA^ ^J^;fj^;>> e^
the
is,
to
buy something
(h) In modern colloquial ddrad j>jb is often used impersonally 'there there are,' or with the subject understood, as j>;t^ v* a na-ddrad,
'
:
The Imperfect
of the simple (as well as of the
compound) verb
is
used freely in
conditional sentences.
2
in miz ra kharida girifta
am;
or (correct m.c.) kharida bi-dtin.
266
zararna-ddrad(m.c.)
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
" there is noharmin
it;
whynot;
I don't care if I do. 1
"
*y** c?-&* 'ayb-i na-ddrad, or
^b \^
&*. chi
'ayb ddrad* (m.c.)
"
it
doesn't
matter; there
is
na-darad (m.c.) " 8 (m.c.) "it was a curious (or wonderful) sight j^b &U. ;bU JUl^; jNx j az Shlrdz ru ba-shimdl chdpdr khdna ddrad (m.c.) "from Shiraz northwards there are post-houses " here the subject to ddrad is apparently the distance,
: :
no harm in it, i.e., why not do so; yes": a;|aJ ;U- chdra "there is no remedy" o*fj> UU3 ^l^L khayli tamdshd ddsht
or the road, understood

yi chdpdri chi-taur-and ,
^j
y\*
^^
<;
* ^
Â
*>)j^ ** t^;^ 1^ ^î**' asphd-
khub yd bad ? khub ddrad va bad (m.c.) " what are the There are both good and bad"; here the post-horses like, good or bad? be the to subject appears chdpdr system.
In the
*
last
example from Sa'dl
in
84
(c)
ddrad
a;ia
may
be translated
there is," the subject being the whole of the previous clause.
(t)
In modern colloquial, Idzim ddshtan ^-w^

t;
f'j$
signifies
"to need,
(m.c.)
require, etc.";
f^fj^jU"^ "I want my watch badly."
^kU
sd'at-am rd
bisydr Idzim ddram
84.
Impersonal Verbs.
to be necessary,
liayistan e>*~^
Sh&yistan* Sa&idan* cj^>- "to
must." " to be suitable; ought, (^^.^
4<
etc.,
etc."
Zlbtdan
(a)
be worthy." &*w.j "to adorn; to suit."

(
Bdyistan*
^^jL^, shdyistan
^^{^
impersonal
and
defective:
the Infinitive,
and sazidan ^tty* are all Past participle, third person

t
6 singular of the Aorist (without the prefix), Present, Imperfect, and Preterite only are used, besides the future participle or noun of possibility.
In
^ ^-wj by ejcWf
first
yaii/o
aiUuSi^
to
^M
is
**) (Tr.
Haji Baba, Chapter

after
XXXII) "I was appointed

levee," the
meet him at court
the
is
person
of
bdyistan (^*>k
used: such use
rare
morning and
ungrammatical.
an
offer of
4
" Corresponds somewhat to the barrack phrase a drink.

&*-
don't mind
if
do,"
in reply to
Chi 'ayb darad &$& <~*p
in
it ?
"
can also be a direct question, " what defect
is
there
la. an d Chapar, T., properly the horse for a messenger or post, spelt ^>^, and " 9 either to travel indifferently pronounced way ; chaparl raftan &'*> j C>^^post."
*
6
Shayistan
(^M
^
70
and sazidan
form.
ej^J_)*
are the same.
Bcfidan
tt><H^V obsolete
is
Classically, the Aorist
used for the Present.
In modern colloquial, the Present

is
t^V
(jr*
--?
mi-bay ad
is
occasionally used,
^*"1
but by far the commoner form

in kar rd bi-lcurild (m.c.).
bay ad
'j
)%
i^?.-
*iV L?
skuma mi-bciyad
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
267
Dar 'alam-i jan bi-hush mi-bayad bud Dar kar-i jahan khdmush mi-bayad bud " Be very wary in the Soul's domain,
And on
the world's affairs your lip refrain."

(0.
K. 167 Whin.)
Remark
I.
Bayad
77
^ and shayad *j&

(a) (3)
are sometimes used as
synonyms
for t-avdn ^ly, vide
Remark.
Remark
(mod.)
II.
Bayist-i vaqt oJ>^ o^-^L (obs.)
muqtaza-yi vaqt oJj Ûaia/o
In classical Persian, the Past Conditional 45*^ bayisti, as well as the Aorist with the prefix (bi-bayad) occur occasionally for examples, vide (/). (c) In classical Persian, these auxiliaries are followed by the Infinitive*
(6)
,
:
shortened Infinitive, or the Subjunctive, the logical subject of the sentence being generally in the dative. 1 Examples: *&*&& I^R.^ . &*(**. a+A jjlj sukhan Ij olAU^b jj^jji-j \) JJ.U. ^"^ &&j$
the
^^^
^ ^^
o^
bi-andidha
khalq
ra,
bayad
khassa
guftan
va
harakat-i
pasandlda
bayad
kardan
hama
padishahan
(jLkl^^b
ra
(Sa'dl),
"he
said all people ought to
speak
a^
with
^.jb
*
forethought
and act
0'[^ j
;<i^.j
o^^ jf
:
kings"; decently, but especially az hiddat va sawlat-i padisha-han
bayad bud H-(Sa'di) "one must be on one's guard against the J ^ J ^^ta-j t ôLii \) arid hasty despotic nature of kings" ^1bar hazar
^V
^^
o^tj^Â AS" îi alim-i ra na-shayad ki bi-safahat-i not bi-guzarad ki har du taraf ra ziyan-1 âra^-(Sadl) "a wise man must " v^;a \^$sj?'&* <)&* quietly pass over the folly of an ignorant man
*jii j^ljj ;
f
az
'ammi-ibi-hilm
Ajlî
^..i^^j;^ jl
guftar-i
bi
kirdar chun darakht-i bi-bar juz sukhtan ra
na-shayad (classical)
for
y^j
" a tree without fruit, fit speaking without acting is like a kar b bi-kunam^^ kim nami-sazad mard ": nothing except burning for me to do this (i.e. I'am fit tf e (m.c.) "it is not suitable
,j;
for better);
(sazidan
(
is
not used affirmatively in mod. Pers., but sazavar ml-
bashador
ast
OA^( or)
There are, however, in both the ancient and modern language exceptions; as
(classical)
fjU^ [;;**
2
-
and
(m.c.)
for
(+-*>
^^^> )^ g*
t5[^ 3
kar shayista nlstam (m.c.). Also hizri the idiom bar hazar bildan
is
also m.c. (not
pur hazar).
Note the
iza/at aft^r bi-safahat.
*
6 6
Better guftar-i bi-kirdar
Ra omitted
^^
}&L>
afc
after Tear as ra occurs
the beginning of the sentence, mara*
Also in modern colloquial zlbanda-yi
man mst
lei
268
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Remark.
The shortened
is
of the
sentence
pronoun "one."
Infinitive is used when the logical subject understood, or can be expressed by the indefinitive If, however, the subject (in the dative) be expressed the
shortened Infinitive
(d)
may
still
be used, vide
is
first
example in
(/).
Sometimes the subject

t$
put in the nominative, in which case

W^
it is
*
grammatically the subject of the second verb, as :j>

A>U>
ÛLcf
|j
^s*^
*>
^
l
u^
ÛL-j^
<M|y
î.
cjli*^
padishah
bayad
ki
ta
bi-liadd-i
bar
dushmanan khashm na-ranad ki dustan ra i'timad na-manad(Sa, dl) "a king must not drive his resentment against his enemies to such an extent
that his friends even lose confidence."
is the most common in the modern language. The Afghans and Indians use the above construction in speaking, but the Infinitive generally precedes the <y>b &&) a>^ & liu [/ auxiliary, as
(e)
:
This construction
tu-ra
bi-khana-e khud raftan bayad (Afghan

ki
coll.), or
bayad
fo*&
tu
bi-khana-e
khud bi-raw 1
&jb
(Af.
coll.)
&U*uy *f <*l> ^y. must go home": "you
^j
pf*5 fft>&
by
e>^
pty ^jf j
^
4
)&
dar in
fikr
gharq
budam ki didan bayad farda ba-kudam qism marg bi-miram (Afghan coll.) " I was immersed in the thought of what sort of death I should have to die on the morrow " in modern colloquial bayad did <x;j> <3*b would be substitu;
ted for didan bayad &?\> c**te. (/) As stated in (6), the forms ^y-Û and ^J'AJ are obsolete in colloquial Persian. The following are examples of these forms in the Gulistan jt
:
an miyan bi-tariq-i ^c}jja. ^JiJ &(**> p& \j> imbisat guft tura ham chiz-i bi-bayad guft (Sa'di) "one from amongst them said by way of a joke you also must say something " [vide Remark a to (c)] (j&>J i-aJiJ 15 ^Xwl^ <y^.^ j*-^ **& guft pashm bayisti kashian ta s "he said wool ought to have been sown so that it talaf na-shudi (Sa'dl)
Ûj
cîf JbUwt
cî^
yak-i az
'
'
might not have been destroyed"
J& ÛJ JU^J ^s*.*

Majnun
pt**-
Sfyj^jl
^1*
ay malik! az daricha-yi chasm-i
bi-jamal-i Layla* nazar
1 The latter is also the usual construction in modern colloquial, except that the pronoun would ordinarily be placed first, as: tu bayad 7ci-khana-yi khud-at bi-ravi (m.c.)
j^
&l=cu V*
^b y.
Tu
This construction
is
also classical:
ka'z mihnat-i dlgaran bl-gham-l

(Sadi).
' '
Na-shayad ki nam-at nihand adami

" Thou who art careless of the
It
is
affliction of others,
not
fit
that thou shouldst be classed as man.
In this example, tu
Clauses.
2 S
is
the subject of the verb in the relative clause, vide Relative
Ba yisti is
This form
occasionally used in modern writings in Persia. is still used in India and Afghanistan, but in modern Persian the Im-
perfective with the Subjunctive or shortened Infinitive

*
would be used.
In modern colloquial incorrectly Layll.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
269
" he said, Oh king, it was necessary (you bdyisti kardan (Sa'dl) ought to to at Laila's look have) beauty from the window of Majnun's eyes." (g) Bayad <xb, without a second verb, signifies "to be
needful, to lack
' '
requisite,
\j
padishdh ra 'adl bayad td baru gird dyand (Sa'dl) "a king needs justice (justice is requisite for a king) so that they (the peasantry) may rally J ' ' urd raham bayad *,b round him he lacks (m.c.) \j $ dndn ra
*j!
' '
:
and takes the dative
of the person, as
l>
xlj
Jxc
U>^b
karam bayad diram nist o-ja r;J wish to give alms have no money."
ki
>
' <
&l>
pity
*t
; ^Gf (mod. saying)
' <
those who
(h)
The distinction
;
often fine
AjlA
tj
in
oÛ*
meaning between bayad *jb and shayad x>U, is the following example it is clearly indicated *ijf.A oji?
in
tf ooU
cÂU^L
r>U guft har a*ina
ma-ra khirad-
mand-i kafi bayad ki tadbir-i mamlakat-ra shayad (Sa/di) "he (the king) said, certainly we need a competent wise person who is fitted for the
'
administration of State affairs."
The
distinction
is
even more marked meaning.
in the
example in
(j),
which better
illustrates the difference in
modern Persian, written or spoken, the constructions are the (*) In same, with the exception of the construction with the Infinitive.
The Present,
Aorist,
bayist (vide q) o-*jb are used for present times, e*-jb L5* for past times 3
:
and Preterite mi-bayad xilj ^, bayad y)U, and and the Imperfect mi bayist
in the
;
(1)
"I have
j*;==o
to
buy something
jfjlj
bi-kharam
az rah'i
e>#s- *jb
(m.c.)
bazar" dar bazar bayad chiz-i *'must we (one) go by sea or land ? "
oJj
(
bahn bayad
(or class, mi-bayad) raftya barrl
AJ(>X>O
Û ^s^
fy)
L?J
L!
(m.c.).
(2)
"You
should have done this last year"

41
sal-i
guzashta
shuma mi-
bayist in-ra kardabashld (oYbi-kunid)
(ja^j
or)
(m.c.);
:
t5^ (*2^ Ojj^J (m.c.) this was finished

leisure to
s^* t; e*l o-jbôUA uîl JU but dishab mi-bayist birun bi-ravam vali cu-*jlj vA^ " "I " when 6 ought to have gone out last night, but
*xb
I
' '
had
five
or six other things to do,
but I had no
chun in kar ra tamam karda budam panj shash kar-i digar mi-bayist bi-kunamvalifursat na-kardam (m.c.)
do them
rahm bayad u mara mal is a common saying. Diram /ji for dirham ÂJ5 3 In modern colloquial the past tense of all verbs is, Hence present. perhaps the reason why in m.c. the past tense
1
Ura,
bayist
*
c*~jb and bayist ^ The Present Subjunctive

:
jb) are also
used for bayad
frequently used for the of bayistan (^^. ( nw-
(Aorist) can be,
and usually
is,
or ml-bayad *&> used instead of the Past
^.
Subjunctive here karda bashld X*^ 8^$' could be substituted. 6 Dishab lazim shud birun bi-ravam " I had to be out last night."
270
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
be seen that after mi-bdyist either the Aorist or the Perfect Subjunctive may be used.
Remark
I.
It will
Remark
bayad
*JoU
II.
In modern colloquial, bayist
^~jb
:
is
(butmi-bayist
I
^~jb
(vulgar)
(3)
"
is
always past), as
frequently used for o*~jb f; ;! jj^f
must do
this
to-day."
t>jb
Mwd
ty & j\ j Û; flwb o**y ra az miydn birun kash wa-agar-na turd bayad shirkat bi-itmdm rasdni (m.c.) you must withdraw from this business or else you must be a
' '
partner to the
sharaf bdyad-at
end": *& J*^
lj
%(&>,(>
(m.c.)
"the king
lacks justice"
gar
himmat buland ddr j?^ you want honour, have noble aspirations."
Remark.
*&
o,+& oA^b
o^ ^
:
(saying) "if
The following
is
an example of
all
these verbs
<-
1 $> u** ; cy ^ AJ 1^*^ b *^V ^J^* LJ cr.0 anchi sahib risk ra mi-bay ad <e naml sazad that which a man ought bachcha ra naml-shayad va zanra to ha ve,i is ûnfitting for a child, and unsuitable to a woman"; here
all
three verbs practically have the
same
signification.
(
Bayad
basham
(or
mi-navishtam
^^ ^
or
)
bayist}
bi-navisam f*iyj
*.&**>
(old)
cu~ob
^b
(m-c.)
and
bayisii
=
^*b
^b *i^y
/^<^*
^!>V
*-***>
*^~~^
mi-guzashtim
p.
pA&b&'O
:
&M
mi-bayist
:
bi-navlsam
(or navishta
(m.c.)
??a^
t& j\
bayad az
daJi nuqta-yi sa'b
(Memoirs
of
Abd-ur-Rahim,
232)
should
"but we should be " *jb be
obliged to pass ten 'difficult points"; this guit bayad qabl az navishtan-i kag&az ijaza mi-khwastid
(j-xiy jf awl ^jb <j (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim, p. 224) " he said to have taken permission before writing the letter" you ought o-*lj this ought to be <3*b a^\^ ojba.t agar mi-khwastam sharJi-1 az baray-i ariha bi-diham az baray-i Jiar ghiza-î tafsil-i bayad mi-navishtam
^jJLof^su^ $(*.]
&&
(*&
tion of
a A<3 <y *tb Lsk?*& ^**j*> cstrlj' (* ^ ^T cstr? J c5Monte Christo) here mi-bayist bi-navisam
1
^ (Mi***^
^-.^v ^*-^b
less civil
(Transla
^* would
be preferred
(?')
mi-navishtam
*jb is
is
perhaps Afghan.
Bayad
o--^J
more peremptory and therefore

inja na-bdyad nishast (m.c.)
nishast
than shayad
are
x>L:
not,
<*jl>J
ls.ijt
"you must not, you

o~^>
jUJ
to sit
is
"it
not
(k)
Isdjt inja na-shdyad (m.c.) you, you had better not, sit here." " " " Shayad &>& let it be proper is also used as an adverb perhaps,
here"; but
fitting for
possibly."
(1)
The past
:
participles shdyista* AJ!-jU

l
and rarely
*x-jl),
are used as
adjectives
^^
^t
-
** o~oa
U &&
"
S-ot-i
it is
\sJidyista-yi shd*n-i
ma
nist ki
sit
inja nishinim
1
(mod. and
r
classical)
not fitting our dignity to
Or Sahib-i
Harf-i
risk (Jî)
^*0
but
c->y
it is
better to omit the izafat.
ria-shayist
ma-zan
^^f^f^**
OrSk
(m.c.)
''don't
use
unseemly
language (or abuse)."
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
271
"a well-behaved wife"; sipas-i Yazddmst o^-yf^ ^^^ &w>b Ûajj bi-qiyds bdyista-yi <e be must given (by us) to the God-head." Bdyista (modern writing) praise The substantive bdyist c jl i a obsolete. is not used in speaking.
here";
zan-i
shayista
ai~jU &) (m.c.)
Hazrat-i
u^
Remark.
as
Shdyista
**
jLi
sazavar, or î'^ ZoV^, or zibanda ***y),

:
can be paraphrased by the adjectives j(x> or by the substantive oJ bJ liydqat,

liydqat-i in kdr rd
^jf<^ f;;^ e^t
kdr nistim p&~#fe
^ &'
or
oJ ^ U ma
1
^ lx>
)
(m.c.)
na ddrim " we are not able to do

e*!t
(or
ma
la*iq-i
in
this,
it is
beyond
us" ooi U
:
( <jjj$
nist (m.c.)
"
you
in harf sazdvdr-i (or should not say this, ought not to say this."
;'jt>
-^
las-iq-i)
shuma
(m) Shayistagi ^^fiujU and shaydn

' f
&W
is
shayistagi-yi in kar ra
na-daram
l;tiSJ
\)
)\
(&>]
^flUjl& (m.o.)
this
work
beyond
me"; or
it
is
t%
hangdm
that
ki shdydn-i bahjat va shdyigdn-i masarratast

vs*-oj
c^Li j '^^t*
c;l.^ *^ *^^XA ^jj^

fitting
ciywo
(modern writing)
\z\*\& is
" at
this
time when
we
should lejoice."
Shaydn
all.
Shayitfani ^jjLolA
(n)
not used in modern colloquial. Bdydn ^bb not used at and bdyistani j**~A> are both old.
t
" Bdyad bdshad ^b jjb signifies must be" and mi-bdyist bdshad " " ^jl ma Id-bud bdyad in kdr rd bi-kumm ^b *$ t must have been "we are ^jf (m.c.) obliged of necessity to do this," *>JUiic ^/o
:
fooj t^jM^J jjb ^j) c;AJJU; ^ji (Afghan) "sensible people will say that since he took so much trouble to construct a boat he must certainly have
previously
(6)
made some plan for transporting it (to the water)." In modern colloquial bdyad ^b sometimes means "should," as:
&b
"
ii,jb
why
'
^\j> (^b ]JA. JAA* (^jf should this be so dear
m
?
chiz chird bi-in girdni
bdyad fodshad (m.c.)

"
?
"
;
c<
in qadr girdn ast

as
o~f
c;!/
;î
(simpler
r
why is
(g)
this so dear
chird
^ *^ e
80
for use ofkhwdstan <j.i~^*>
should.'
(p)
Bdyad
<xb is
it
(
sometimes in modern colloquial prefixed to the Fusignifies"
ture Perfect,
when
must have, "as:
<x*^
&&&
1*L
^t
a^^jf b
AiU
ay
j*t^
|^jU^
o^b
c;3b'
^ J^ ^
JTJ,
Ma^
bi-Landan bi-rasad
"
Fuldn
by the time this letter (bdyad) kitdbash rd tamdm karda bdshad (m.c.) " in this reaches London, So-and-so will have completed his book example
;
bdyad
as:
*>b could classically be omitted.
(q)
(
In modern colloquial the Past tense bayist is used for the Present, * <x (m.c.) or) i);fe ou^ c^-ob bdyist dast ba-kar zad (or shud)
In modern colloquial the bayad A'b would ordinarily be inserted.
Or bayad
dast andar Tear shud

lj
other"; A'1 " yon helped them."
^;^>! *** u^t
*A;K ;Ai| o-i Xb shuma ba-ishan

l
(m.c.)
" we must help each

karbuda
dast andar
(m.c.)
272
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
set to
"we must
J
work"; hama bdyad

all die'
5
(or bdyist)
bi-mirim
o~jlj t )iol
" we must f.-^+ (m.c.)

nearly died
;
[mi-bdyist bi-mirad &j*& o*~jb
^x
(m.c.)
"he
ought to have died."]
Remark.
jjlj
The
jag:
AJUMJUX*
pronouns can be added to the impersonal verb bdyad " it was mi-bdyist-am necessary for me":
affixed
mi-bayist~i"
(r)
shdn "
it
was necessary
for
them."
{j*~d*>
Note the substitutes

:
for the verb bdyistdn
in the following
examples
(1)
ty 6A|^&. jbj'
j&
there
l?uuy
jjj^nfc
hamrdh-i u
panjdh
lsuj
khwdhad bud
'
(m.c.)
must be
fifty soldiers with
him "
nafar sar-bdz
;
hamrah-i u panjdh nafar sarbdz bdshad

j>y
tiofcf^L
o-&b jL>^
(^jf
oâ
*îj )&& (Jj& j

*
J^ *kUw|
(or m.c.
m
;
fy+A &>b (m.c.)] 1 âj[a bi-tul va 'arz bi-qadr-i
[or
bdyad
:
panjdh dast
be about
(i,xilj
khwdhad bud (Afghan)

in length
jjUf
bdyad bdshad)
*****
A*/O
t(
this enclosure
must
fifty cubits
)
and breadth"
\j*>
^~
oJfj
0f jo/J
cu-oL) for
SAt^ jf
8 (jî^ tf cu^Jf
îa.
a^rar
dar an waqt kas-e
mard me-dld chumn me-danist ki shakhs-i gundh-gdr khwhdd bud (Afg. col.) " had any one seen me then, he would have thought that I was (must be) some guilty person."
(2)
(m.c. *
*Mj^
(*)V e,iJ;
or)
^ ^>t^ eA
^
cJ>jtr^
vf
^^
^t^ t^
berun raftan khwdhad shud (Afghan coll.) (or but it will be necessary to go out to fetch m.c. raftan Idzim Jchwahad shud} water."
ZeA;m
ba-jihat-i
dwardan-i db
* '
c^fiw
cuJ>si./o fÂj &<yf (J^y j j* ^t^J ^-.; flsob ;(^ e^!t e.>jtt* kdr ba-anjdm rasid bardy-i du kdr-i digar mihnat o koshish kardan " when this business was finished I had to toil and paydd shud (Afghan coll.)
(3)
labour to accomplish two other works."

(4)
<yox> ;U**j
(î)
ciy^J
{tfr*!
(D^.z
^^^
jihat-i
dldan-i asphd
berun
raftan bisydr me-shud (Afghan a look at the horses;" (m.c.
coll.)
"I had
to continually go out to have
bi-jihat-i dldan-i
aspdn Idzim bud btrun ravam
uj:>r (5) aUty ^/o uxi; jj^Cj ^ti ^ly &j &&HO ^j Û ai wa 6ar^ kharch me-shud wa na bard-e kabk giriftan ba-koh raftan me-uftdd (Afghan coll.) "neither was powder expended (by this plan) nor had I to go to the high
ground to
mi-uftdd].
)
catch chukor-," [in m.c. Idzim mi-gasht

a
o*^
fjSf
instead of
c5*y
^-
1
-?
^ )*
^'
o^
*=*Jf il^ hdld
dnchi kardan ast dar an

of
bdb chi kardi?
(Afghan
coll.)
"now how much
have you done
what you
^
ft
Or
tul an
va 'arz an
to the tip of middle finger.
also
Dast,
o~-o a cubit from the elbow
m.c. mi-pindasht
gunah-kar
jjltffor
would be preferred to mi-danist OA~O|ÂX>: gunah-gar )^ &X.
oîj^
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
had to do
?
273
"
;
[in m.c. Jiala az
anchi mi-bayist bi-kum chi kardi
amada khwahad Zwd Ûif some human being must have jj*t^ **,cf (Afghan coll.) "certainly come here" [in modern colloquial bi^-shakk mja insan-i amada bashad
(7)
Zdrftr
dar
inja
insan-e
(8)
Lazim
ast
kibi-ravam
or
w.f
(
raftan-i
<c
)
man
I
*?
cuw
^, or
(or
raftan
am
lazlm ast
az zaruriyyat
vajibat)
ast
oU^tj or
must go."
paraphrase of "it is necessary" can be effected by such Arabic expressions as mustalzim >K~/o (tr.) ''necessitating, wajib" 'l-qatl " Jxo/t v^'j etc. meriting death necessary to be killed," etc.
Remark.
(s)
with the
are:
Further modern colloquial examples of verbs used impersonally, or subject understood after the manner of darad &)\& [ 83 (h)]
^>
^J&A ciî' o^.?u bi-jihat-i kasrat-ikhar *' on account of magas bi-mardum va malha khaylt bad guzasht (m.c. Boz. Gr.) " here the large number of horse-flies, man and beast had a bad time of it " " 6 "the time" or the is
l^/U3 ^
j*^*.j
:
oîf
^^
the subject
apparently
day*
6 agar ghuraba ra gazid asar-i sakht-i mij^yo o^l^ j^* <^*tf j îUi 1 numayad va gah-l munjar bi-halakat mi-shavad (m.c. Roz. Gr.) "if it bites
îsuy|
joj?
t;^^t
strangers
does a severe injury which sometimes results in death." is asynonymof shdyad (t) y.) "it suits, becomes, behoves, etc.," " and sazad *y* zib *r*0 (subs.) ornament, beauty (construed with dadan
it
Zlbad
' '
and shikastan (^Lî). Ziba Ujj is an adjective; chi ziba mi-khwanad iux Uj aa. (m.c.) " how nicely he reads." (u) Expressions like "it is said, it is related," etc., are rendered by the
third person plural of the transitive verb (vide 88 Passive) as ^| dvarda and " it is related (they, the ancients or the wise or the relators)
:
*^f
have
related
(v)
"
JJ|
&&? j va gufta and

verbs,
'*
and
it is
said."
Some
impersonal in
j>;Uxx>
English, take in Persian a nomina-
tive of
cognate meaning:
^b
baran mi-barad
(m.c.)
"it rains";
verb amada budan

2
Amada 8-^T is &&

'
'
treated as though an adjective and part of a (vulgar)

%&*>]
compound
"
to
become."
a;te
In modern colloquial ihtimal darad

'
JUx=M
or yahtamil
cUisu
could be used
in the sense of
8
'
probably.
*
5
Mardum f&f a collective noun always Kh,ar-magas ^j*j^* used collectively.

Shab-khayll badbi-ma guzasht
used as a plural except by the vulgar.
o-^ ^
gana,
3J
^k**
or
we passed a bad night."

*r*$j*
The bug
called
malla
^^
or
**
gharib-gaz
or "biter
of strangers."
For munjarr
18
274
jj*
COMPOUND VERBS.
ô
^
_
ra'd mi-gkurrad (m.c.) "it
thunders" or **&**
tundad; *&&)*
mi- jihad (m.c.).
(w)
tundar ml-
<3> barq
mi-darakhshad "it lightens," or
^=^^
6> barq
J
An
impersonal verb in English
is
follows:
(m.c.)
**~*t
';
^.\
"no
one" likes this," or
" it
^ #&
is
:
as frequently rendered in Persian nami-kunad rd hick dil-l in pasand
not approved ";
;?^ Jac
<aql
bdvar
).
na-kunad.iSa.'di)
(x)
"
it is
impossible to credit
"
(m.c. nami-kunad
^+>
(1)
(2)
For the impersonal use of " to be able" Tavdnistan
vide
77
(a) (2)
and
(6) (3).
(3)
Shudan &* vide 77 Khwastan <^~!^ vide
(d).
80
(/).
(4] (5)
Guzashtan ^JU^f vide (5) supra. 83 (h). Ddshtan &&>}* vide

^jx
85.
Compound Verbs
of simple
^_^Xc
is
(a)
is
The number
of
verbs in Persian
made up
The
compound
verbs, which, like other
compound words,
difficulty.
small: the deficiency are
exceedingly numerous.
compound verbs present no grammatical
They may
a be classed as adverbial verbs, and nominal verbs. verbs are simple verbs, transitive or intransitive, with (6) (1) Adverbial
an indeclinable particle (adverb or preposition) prefixed, as v&jk bdz guflan " " to turn " to back, repent" (^xfc? jb bdz gashtan say a second time " to come vd tstddan 8 " to stand still dar dmadan ij^~j}
:
ejA/cf;.}
in";
\)
stop, halt
"
dashtan "to
also to twist
bar az dar dar dmad (Sa'di) " he came in ; ^îAf^^j ;,> jijt bar tdftan (&&* j* '" to shine forth, raise up; to suffer, endure"
**ti
;
"
u zabar kardan c^^y ^3^3 " to make topsy turvy"; vd guftan &*&\) (m.c.) "to repeat what one has heard, say again"; va*shustan &Z<~& ^ "to wash again."
up"
zlr
(2)
Faru jj,
firu
^
**
or furu
^f
(before
a vowel
farud
y^f
etc.)
is
prefixed to
some verbs and

*'
signifies
dmad **f
jUjf
^*
"he came down";
"down, downward; low," as farud furu guft *sJf ,jj>* "he spoke low";
signifies
)& (m.c.)
he went into the room."
(3)
Fard
is
another adverbial prefix and
"back, again,
1
3
Vulgar paya mi-yhurr ad, ty*** *jb. Nominate are those formed by prefixing a noun or an adjective to a verb. Va \j in composition with verbs stands for baz J^ " back ", again, open,
\$
etc.,
as: va dad M^
"he gave back," va

;
guft oJiS'fj
"he spoke again"

" but va
^^
^\) )& dar ra
" Istada va kun " open the door * In m.c. furu guft = simply
1^*<~J.\
"
standing
%stada *ib^-^)j "halted."
guft, the furu having no meaning.
COMPOUND VERBS.
over, opposite, etc., etc."
275
It is often redundant, being prefixed merely to avoid a cacophony. Vide the rule applying to the auxiliary khwdstan e>H^ when used to form the Definite Future, as khayma rd far a khwahand girift AxA/ji. ty f; 4U-A. " " ; oJ^ they will surround the tent (Class.).
:
(4)
Fardz
j\j*
(
"above,
up, before,"
as:
dmadam f^T j >J cA^'V

pillow."
c^
(Gul.,
Chap.
VI., St. 1)
chun bi-bdlin-ash fardz " when I came up to his
Fardz yj sometimes strengthens a verb but often it is redundant. andar ;<^! (or dar ;^), are also common in birun î>-h (5) Pish (J^^
j
t ,
adverbial compounds. (6) In a few verbs,
with the verb and

in
the preposition has by use become incorporated the verb has ceased to be regarded as a compound
;
:
such verbs the preposition is prefixed to the verb itself, as tup khwahand dar hard *j* jxiAi^ ^y khwahand dar guzasht o^^;,} XXA(JA, ; khwdhnad bar-
khdst %
Remark.
Bi-shahr (or dar shahr). dar
enter the city," but az shahr dar

city."
(c)
dmadan dmadan eA^T )^>j^j\ "to come out
of the
The
bi
participle in these verbs precedes the usual verbal prefixes

<*J,
:
3 ^xix*/o ^ and the negatives na *i and ma ** as ^p aar <yo mi-kunand (m.c.) *'the gun is being fired" (lit. they are emptying the " take it out of your cannon)"; az klsd dar bi-yar ;U; ^ <wo )\ (m.c.)
and
ml
pocket."
Some verbs that in their simple form take the prefix *j do not when compounded with a preposition as ^^(^ ^ bar khdstan admit "to rise up" (bar khiz and bar khizam, etc.); bar-gashtan (J&j "to
(d)
it
,
:
return"
(t
in rabi-dar)\* \) î "keep this", but in rd bar dar )\*j> |; " dmikhtan " take this away er^^T (tr.) (Impr.J^/oLxj bi-ydmiz) to mix dar dmikhtan e^^H^T )* (intr.) Imp. dar-dmiz J^xf ^.
; ;
^ "
;
Remark. In poetry, for the sake of metre, the particle of a compound verb sometimes follows the verb. 4
(e)
Nominal verbs are simple verbs
of action, transitive or intransitive,
preceded by a Persian or Arabic substantive, verbal substantive, adjective,

or past participle.
1
Faraz u
nislilb -r ^:^
1
JJLr
" U S an(^ downs P
"
or " ascents
and descents."
Dar khwahand
Icard
*/
*>*
I; :
*>i*!_j^;i, dar
khwahand guzasht
cu-^ ^f>^
mean one
;^,
and
bar khwahand khast

3
o^l^
of
Atji. j\ ar e old.
Note the absence
tup
is
used generically: tup ra would
special
gun.
*
Tup khwahand dar kard
(Fut.).
tu bi-raw), )j>
In modern colloquial bi-raw tuj>jj. (not
^ "go inside."
276
COMPOUND VERBS.
Usage alone
will
determine which
auxiliary
verb or verbs
can
be
used in forming the compound. are not permissible in writing.

1
Many
:
auxiliaries used in
modern
colloquial
Examples:
O.AXAXJ
\&tf
durust kardan
"to
z#n-*
make, construct"; "to correct"
o^;^
JA!J <^fy
wlA*
c>j
kirm durust mi-kunad (vulg.) "the butcher's wife qassdb bardy-i bulbul ma'zul kardan &*j$ Jj>J>*"> (past breeds maggots (as food for) bulbuls " to dismiss from be shudan ma'zul office"; J^)** "to participle)
] :
o^
dismissed"; &$j> iU~jf " to set up." These nominal prefixes
istdda
kardan (classical (Persian past

considered
either
;
participle)
may be
as
part
of
the
compound
verb
itself, or as the object of the simple verb

I;
but in no case do
chub zadam (m.c.), or Examples: fj>j v^^ hJ u him "I beat (with a stick)"; in the f)& v^*. jl bi-u chub zadam (m.c-) first instance chub ^^^ may be considered an integral portion of the verb zadam p^j; in the second it may be taken as its object, but it would
they admit of
ra.
be wrong to say bi-u chub ra zadam f&j I; <-^ jk [u-rd bd chub zadam means"! beat him with the stick"]: "talk Persian" (>} ujj.a. U \\
5
Far si harf
time
intizar kashida
"
8
(
zan (> <Jy^ u**^* or harf-i Farsi bizan &y> ^)^ o>^ Ichayli am ff sj.^ Ûaijt (^^ " I have expected (waited for) you a long " " three XJ< J t ^ JU^* si sal tul kashid (here sal is years passed
bi
',
:
P
the subject of the intransitive verb
tul
kashidan which should be regarded as

the verb
bind-yi
one word). The ism f-l

\i)ty&
etc.
is
often separated from

is
that follows it*
&
bind guzdrdan
*jb;t<^
"to begin"; bd man

**&+*
namak bi-hardmi
guzdrda
ast o**=t
^^^
c3^
n^V
(m.c.)
5
=
is
bind guzdrdbi-na-
mak'hardmi kardan &&^
From
^^xjf
gir
j&
',
&)\& (m.c.). a verbal substantive from giriftan,

bi-gir
^L*^ ^*^
(m.c.)
(for
dmadan) "to come
into one's possession

' '
formed gir dmadan " and
bring into one's possession"; dnja chiz-i gir-am " naydmad ÛS ^^ <*&& ^tf (m- c ) nothing was got by me there dnjd chiz-i gir 6 " na-yavardam (*:>;/# j4 C5>-^ l^f (m.c.)" I obtained nothing there.
gir dvardan
&&>$
j4 "to
Remark
in
I.
It will be noticed that many
meaning though the actual verb of the

1
compound verbs are intransitive compound is transitive.
Maggots are bred and sold in Persia as an article of trade for caged nightingales. In m.c. bar pa kardan o>^ t^J, ordashtan (oJ&ta, or va dashtan t^-^b 1^, or
nasb kardan e><V

3
**-.
p&}> U^> îali/o ^J;^.
it
Or khayll muntazir-i shuma budam

In poetry In the sentence
*
6
sometimes follows the verb.
pak-i Hazrat-i
sainted soul of " to swear part of the verb ") could be inserted just before na-khwurl.
*
G 5 âsam bi-ruh-i ^b ^S)^ f&Jl ^lc c)Uj>Lo ^.ji Sulayman ('alayh* 's-salam) na-Tchwurl "until thou swearest by the Solomon (on whom be peace!)," the wordgasam (which is a component
e^^
Gir
amadan
(*}^\
j&
expresses more of chance than gir avardan c
COMPOUND VERBS.
Remark
as: ba
II.
277
of
Sometimes a compound verb admits

î
two constructions,
marduman mahabbat mi-kunad
txiX^/o
ÂS*.*)
Û^L
(in
which
mahabbat OASL/O appears to be the direct object of the verb),

ra mahabbat mi-kunad
ixxxx>
and marduman
OA^XJ
jj
Û^xj; the latter construction seems
commoner
(/)
in
modern
Persian.
As stated in
rule
is
(c)
the verbal prefixes ml
^ and
bi AJ are intercalated
before the simple verb.
The same
*j,
as
observed with regard to the negative particles &c and vide 71 (c) and (/). dast bar nami-dari <j^;b j. <^~>*
(g)
Usage alone
a compound.
*
determine which simple verb The following are a few examples

will
:
is
used in forming
hamla avardan,
uzr avardan,
3
(m.c.)
"to
attack, charge."
uzr khipastan, (m.c.)

(ni.c.)
l(
" to apologise, ask pardon."
" to make excuses."

to
taddruk didan,
sitam didan, (m.c.) maslahat didan

1
J/
=>.
gham khurdan,
(m.c.)
make preparation." " to suffer opposition." "to consider advisable." " to suffer
grief."
khurdan, (m.c.)
" to be deceived."
+~i qasam khurdan, (m.c.) to swear, take an oath." zakhm khurdan, (m.c.) " to be wounded." bi-zamm khurdan, (m.c.) "to fall on the ground; strike
takan khurdan, (m.c.)
giriftar
the ground."
" to be shaken, to shake, tremble."
amadan, "to be caught." 6ar dushman ^hdlib amadan,

az, (m.c.)
"to
overcome the
jt
^cWf ^.A*O 5r amadan
" to be
tired of, disgusted."
" to be satisfied, full from eating." shudan, (m.c.) dar shumar amadan (class.), " to be counted."
)t>
;j>
b 3* az P dar amadan _ - ,,- 7 b jf a.2 r ufiadan
'}
^^
7
" to be helpless, come to grief."

" he
is (or is
yj| J.s\x5
^.N
c?ar
mahall-i
iftiras-ast,
likely to be)
falsely
accused."
^^ dar ma'raz-i khatar ast,
/c
"he
is
in danger."
^ f
4
qadam-i marddnagi pish nihddan,
" to act bravely."
nishandan, (m.c.)
griftan,
(
j*.
(m.c.)
"quench (fire, anger)." "to surround."

(bar
)
)i<i^r>
â. chashm dukhtan

gushudan,
*
" to stare at."
to begin to speak."
/n bi-dard-am nami-khurad
(m.c.)
" this
is
no use
to
me
278
^tl-j
a*
COMPOUND VERBS.
" to 'aqd bastan (zan-l ra), perform the service of marriage
"
(of
the Mulla).
&*j* <yl/*^ or &**b f^> ^
mr
naan
ham-ram kardan, "to

enemy)."
live luxuri-
ously
enjoy oneself."
*
.
" to retire (of ^LwJiJ >-*& 'aqab nishastan,

(ÎJU <>Jy
*..
tavallud ydftan
j|
"to be born"
"
also tavallud
shudan cx*^
&j/**
cwta o,*o
az dast dadan,
Jt
^^-i
up hope
begun)
o**,} ejU*
az
efos ?afl-
to give up." shustan (ordar guzashtan) ^ji&i^p "to give
of one's life."
(jj^jja.
<jy*A? o-,i
;
jt
cA^-?
das
kashidan,
"to cease from

refrain
(a
thing
up." dz Îwjf jb 4,^:^

\\
to give
chlz-i bdz
istadan,
"to
from
(a
thing not
begun)."
oô| t&j*
&
o^lô
))
|;
o^
Mwc? ra var saMi
A;i
murda
ast,
" he feigned to
be dead."
ikhtan,
" to play a trick, wile " to talk."
(in
a bad sense)."
or kashidan, " to cry
or &&j
c)J>3
^^* faryad zadan or kardan
out."
zadan, "to add up." " to collect." kardan,
'
or
LT*-^
^*^ tuhmat
bastan (or tuhmat zadan) bar
* '
to
accuse falsely."
(2**jP
jj* qarar giriftan,

^^'^
" to become settled, to sit."
i^Jf if&J kushti

(
giriftan,
ffish
"to
dadan
wrestle."
(or giriftan),
u&jf or
<J^
" to
listen to."
jt
rw^ kashidan, vulg. (= ^^ (jjy-t ) "to eaves-drop." ditto. gush far a dadan " to be i2 miydn raftan, abolished; cease to be used." " miydn burdan (tr.) carry off."
2;
^7a^ uftddan,
" to get before, go before/'
ua^
sabqat griftan,
vjâxi sabqat justan,
" to surpass." " to to

surpass,
anticipate,"
"to be probable." 4-^SJ tashrlf ddshtan (polite), "to be at home, in the house." xSf J& nazar anddkhtan, "to cast a glance at." bi-tas-khlr anddkhtan "to postpone."
or) (^>j JUla,| ihtimdl raftan (or ddshtan),
j
bi-taakhw uftddan (intr.)
"to be postponed.
In India jam* kardan
cJ^
>="
" to collect
" and
also
" to add up."

(jrj f*-*)
Bi-khflrMan-i qali raftam vail bar
man
sabqat just
(^ jt
LF
COMPOUND VERBS.
\u
(
279
dan
<(
f^ talk//, ushinn-i ruzgar (or ayyam) chashiof life." and downs to experience the ups 5 t>f sard u garm-i ruzgar dldan (m.c.) the same as above. " to mention." *~*\ ism-burdan
p(j\
or
)^jj) (yty?* j
i>U
J>Â.
guman burdan
dtash girijtan
ta<s/i
(m.c.)
'to think, doubt."
hasad bur dan (m.c.; class.
warzldan)
" to bear malice."
ejf
" to catch
fire."
zadan
'
'
to set fire to."
6%
t;
shumdan
[
zahmat
f*3L
$a/am
J.aj
(clsss. and m.c.) "to smell" (tr.). kashidan " to take pains suffer hardships." shikashtan " to break up the audience."
;
^jx-i
Îsx/c
nuql-i
majlis
shudan
(m.c.)
"to be
in
everybody's
to
mouth, be famous
is
(lit.
to be the sweetmeat of the assembly).
c;>y *}^ j ^~~y
riist
u na-bud kardan " to destroy utterly
(lit.
make,
not and was not)."
be noticed that a change of the verb in the compound may make a verb transitive or intransitive in meaning, thus laghylr kardan " to (intr.) change," but taghyir dddan îl^^H* 5 (tr.) "to change." &*/jj
I,
Remark
It will
" the ought you not to be careful of your reputation ? preposition &> bi that is wanting, has only to be inserted before fikr î to make the sentence
<c
,
II. It must be recollected that in modern colloquial, and conjunctions are frequently omitted. In, na-bayad ki shumd prepositions khud biyuftid ^^* Â. ^li^j _,& lî &> ^(v (m.c.) fikr-i mk-nami-yi
J
Remark
perfectly clear
for
ufiadan
(h)
cDÛJf
* is
though in modern colloquial the compound verb used, its proper form is bi-fikr uftadan [)&(&] j^.?
certain
fiqr
There
are
vulgar
(I)
)
should not be imitated, as:
p
ej.y
(Afghan) (for bi-pazam
compounds in colloquial use, which nanrachigunapukhtakunam &^* &^^- cAi " c< the bread ?
\)
how
shall I (or
can
I)
cook
;
danista
namudan
&&j+*
AX-JIJD
(Afghan)
A.wi
(Afghan)
;
'"to
break";
" " to shikasta kardan teach, inform sukhta kardan AxL^^ (vulg. m.c.)
^^
"to burn"
afrukhta kardan
^^ &LLî
(class.), etc.
These compounds have come into existence owing to the frequent adjectival use of the past participle of the simple verb, which is both
transitive
(2)
and
intransitive.
verb like islada kardan

is
c^/
J^LUj
"to
set
up," may
j>U~o'
1
be
admissible, but there

In.
no necessity
for istada
shudan^
&^
(Afghan).
*+*>
mard az hama peshtar

In India takllf
basta karda budi
^5^
8^
Ai: j***$
^*i^
is
used
for
zahmat
o^j.
bi-fikr tiftadan
jt
2
S
Even
in speaking,
l-ar
most Persians wovild say
az In
baz Istada shud
jiUî jb.yjT &>\>
(m.c.)
"he was prevented
from doing this."
280
CERTAIN COMMON VERBS USED IN COMPOUNDS.

coll.)
(Afghan
"you bound me
and should
first,
before
all
the others," the verb might
just as well be,
be. basta budi ^s&j* A-WJ.
a noun; hence (5) As already stated, the Infinitive is regarded as such barbarous compounds as jastan namud (m.c.) "he made " or a jump namud jast ^~^ (Afghan coll.). (t) Some compound verbs consist of a phrase, and are both adverbial
^ ^-^
(tr.),
and nominal, as
c>.W!
az pa da-r-avardan
(j
\\
(intr.)
dost bi-kar zadan
"
and az pa dar amadan " to cause to pas pa ^j retreat, " to commence " az dast dadan ;& ^*~*
\\
^/ ^ b
/cardan
<j^ b
to give up, relinquish," etc., etc.
86.
(a)
Certain
Common Verbs used
in
Compounds.
or
One of the verbs most used in compounds is kardan cwy "to do " "to make." Namudan e^+-i, sakhtan (^^, gardamdan o*^ ^, and
1
in deferential language
in
farmudan &3j*j* can be substituted for kardan &jf These are all used in modern any verb compounded with the latter.
1
colloquial.
(b)
In modern colloquial the forms kun

.
^ and
c^y
is
bi-kun
^./j
are both in use
for the Imperative of kardan &t>jf
Remark.
The
past participle of
kardan
colloquially used
by the
Afghans with comparatives, in the sense of "compared with"; being redundant, it can be omitted in any sentence where it occurs, examples:
^^ f.jk^y >A)j^*f
chunanchi az avval karda liu" accordingly the density jum-i ashjar ziyada-tar ma'lum gardid (Afghan coll.) of the foliage appeared more than it did before (compared with previously)
:
fl?
?uk
*->y
J>
31
*^^
' '
az awwal karda bih-tar shuda ast o-:

better than he was.
(c)
' '
î
t>^ Jr
jl
(Afghan
coll.)
"he
is
Namudan 8
signifying
&*?+*,
Imperative
(tr.
muma 4
l*J, is
both transitive and intran-
sitive,
"to show
and
intr.), to
appear";
~s>Uj^
f>^
ma'lum mi-numayad (or ^^.^ ^1**> *> ;jj> ) az qarar-i ki ma'lum mi-shavad, or simply ma'lum mi-shavad _\^/ ^J^^ ) "it appears."
Remark.
Note the change from karda
t^
to
namuda *j^
in
the
:
following modern
colloquial sentence, for the sake of
euphony or variety
Timur
ra dar
dast basta
har ja-yi dunya bashad suragh karda pay da namuda ml-glrid ml-avand inja (m.c.) " having traced out Taimur in whatever
of
Any shade
For
namudan c^*-*,
^
3
or sakhtatt
meaning that may have formerly existed between kardan î.L n compound verbs no longer exists.
j
Jy
*J
cux-o nisbat bi-avval <m.c.)
In modern colloquial often nimudan ((Isfahani). Modern colloquial bi-numa Ui> only.
CERTAIN COMMON VERBS USED IN COMPOUNDS.

portion of the globe he
281
may be
(and) having produced him,

l
you
will seize
him
you
(d)
will bring
him here bound."
(1)
Sdkhtan %
^.kU "to
fashion;
manage with;
is
j\*
suit,"
is
both
3^*).
transitive
and intransitive:
'
the Imperative
sdz (m.c.
bi-saz
Example: tXÛ-j^ ^j f^ cJ^^j^ dar Kirman jdm-i rud mi-sdzand (or durust mi-kunand îix^ o^; shuma biham sdkhta id (m.c.) you have joined together, conspired
6
' '
(for
a bad purpose only)
jl~**
cr^-
*7-^
p^
C5'
ayshikam-ikhira bi-ndn-i bi-saz

U<ijf
"oh torpid belly, be content with a single loaf"; " the air of j^Lo/o ^j <J6 w havd-yi in-jd bi-man mi-sdzad (m.c.) me."
(Sa'di)
Âjt
c^L^ J vf
this place suits
<c5tA^
13
JLUo
-Sj
(T
3j
*
c?-?^
c^L?^
^3^
J5
dard bi-saz td dava*i ydbl Vaz ranj ma-ndl td shifaî ydbi
" To find a remedy, put up with pain, Chafe not at woe, and healing thou wilt gain." (0. K. 451 Whin.)
(m.c.)
Ghayr az sukhtan va sdkhtan chdra-l nist eu~.x> s^ ^.^LLU^ ^-^j-^ 3'-r^ " there is nothing to be done, but to grin and bear it."
(2)
Sdkht
31
oÛ and sdkhtagi ^^xÛ

î o^L
^1
(m.c.)
are substantives
is this
sdkhi-i in qali az of
ehist
o-j^.
Ûf
" what
carpet
made
" shuma
;
dar
in sdkhtagi this."
karda-id
j>/
^jXlkU
in
^^ U
' '
(m.c.)
"you have
danddn-sdz
adulterated
' '
3^ o'^^ the dar Note following (danddn dentistry ). 2^^ of the love "in bi-saz mahbub bi-suz va 'ishq-i (3^ J* (mod.) 31^3^-^ v^ A -~* /** "in liam-dvdz or Ham-sdz 3 the beloved burn and be patient." 3jT
(3)
$2
"
3^
is
frequent
sdzi
compounds,
as:
a dentist
^3 U & *>*
]
"
tune"; dam-sdz 3U-^ "a confidant."
In miva bardy-i man
sdz-gdr nist
o-jo j(f)U ,^x î^j ÂXJ ^jf (m.c.) "this fruit will disagree with me." " and " Sdz 3^., a substantive, means " a musical instrument necessary
furniture," as: sdz-i safar taddruk kard *jt >Jy
get ready for the journey."
<
j&~*
j(*
(m.c.)
"he began
to
Garddnidan i^Joif^, Imperative gardan ^\^ is the transitive form of and signifies "to change, avert turn gardidan u^J^ (or gashtan ( &&
(e)
, }
round; cause to become."
basta A-i*J
* is
2
o^w^ might be an adjective agreeing with

(m.c.) "this
is
'ji^t
understood.
Basta
here Perf. Act. Participle, dast-i u ra basta mi-avarid.
(m.c.)
3
In harf sakhtag 1st "dont't cheat me."

Qali bajta-i
made up,
false
"; ba man
is
sakhtagl ma-kun
" to weave carpets
"
not qali sakhtan, which
unidiomatic; rud $)j
vulgar for
&^J)\
ru'in*
282
(1)
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.

(/)
Farmudan &*j*j, Imperative farma Uy, is transitive, "to command." In compound verbs it is deferentially substituted for kardan c><>/, sdkhtan ^^Lo, or namudan s^+J, both in classical and in modern
order or
1
" the king sat (or ascended) the throne." (2) In modern colloquial bi-farma*id ÂJI/O^J almost corresponds to the " if " English word "please." To a visitor it signifies please take a chair " two persons are about to enter a door together it means after you ": if
&yji
:
Persian: -^^ i$ytj> &*- ^lf vÛ^ jandb-i 'all chi farmuda budid*? (m.c.) " what did your eminence say?" Chi guftid <**&& &&. would be a very familiar or very rude way of expressing the same thing, and would generally be used to inferiors only. Padishah bar takhtjulus farmud (j*j^ cuiu^j jjUob
food
is
on the
table, it
&\#j*
(3)
Farmdn
"kindly help yourself," or "begin." a substantive is a royal mandate. Farman-farma
Uj* ejUyj "the issuer of mandates" is a title prefixed to the name of a place, and signifies " Governor or Viceroy of ." " orderFarmdn-barddr obedient."
;|^j
eA^*
bearing,
Remark.
The compound verb kar farmudan
in the complimentary sense.

:
is not always used &&y*j* Sa'di in the Gulistan, speaking of a boxer,

;
va qaul-i hukamd* ra kar na- farmud zj>j& j \) *UCa. J^j ^ also kafshsays duz alat-i khud ra kar mi-farmayad (vulg.) "the shoe-maker is using his
things."
(g)
The verbs gashtan
^^ or gardidan ^^J
*
(
['
vide
'
(e)]
can always be
verb.
substituted for shudan c;^, either in a simple or a
compound
87-
Causal Verbs
(j**)\
or
^t^b ^*.*
B
J*^'
and Reflexive
Verbs
(a)
(])
The
"
causal verbs are formed

c^-^f-, to the
by adding the terminations dnidan

:
^-)
jastan
4
or
dndan
Imperative stem of the primitive verb, thus

*
^JU^ to jump, leap," Imperative yah jahdnidan e^^^f^ or " davidan tl to cause to leap yahandan cîl^ 0^^ " to run" (Imperative dawj^) davdndan c^^ or davdnidan &^)* "to make to run, to gallop
;
:
&**
(a horse), etc., etc.,

(2)
etc."= tdzdndan o^fj^ (m.c.) "to gallop a horse." The Imperatives are formed regularly, that is by discarding the
infinitive terminations,
c^-
or &&-.
Farmana
blxjf
is
used in precisely the same manner in Urdu.
In classical Persian, or by Indians and Afghans in speaking, the third person In modern Persian in plural would be used after the address Ûjli^ janab-i 'all.
2
writing the third person plural

*
is
also preferred.
is
In contradistinction to a verb which
transitive of itself
&&#( ^^*io
Jl*j
In modern colloquial jahidan
c^f^
is
more used than jastan
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.

Remark.
In poetry the termination
driidan
283
&*tf
is
sometimes short-
ened to amdan.
(b)
The same termination makes some

This casual form
will
intransitive verbs transitive, vide

if
86
(e).
be transitive
and doubly transitive or causative if (c) (1) Nishdndan ^JlAj (nishdnistan ^-"olî obsolete) "to cause to sit; to plant, etc.," the causal form of nishastan î-^So, is irregularly formed.
(2)
formed from an intransitive, formed from a transitive verb.
Shinawdnidan &*J}ji (not used in Persia) is the causal of shunudan " c^y^, and signifies to cause to hear, tell, read aloud." "to drive" is perhaps the causal of raftan <Î*; (3) Randan &*>\)
"to go."
(d)
(1)
The verb guzashtan ^y^!, or guzaridan o^j ^

die,
(old)
" to pass, pass

viz.,
by; cross over;
etc."
has several causal or transitive forms,
guzardndan c^l;^, guzdrdmdan and guzdrldan cp^l^.
cPH^fjf*, guzrdnidan (D>))b& ,guz_drdan &&J)**
(2) Guzashtan ^^\^ (tr. ) "to quit, to discharge, perform": namdz guzdrdan (not guzashtan) c^l*? jUi " to perform the duties of prayer." 1 &*&** "to throw," causal afkdnldan ^-H^J! (obsolete). (3) Afkandan Verbs have two roots admit of two forms of the causal, as: that (e) " to bore " suftan Îi* suftdnidan cpjjU'jU' (obs.), and sumbdnidan ^^.jJLxi**
;
(obs.)
" to cause to bore "
rustan
^^ or ru*idan cA-^
*'
to
grow"
(rt.
ru
2) or ruy to grow."
(/)
^^
ruydmdan
in
&*&*j) (m.c.), or ruvdnidan &**\jj (obs.)
"to cause
letter into
which the Imperative stem terminates in o, change this shdndan (obs.) c;-x>l (for ^^3*^ ) "to comb," causal " to 2 shdydnidan &*?\M (obs.) ddnistan ^X-^b know," ddydmdan' *)#k\& chidan &x*- "to pluck, collect," Mndidan ^>^5Uxa. (obs.) or (obs.);
^5-,
Verbs
as:
chiydnidan ^voUa. (obs.). In modern colloquial the shortened form of the causal verb
thus tarsdndan
tarsdnd
is
preferred
&*Ly
is
preferred
to
tarsdnidan viPi-^y,
and khivdham
" to
^JLy /**t^, to khwdham iarsdnid ^jJîi /**iyk. (g) Some verbs do not admit of a causal form. Examples diddn* &*** " '' " see to say dzmudan &*?*$ to try, prove." guftan ^sZ a few of verbs are used in modern colloquial. causal the (h) (1) Only When the Persians wish to mimic the Afghans or Indians, they make
:
'
'
an elaborate use of the causal
verbs.
An
Afghan,
use hall
for
instance,
uses
1
fahmdnldan oÛv* where a Persian would or some such expression.
kardan &zj> c^ ^,
In India afgandan,
etc.
V-
The form danariidan

The form cJ-H^
(obs.) also occurs.

is
diyariidan as a causal of dldan
doubtful.
284
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.

Remark.
The verb khurdndan epitj^ "

i.e.
to feed
j\
" occurs
in writing, but
not in speaking: khurdk bi-khurd-i u bi-dih*^

it
yj*u ^br^ ( vu lg-) "give
food to eat,
feed it."
9
Instead of ravdnidan &>&<j}

is
or ravdndan &*>j), ravdna kardan
at
used.
(2)
The following
:
are a few of the
commoner
causal verbs in
modern
colloquial use
Tarsdndan
Davdndan &*\j* or davdriidan eP^t>> to put into a gallop." " to cause to arrive." Rasdndan ^pJLy or rasdnldan a^V
1
" to frighten." Ûy or tarsdmdan c^^y "
Nishdndan
" to plant, place, make to sit." Khivdbdriidan &^*Jl>\^ or khwdbdndan&^>\+\j=*> to lull to sleep or lie down. Fahmdmdan cîÛ^ or fahmdndan c^^t* "to cause to understand,
&^ &>
(
or nishdriidan
cÛ^
' '
' '
explain."
Amuzidan e^J^T
(obs. in Persia) or
dmukhtan
j^Xi^cf
" to teach. "
Jahdnidan &j&f* " Pardnidan &<*&lj or pardndan m^tjj ditto

Remark.
as:
" to make to or jahdndan &*\^*. jump."

;
also to cause to fly."

is
The passive
are,
of
manner, Such passive causals

(i)
parvardmda shud
the causal
*^'j>Jt^
5
verb
formed
kundmda shud
^
:
in
the regular
}<^JU^ (Afghan).
however, rare and should be avoided.
Causation can also be expressed by certain verbs, as

cÛ-it
(^jlS.l
J
^.yî^
tj
-fc^^ f**^
JJL''.
J^
rafta, bi-dnki
iz}wir-l
mahabbat-i khud rdbi-u buruz
vd ddshtan-i bi-sdkhian-i ash'dr-i ki yak bayt-ash bi-yak misqdl " without tild bi-yarzad pdsbdn-i u gardidam (Tr. Haji Baba, Chapter VIII) appearing to show any particular partiality to him, I succeeded in being
diham,
bi-shart-i
to
appointed to keep watch over him, under the plea that I would compel him make verses " (H.B.) urd mustalzam sdkhtam ki bi-raqsad jjlv~x> t^y " urd bar an ddshtam ki "I bi-raqsad obliged him to dance ^JuLU *$ ditto dance' dvardan to cause to \))\ c>^T &\j bi-raqs u**j! f&\*
:
( '
' '
' i
'
mard
bar
bi-ydyad ^*> b &$ fz>)$ )jj jk "he put rd tdkht c^3 ) asp his horse into a gallop": bi-chidan dar dvardam "to cause f*)^ )t> " ura vd to pluck ddshtam ki bi-chinad.
oblige
it
:
me
m ma-ddr ki chundn kdr bi-kunam p& )^ ^^ ^ ;U^ ^j-> \j*

to do
" don't
"
bi-u zur
dvardam
ki
bd
man
Û) (m.c.) " I
made him accompany me "
^\
&^^
is a (j) Qabuldmdan cpoo^jJ "to cause to confess (by torture, etc.)" barbarous causal in m.c. use or in a joking sense = " make him agree."
;
taken either by the simple transitives as pddishdh dast u pd-yi urd bast o~~ \^\ ^b ^ c^,i l*^b (m.c.) " the him (had him bound) hand and foot"; or else some such bound king
(k)
The place
:
of the causal verbs is usually
Amiikhtan
is
also
" to learn."
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.

expression, as
285
"the king ordered

C
(or signalled to)
them that they should
bind ---- ,"

(1)
etc., is used.
Reflexive verbs
reflexive
and the
&^>o s**** J*- ) are formed by the transitive verb " he killed himself (; pronouns, as khud ra kusht
;
:
Tchud-kushl Icard
^2*'
mi-shust
o*Jx*
\j
^^
,jU.
^ "he
J
&$
' '
' '
he committed suicide
' '
;
jan-i
kkud ra
was washing himself."
88.
Passive Voice
is
<
*~*
and Passive Verbs.

The general
(a)
The Passive Voice

it, if it
much
less
;
used than in English.

in other
rule is not to use
can be avoided
only for some special signification, or if it is desired to avoid mentioning it.
words the passive is used the subject is unknown, or if known This rule should be observed even
a
though violated by Persian authors.

voice.
Only transitive verbs have a passive
There are several ways of expressing the passive. (6) The grammatical passive is formed by adding the tenses
of the
verb
shudan &*
" to become " to the past
participle of a transitive (or causal)
verb. The use of this construction is comparatively infrequent and verj' seldom occurs in modern colloquial, for in addition to the simple intransitive verbs the language contains a large store of compounds with a passive sense, " to be wounded * such as &&)?* shi feast yaftan p^j zakhm khurdan *U to be destroyed zafi* shudan ^(j o C "to be defeated
' '
:
' '
^^
' ' ;
* '
' '
gul khurdan
c^;^ J^
' ' ;
' '
(m.c.)
to be deceived
bi-duzdi raftan
' ' ;
(^)
5
c^^j^-?
"to be
dadan
(&*)
stolen
&&\&
anjam (J^\*j* "to
1 1
giriftan
<j^/
pl^
%
to be finished
farmayish
raftan
order
(goods)"
8jl3
(tr.)
[but
farmayish
cr^'
(intr.), as,
e~*t AXJ)
" what! an order has been yash mm-tana-yi taza farmayish rafta ast ? (m.c.) for a new given jacket for his favourite wife, has it ? "] bi-sar burdan
:
Îxy
pu ^Jfj.^ ^\^ baray-i sawguli-
1 *** "Passive Voice," i.e., of which the agent is Slgha-yi majhul J*r^^ unknown. 5 The use of the Passive is antagonistic to the genius of both Persian and Urdu. The use of the passive is largely increasing in Urdu, doubtless owing to the articles in
vernacular newspapers translated from English. of India and in a less degree that of Afghanistan.
S
Urdu idiom again
affects the Persian
and gardldan &^.j> The passive meaning of most verbs

Oashtan (y+
are occasionally substituted for shudan &*& . " to beat, to knock, cast," can be signifying
expressed by a
compound with c)^;^ khurdan, as: takan khurdan &)j^- c;^> (m.c. " zamm khurdan &)*** art' " to fall on " to be receive a push or shake to ) pushed, the ground," etc. " 5 This example is from the Vazir of Lankuran." Ordinarily in m.c. this sentence
;
would berendered
*\
*^ or) eu-of
5te|j>
*j$
& p> ^
(Jt)('&<*
cr^^
<^Lr? baray-i
sawguliyash sifarish-i yak riim tana-yi taza
dada shuda ast (or dada and).
286
(tr.)
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.
"to pass
one's time,"
but
bi-sar
raftan <j^_r*J
(intr.)
"to
be
passed." admits of the Passive. The (c) In modern Persian not every verb % is quite unintelligible shud beaten" u zada "he was -xiaajy expression " he was even to Persians with some education, whereas kushta shud && ALSo
killed
"
is
a passive in
common
*c\j^>
use.
:
(d)
The following
(1)
are examples of the use of the grammatical passive

&$ ki
f>x>T j*
uAs' (jjju*U
^^
my
jt
;'*&M
t^gi
ty^ chundn
(Sa'dl)
bi-ikhtiydr az jay bar
dmadam
chiracfe-am bi-dstin kushta shud
" I rose and
came forward so
hastily
from
place that the
lamp was
extinguished by
passive
(2)
*&
&^
Here the active kushtam instead of the ^J&' " I would signify purposely extinguished."
my
sleeve."
The grammatical passive

tr^v ^^
is of
<-=~*t
not infrequent use in the Shah's Diary

3'
* jwi ipo>jjl/l
*' CSV**-" ;^ (Shah's t^k'Ji) "yl>" cr*" Diary) "we and others have to-day seen a species of crop called 'rape' Uijf in the Prussian territory" <îa> *S u&UJf p** (S.D.) " Hakim u 'l-Mamdlik ki channd-i bud injd bud dida shud (S.D.) "the
:
^-^ ^
^ gâ
6
Hdkim u 'l-Mamdlik who had been
here some time was interviewed ": jj> " two **> ljj* palang-i siydh ham dida shud (Shah's Diary) ' black panthers were seen by us. 6 transitive Infinitive is often used for the passive: e>lij ^ &+& (3) The
^xb du
'
tyoj*
ci>;U|
them
(m.c.)
all
hama-rd bi-kushtan ishdrat farmud (Sa'dl) "he (the king) ordered to be killed"; ÂJ>J ^.^LiXj fy JoU shdyad turd bi-kushtan bidihad
over to be killed."
is
"he may hand you

The passive
:
(4)
also
f
sometimes used to express possibility or impos&$
sibility
*j
t5+^
*^'^ o-^j
(^f^
)** c;T e^jjjtj^

'*
^|
in kitdb-i-'st
an
ki bi-dast qadar sangin,
anddkhta nami-shavad (m.c.)
cannot be thrown by hand y jxx> &^\^ in miz az jd-yi khud bar ddshta mi-shavad (m.c.) "this table can be moved, 1 uftdd chird ki bi^-bd'is-i it is not very heavy"; fa du si ruz dnjd tavaqquf
that
it
;
"
^^
"
:
this is a
^ Û
:
book so heavy,
o^;^-^ v->f (m.c.) u ml-ravam man bi-sar jilav-i (vulg.) (also

l
Ab
bi-sar raft
" the water boiled over " agar it Inja bi-yayad " if he comes here I'll bi-sar davldan) go to him
on
my
a
3
head (from
delight) instead of
on
my
feet
^^.j^j"** (^
Jt
eJ^
<j^f
\\
bi-sar
amadan &**$ j> In modern colloquial u ra zadand ^J>j 0->' " l involuntarily Bl-ikhtiyar ; ^t ^^ means
;
" to be finished."
"
;
the unexpected sight of his friend
made him jump up

forward.
4
bar
amadan
cs>^l j> signifies merely " to get
up
"
not coming
In m.c. dlda shud **
B-^
is
frequently used unnecessarily, instead of the active
voice.
&
Kushta shudan could not be used.
6
1
Or tshara
;i^f.
(JiA>J
In modern collpquiaHi/ag'-i tavaqquf -ft5p
and
az ba'is
C^^bjt would be
substituted.
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.
287
abr dftdb dida naml-shud
^ (Afghan) "we had

\jjj
to stay there
two or three days,

of the clouds
' '
to see the sun (to
steer by) on account
rd jumbdnldan
na-iawariistam chi
it was impossible ba d az ghaltidan an rasdnlda mi-shud jd*e an ki ba-daryd
as
^vo j}>jJU,j
"
less
*&f ^-U. &*
Â~J|Î>
yj.xwUi*. ]^>T
>.xiJsle jt jx*j
(Afghan
coll.)
after (the boat's) rolling over I
was unable even

in
to
move
it
how much
the
could
it
be
moved
to the sea!";
m.c. chi jd-yi an ki bi-daryd

;
rasdnam-ash jUJU; L;^J &&\ the (or bi-rasdnam, fiU/j without ash] is known ***&*> here in m.c. as not be used the would agent passive ji^sti
:
^^ ^
lo
tj taqdir jangida nami-shavad (Afghan) "it's impossible to fight t5*^ " in m.c. Fate ^>&^ &? ^+> o.su lj against dida khivdhad shud &\ jf *> (5) The modern colloquial phrase ba d az an
bd
ijAxx)
B.^
or)
&
.>A|^L
jj>j,i,
or
more commonly dida
nii-shavad
" we'll see." (m.c.), signifies

(e)
jjjo^
The passive can

,
,
also be
formed by an Arabic Past Participle, or
a Persian adjective with a Passive sense, combined with the verbs am ft, hastam p*>~& etc. and shudan eP*, budan ^^, or gashtan ^y^. Examples marsul-am (or marsul hastam), (in writing)*' I am sent" ( ^LA jô_yc)
:
f^*oyo
2 J>Â5 maqtul shud (m.c.) "he was killed "; * ;t^^ khabar-ddr shud " " he was " he was 8 ty ^^3 zakhmi bud (Afghan) (m.c.) apprised, warned
<x
wounded";
<^j
jbUf jj^.
a^ Aama
chiz
dmdda bud
(m.c,)
<x
was prepared (previous to our coming)"; [but dmdda shud
"everything *iUf = "was
prepared after our coming "]. (/) The passive can also be expressed by using the third person plural " of the transitive verb, This construction they do such and such a thing." is both classical and modern the From following examples colloquial.
it will
'^
v_ftcLa/o
*' zyoy be seen that this construction corresponds to a real passive *o^& a&l&iA' ^ ^f ff*"^ farmud ki marsum-i fuldnrd chanddn-ki
:
hast muzd'af kunand-(Sa,'dl)
"he
(the king) ordered that the allowance of

;
may (here it was the king *$ A.jl& JJ)T î^-f^* c^r**? ** h &^*J* increased the allowance) A ^*J dust-irdki bi-'umr-i fard chang 5 drand na-shdyad ki bi-yak-dam *>!3^(*d biydzdrand (Sa'dl) "a friend whom it has taken a lifetime to make
So-and-so, whatever
it
be, should be increased"

:
himself
who
should 6 not be
1
made
offended
in
a single instant";
tiU.
(here there
is
only
Compare Urdu, taqdir se larancthih Or ***) JiftJ bi-qatl rasld (m.c).
fata
^jj
fjJ
^L^^SJ.
" he had a wound."
bashad
Zakhmi shud
4
<Xw i^+^j m.c.; zaTchm dasht
o^t^
^J
Hast
signifies
it
that the speaker
knew
that there was an allowance:
"whatever
5
may
be."
<-ia*t^?
is
Fara chang
to be considered
vs
one word.
Fara frequently precedes

bi-sukhan-i
verbs, and in
^
many
cases
is
merely used for the sake of euphony.

,
tzqsir-l or
Note this use of shayad A|i&. Before yak-dam j*^ some such word is understood.
^3\*J or
bi-
288
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.

friend)
:
one friend and presumably one person who has made him a
tf
*
&$
|j
&jj>
an ra
ki gush-i iradat giran
afrida and chun kunad ki bi-shinavad

(Sa'd!)
va an ra ki bi-kamand-i sa'adat kashida and chun kunad ki na-ravad
"he who has been

manage
to hear'2
?
created deaf
is
to
the divine inclination,
how can he
and he who
forcibly
it
drawn
into the lasso of happiness
how can he
help travelling (the
way
understood, as subject to dfrida and <M 8-vy'f the Deity in Persian is singular and addressed in the singular; to use the respectful plural to the Deity is contrary to the idiom of the language 8 the verb is therefore a passive the author has presumably avoided the active
;
:
drags him) ? should not be
"
(here the grammatical
"God"
voice on purpose, for to say

4
"he whom God has

sin to, or
created deficient in
."
would be, or might be, imparting
a deficiency in the works
of,
the
Almighty. This form of the passive is especially common in modern colloquial. the answer might be burda and where is the horse ? To the question " this answer would " it has been taken away signify that one of the **jl
' c
' '
grooms or servants the precise individual unknown to the speaker taken it if sure of the subject, the name would be mentioned.
:
had
Remark.
(m.c.)
Jtofj>
present was given to him" in'am-i bi-vay ddda shud isf* ty" **!, or better in'am-i bi-u dadand jb Ûif (m.c.).
1
"A
^b
In a few instances, the passive can both in classical and in modern colloquial be formed by amadan &**>'] instead of by shudan c>^, as: in shakhs dar zumra-yi fuzalas. shumurda mi-ayad (m.c.) x^-cj ^ iâ.sJt
(g)
*iT
c*"
&*j**
^jf
*^
"this
(class.)
man
"it
is
counted amongst the learned"
ayad
*fi
\
^c ij&
\-*
is
seen"
in qdli pasandida
^ dmad ^JU ^
;
dida mi-
WJ^JUj (m.c.) "this carpet was approved."
j^*
(class.),
and
giriftar
amadan
'*
^^ $&
Compare mas-khuz amadan

(class.).
Giran means "dear (not cheap)

it
as well as "heavy."
impossible for him to hear, as it is decreed he is not to hear. 3 The use of the plural might lay the speaker open to the imputation of being a " mushrik or "polytheist (one who imputes 'partnership' to the Deity). It may be
is
% i.e.,
that Sa'di being a Muslim and an Arabic scholar has adopted the Arabic idiom here and elsewhere; the plural is used in the Qur'an when Allah himself speaks.
*
In simiiiar instances the explanation of some translators

'
is
that the Fates
is
'
the subject. Though the Persians âttribute misfortune to the revolution of the heavens the Fates could thereor to the sky, no Muslim would attribute good to any but Allah
:
fore hardly
be the subject of kashida and.
CHAPTER
89.
(a)
X.
Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases,

:
There are few adverbs properly so called their place is filled by adjectives or participles, or by substantives with and without a preposition, or
by pronouns, or by phrases,
is
etc.
Many
There
tion" or
its sense.
adverbs are also prepositions.
no regular term for adverb it is styled Jjo*3 tamyiz " specifica"the particle of negation" or Jj " vessel," according to
:
LJJ& pu\
is
tJ^ is a particle used as an adverb ism-i zarf Harf-i zarf a noun that can be used as an adverb zarf-i mubham OyJs
:
:
^&
f^
"dubious adverb"
is
an adverb
(or
noun,
etc.)
a limit of time or space, as f&a> "time," u5**j *' " as ft is opposed to j>j*^> J>j& "limited adverb (noun, etc.)
that does not express " before (place or time)
^ "day,"
s
*>t^
"house "
zarf-i
makdn
is
ism-i zarf
and includes such words (^

*
;
f
c^Jtf
(m.c.)
" " the place where shoes of visitors are removed

\JM
e/
*x>U. (in
Turkish Bath):
pj^,
(6)
jtUan
uij y AJ, etc., etc.
Examples:
Adjectives
:
(2)
AJ/.A/C
well"
&
i
MA^
vr^^
J,a*
^b* vyk $
(m.c.)
"he
speaks
Persian
j><^. (Sa'di)
"a
certain one
had
fallen into
drunken sleep by the roadside"; î%o

AJfÂlJi |^Lc j^lij
he acts wisely ": " I used to (Afghan) say (my prayers) in a perfunctory
ailUL:
(in
m.c. bi-tawr-i
tr^
umuml
zahirdna namaz mi-kardam).
<^ ^***J J-^^? ^ ^/ Uj ^^ j

!
-^ ^ v^
*i ^t^j
er*'>
<
X5
4p*-
i^*A
" See
^
!
AT,
if^,
^y
:
^x>
the
!
Arise
night's canopy and drain a morning draught with me

! !
dawn breaks and rends

full
Away
with gloom
for us,
many a dawn
will
'
'
break
Looking
In this quatrain bisyar
is
and we not here to see (0. K. Whin. Trans. Rub. an adverb meaning " oft."
&>f
295.)
Remark.
Adjectives ending in
:
or
;tj.
vide
43 (aa),
may
be considered
as adverbs rather than adjectives
Aibtlxj
in a restless
x^^,
"without concealment";^ AJt^li-a) " in (2) Participles :*\*>o ^ly^t Uio xAiUj^ fô
manner "; AJlUsu*. ^* = a more masterly manner,"
^^
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
"he
is
to treat
(m.c.)
you with respect before people"

:
s^re>lja
"
suddenly
"
:
obliged A^L-*x*
"plain, not artificial" 19
<Wf
^^
"he came
running
290
all
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
the
way"
"by
*>b> *dl~i\ (m.c.)
" " he remained standing

all
A>1^
\)
psfy
(m.c.)
**~^ (Afghan) "I did

pretence":
secretly
"
:
"they laughed
(3)
^ *J^
"by
my
other business at
home":
ik>y
*>V
(m.c.)
"a
little": *>***& **fy
(Sa'di)
"
always."
:
Substantives without Prepositions (with or without post-positions) ' aJU ij/jUj because I once was weary in the J&j *&f W>A~J (Sa'di)
wilderness"
m.c.)
'
or
& " once, ever "
"
by name
"
t;
v^
jf
:
(class,
and
times
"
"by night":
:
I/-**
chance,"
in m.c. usually
UA
^"oft-
cs-^y
^>*>3 Lfij (Sa'di)
" at times they were chanting low."
Sometimes a plural substantive gives the sense of an adverb " he made of quantity or time, as: t?**** 1A <V 3 *** A;& (m.c.) many presents and many vows (or often took vows)."
Remark.
I
(4)
Substantives with Prepositions:

(jA)
^*f?<#
(m.c.)
"needless,
without
cause": Uai|
"here"
L>
o^g
(m.c.)
"without further words, without

*i| *l2bl
doubt":
o^Jo
Â^J
8
or
j,jf^
(m.c.)
t^ô3^
'
^-uJs j
"by turn": (m.c.) "he said,
Jli* ^j
o^f
ministers are like physicians
and a physician never gives medicine except to the sick"; f*s f& "each In m.c. the prepositions are frequently omitted, thus f J<vT OA.JJ moment.'
:
4 '
we came comfortably."
understood.
(5)
Before jKy^T
Ar. y<$l
^f
the preposition >>
is
Substantive with Pronoun,
Adjective, Substantive, Adverb
La-
<UA
and m.c.) "everywhere": vsJ^ aÂ (class, and m.c.) and a+& * in a manner": "well, coll.) (Afghan (vulg.) "always"; good " on a^ s *d es " this side of the o^fc jlta., or o^t ^rt* -irêr!t (m.c.)
(class,
y^y
' '
^ v^
^*J
^j
'
' '
city
;*
eAy J
in broad
day
"
^ftj
" the remainder of (m.c.) or^Jlwâaj (m.c.)
o>
" l<^ whither r
"
biT
:
'
where ?"
my
"
;
life"
(m.c.)
"always."
Phrases
:
(6)
uf jt
"
after that, afterwards
o^
O,UM^J JU5
l^'
make a
**ijj
movement and approach a little nearer " -^jJ lye gidjf jdjUUd c^'j^^* v^^ (m.c.) "with my turban round my neck they carried
fresh
:
J^ ^y^Ji
(Vazlr-i LanJcuran)
"the
farrashes, 5â^Z in hand,
me
before the Qazi and the Governor of the city
' ' ;
^;^
=u (Sa'di)
' '
of
In m.c.
JNTam
j*U
[^
U^
is
"byname"
apposition, as:
j.U
îje (jciui
"a
person, his
name
(anme) Aziz"
often use daru for gunpowder, and Indians for spirits or wine. In Arabic and m.c. farh In qall khub farh-l 'st Ow-oja^b vyL ^JU ^} ^^k, " this (m.c.) carpet is of good design." " 5 Ku where is he ? " (poet, and m.c.) where, whither ? : kush (J^ vulg.
3
The Afghans
ADVEEBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
291
"
necessity
;
Ûo;^
'
^t;^
"
in spite of his
youth"
together, with, both, one another, mutual, all, whether, either; also, likewise, in the same manner" Biyd tabi-ham (or bdhami
p*>
:
u kaj ddr u ma-riz* " Ham

bi-ravlm
rah ml-ravad (m.c.) " he keeps a middle course."
p?jj*
"
(^^.
:
or)
go together
^^^^T
:
ptf
^ bi-ham
I*
U?
(m.c.)
" let us let us all go," or " commixture" darham barham dmikhtagi
''come,
:
= tu-yi ham rikhta *xu> mixed" f*j*- f*J* "topsy-turvy, p* ham p*> c&o " alike " sar-i ham p&>^~ "contiguous, joining " ham p* j* <-^Xj "one behind the other, continuously." " " b " it *$ Verbs: be
(
<jry
:
misl-i
pusht-i sar-i
(7)
(8)
that, perhaps may perhaps." Arabic phrases, and Arabic nouns in the accusative: ^JUt* $ (m.c.)
:
Û
" at least
" ever
to
(lit.
*=
there
is
no remedy) "
eUsJ(
t<^>
(m.c.)
" " with that, notwithstanding

(
Û
"
orders": ^Jb
khabar
(m.c.)
bi-l-marra
"completely" na-daram (m.c.) " I
=r
l*lw or
04
;
as long as
life lasts,
for
/^Jt ^*
UIJ
),
"agreeably
az in
Tear
man
am
l^x
completely
(the conj. fa
ignorant of
this
bi
matter
fern.
'):
O"
j ^/o "circumstantially":
' '
:
+ the prep,
"
+
)
pron. ha) "well and good

is
masc. of the verb ^x*j (3rd per. sing.
"that
^
to say,
namely
(lit.
it
means, intends"):
(m.c.)
)|l^ )
<ÂXJ
U<"
fittingly
(lit.
like that
which
is
an proper) ": \*& naqd

%
:
"at present; a^soincash":

" at present.'
'
'amdan " purposely "

i
t
3IU>
hala (for
Al-hdl Jksjf, vulg. il-hal, which has the

Ls
is
same
a
),
signification as 5)1^
is
and
an Arabic accusative
(for Jl*J| al-hal
but
not used in Arabic.

understood.
In
^9 Such adverbs as
^*j
Ar., the Arabic

:
pronoun
*JU?J!
^^ " that "

etc.,
is
&>*&]
^,
that close a speech, are
called f$$ p&* ofaf.
appears to be an old adverbial termination ^*ob) (Sa'dZ) "in the morning."

(9)
An
of
of^/oL
as:
Or
The Afghans
"suddenly
still
"
use this termination even in speaking,
cj^lt
J&\)
"straight (adv. not adj.)."

AJtjjj;
Remark. The Afghans also say ruzdna means " by day."

(c)
for
"everyday," but
in (m.c.)
An adverb is sometimes combined with

lîfjd dar anja "there
classical
now "
1
a preposition, as
"
c^f
^ "
till
"
:
Jlla-j!
az hala (m.c.)
from now, henceforth
"
:
In
Persian _^?TX) j
)\s
'
Jcaj
dar u ma-riz signifies an impossibility:
^J*
y)\* *? ** L^ )* ** LS^ C5** &&5 (*** (&< " Thou Look not,' I might as well essay say'st, To slant my goblet, and not spill my wine."
(O.
is
J&
In colloquial Persian the nunation

all
;
K. Whin. Tr. Rub. 261). dropped in most of these adverbs, but

,
not in
for instance,
^**
js
an always mavl
but
SH-**
always hala.
The Indians and
Afghans preserve the nunation.
292
ijj&fj;* ill*
jf
fi<H^
l ^> (Tr. H. B., Chap. *&>Lr 3 fi&*

1
XXVIII) "but we
hear, doctor, that your paradise has

(d)
begun here on earth."

while particles expressing negation,
Adverbs
of negation
and
Particles of warning such as^^b, j^j, c^*,
etc., are called
AxxxSo^
"
]
or ^/*13
o^
as AJ
"not,"
(1)
without," are called
^ o^.
*i
jfjA
"never."
all, in no wise." " at no time."
S
**
A>
c$*^
gs-A*
" at no time, never."

" not at
AJ
ojj ÂA
or
AJ, or^jja.,
î,
5
or^. "no, not." " A^^, or ^ ^ no no."

"neither
ct
AJ
*i
nor"
(conj.).
Ai
*j
e
lalkx)
not at all."
A^J
Aj
ai
Â by no means." whatever" (pron.). ^>j^. Â "nothing " none whatever " (pron.). f\$ gA
"
AJ
^^
t^b
_x&
"no person"
(pron.).
AJ
^XA
"on no
-\
account."
AJ
AJ
&*\
J^tjf
>
"not
at
all,
in
no shape."
e^f c^b^
K-^"more
l
than this."
y ^,
^
;V^3> or or
*r
>)
UU
^3 "never," wrfe Interjections of Warning. " not " and 121 (6). "less," vide ff
"God
forbid, never."
>
%" not at all."

(2)
Examples: jA L ^jj^x* Isof

or
' '
(m.c.)
" are you going there or not
"
?
>
went nowhere.
2
3
An
" ever." Hargiz jrj* with an affirmative verb adverb of time, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
1
iJLx
*^ or) Jfc>
)
it
(_^^
f/o
L^xi
aJ
na tanha mara fuhsh dadriiz
(or balki)
mara zad (m.c

* Class,
"he not only abused me, but beat me."

A>
^ no joys below." (O. K. Whin. Rub. 60.) hopes have Conjunction, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
and m.c. nay nay (m.c.) " no, no." e~^j iAx>"f AJ j Uia
^^
No
I above,
6 7
Indef Pron.
.
but inserted here for convenience of reference.
Hasha zadan
&
\~^
(m.c.)
"to deny."

a.
293
(m.c.)
" his pocket was not picked at all."
ug+*
Âlf
*M
(class.)
*J
e>3
" he never does so."

AJ
jvjj UJf *?u nor the child."
<M<i/
"neither was the
man
there, nor the
woman,
auf (m.c.)
"
nothing can be obtained there."
U3 (Afghan)
"I
did not get a wink of sleep

the
latter
all
night (tamam
8
shab)."
uJt&j
iito a t5 r
former
"
?
Sa'di)
"how
t-vl
can
even resemble the
ar
^jlaiAj-c
ex*,|
î *^[;j
etc. is
jof
(m.c.)
"this
man
is
much more than

*j
you
think (good or bad)."

(3)
'Scarcely,'
expressed by a negative:
'
JSaJlîu
'
*{> J^XA jUi jl

aj
j^ Jj^
(or
JyL*c (Tr.H.B., Chap.
closing sentence of his prayers
when
XXXII) "he had ." Ml u&.
barely completed the

jj^l^j
A*f
er&Sb)
^^j
)
Ûsf
jl
#2 wj5ag 6*r^7i na-nihada ki saqf pdyin
amad
(m.c.
" he had
barely (not yet) left the room when the roof fell." jt^j (e) Interrogation often expresses negation
:
*&
;
(t
(Sa'di)
how can
"
the sleeping
I said,
does any one else know ? (nothing) " &*. Jl&j ^pJUo Jla. " then tell ty ^*| (Afghan) me, what hope was there of life ?
:
awake the sleeping ? <^b <*> " how can I go when my fee"t are unable to move "he knows, and he alone; what ^l-ijf (Afghan)
5
'*
"
^
' '
j\
.*$
(j^J
(/)
(1)
the educated
pardon of often expressed by the (2) In m.c., emphatic denial or contempt is " he does not reach his dust even " 8 **~j following phrases u*^ (m.c.)
:
Emphatic denial "never!" is in speaking and writing amongst " I ask " " we take 6 al/l, or Alf|yuL*,f refuge with God God." 7
:
UT
^^
1
lî
^t
(m.c.)
" "I can't compare with you, Sir

f
,
9
:
In m.c., tamam-i
shab
-r
wi*h
za/a^
also Ichwab na-raftam
or
khwab-am nay amad

1
3
<^^
class,
f*\j=**.
Kay f^
both in
and m.c.
" when
" and "
how
"
?
Interrogation expressing negation or dissent.
*
6
Vara means " behind "
but in v^**|^,3 Ûx/o

' *
^f ^(^
it
" Can the blind lead the blind

3yiJ
"we
take refuge with
God from Satan
the accused."
Qur'an.
G '
7
**.'*'
aJ|
*
vyf ^
is
**' '
^S 9
&- C
'
aJJt
.AiLcf.
The idea
i.e.
taken from a grey-hound pursuing a gazelle, or a

is
man galloping
after a
wild asa.
a dog can bark at the heels of a person, but he
not anybody's dog to do as
much
as this.
294
(m.c.)

" whose dog
is
he
:
"
:
^f3J
j^j = ^ti oJbU

f^|
"throw him away"
p*\z ^fi*
jof J^'a
(m.c.)
)* o^jt^J
:
(m.c.)
" I (m.c.)
elon't
count him a
human being,"
l
aql ast
cU>(^ af (m.c.) (ditto) o*,! Ja* j( Jl^xx (m.c.) "impossible! " gum ash bun (m.c.)
fcif
:
or ah\ dakhil-i
adaml
muhalaz
%./
JU
"hang him!"; also "I don't believe he can do it, or send him off": ox*f Û^f az zamin ta asman ast (m.c.) " all the difference (jj/oj jf j^j yar
g-
in the
world."
(1)
(g)
Na
AJ
for
"no"
is
vulgar; na khayr or khayr
or
the polite form of

It
is,
"no."
'better to
^
;
however,
avoid using ^x^ alone
some such expression,
as
or j*
of affirmation or negation is î^ÛJuLi
etc., is preferred.
(2)
polite m.c.
form
"
it
rests
with you."
(3)
An
to reply,"
(h)
evasive reply that may mean "yes," or "no," or "I prefer not " " what *^ petition shall I make, what shall I say ? p*f Note the phrase: uy** (m.c.) "I had such a
is
u^
of
^^d^f\^^j^^.
(
il
lot of trouble."
(i)
Adverbs
affirmation
or
and
of assurance
(1) eg)? (m.c.)
an
^
1?
(m.c.)
We or ball
am
'II
yes.
)
Ml (m.c.) a/6aa "certainly" (contr. of
^
r^
AuJf albattat"*).
(m.c.) I
very sure.
^
^> (m.c.) bila-shakk
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
j>
jj
without doubt.
(class.)
(m.c.)
If
two persons were bowing at a doorway, each

one might say, <*^j^^- (&*
room
*
3
first,
^ o~i|
politely declining to enter the
dac
J^'
him
muhal-i 'aqlast ki manjilaw
bi-ravam.
Also
csjj^
3
(^
"
" kick cT'*^ gum-ash kun bi-ravad
" yes except as

*
Khayr j ^"
for
"no"
'
is
not
classical,
nor
is it
off, let him go to the devil." used by Indians and Afghans,
or
well."
certainly
As
albatta
A^l "
" and harmn " ^^**
this
very
"
:
the latter word
is
also called
^
{jaÂso O;**. In Teheran are ^$j( or ari L)f. Formerly labbe was used for "yes." into albat. shortened further the Afghans By
Vulg. bala shakk.

(class.)
~\
295
(class.)
> certainly.
or
Ixxflj
(m.c.)
J
;
^
J,A.
of course (m.c. only in this sense)

<*4.a>
also
why
<y (m.c.) without
ceremony,
without
reserve,
without
joking.
9 (m.c.) in tenth, really.
la-bud
il
of necessitv.
Id-jar
am
(class.)
Uu
m.c.)
(class.)
>
certainly, sureiy.
(m.c.)
'
Idbbayk
,
(class.)
*>.
J^here
am
for you,
what
are your
commands ?
Remark
be omitted.
(2)
I.Mana UU
are
is
is
always followed by
*T,
but after UU* the
^ can
An,
used locally instead of bale or
ball.
is, with regard to future events, frequently used by Muslims for "yes." No Muslim asked, if it " or is going to rain, will reply "yes "no," as this would be deciding for the
(3) As a strong affirmative, the phrase v^ ^ *-* admixture of doubt and uncertainty," is used in writing. (< if God pleases," (4) The phrase *U| *UJ|, or *JJf *U ^
^^
<jr?
" without the
Almighty. to-morrow
8
' '
The answer
is
frequently
^ ^ made
\^> *AJf *lJf (m.c.) "D.V. I will come by a Persian when he has not the slightest
intention of fulfilling his promise.

(5)
The following common m.c. phrases
also express affirmation
"I'm not lying to you"; î-^J^ &^S " I'm not yarning' 4 ** (&*> " I'm not talking rot " ** &* " I'm not
1 ;
;
^ ^ ^^
by
(*j^*rU>^
joking," etc., etc. (6) Strong affirmation
is
also expressed in m.c.
& p~3
U^ JÛx j~*
father's
"I swear by your

1
venerated head that
";
"by my
La-budda
*
3
there is no escape." *$ "^(class.) also means " at the same time that." The Prophet was once asked how many legs his horse had.
,
Ar.
'
Hamana
ki
He dismounted,
counted, and said four.' Had he stated number and so convicted him of error.
*
l.J
four
'
off-hand, Allah might have changed the
Bast ml-guyi ya ghadr (m.c.} )&c i^'j^ " = shukhi mi-kunl (cheating) ? ya jiddl ml-guyl?
5
^***s
" are you in earnest or joke

^
(^j* C5^
^t* t^^j>/J
Arwah ^b;| ,
"
pi.
:
f
o<
ruh
-^j).
Arvah-i pidar-at bi-raw (m.c.)

for bi-arvah
^)^
^Lyf
" for
goodness sake, go
arwah
j^
296
soul"
:

*&
p~-y
^j*****^*?
of
"
"by
is
the
martyrdom
**f \s+*\j u^j!
true
may'st thou die (i.e. don't be alarmed)" ATj*AJê^ ''may I see your beard bloody (i.e. your throat cut)
:
"
& f-3
(k).
<jr^*jy
"
(**li^
^^
Husayn J* J^RJ "by the rights of 'Ail": life of my children I swear this the by
1
:
by our Prophet's tomb" "

(
' '
1
:
if
vide also
93
(j)
Adverbs
of Interrogation
j*lÂi^t <J>=*.
(1)
|^. (m.c.) |
(m.c.)
l
^why?
1
vide (4).
(m.c.)
anJ
VJ
.
(m.C.)
(m.c.)
Uor what
I
reason,
why
jf
fj
(m.c.) J
(vulg.)
why ?
what manner
;
(m.c.) in
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
how, in what way

2
(m.c.)
&
kay
when ? how (m.c.) how long ^. (m.c.) when ?

(m.c.)'
?
&.
'
(m.c.) at
what hour?
a^ r gr
m .c.) how much,

?
what quantity
?
:
(m.c.)
how many
(m.c.
and old
poet.) where, whither
vide (2).
(m.c.) what place, where?: vide (m.c.) which place ?
(3).
(m.c.)
(class.)
what direction
:
how?
vide
:
(5).
:
(m.c.) (m.c.)
perhaps ? afoo but whether?: vide (9).
vide (8).
^J
(me.) what do you (m.c.) why not ?
mean
:
w'de (7).
rncê (6).
For Shi
'as.
Sunn is say, Chahar Yar qasam " by the Four Friends (Abu Bakr,
'Umar, 'Usman, 'All)." " when " 2

â^/
^/
c^*} p'-^'-
'
O;^-.
\-^& " whither
^4z Jeuja
'
'
^^ j\
"whence?":
bi-kuja
?":
ta
kuja UR*' ^
"how
long
har kuja ISRÂ "everywhere."

c>>J-
GYifTtt
:
etc.
"
has other significations, not interrogative, as: "when, because, how,

(5).
it is
used both in speaking and writing: vide

(2)
is
297
" where
is
Ku
is
m.c.
and
also classical poetical.

:
Rush (Jk
he
''
?
vulgar m.c.
Examples
'
The dove
Those
started complaining to each
hill,
'
whom
thou sawest, have also gone
whither, whither
'
'{
~A
I
ti
saw a bird on the walls
of
Before
him
lay the skull of
Tus? Kay Kawus,

!
And
moan, 'Alas poor king Thy drums are hushed, thy 'larums have rung
his
(0.
thus he
made
truce.'
"
K. Whin.}
'*
The Palace that
to
Heaven
his pillars threw,
kings the forehead on his threshold drew I saw the solitary ringdove there, And 'coo, coo, coo,' she cried, and coo, coo, coo.' "'
'
And
(0. K.', Fitzgerald.)
Kuis sometimes an
were morning!"
(3)
.
interjection, as:
(m.c.)
= "oh
I wish it
(m.c.)
U^
Note the following idiomatic meanings of (sS: ii>tjJ^ AS J>j ^,j*> e;^ " ^ e struck him such a blow as or of^tv or ^Ju;
,
no athlete
(or Hercules)
^"~*S- ol>^J *$
chist
(s>S
:
J^+i *Jtj^
! 1^ ^ j \.sS vty^ ^l^j lst> (i.e.
wine?
(m.c.)
the two are irreconcilable) " Iso U^& "you can't possibly do such deeds"
;
:
in Afghan colloquial '^j* chunan zarbat ba-u hawala namud ki pahlawdn î (m.c.) "there is no comparison between the two": 0,0,3 jLk "where is piety, where the intoxication of
*
could have
done";
c^
^\j
^^y
^
"
?
y tu va in kdrha kujd
^;>J bi-dard-i
kujd
mi-khurad (m.c.) "of what use U o-jlU^ " how
is
this
thing?": himdqat
you display
;
td
much more
folly will
Up/,
â
kujd (m.c.) "is it
An example
'
of the rhetorical figure

' '
o**^^
' '
tajnls.
a dove
' '
and ku, ku
whither, whither
The
lines
The play is of course on do not scan.
2 3
Tus 4j^-t near Nayshapiir.

Jaras
is
caravans.
1
Kits
is
a large camel-bell and perhaps the noise of departing and arriving a large and very noisy drum. In Persia drums are beaten from about
This is an 5 minutes before and up to sunset (<**j*;'*> &^^- X)^ naqqarakhana mi-zanand). ancient custom, and, as formerly drums were also beaten at sunrise, the custom may
have
its origin in fire-worship.
298

*)***)*
possible?":
va Khalifa dar Baghdad * kujd (prov.) (said by a deceived person to one that has gone back on his 1 word). " from which of the In m.c. the is also UUxT as AiJT
j
**l
\*tf
^ man
:
plural
used,
?
places in the world
do you come
"
:
<^x>
jt
^j
(*(?&.?
U (m.c.) "
what places
shall
we
visit
' '
I. kujdt Ûtf is an adjective '-of what place" " of what " (m.c. only) place are you a native ? Remark II. Kuja l^ is used in indirect as well as in direct questions.
;
Remark
(4)
Chird
\j*.
possibly
It
it is elliptical
"why?", in m.c. for " why not

?
also
means "certainly,
"
of
course":
' '
'is
also
an expression
of astonishment,
what the Devil are you

used for
tijt*.
:
up to?"
(5)
Chun
&&
vide
note
' '
4,
p. 296)
is
sometimes
**rj 9 v^ 9 *^ ** f)j cJjV(m.c.)
moned me ? "
now an I help going when
the Shah has sum-
Bi-chun u chigun u^^. ^ cj># is an epithet of the Deity. Bi-chun u chird \j*. j &>*. ("without why or wherefore")
signifies
"implicitly."
(6)
Chi bdshad ki
<*'
<xU A*
not?
"
(class.)
"what would happen
if,
why
what
Intro. Chap. I, St. 3) ., "why not [the cat says] perform due to courtesy and fraternity and this time, when thou goest, take me with thee ? " East. Tr.
is
,
is
Ar.
*? sAb, it may be that," is also used vide (k.) " " what does it ** Ya'm chi do you mean ? what (7) ^MU (m.c.) signify, common m.c. expression. Ya'ni îw is the 3rd pers. sing. masc. of the "it means" Aor. The 1st pers. a'ani ^\ "I mean" as well as ^x
:
Bdshadki
are used in Persian for

(8)
" that
is
to say, viz."
: '
'
Magar
<
is
used in m.c. for interrogation, positive and negative, as

?
you mad, perhaps you're mad U &f \jUJ if aya na-bayad ki shumd In a sentence such as with the Indicative would be commoner in m.c. vide 73 (b).
&\jij*
are
1,
(9)
\
Chi * and
%abf
obja
^Jl*^
}t
whether this young man may not be one of the aya lf could be substituted for chi &*., and also *U> could be yd na JL> could be added to the end of the query;
dAU
(Sa'dl)
"how do you know, my

" robbers ?
:
friends,
substituted for
But man
Inja va Khdllja dar

'
Baghdad
*\**} }*
*^^ ^
IsvLt
^^
means
'
I can
do
what
a
I like, there is
no one near to punish me.'

vide
Phillott's Hindustani
Like Icahan in Urdu,
Manual,
p. 24.

(10)
299
Short phrases in
common
'
m.c. use are
^sjW
l
u bi-mlri
to
which the reply is fj+> &* ^. c?^ ^ /*>* earnest?" (k) Adverbs of doubt ( && j ->* OJA. )
:
or C5e-
i cs*-*'
''joking or in
(1)
i*jl
2
(m.c.) perhaps,
;
wde
(3).
A&J moreover in m.c. perhaps, vide IAT *i|y (m.c.) possibly. 1 *^ >s (class.) perad venture.
(3).
(m.c.) possibly (with Aor. or Pres.).
^
Ijf
(m.c.) probably, as
if,
as though (with Aor. or Pres.), vide

(j)
(4).
whether?
(interr.), vide
(1).
:
JL perhaps?
!
(intetr.); also
"but"
vide
(j) (8).
(class.)
possibly (3rd pers.
singular masc.
Aor.;
lit.
"it
is
possible ").
/
&+*
#
(adj.) (m.c.) possibly.
U)l
(m.c.) principally; aZso probably. (m.c.) hardly, wrfe (5).

(f
L&*O
(m.c.)
a.
perhaps vide (6). (m.c.) what would happen

:
if
vide (7).
:
(2) l?a&*' A<Jb
c<
" moreover, rather, but," in m.c. perhaps"

xJ
L
o^^
^^
*c^^fj^
his
A^L
%J *4
(*jLt>o
^j j*
UJi
(m.c.)
"when
he placed
hand on the curtain, he discovered that
wall
5
"
ÛLitkx^jjjjj
l>
ab
*^^ ^*J^X
no
*^
t^f
>
Âltf Ij ** -^ (Sa'dl) " he said,

in
this
:
j,ijj
it wasn't a curtain but the o.K^ Îji SAXJ Aij|si. ^f o*i^

'
my
it
butes
fault
to
you
nay rather
Lord, your slave attriwas the fated decree of

'
:
God Most High
that something unpleasant should happen to your slave ^^J *-c-L? (m.c.) "perhaps he may come." Though balki *L is enhansive and not exceptive yet in such a sentence as
,
"
"I
will
not halt at the
first
Persian as in English,
when
stage but at the second," &&J, etc., are used in *Jb would be obligatory in Urdu vide Phillott's
:
Hindustani Manual, p. 210
(e).
These are verbs.
Words
signifying
"
perhaps
" are
called
'
adverbs of possibility
and doubt.'
2
In Kirman, vulgarly balkum and balkam.
For
Axlaxi
Imruz mazanna-yi gandum

?
:
chi-ast ?
O*JA. +&*$
&Jb*> jj*>\
" what
is
the price current of wheat to-day * Note the dramatic present

*
"
the Past would be wrong.
Note 3rd
pers.
after
8^
and
.
also the old particle
before the dative.
In
ra.c.
the 1st pers. usually follows **V
300
(3)

Shayad oÛ "perhaps"
***{*>
is
always followed by the Aorist or by a
doubtful past tense: <j^ cA^^y3 AjlAÎ (class.) "if perchance the men of the boat should come. Shayad from t:>x.jl "also meaning "to be
"
fitting
jya
*jl.
<j*i
ty
;(
i^f (m.c.)
it is
o^jo
as
l*i &~jl
^tf ^jt
(m.c.):
tell
cr^J^r* (poet.) (4) Guy a l^ "perhaps, probably;

l
"
not befitting that you should ever
a lie."
though"
'
^>*t
^T
(m.c.)
"probably (or perhaps) Mash ,hadf

:
Muhammad is
like
an acquaint';
ance of yours
"
o*t
a^ Ujl ^^ ^j;^ cs*;^ *^ ^*^>? f^^

-J
jt
(m.c.)
"I saw him

Remark.
c;<x
asleep on a bedstead with a sheet over his face

is also a verbal adjective Guya "to begin speaking."
\
one dead."
"
speaking" from
^^
b^f (m.c.)
(5)
he will
Mushkil ml-danam bi-ydyad come."
t\jUj
*jtux) Ji^^x) (m.c.)
**
I hardly think
*>(*> c^f "how IT x;f (6) Gdh ast o-t j\ *;&*<> *J>% U^ (m.c.) can you say he won't come ? perhaps he may." * v^ ?4 ** *}^* *% (m.c.) ? S c5Jt^l e; (7) Chi mi-shavad ki C5i;^ " " what would happen if, why should you not have compassion on me ?
: :
1
&
l:
(I)
Adverbs
*&j
of
comparison
^
(1)
&j
vide (2)
I
i-more.
oo,
vide^S)
*<,,
or
c^f
much more
j
(stronger than bisydr)
:
^'AJ
'
vide (4).
the most part.

jj
-
or
less
:
vide, (5).
at least.
) > small.
least.
^^
y*
(m.c.) equal to.
parallel; equivalent to (of
sums
of
money, weights,
etc.),
}*> (class.) of the
same weight.
A>
neither
more nor
less.
Imam
2
Mash,hadl î^** a Riza in Meshed.
title of
a Shi 'a that has
made
pilgrimage to the
tomb
of
For
ziy ad-tar
j*Wj
(not used).

vide (7). p& also, equally, even, o*~j lower (of place, rank, price).
301
only, vide
(8).
|>as, like,
equally.
<JJU=
alike.
like.
Remark.
&}<*
and the
suffixes
are called
"particles of resem-
blance."
In ôf Û^^xi eâ. fl~), Rustam is called *AÔ, and sA?r *> chun, the Aj^x^Jo^, comes between the two. In poetry, however,
is
AJ,Ô;
and
this order
neglected
;> f^S- v^ ey^ is the tu subject in the (Chashm-i

ajw*'
&
vlA
As
Â
:
v!A (Jxj*
^^ v^ ^ ^ ^ e^
But the
positive is
second misra').
ziyac? ab) is
(2)
stated in
46
(i)
(4)
a positive.
sometimes used for the comparative, as **> aljj <^j*3 (m.c.) <s give me a little more." " Ziydda tobj is a comparative more," but is construed with the word following it, to which it is generally joined by the prepositions J| ory,
as:
l
<ya-3>
**^)
one compound word)
JS*JQ
o^
:
^f
jjiLjj
(m.c.)
"don't
jaw any more."

It is also used in
(3) BisJitar
compounds, as
"
alj, subs.,
' '
"talking too much."
J&M
(for) the greater part
&j*
*ijX>f
the greater part of which was of glass." or an adverb, according to the reading.
(4)
(5)
"
Here
bish-tar
% JS&# A? may be
(class.)
a noun,
Bisyar-tar
y Û-j
is
not
-
much
,
used.
are often used in a nega-
Kam
pf,
:
kam-tary
cu*o
tive sense, as
**
zi
and andak <J&\

-
c:
^yo
^ &J
In m.c.
AJ
*&
Not
302
(Sa'di)
is

"for the sages have said fortune comes not by
'
effort, the
interfere
not to worry "

:
much"; ^jyU-'
^)^
fuzuli kam-tar bi-kun (m.c.)
remedy "don't
^ tf
'
AJ
ctf
^laa b
J>$
j^Jja
t-^lJ
<jr;|*i
etf^ (Sa'dl)
Since you have not sharp- tearing claws Better not engage in strife with wild beasts
l>;^
' '
:
(&& j
(Sa'di)
"
and the best dervish

121,
(6),
is
he that
does not mix with the rich."

(7)
Vide also
71
(?).
Ham
p* "also, very" (emphatic),
etc.,
and mz
"also,"
Ham
when
it
means "also" seldom commences a
<*>**> p& e^ (m.c.) " oJ said so y \)

;
clause, whereas mz does: = man riiz ml-guyam: y p& p&Z (^ /** " both he and I " here ham could not be " o^" cÔ^ also he said this
;
used at the beginning of the clause.
Ham
clause:
p*>
is
also
an emphatic particle and
as
such often commences a

(the king) recovered
ojU && A&& ^f ^
that very
[>y ^.A ^| lâ. ^xJ (â'c?*) "his leavings are fit for " in that himself and none other" I?ULJ| îf f* p& "in this very place" " " at this A o^j eÔ^^* (m.c.) very place very time." For cA* and i^*
:
:
:
week"
:
Û
jju^f
(iSa^?)
"they say
vide (8).
Fê
:
90
' '
(a) (6).
Ham p& in compounds

citizen
means
'
'
fellow," as
(.s^c**
A or
(*
jt"
"
J~j f* Note the following compounds " " one on tne to P ^ anofcner t+ (3)
f*
bed-fellow, wife."
' c
:
"
apart
:
"
p*>
I?
' '
p*> jt
together
A t?-J
"on an average" p*j~

: :
"
***) (** C5J!)
an d sometimes colloquially
;
contiguous
(of lands)
:
level
"
:
p*>j**
"one behind the other"
" " he was put out, angry

continuous dishes upset
business
(8)
is
^
:
JjU> " alike, equally"
oJ>> p*)*
o^. ^jjf
(m.c.)
&j*o pttj \^
me": o*|
J^ p* ^ t^V'J^ ^j ^^ &+A y Û;^

:
" &# (m.c.) these (m.c.) "all your
" he had only \jj$ cÛ* "this mere son": cu*t o^lsf v t>^ ^ j^^ e^** t;^ (m.c.) that one eating and sleeping is enough for us, we want nothing else." " Hamin ki &&$+& means " as soon as oo>; y f^T
upside down, confused."
Hamin <^+& and haman &U*
o^b
(m) Adverbs
i
of place
(1)
Isujf
^
,
( u^ o^
or ^?^l (m.c.) here.
or tsof (m.c.) there.

")
.j|
(m.c.)
..uf
(m.c.)
(m.c.) (m.c.)
way.
^1
e^l
Any
Inja
of the simple
prepositions can be prefixed, as: azlnja ^***!

(I) (7).
3'
" whence."
Ham
^ CJ** A
(emphatic), vide

c>f
303
etc., etc. (m.c.)
that way.
\within.
^without. J
la.
U.
*j
V ^
under, underneath, down.
A+A everywhere.
somewhere.
ÂA
U.
nowhere.
^'IA.
*J
(m.c.) somewhere. iÛ. nowhere.
,>>>
near.
far.
before, in front of.

|
'
level (foX breast to breast).
behind.
or o**t; cô^
on the right hand.
-*a-
or y^. c^î on the left hand.

outside.
inside.
3
all
the way.
opposite.
*Jo
Jt
on the one hand.
jJs jt
jf
on the other hand.

,
here
now
vide
(5).
In m.c., andarun &))&>\. is a subs. the harem" and pi., as a subs., for " the inside, the stomach." 2 Nuzd nizd " near " is not used as an adverb
1
'
Sa'di also uses
it
in the sing.
&y
Plsh-i
man
only as a preposition.
*
^
Barabar
^jf^j
also
For AT.
<aqib f
of time. ^jko of place, but pish az man j\ jjSuj means continuously, Indian and Afghan. and vulg. in Persian 'aqqib.
304

/* cX> on the
j\j*
^P
one Another
vide also
(1}
(7).
up
vide (6).
:
etc. ty back, behind,
vide (3).
"
S*)
J
above, over, upon,
below, down.
head foremost
upside
down
steep
>wherever.
here
it is.
^1 here
,
am. or o~f eif there

I
>
it is.
somewhere
else.
tu or
fit?/
inside.
apart, aside.
higgledy piggledy.
upside down.
different, changed.
headlong.
4
oo ._^3
- ilb
orlw except, besides: vide (7). below (of place, in an assembly).
o^-i
above
,,
Remark.
(2)
Idar^\
"
here, behold,"
is
obsolete.
cuftf
'
jj
Faru jy is used in compounds, as: he got (the fire) under.'

'
^y "he spoke low

m.c.).
:
Before a vowel
(3)
^y
is
sometimes used
(class,
and
jPam ty
is
sometimes merely a euphonious particle, 8 as

Î;
^|L>
Man bi-kiih sar-a-bala raftam
\j*
*j& (^^
(m.c.)
'
went up the
hillside
"
:
imruz u bi-man sara-bala kard (slang) ** he overcharged me ": ^Jj/o J/U \^ ^(^fjS*. j\ u harf-ha-yi sara bala ml-zanad (slang) = " he's opening his mouth very wide (slang)." 2 U zlr dast-i man nishasta ast o*^ J V ^t ne has taken a seat cu-*s| AJLJli
'
'
^ô
below me":
s
zir-dast
cô
.j^,
adj.,
opposed to zabar-dast
-
Redundant particles such
as f.i
^x>
Â, etc. , are called

'
305
j-'
*5
(Mem.
of Jahangfr)
" the Rajputs

:
came
vr*j^
in
\j
armed bodies and surrounded the entrance to the Sultan's tent" * " the flood came and AJUk _>! (m.c.) tj swamped the house.' Ûi tx/cf
_j
(4)
Du barabar jlj* j*
Inak
kishti
j*\j*
**, etc.,
" twice as much, thrice as much."

Ji|t
(class.)
<{
(5)
mi-ayad
<xrf
^ ^&>
"here
is
the boat
coming": tnak az Baft amad

from Baft."
It is rather pedantic to use
(6)
**>1 *s*&*y
u&uf
(m.c.)
he has just come
mak
in speaking.
Farazytj* has
(the king) sat
many meanings
:
in classical Persian.
eJ**f jl/
'*
It is
common
in
on the throne " jfy ) <-*&> (7) Wara-yi in matlab-i digar daram f)\& j&* "besides this, beyond this, I have another object."
**
compounds: ^-Jij "
eAj^jiy "to occur":
come close": oufcJjjy " descent and ascent."

to
^-^
e^l
i^
(m.c.)
Oh
content enrich me, For except thee there is naught else."

! :
(Sa'cR)
(ri)
Adverbs of Quantity
(1) <J*>\ little: vide (2).

;Lv-^
much
vide (2).
(m.c.)
little.
much, greatly:
vide (2).
[abundant, abundantly.
S
,
6
j
sufficient, sufficiently.
enough
-)
cr^jt, and even this.
^
a
jt
very much
lmde(3).
)
5>J^
(class,
(class,
and m.c.) nothing: wWe and m.c.) a little.

little
,,
(8) ].
(class.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
vide (9).
-i
as
much
as.
to the best of one's ability.
as
much
1
as possible.
These are also adverbs of comparison, q.v.
20

;ijj>
A*.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
how much how many ?
oUj (m.c.)
^lfJ
"\
(m.c.)
>
excessively
vide ().
^Jf
j
^l
ASW
(m.c.)
(m.c.) boundless, innumerable.
a
(m.c.)
little.
(m.c.) little
>
by
little.
(m.c.)
hair's difference, a very little. (m.c.) in amount the length of one finger-nail, a little.
a,
(m.c.) in armies.
^
f
(m.c.) in flocks. (m.c.) altogether; also in
one place
U+3
(m.c.)
^^
K
3>f
*
) âltogether. (m.c.)J
(m.c.) tn toto, all of
them.
y-*
(m.c.) altogether: vtde (5).

(m.c.) as
much
as: vide (6).

(7).
v*^
*
(m.c.)
^
(
about, at an estimate: vide
tty> (m.c.)
Af
(2)
e)f<iAA.
*a*it>l
however much, in spite of: vide (8). (class, and mod.) Andak-% daUl-i bisyar buvad ty fy~* <^* t/^ (class, and m.c.): Ai| x OSto'cK) "it is related e,iLj3jl ^b;^ ^V^ iiste^.j
that he
made an
*J
JLo
Û-j^t
is
increase in their allowance, but a decrease in regard " a little JUa> <^W andaJc-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mdl (Sa'di)
:
' '
beauty
better than
much wealth."
Vide p. 126
(5).
;
(mod.) has the same signification as bisyar fy-> but for Khayli 43 (c). a slight difference in the usage of the two as adjectives, vide
vide p. 123 (m) 'he was going very quickly": ^J -*!j o? o^^s dXl^j-jjf (class.) (class, and m.c.) "he was exceedingly clever."
(3)
^^
Bas
^, az bas^>*> y,
e
bas-i
^^
and basa
jt jt
<{
In speaking, **" u^3' i s commoner, as: I got weary from waiting such a long time.
Bas-i suJchan-i dushvar-i
J
j**A
*i-^
î-J*
*^
^Hjf
very
(m.c.)
st
o^jl/wj
e^3fcu*
t5^? (m.c.)
"it
is
much
The
*'
of unity, as
bisyar-l az
mardum ml-guyand
."
ki
is
(m.c.)
infra.
many
of the people say
Bisyarl
(^%~*
also a substantive,
'
vide
'
2 Bisyarl ^jkr*-? here might be either a substantive, or else an adjective with the c5 of unity. For the sake of balance it is here a substantive.

a
difficult
307
till
jsjiîu
"
:
matter" G ^jl^kuvc bas-i bd u suhbat kardam,

:
^j
(Sa
di)
"a long time one must wait
U Û. y&
ftjf (m.c.)
bi-dard-i jd-yi ma na-khurd CI*A.^ y lj t^~j " I talked a long time with him, but it was
useless."
"Ah! And
wealth takes wings and leaves our hands all bare, death's rough hands delight our hearts to tear."
(0.
K. Whin. Rub.
<u~*ofJ^
xj|
102).
^jcliu&f l~j
Basd ashkhds
*wf
Tci
murda and va na-ddnista and
jj^>
tS
(m.c.).
In classical Persian,
of ;l>^
a singular noun is usually followed by place bisyar. and the other two by a plural. Instances of bas-i with a singular noun are few. These words are not quite out of use even in m.c. Bas-i mardum
Bas
^ ^
bas,
(tS^,
bas-i,
and Uj basd often take the
^^
"
bas-i zanha f*j* LT~* it often happens that
lîj
^-j (m.c.)
basd
bdshad
Tci
AÛ Lo
(m.c.)
Basd
(4)
l-*J
in m.c. also
means " perhaps."
Bi~$&dyat ojUb, nihdyat ojlî:
"
exceeduigly thirsty
j*;fd
:
l*A (m.c.), or
0*31/0 lî u
for
(
maw
vi*jlî
AxSJ cu-jUj is y* (m.c.) "I'm jL*A nihdyat mahabbat rd bd-shumd ddram ^ tjo^xwoool^ bi-nihdyat (or bi-nihdyat) bd shumd mahabbat ddram
or) vt-jl^ ^/o (m.c.)
c^jlîJf *
fjz
tion
"I have an
*'
excessive affec-
you":
I
^xao.^
î
c^j|*Jf
ejlii^l
J
<>.*
x
(m.c.)
from the beginning

jf
to the end of his speech

(m.c.)
"
:
"
pU
vôl^j^p
^t U^ o^.ê ^t
cx
(5)
am beyond measure grateful." Kullan K, Kulliyyatan *&. Kulliyyat

plcjj
pletely," as:
v^V^ ^
3$f = ^,b and

(m.c.)
#
signifies
"comto
^ (
c*^
or)
**^
"I
have nothing
say to you at all."
means without exception: dJô-HB " they were all, without exception, drunk."
(6)
Kull an
jjJlsvxi
^tj^ ^\
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
<* #ar qadr i^^^. " as this nuisance decreased,

:
i^svfi
j*
&^+A>
<^*#A*>
A^jjjJi
j&
my
desire to return also decreased."
(7)
tamdm
*
Qarib >-*y> t<^Lr ^)an Ifcj^*: Aft ib^j ÛXj ^^JfÛwi ashya* qarib babar bad shud (Afghan) the things were nearly all destroyed ' ' =
* '
^y^lxw! ashya* qarib tamdm an ashyd* taqrib hama talaf shud.

(8)
(
an%
talaf
shud (m.c.), or &+

-
Chanddn
ki
cu*Uj ^J*a^5"
(Sa
di)
"a
thief
entered
&*>'f j& <^tt~*j^ vyto^xa. ^-JLfc the house of a certain God-fearing person; in
spite of
much
search he found nothing."
Or
ewll ^
|.
Also timam an

Chandan-i ki **i|<Ua. is Indian or Afghan only. Barkh-i ^j, or taraf-% az lakht-i
(9)
little
neglect";
(m.c.)
i**^
<f
a (fl^) " a few men say so"
^j|
y ^1,
^J
^ ^y
j
(
(Sa'cfy
little of his life

*i,t<x>
o~oU> JU
:
(m.c.)
perhaps they will give up a portion of our property " " he (â'di) pondered a little time on this " J^*ii o one must consider this a little." Fê 126.
p.
Lakht-i
(0)
^JiJ appears to be used of time only. Adverbs of Quality, Manner, etc. :-~
(1)
v^m.c.
..
r^b
m.c. )
>good, well.
(m.c.) middling: wrfe (2).

(m.c.) in the
(m.c.) in this
J^jf (m.c.)
(
manner that: vide manner also. with heart and soul \

;
(2).
mc
'
V- or
y e Jes ^ îd v^*> (m.c.)

-)
on
m
)
(
:
willingly.
wWe
(3).
t/^fm.c.)
A^ -i^
..
>by
'
force.
(class.))
,
or
f>/o
s^
(class.)
per force; also nolens volens
vide (14).
l^k (class.) )
[
nolens volens.
(m,c.)
(adj.; helplessly;
nolens volens.
^
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
->j
suddenly.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.) (class.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
purposely.
(m.c.)
>:Uj
mounted.
(m.c.)
on
foot.
-I
In the Punjab
Savar
jc&ub is
*'
au
adj. or adv.,
but in Deihi, Behar,

savara
Itfj**
etc.
an adv. only.
*'
$y* 9
subs.,
a mounted
man":
subs,
and adv.,
cavalry,
on horse-back.*'

(Afghan) mounted: vide
(m.c.)
-j
309
(4).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
Lr- (m.c.)
[-secretly,
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) openly.
(m.c.) inwardly, secretly,
(m.c.) divulged, openly.
\
(m.c.)
i
openly, clearly,
(m.c.-')
}
gratis, gratuitously,
(m.c.))
(m.c.) vide (5)
(comfortably,
)
(m.c.)
wWe
(6),
pure, only.
(m.c.): m'ê (7).

(m.c.)
mc
-
contrary to, against.

)
(m.c.)
jl
one on the other; also on an average
vide
(I)
(7)
(m.c.) apart:
wWe
(8)
and
(I)
(7).
?one behind the other; vide

m.c.)
j
(I)
(7).
(m.c.) losing one's head, in
flurry,
^"
C5J>)3
(m.c.)
by deception,
etc.
(m.c.) falsely.
^ (m.c.) on the peg.

(m.c.) in substance, in abstract.
(m.c.)
i^jÂAi (m.c.)
"\
>
in detail.
jPoa^ bi-gu
j&
<jtt* (m.c.)
"
tell
me
without reserve."
2
->
In Mod. Pers. ashgar and ashgara \j&~\. So bewildered that one doesn't know one's hand from one's foot: pacha in
;&f
m..
is
the leg of sheep or cattle only.

*
For qalu-yi
Qul-mikh
milch.
nail,"
**
>
^ (^^
}'**&
^^
<*$ vulg.
"hang
(the
parda) on the
subs., peg with a head.
310

j\j* (m.c.) level, continually: vide (9).
(m.c.)
by
guess.
(m.c.) at (m.c.)
LS
an estimate.
ditto.
(mod.) } . ?-on an average.

.
(m.c. only)
or A^JLLto
sum
up. in short.
;
as
disguised as
vide (10).
(m.c.) with
both hands.
;
T. (m.c.) slowly
silently.
at ease. fl)f (m.c.) slowly, u~*f (m.c.) slowly; in a low voice
aside.
\j
(m.c.) headlong.
vîr-' (m.c.)
(m.c.) face
upwards, supine.
prone.
(m.c.) excessively
(m.c.)
ditto.
:
v*We (12).
(class.) as before.
?
in
a manner,
like.
^ (m.c.) scarcely, barely.

(2)
Miydna &**,
towr-i ki
*&)&
^*u Ûj
"
:
"
yfejf
*JU* (Firdawsi]
cUc you act moderately you will not be upset " " I do told not as did you? you x>^ (m.c.) why
if
f^
^Ja?
Uio
^ a%jJ=
will
(3)
Minnat mi-ddram
the
j-;lH
-**:
To
the question, "Will you do this

-=*i*J +
for
me?"
answer
might be:
^t^* J*f
.
(m.c.)
"I
with
pleasure."
Note the idiom:
" " another has spoilt your business, and you are angry with me ? (4) The Afghans say sar-i asp, sar-i pa, sar-i rd, etc., etc. dmadam . I came on horse-back,on foot by rail, etc. jjjij j*45-f Jj;yw . b^ yî ^^ for
.
' c
&$$
OJLXJ
.^
cW
i^y
^,!y^ I;U^-
^
,
^s>t> (m.c.)
etc."
(5)
ow-t ovaJLA-c ^^c p*jyc
take"
t~*t
(6)
&&J 'Ayn j^* "essence; eye, etc." (followed by the izdfat tUo (m.c.) " what I am telling you, is the course to 0^1 m c " tne streets are cleanliness itself"
:
1^^.^^ )*j?
t5W-^
-)
V t^>
j^^c
OJA^y
(jasLX)
:
Mahz
for
your sake"
accuracy er*^ 'fJf (m.c.) " " "pure, unadulterated U^^Jjl^-u**-* (m.c,) merely Ui c^^^ u^ 5 (m.c.) " at the mere sight of you":
:
*'
what you said
is
itself."
rjjja.
(Shah's
Diary)
"
something

had been placed on the chair as a mark
(m.c.) this
is
311
pure calumny.
"
of respect
"
;
a noun,
(jisxA: i s> as shown, also a preposition = ^ty. a preposition or an adverb when it follows, it (7) Faraham pttj is a collective particle ^/f ^x> he is collecting sticks" ^/f 0,^3 J"^
In m.c.,
it is
When
is
it
precedes
an adjective.
,\
collecting
what
will
(m.c.)
"what
be a nuisance to you ^*.- ^t mentioned be can't collected together as you quickly a

1
^, ^ ^y ^ "
:
^j
(
mG
,
v> a. (m.c.) y OU are
this."
(8)
Az ham p j] "apart" jb î) jA j| Â^ ÂJ AS'
*'*
(^
p* j (m.c.)
^vc ^-b.*
"
they separated."
*.'
*jb *
o*t
yjiê
is
" Until thou knowest that speech
^|jj ^xj U
Thou shouldst not open thy mouth "
absolutely proper,
:
(Sa'di).
^
(9)
]&*.
^kjt
t;
*P!<
jji
(^;l
c?w
kaghazraaz ham'juda na-kun

Fa'de
(/)
(m.c.)
"don't separate these two papers."

Barabar
;
(7).
&>,*^^ i^jbj&ft ^Xtf j*jJ (Afghan) "they continued playIn m.c.. however, this would mean they were playing ing with each other." opposite to each other.'
*
(10) Bi-surat-i:
as, a dervish
"
:
d&ij)*
*s$?*> (Sa'di)
it
:
" as o;âj (m.c.)
"in the appearance was before."
of,
disguised
Note the meanings of *Cx>j **;:> ^> o^lk ^./o A^J^^^ l^. j!y! I no do have "since done (m.c.) wrong, why you allege this against ^,-^j^c
j*l
^
N
me ? "
^J ôb
A*.
^jf ^^j
t^ jt
do ?
*^î>/*
'
>
(m.c.)
" in the event of
his
not
coming to-morrow what " lit.

(11) Shikasta,
am
I to
"
brokenly
:
*>j^*>
o^
*i-^ $
(m.c.)
'he jerks in
his speech (as children do, accentuating every syllable)." J^b <-k) ooU (>Sfa^) "it will be the greatest kindness." (12) Ghayat-i:
azun ojjf "in that manner"; and aydun&j*i\ "in this manner" are really obsolete; and also "now," and Uun htmidun o^ tr^ "now; always; in this manner."
(13)
Andun
c>j^f
or
^^
s:
b j AiA-if
JrlL U
*Ûj jt.^
*J
For
five
months, now,
have been in Shiraz

of living."
With an uneasy mind and scant means
"
Now
in the eye (of Faith) that illumines the

is
mind
Abu Bakr
(14)
a candle and
lyi">
'Usman a lamp.'
"
I told
'
Khwah ma-khwah
oJ) stystx %\j ; jt (m.c.) ^Lc )) j " would go >t^ <-r* ^^ i^JX^ *> iu * ->* v^ cr^f " out of the ground of its own accord *>d^ MF*T ^prings '* I was taken there nolens volens."
;
1 :
^^
*^,
or khwahi na-jchipdhi
u*b* him not to go, but he "the water (m.c. only)

|^-'
c
z|^
Lr* (m.c.)
312
(p)
(1)

Adverbs
of
Time
<J*>)
Time
present, etc.:
aknun
{m.c.)
Tcunun (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) yet, as yet.

3 o*l j^ (m.c.)
x)
f
e*lP (m.c.)
(&)& (m.c.)
nowadays.
at present; (afeo adv. in cash).

(m.c.) (m.c.)
(m.c.)
J*now, this instant.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
*
(m.c.) to-day.
(m.c.) to-night.
*
jU~cf
(m.c.) this year.
^!*<lj (rare in
m.c.)
break of day.
,
ijfitA-*
tf
(class.)
(class.)
.u
before the false dawn.

-v
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
(
|
\
true dawn.
c i ass
ear] y
in
tne
morning,
or
to-morrow
subh-i zud (m.c.)

(m.c.) just as the
*'
sun
rises.
(class,
and m.c.) dawn, before

ditto.
sunrise.
(m.c.)
that has the nunation
In Mod. Pers. pronounced and written hala vide note (4), p. 314.
;
unless combined with another adverb
For
al-hala Ax. ace.

j*>
*'
Now
\&i)'
or never
"
kunun ya hlch-gah
&
LJ
g*&
i*î^
dar
In vaqt ya hargiz
3
<-z**j
For al-ana Ar.
ace.
.
Im
for

(m.c.) false
313
-xo (m.o.)
dawn first dawn = fajr.

;
indication of light.
-)
folse
dawn.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>in the twinkling of >
an
eye.
midday.
(m.c.) evening.
>*
(m.c.) at the beginning of the night. (m.c.) midnight.

*
half-a-day.
f*> (class.)
>T Jj|
.
midday.
^)
(m.c.)
>
when the sun
is first rising.
^Tj-*- (m.c.)
before sunset. f* (m.c.) just

(m.c.)
j
(2)
by day.
Time past:
n.c.)
beforethis
(m.c.)
AJ
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) quickly;
(class.)
,
previously.
aô previously.
^
(m.c.)
or
^j*x
ânciently.
(class.)
(m.c.) formerly.
(m.c.) (m.c.)
^l
I
>
yesternight.
(m.c.)
,
or oij^ (class.)
In Arabic zanab u 8-sirhdn " the wolf's tail."
Nim-shab v^>
poet., not used in m.c.
**
*+*>
^ ^ ^j
"
:
(m.c.)
" when
half the night

is also
8
had passed
"
:
&\-<&*)
AJO
'
the 15th of Ramazan.
In m.c., nima **^
used
1 cxJ>;
for half
a brick.
cr*
c^^
^;
in the
(m.c.)
6
" rise earlier AJjAA.^jy ^j ^suxê (m.c.) " " did tell me not sooner ? why you " Dma ruz *-Vi3
jj>j
mornings
-H^*
(J+*J*
(obs.)
yesterday."
(m.c.),
Also shab-guzashta A^
v-*.^=
without an
izajat.
314
Vyj* (m.c.)

^
[.yesterday.
e^!;b (class.)
j
class -)
**4)h
and
JU* ÎfJL. (m.c.) for years.

JLw (m.c.)
the day before yesterday.

3
(m.c.) the
day before the day-before-yesterday.

"i
I
(m.c.)
JU
j
(m.c.)
v
}-la,st
year.
(m.c.)
>l^+ (m.c.) the year before

(obs.) yesterday.
(obs.) last night.
(3)
*
last.
Time
\&j*
to
come
(m.c.)
(m.c.) to-morrow.
)
.
>
the next day.
.-,
(m.c.)
;
(m.c.)
to-morrow night, (m.c.) the next night,
(m.c.) the
,
day
after to-morrow.
(m.c.) the
or
ty
<j*j
^J
day
after the day-after-tomorrow,
(j**j
(m.c.) the night after to-morrow.
(m.c.)
*
next year.
) r
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
next month.
(m.c.)
v
Cnext week,
(m.c.)
(m.c.) in future.
'
(m.c.)
î
^jt (m.c.)
f
jf
^*? (m.c.)
^n f uture,
after this,
m.c.)
Vulg. pllar sal JL> îUj
a
S
In poetry often used for the Judgment Day. Yak haftayi dlgar mi-diham j&t> îAA
p*>**o
#
<
(m.c.)
4<
I'll
give
it
in a week'*
*
time
* '
HaZaW va
istiqbdl
' ;
an )|U5Jut ^
'
iJLA.
**now and
page 312.
for the future"
in this case
Jfta
has the nunation
vide
(p) (1)
note
(1),

..
>
315
henceforth.
(class.)
(m.c.)
^J?
*
(4)
44
(m.c.)
^presently, quickly.
)
(m.c.)
is
Time
also expressed as
follows
(OJl*
Uuf
U>
jtâ.
**>
(m.c.)
remained there, three or four months.

:
Also by the dative, as <wl^ &\j) JLA. ufri?> ^**iU lauf ij ..* <tf " " I intended to in the home and there the : (m.c.) morning go stay night &*e&> (Shah' s Diary) ÛUj( ojUe _>jj ^xu^jjyo ALoA jla. |; jjj>j yjj~o
^^
"
well, at night, several

' '
bands took stand below the building and played a
great deal.
(5)
Jakht
O*=A "just now "
(a village
word and vulgar)
is
coming
into use.
In Kirman jakht is a substantive meaning "endeavour " and is supit is, however, probably from posed to be corrupted for the Arabic
the Persian
(6)
e^^^
>
or ty**.a.
Time
j.Alt #
.
indefinite
(m.c.)
"to strive, endeavour quarrel." and miscellaneous [vide also (1)1

;
:
J'*>>
^
b
j
"j
(m.c.)
limmediatelv.
t;y (m.c.)
J
c.
Hi(m.
^without delay.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
J
without further words, immediately, without doubt.

-\
(m.c.)
>
temporarily.
)
(m.c.) obliged to, without further orders, immediately.
ojf
(m.c.) hot
and
hot.
(m.c.) especially.
(m.c.)
,,
more than
all.
Ar.
and Mod.
Pers., especially.
^5
(m.c.)
*
" go to-day for certain

horse
is
"
it is
certain
(
my
"
J *& ^ -.*( ^ y " must go." faster than yours jj* ^^ "you
:
jt
)k>
*'
&\J
(^
*J
(m.c.)
"bring
in the
bread hot and hot":

'
)^ ff
(m.o.)
3
work continuously
(don't get cool between whiles).'
Pronounced vungahl.
316
(m.c.)
many
times, oft.
bdr-l (m.c.)
once
vide
(7).
(m.c.) at times: vide (8).
c^
f
*
UjJ^
(f
(m.c.) at
;
one time
at another time
vide
(8),
(m.c.) often
(aZso
much).
-o (m.c.) often.
(obs.)
seldom.
from time to time.

(m.c.) sometimes.
^(f
jjlf
(m.c.)
sometimes
--sometimes.
(9).
(m.c.) occasionally: vide
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
quickly.
(class.)
^3 sooner or later
(class.)
(10).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>
rarely.
(m.c.)
J
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
seldom,
less.
(m.c.)
m.c.)
(m.c.)
s.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
Ar.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
continually.
(m.c.)
Sometimes,
'
also, classically
and
in m.c. *'no, not."

4
* Ar.
(m.c.)
Past Part. Bi-fcraf-i darya miuiam nazar ml-kardam I kept on looking towards the sea."

(m.c.)
j
317
}
>
continuously.
(m.c.)
(m.c.) repeatedly.
(m.c.)
one behind the other, in succession; continuously.

do. do.
u* (m.c.)
*])
<jr)A>
Uaily.
(m.c.),
and aJ^
tjijj* (m.c.)
jtfjj) (m.c.)
day by day,
daily.
**
&b
(m.c.) every instant.

(m.o.)
^
C
(m.c.)
weekly.
&A
(m.c.)
) (m.c.) once a week.
(m.c.)
Ub'
Ijf
perchance
vide (II).
:
every moment,
rt
moment by moment
vide (11).
(m.c.)
from day to day.
(class.)
L>
little.
(7).
(m.c.) vide
^
[-once
jt
^^ (m.c.)
(m.c.)
upon a time, formerly,
etc.
(m.c.)
r!^
J
-\
(m.c.) late,
(m.o.)
Cat
last, finally.
yLU
* *i
(m.c.)
,)
3^ AilU (m.c.) subs, and adv.
for
a day and night, 24 hours.
cU
&4
31
(m.o.)
^
[
at no time, never, really not.
Ai
(m.c.)
3
t?a/ai) (m.c.) all
as.
3-y
AX/O,>U
or without fU3 (with G (m.c.) as long
the day.
(class,
and m.c.) in any
case.
J Ho/to-* chand mi-girl (Sj !^*
***
ra c O
-
"how much pay do you
get a
week?"
4
8
Vulg. dur-vaqt
-=^
;j>i.
For
j^T
na-dashtam
XA|yi JL| jf (m.c.) " I have never had
it
4 2l2 ofZ
at
all.*'
318

(m.c.)
now,
a,t
1 present (m.o.); on account.
*~j (m.c.) often.
U (m.c.) as soon as: vide (12).

j
(m.c.) as
soon as
merely: vide
.
(12).
(m.c.)
y&a (class, '

.
and m.c)
vide (13).
.
\
>
uj^j tfUl (class.)
besides, moreover, apart from.
(m.c.)
5
ujjl
(m.c.);
wde
(14).
(class.) therefore.
jjjjL-j
of-î (m.c.)
compared to formerly,
for that reason, e/f^jlxj (m.c.) therefore,

ij
(m.c.) therefore, for this reason,
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
Vat any rate, anyhow.
(m.c.)
every moment.
^
(m.c.)
rgain
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>in the end; vide (15).
(m.c.)
r^Jt (class., or
(7)
mod., in writings only) after
this.
Bdr-i
c$^>
Â ^^
^JL
c)^
(Sa'di)
" he sank a few 4 times";

'
jj
kill this
JbyL
Vaqt-i
^j
slave, at least (well)
AJu ^1^1 (Sa'di) "if you want to Âtîuf; do so according to the interpretation of the law.'
(8)
^*j, vaqt-ha
JjJI
1^:
Ai^
/.
(Sa'di)
^M
*#
<J3} a**
^jUJ *T J^ **S &*

' '
^^ &
and
Fag
times."
is
also poetically used for vaqt-l.
Similarly the plural vaqt-ha
vaqt-ha signifies
at times
at other
in
The correct meaning, India and Afghanistan.

1
of course,
is
"on account " and
in this sense only it
is
used
* 3
Common
in Indian Persian.
chlst '* Jla. A*j " also haven't in the least understood what you're driving at y.
:
Bi-hama hal namirfahmam maqsud-i shuma
^^^ ^9 ^^
*^*-H^- (m.c.)
"I
*^fr> bi-har jihat. * Bar-l chand (class.) " a few times."
This might also be read Barl " well," chand
" he sank a few times." yhota khurd

(9)
319
Gah,
"
:
etc.
l
^ ^c
<^*tf
;K
^|
('f
*'?
*
or
does this
c^**
*&* ert?^*
^
.
!f
(m.c.)
" he occasionally
c$*<^ (m.c.).
In m.c. the
(10)
always added to *(f " "Sooner or later j>* ^ *, or ti^j**

of unity is
:?
(11)
Ahyan
an
lilî
ara
aw
^ a aw lj^ / -an
^
*
t>^, or
e*ty
*
31
^j u&.
(m.c.)
Uf
<*U>
i,y
"
if
perchance he should come,
in the
to-morrow
I
"
:
^y^
f
^^3
event of his coming,

*
.
yL<Wf GU^t _/f tell him

a
to call
ol^Ûj
^ dr^ ^^
(In
^f ( in a
f
letter)
f
"every moment
wish more and more to see you."

In Arabic l>^f means
(12)
anan
a-an an
="
then, so, and ").
" sometimes,
or seldom."
Ta $ and mujarrad " saw you I swooned away = UA c^^ji (m.c.). ptij JU 31
Mujarrad
also
<(
^:
jj
Jt^
31
|3.Ji
iy
U (m.c.
" as soon as
bi-mujarrad-i dldan-i
shuma az
hal raftam
means "merely," as:
ejty t5*^
';
jl
j&
e>^l^
(m.c.)
merely on the evidence of one person, one can't punish
him"
^ J**
*jU'>
Û
^.?wj (m.c.)
" one cannot act on mere suspicion."
(13)
*J^ and not the people merely
Digar : (8a'di) o^li j#y Wcj *i *i| L|U; u*^^ jf ijyU^^fAJ^^^ **and again know that kings are for the protection of their people,
to render obedience to kings."
:
(14) Qat'- i-nazarj&> ^'i
yi&fty*
this,
&**>
^j J&
8
^^ ^
^] yjk
interest":
(m.c.)
"and
quite apart from
it
is
against the public
îji *j!U could here be substituted for^&i

(15)
^kji.
'Aqib
ct
(Sa'di)
None e'er But that 4

)]
learnt archery
from me,
his target.
' '
in the end he or
*^Jjf
made me
A&J|
siva-yi
(q)
J?w, or *^l
m ki could, in prose, be substituted for o*JIU here.

(1)
j$c,
t5l>*
bi-juz in ki, or
ghayr az In
ki, or
Adverbs
of
Order and
once.
Number
Û
t^j (m.c.) )
J
(m.c.)
^b^
(m.c.) twice.
:
3^ (m.c.) again, next
vide (2).
jZi* (m.c.) again: vide

first.
39
(a) (1).
Colloquial for hamchunin
*
8
Or guman-i " a
little
(^J? ** nd hamchunan doubt" vulg. gamon.

11 :
iy
jKwZZ,ishere an adjective; the
<^$ is
not
of unity.
Note if with negative
" but that "
(i.e.
who
did not).
320
Jjl

the
first
time.
1
^ secondly.
V*
(2)
Baz'^
"
again; afterwards"
9
:
<>&
^^
)
:
tHAfr 3V (m.o.)
" don't do read

first,
such a thing again'

l will."
(r)
**tyLx*
>AJ
3^ ^*Jij*u U-* (class.)
"do you
Adverbs
*$ (1)
f
of
Exception
(class.)
l (
*Uuuu*|
uy
&f _/*
except,
till:
wVfe
(2).
(m.c.)
*
"except,
'
;
but";
and
aZso
(5).
= "yet"
(Afg.),
to answer to
although
vide (3)
(m.c.) but; vide (4), (6)
and
(8).
or e^jJ but.
(m.c.)
except.
except
vide (7).
> êxcept that: vide

3
(6).
besides
more than
this, besides
(2)
Magar angah
Aiif t^R-i- (Sa'di)

till)
"he
said, I will neither breathe nor
move from
j
this
spot, except (or

(3) Ilia, 3l
some word has been spoken by thee."
:*&+*
&^ $
jt
LS"*/*
L?^^
^ ^
)
*>*f
" he said had'st thou become so hard up that thou couldst not ^cjb (â'^t) steal from any but such a friend (or was the world so small that thou would'st find no other place to steal from except
*j>
?
^ y y o^
^^
"
e;UA
jl^ ep^
this
^c )
CÛA
^^ ^^
^
of
*>s>^ JSL+A &*.J\
(Afghan)
"although they did so, yet as soon as the

sank
' '
mast was cut down, the ship

5f
note
(5).
Afghan and Indian use

is
to
answer to
**jt\
vide also
(4)
Magar
^ "but":
(3).
The idiom
incorrect in Persia.
In m.c.
is
often used for "perhaps," or

;
instead of Lf in asking a question implying an innuendo vide (j) (8). " but Amma and llkin " but " and jL> "again (5) Llkin t^J, etc.
:
"
(but not
Jfy>
are used to answer

(m.c.)
;
&*\
as
(Jl-?or
^^ or)U(
0^.1
^/
^^
he
*t*j>\
O-JJÂ.
(*^T
' '
"although he
has
committed a
also so used.
theft,
still
is
good man
vide also
In India
1
^G
ki.
"
nevertheless, still"
is
In Plate's Urdu Grammar the exoaptivea are conjunctions.

Siva-yi in
ft
&u\
<^Lr*
"unless"

(6)
321
Bidun-i an ki
:
(m.c.)
<i*.lj
"without your ordering it I am ready to serve you" &j<*> " I won't ^-o *f^4u* U (U or *&f j* or) <*&f (m.c.) go with out you.'*
Ghayr az$ ^xc;
az
'
(7)
alava bar _^
also
Sj^lc;
guzashta azj\
*i^,
it
etc.
Though ghayr "except" be substituted for j* $>&*, as: o~oJ
means "besides,"
cannot
(m.c.)
always
me
but
there
is
no one
else in the
(
;
room "
^~
;
ey JO*
c^f e*!';^
ts
"except
:
here *$&* could not be substituted
&x>i**<o *'
J.U~A ^liu^;
others also
who know
}
"
er/ojt^jJ or)
c^"^
fy^* (m.c.)
besides me there are

ji
or guzashta az
man
ashkhas-i hastand ki
<&&*?
^J
"setting aside me, there are people who :" p& )\ A *> iS yUKJ xxiU oJif e>t>^ |j uw/^J *ij >V "setting
^
aside poetry one can't even style it prose; saddle nor palan." l The use of <u^ )*> for
it
is
like
is
a takaltu neither
a&Xx?
rare
and
scarcely
modern.
Ghayr je
is
also followed
by the
izafat, as
ghfryr-i ma,
cJ^î*, bi-gjyiyr-i
shuma
sive
Remark I. Although ghayr azyj** means " with the exception of, exclu" besides, including," both are in pracof," and alava bar ^ %^ means
used synonymously.
tice often
Remark
'
II. In the sentence tyj*> **T f (-1*5, the word fj* is termed ' the thing from which the exception is made ^t* is called o/^ the the and of the particle thing excepted.' exception' *>j ^vli^x)
; < ;
(
Sometimes the mustasna

it is
called
^^ ^xiUx.
^\j*>
îuk
:
^ &~*>
is
different for the general term,
when
(The
Ex.:
f^*u
(Tr.
p*
j*+*
i^^j
J-^
(class.).
former example
is J-ai* îijux3.)
p+>>
JâJ_>so
returned was laughter"

.c.), lit.
man
bi-juz
H. B., Chap. VI) "the only answer gâm hargiz rahat na-didam +*_jx>-i ^.ô
"
:
' '
except sorrow I saw no joy
ftd^
&*& MA (rfj*
AA (m.c.).
This construction arises from a confusion of thought. Even a Persian would not say, "in that jangal except fishes I saw no man." (s) Adverbs of Qualification
:
^st&t? (m.c.)
(t)
more than
all; besides;
>->j*>
further: aJb
"moreover."
(Jb**
^
' '
Intensive
Ad verbs are:
^^
"very well"; <^jj

#
"very
#
or U/j l*Js , slowly"; A~Jf^j i&s "knowingly and wilfully "; \j\* ) "nolens volens"; Î^Lk ^^.xk continually laughing" er^b u/'^ whole a at time," A*!^/ ;/ "quite blindly." lapfuls
\^
In
aJl^yo ;^x>
is
"just like an ant; slowly," the
first
member
of the
com-
pound
a substantive: m'de also Repetition of Words.
1 Takaltu a camel or mule.
>>
is
the
pad
of a Baluch saddle,
and palan
ejV'ji
is
a pack-saddle for
21
322
90.
PREPOSITJONS.
*>
Prepositions Huruf-i Jarr
(a)
The
or ten.
indeclinable particles called simple prepositions are only nine They are placed before the simple or nominative form of nouns and
:
pronouns, as
jl^~
l
13
UuLjijf
az
mjd
of.
td Shirdz
"
from here
:
to
Shiraz."
The following are the simple Persian prepositions

(1) jt
(2)
lj
az
from, by, out

with, in
bd
company
with.
(3)
(4)
ba 8 or bi in, by, to. * ^j or^jf bar or abar on, upon.

sj
6 andar, in, inside.
(5) jîf
(6)
(7)
f&
ti
ham
td
6
with, together.
to, as far as.
up
in.
(8)
(^ bi without.
(9) )t>
dar
(10) j*> or Japj, juz or bi-juz 1 except. In Persian per ( **> <y ). (11) ^' /?, Ar. in. The preposition and the noun it governs are called jarr and majrur. Native grammarians include the postposition !; rd in the term jarr. For
examples, vide
(h).
Fard fy "up to, back, toward" and fardzjlj* "above, I. etc." are 89 (m) (3) and high, obsolete, or only found in compounds: vide
(6).
Remark
Zl ^j 8 " bounds, shore, towards" is practically obsolete. Remark II. Arabic prepositions properly occur only before Arabic
words.
(6)
In old Persian the particle mar j*

:
is
found prefixed to the nominative,
dative and accusative cases, 9 as
U^
Jt
In poetry )
zi.
*
3
Poetically also 060.
In modern Persian
bi.)
bi.
Ba
is
said to exist
still
locally in Persia.
(In Arabic
always
*
In India
:
ba.
Abar poetical
etc.,
Anixed to the words madar, pidar, baradar and fehahar it signifies " step-brother,' and half-brother. In m.c. ti is prefixed to express the same idea.
'
6 1
8
Ta
is
also a conjunction.
Ilia, Ar.
Zi also stands for zihi or zahl ** well done, etc." 9 In Steingass's Dictionary it is said to accompany the genitive case present author has failed to find an example.
also,
but the
PREPOSITIONS.
Laill said,
323
" You are that Khalifa
By whom Majnun was oppressed." You are not more beautiful than other women."
She said, " Silence; you are not Majnun."
maslahat chundn did td

bihisht bi-hasht
tZ
a
mar
in rauza-yi
:
ra'na
tyfcj
va hadiqa-yi g&albd chun
bob
ittifdq uftdd (Sa'dl)
* ^*~^
<j*b*
L)
*)*
L^*
mst magar zahra-yi adam-i ki (Sa'dl) " there is no remedy for this disease, but the gall of a man, who ": +2uL jt, ~JU> .ijîy (âU-j &tfv y \))\ j*j xi malik dar khashm shud va marurd az bandagdn bi-siyah-i bakhshid (Sa'dl) "the king fell into a rage and bestowed her (a
ijotfmar in dard rd davd-*i
slave
girl)
or one of his blacks."
(c) (1) In old, occasionally too in modern, Persian writings, a noun is sometimes both preceded and followed by a preposition, in prose or in hasud ra chi kunam ku zi Ichud poetry, as cuî J^ \) <ir^ f&
:
^)^
bi-ranj dar ast (Sa'dl)
ct
but with the envious what can I do, for he

' '
:
is
himself
in pain because of himself
^^t
oyâ^j
andar-am
troubled because of the people." In these two examples the preposition is not part of the verb (vide 2 below), but refers to the noun preceding it as is better shown in bi-daryd dar mandfi' 3 bi-shumdr
(Sa'dl)
ast v^~l
(2)
" I
J^^
31
az khalcfiq bi-zahmat
am
;U
^ Ûx>ji b^
preposition
*'
may
in voyaging there are endless profits." also be added to a verb for emphasis, as: bi-shahr
he entered into the city ": imruz (bi) u bar khurdam fjj*>j> )\ ^ **-j? j~> jys*) (m.c.) " I encountered him to-day at the end of the street. (d) Sometimes two simple prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb,
dar
dmad
^f^^&j
*
(class,
or m.c.)
sar-i
kucha bd
' '
can be joined together, as:>?u bi-juz b (orj^ juz): +*>{j or +& bi-ham or bd-ham "together": az harnp*)) "apart": ety^f- vl^^ bi-khwdb andarun 6 î* (mod. writing) jM yjj bi-zlr-i sang andar (mod. writing) "under the stone": *JUi jjjj^ ,_^ u* hamashab 1 dida bi-ham na-basta* (Sa'di) "I
:
closed not
my
eyes the whole of the night."

" a garden or a meadow;
Rawza
***^>
also the burial-place of
a saint."
In India
it is said that at the last day the burial places of the saints will become 'gardens.' Hadlqa is a walled garden ; ghalba fern, of aghlab means that the trees are close together.
The wording is apparently from the Quran. * An example of tajnis-i kh&Ui or linear pun. 8 In prose, there would be an izajat after manafi'
is
but the scanning shows there
none.
*
8
7
Or
bi-u.
Ba-yi za*yid.
b Y some grammarians called ba-yi ztfid. In mod. Persian hama-yi shah v** ^ *A "the whole night," but hama shab *A " every night."
This
is
a-*
80
Basta
is
here transitive and dida
is
the accusative case.
324
(e)
PREPOSITIONS.
Bary and
dar
" to bear")
"
may
*
also be substantives.
Bar
"
profit,
^ (from
burdan
;
signifies
fruit,
advantage
bar also signifies "height
breast or bosom." The comparative bar-tar y^j and superlative bartarm " also " " and (< " excelling." Bar-a-bar j>\j is a highest ^j* signify higher " breast to breast)," or an adverb "conlevel
;
preposition signifying 8 " az bar khivandan tinuously

:
(lit.
&W^J
"
jl
"to
recite
" az bar raftan by heart

;
e>*'; -tf J
" to De
raft
lost
as a (
mistress from the

j!
bosom
of her lover)
"
dust az
as a
bar-i
man
oJj
&*
j*
o**d (m.c.) " I lost

;
my
friend."
Dar ^
'* dar bi-dar shudan &* door substantive signifies a from house to house"; bi-dar kardan e>a/j* "to turn out."
&
" to wander )*
The phrase îfy " some are of opinion." signifies

(/)
^^
ba'zi
bar an-and
(classical
and modern)
(g)
In old Persian, andar
sometimes takes the place of dar:
Jahan ay baradar na-manad bi-kas Dil andar Jahan-afarm band u bas
(Sa'di)
"The
world,
my
brother, abides with none,
Fix thy heart on the world's Creator and nought else."

(h)
(1)
The following are examples of the use Azy az Kirman ta Shirazy^ & a$*f
:
of the simple prepositions

j\
:
" from Kirman
to Shiraz
"
;
this is
called
za-yi
ibtiddîyya
(&^*^l ^13
hamagi az buzurg u kuchak

:
^)y.
jt
Jf
^**
si
u/
)
:
"I am
va
"all, both great and small" man az firishtagan-am one of the angels"; this is called za-yi ba'ziyya*
^tj
sanduq ki az mallahan bud

e;Wli/o
j|
)^
this
<J^
^
:
qufl-i
(m.c.)
" and having broken
an-ha rashikasta (3j^- * j three boxes
that belonged to the sailors" Jfjjj ^ty*-)* o^>t> ^t jl az tn 6 itw/aw darakht-ha-yi buzurg dar uftddand (m.c.) "jgreat trees were rooted up by
Û| ^
1
storm "
8^
^ )^
l
^J. c/^V 3
(Sa'dl)
*^
Â
'->
t^*^ A r^^
*^
j***% i!r*^*
Musa Payg&ambar
alayh^ 8-salam} darvish-% ra did ki az barahnagi bl-rig
andar nihdn shuda bud
saw a darvish that on account
"the Prophet Moses (on whom be peace) of his nakedness had hidden himself in
" to
Bar-i aftab nishaatan
^-> v i '^ m -0
(
:
sit
in the sun."
The
izafat is
used
in m.c. after bar
l^&i
p. 328,
*
3
fc^y ji
note
2.
"
sit
when it means "near," near me " here bar

is
cJ^^y> dar bar-i man&i-nishin Vide breast." probably the substantive

as: bar-i
man
Perhaps for bar
jfc
is
This adverbial use
a load,'* the crop of a fruit-tree, etc. very common amongst the Indians and Afghans, but
is
not in
use in Persia.
*
5
Oul-l az bustan t)UujJ
jf
^15
is
another example.
;
This
is
a*^ *^!
1
<-irS or *Jf ^tj
vide (2), notes (2)
and
(3),
and Remark
II.
PREPOSITIONS.
the
325
za-yi
sand":
this
is
called za-yi
'illat
cub ^fj (or
sdbabiyya
&*&
Sometimes azy, followed by a substantive or pronoun and signifying " a portion of," takes the place of the object, which is in this case understood:
H^y ^^ i*j? ^^)^t*5
(*"**
J*
^^f* jf )&& bay tar

(Sa'dl)
az dnchi dar chashm-i
chahdr-pdydn kardi dar dida-yi

thing in his eye of az dardhim giriftam p&J>
this is called zd-yi tab'iz
u kashid the medicine he was

p*\)t>
jt
"the horse-doctor put some-
in the habit of using for animals
"
5
:
(class.)
"I
took some of the dirhams"
u****
is
c^'j
"the
partitive z."
jf,
Than, in comparison,
expressed by
this
is
called za-yi
tafzil
Az chand ruz)^ ^'^

j'
jf
az chub
"made
:
of
how many days, how many days ago ? " wood"; az tild "of gold," this is called za-yi
"since
:
mdddiyya (&^l ^tj) az khud *^ y "involuntarily, of its or one's own " " accord "; az du taraf oj.l> jt reciprocally c^t^^j ^ jt az u bar guzasht " " he u dar guzasht "he forgave him az passed by (classical); oA^^jf
him "
(class,
and m.c.)
:
**
*Jl^
Jil
az rud-khana radd shud (m.c.)
" he
crossed the river"

(m.c.)
:
^T j*jj> jt
az dar dar
az
naw
jt,
or az sar-i
naw
^ j*
amad "he came in by " afresh " az sar-i

j\
:
the
door"
in qissa dar
:
"I gave up this story" 8 az parcha guzashtam (class.) p&>*fj * *^' e^t jt saf kardan CK>/ JU **-)k y (m.c.) "to strain through cloth"; az ham dar
raftan
(m.c.)
^j ^ ^ "
" to pass by each other; to give up mutual claims

In the idiom ^ô of jt az an~i
jt
(m.c.)
"to go
to pieces
"
az
ham
guzashtan
;
t^M
p&
)l
vide also
(o) (8).
Remark.
f
man " mine "
az an-i Rustam
(
j|" Rustam' s,
"
the preposition
is
called za-yi milkiyya

j\
**&
<^fj ).
(2)
4
Ba
"with":
Ba u
raftam
b baittild', adj. (m.c.) "well-informed" ; "Possessed of," as: him." ^^t| * <yUj ^3 j c^-f &\jS ^'^ ^ L&tj^ haris ba jahan-i gurisna ast va qani* binan-i sir (Sa-'di) " a greedy man even if possessed of a whole world is hungry,
^
"
" I went in company with
while a contented
man
is filled
by one
loaf
ba shamshlr
kushtan^^jsZ+Zb
although": bd
I?
"to kill in hama **A

(m.c.)
with a
b " with
sword": ba dnki *&1b "with " bd in of this

all this,
that,
spite
in panjdh-sdlagi c*i
in spite of these fifty years of mine."
to die of murdan &ty tsJI jt &&+"* -*A3 > and oU^xA^^ ^^LSJ j famine (or hunger) " is understood. " or " a ^ The word for " portion something
1
In a similar sense az
"
:
qdht.
(or
on account
of)
This
jt
is
called a jjl?
4 This
1J
is called
^-***>
vide (3)
Remark
TT.
326
PREPOSITIONS.
With
*)!<*>
ancftf
guftan, either b or &? can be used: \j) ^^l/o Jti/oU bd tu guyad bi-amsdl-i ma guflan ravd na-ddrad (Sa'd!)
tell to
^
:
says with you, he does not think right to

guft ^^
the like of
Sometimes bd
" There
U (or khayal kard tf J ^) b stands for the conjunction

1
" he said to m.c.

*
"what he us" bd khud " himself.

:
and,' as in
)t>j J^lfc^f
is
f^ j* A&T
j*)d o2;b
*f
Ûxj
o*f ^y
(Sa'dl)
a difference between him

is
who has
his mistress in his arms,
And him who

(3)
looking expectantly at the door (for her entry).

(class.)
"
Bi
&>
(mod.) and ba
"to,
to
for, in, on, with,
Tihrdn
(m.c.)
raft &**j
ol^j
"I
said to
fell
him "
(m.c.)
:
"he went
" Teheran
by,
at"
or)
6f11
f&S jb
(
6f.fi
guftam
bi-zamm
(or bar
zamin) uftdd
î*f
^^j^J
(m.c.) "it
(m.c.)
to the
ground";
for
!/o
ta'alluq-i
its
bachcha bi-mddar ;iUj *..

bi-panj
"affection of a child
mother":
jaruTcht *z**yf
s
^L^
c>
^'^
(class.")
"I
will sell it
for five
tumdn khwdham tumans"
bi-javab
guftam vl^^V (m.c.) "I said in reply": bi-shahr daTchil shud i^ JLLi^Âj (m.c.) " he entered the city " bi-nazar dar mi-ayad ^f
^^
(m.c.)
"
it
comes in sight
"4
V-l-fi'l ^JUlUb
" in
'
fact.'
Uftdd, bdz ba-si

*
(
pa
istdda (or bar si
pa
istdda]
shud b
fell,
ÛLot
b
ÎAJ) (m.c.)
t^t
to&~j|
*-^
or)
(Afghan
"
coll.)
it
(the animal)
but got up again
on three legs": bi-ddn sabab v** "on that account": wm bi-tufang

j*d}
(
cJl<**
(or bi-ddn jihat
o>^
(or
hamrah-i tufang) zadam cXvAw

rifle"
:
tî3 IÂ
or)
"I
shot
him with a
sher
ba^-ghurridan-i bisyar
bar-khdst o~Ji.
roaring":
eJ^-^T
J l:sv
*'
jU-j cJ-V^^-" (Afghan) "the lion got up M*Y& a great bi-hdl dmadan (m.c.) "to come to one's senses (after
fainting, etc.)":
j*^ îx^f j^L

(m.c.)
Jjix>
khud drzu-mand budam ki
"
^^ju^j ^xs
maw
bi-rasidan-i manzil-l
was desirous
khud
of reaching (or to reach)
my home," but man dar rasidan-i manzil-i reaching my home (I was anxious to) ."
Bi-tadrij gtj***
^^
J^v
^ ^*;
<
)t>
&*
" on
"
by degrees
all
"
bi-har surat
^)^ j$
"
by
all
means "
6f-âr hdl
J^
#> "at
).
events":
^b
(4).
V-l-akhira
"at length"
(in
m.c. b l -l-akhira *jLH\>

1
FeWe also p. 334
him "
full
'* Euphonically before demonstrative pronouns, etc., bi dan, "bi-din, and bi-du, to the in is written ; generally, the *, both as a preposition and a verbal prefix, only
form
*? before
and is bi-bmam "

*
3
joined to its substantive, as:

let
a word beginning with a 6 ; otherwise this preposition drops the & " but " *J bi-raw bi-u " to him
;
Orbau
p**> bi-bmam). guftam or bi-du guftam, or ura (or vayra) guftam, or bi-vay guftam;
me
see
"
(also
jj>
"go
f&&
all
m.c.
Or da" javab
vl^ )*
(m.c.)
the preposition used varies locally.
*
5
Bi-nazar ml-ayad (m.c.) " it seems." In m.c. si pa istad (not Istada shud) without any preposition (m.c
pa show biraw
pish-i
6
"
)
get
In m.c. shir
up and go and bi.
to
."
PREPOSITIONS.
327
Remark Remark
ing to
(i)
I.
Bi
is
also a verbal prefix, vide
Remark
*j
II
(i)
and footnote.
II.
Grammarians give the preposition

:
various
names accord-
its signification
Ba-yi zafid ( **3|j In ^j*+> G (j^*
^
jt>
"superfluous 6
lj;<*
*1
"
as in
cu^
:
-_>?y, etc.
or )&
[vide (c) (1)],
or ja
^jy, etc.,
some
grammarians
call
the preposition
"ba-yi zcfid"
it is,
however, the
preposition dar
(ii)
that
is
(
superfluous.
Ba-yi zarfiyya
&*j&
:
^b
"the
adverbial 6,"
stands for j^ and
indicates place or time, as

(iii)
I?
Î>j^&
bi-sliahr
raftam
" )tf bi-ruz
by day."
"
or
*,
& of companionship Ba-yi musahabat ( <x* (*a/o Û ) as jdhan ay baradar na-manad bi-kas \j*& Û* ^t
:
" the
stands for
(Grill.).
j^
o^
Ba-yi rabita or ba-yi ittisal (*k>\) ^5^, or JU^jf <^b ) "the " the b of copulative 6" or junction," as OA*>J o*i dast-bi-dast. " the & of restriction " is Ba-yi inhisdr ( ^ta^Jf Îj ) practically the same, but signifies completeness, as :j~*ij sar-bi-sar for^ ^ j sar ta sar.
(iv)
and
(v)
(vi)
Ba-yi qasamiyya
t*.+~3
^b
),
as
the 6 of (vii) Ba-yi mubadalat, or ba-yi taqabul ( barter or exchange," called also ba-yi ta'viz u^!^*5 L$^> " * ne & of substituting or compensating," is used with verbs of buying, selling, etc., as bi-dard-i sar
:
J^j "By God." dUw <^> or oJ^lvo ^b ) "
nami-arzad
(viii)
^^ " the game's not worth the candle." ^>f " the 6 of measure," as: ba'd az Ba-yi miqdariyya ( &*)\&*> Û
^j*
vafat-i
bi-sad sal
JU ^^toUj;!
:
miqdar-i )]&** or bi-andaza-yi Ijf^lb e^kk* *^ *^^M AJJLJ *)l* !A)

(**"*
.
(Gul., Story 2); here bi *j = bibi-nim bayza ki sultan sitam rava darad
(ix)
Ba-yi ibtidafiyya
(Bustari)
e^*T
c^M^t*
^
(
( **J(Axjf
<^b
),
as
bi-nam-(i) JaUdn-dar-i jan afrin
" J
(& e
^^)
is
in the
name
of
."
:
(x) Ba-yi intihcfiyya wat-tatimmat" b'^l khayr.

(xi)
*VÎ yfe )
opposite to the above, as jjjijb A*5jJ^
Ba-yi izafi
as:
^*Uf
^b
" the b having the force of
an izafat
muhtaj bi-pul nisiam
&~#
J^ ^^^
(
muhtaj-i pul nislam
(xii)
The ba-yi isti'anat or

:
zari'a or aâ
*^f or **J;i or
oJWUf Û
\)j\
"the
.
b of the instrument, etc.," as

(xiii)
bi-shamshir zad gardan-i u ra
\*)*f
^ j*S*&>
to,
Ba-yi qurbat
^*
^b
"the
b that expresses near,

JS^^'AJ
etc.,"
as
bi-padishah shikayat burdand

(j-Aj
.
^^ cujÂ
),
where
bi
stands for
^ or
pish
f
(xiv) Ba-yi
ta
maf'ul
sc
diya
*j**3
^L
),
or " the b of the object," or the ba-yi takes the the 6 that makes transitive," is the v
(
Jr*^c.?b
^that
place of the dative in
I;,
as
in chiz bi-an
*SUi-t
'alq
^ "upon,"
l
(xv)
The
ba-yi
isti'la*
:
^>
-
bi-dih *>? jyo c>^ J J^- v^!'is the 6i that stands for bar
bj$ *>&
mard
or
as
bi-ru-yi
u nigah kardam
j*,
The
in verbs, as (*^
etc., is also called ba-yi zcfid.
328
(xvi)
PREPOSITIONS.
The clc ^b,

:
or
*&^
cause or end, as
(xvii)
bi-dldar-i
u raftom
^, or *W*3 <^b"
fo jl^f^V
is
the 6 that expresses the

to see
went
him."
the 6 that conjures assistance, as: ) is Ba-yi tavassul ( J-y Fatima. bani ^so bt*L Khuddya bi-haqq-i
(xviii)
Ba-yi muvafaqat
,
is
the 6i that expresses "in accordance with,"
or
(
(xix)
5a-2/i
tamyiziyya
QX+*
:
c5^
is
used for the
-^ ^^
and
expresses
(4)
"
for the sake of," as

j* or
#ar
abar^
(and &ar-
near ").
and (/). U, especially in m.c., sometimes takes the place on horsebar asp ^-1 ) of bar j, as: savar bi-asp *-* * ;Lr (m.c.) (for back, mounted." " <( bar miz bi-guzar )\&Jfrj! (class.) put it on the table Examples " sit in the sun 2 " ki bar
For
this preposition, vide (e)
As already seen
in (3),
*j
bar-i aftab U-nishin
^^ ^tfjt
^^
(m.c.)
farmudam
:
s rupiya u ra bi-&ashand " I ordered him to be
" come out."
j f*rj* (Jehangir's Memoirs) " the bar-a T^J (m.c.) scale) weighed against rupees (in a In m.c. bar j* is rarely used as preposition alone. Thus
t^l *iJy
**
instead of bar ab
" on the water," in m.c. bar ru-yi ab vf is$j* or be used. would ab simply ru-yi ()j This preposition is usually omitted altogether in modern Persian, as :
^
:
VT^
zamm
bi-guzar j\*&
^^
(m.c.) (for bar
zamln bi-guzar j\*& er^jy
*'
)
put
it
on the ground" vide (n). Padshah bar takht nishast (or julus farmud) v^~~j o*io y sU^b ( Ar^* u->^ or) would in modern colloquial Persian be padishah ru-yi takht nishast ^ Ai o*iJ ^^ Ui^tj, Similarly ruy-i mizjfro ^^ (m.c.) "on the
table
"
instead of bar
mizô^
bar asp
(class.),
and ru-yi asp

;
>,***]
^9
Jjô
or savar-i asp
Y*l jj~
table ").
instead
of
^\
:
j*
(but
<{
sar-i
mtz
" at the
Bar
is
taraf
kardan &$
^j^J.
(m.c.)
to dismiss (a servant)."
Abarj>]
old
and poetical
(5)
Andar ;^l
' '
in, into, within
"
:
Sharab andar jam kun
In (m.c. ) ru-yi miz j>X
Dam-i
aftab
v^*'
(*^ (m.c.)
in the shade just near to the sunlight (so that a
slight portion only of the sun's

turyi aftab
warmth reaches the
person)
in
dar aftab
v^T )*
and
wUif
bmishln (m.c.) "

i
^y
(m.c.)
bar-i aftab
^^ j
right
the sunlight: saya-a/tab
sit in
m,c. "near sunset."

3
the half shade (of a tree)." Vide p. 324, note 1.
Dam-i
aftab wliif (*^ also signifies
In m.c.
ham
vazn-i rupiya
kunand
PREPOSITIONS.
(m.c. vulg.)
(vulg.)
329
raftand
1
"put wine
in the
cup"; andar khana

:
oibj aJliL^f
andar ( J>i*> ^p or) Jj**> j^l " " are at home? libds andar manzil (or dar manzil) hastandl (vulg.) they " they put on clothes." (or dar) bar kardand &*j* j ( j* or)^l ^.W (vulg.) Vide also (9) on dar ^.
S
:
"they went into the house"
*&~A
(7)
Td
l>
"
(also conj.)
to, until, as far as, as

:
" up to here, hitherto" az " from the north to the south*" td bi-aknun & " until now" td hdl ? " " td bi-zist OA~J_)J U, (class.) Jla. tf (or td bi-hdl Jl*v $ ) up to the present " td na bas dir " " td " how &> ? while life lasts long kay ^/^ 13, j*t> <JMJ or id na bas ruzgdr fejj) (j~P ^ (class, only) " not for long" id yak mdh-i digar " td chi rasad &<* ^ jr&a U t^> U (m.c.) "in a month's time &**j (also conj.) " class, and mod.) how much the more" vide 91 (6) 12. Td is also a particle (poetical) signifying "beware! behold! for shame! never! it is
td injd Uojf U
:
long as, whilst, even to : shimdl td junub ^>^ 13 JU^jt
"
c^
:
:
not
(9).
known whether 3 ":

(8)
for
examples, vide
91
(b)
(12); vide also
(o)
El
'
^
it
:t
to
'
nouns
without," a privative particle or preposition. un corresponds to the English prefix in

;
When prefixed
;
im
etc.
Bi-tu namt-ravam
bi-basar J*AS
^
^
+> (tS
(m.c.)
"I
"imprudent "; bl-khud

Vi-dbl
*s*-
not go without thee"; (m.c.) "useless, silly"; U-abr

will
^\ <y "cloudless";
bi-ihtirdmi
^^
(subs.)
"want
of
water"; biydbdn ^l*-
"uncultivated desert,"
"rudeness "
ful
^(y^f
;
(i.e., without fixed water-supply except rainfall); " rude " bt-adabi "disrespect" bi-adab ^\
:
^\ ^
bt-adabdnd
bi-harf
AJUii
(adj.
and adv.) "in a rude and
disrespect-
manner":
(9)
o^ ^ (adv.
words; without question."
m.c.) "immediately, without further For a>j^ bidun* " without," vide (o) (6).
Dar 5 )* "in,"
"
;
etc., vide (c) (e) (g).
Dar-javdb
<^>
guft
" he
replied
dar
vay nazar kard

**
^ j&
^ (Sa'd!)
o^? v f^ja (m.c.) "he looked at him"
shubha-z ki dar dil-am bud bar taraf gardid (m.c.) <Sf> AJ^5 J;Jsjj ^j f^)*> " the doubt I had was " Â& OÂA " seven divided haft dar haft dispelled
:
by seven": chahdr farsakh dar chahdr farsakh ^ ;~j* jf^ "four " dar an ruz " farsakhs square upon that day" dar in miydn )j) e/f ;> in the meanwhile."
^^t^
m.c. also
This should be andarun-i khana (both in writing and speaking; ; andarun raft in " he's gone to the women's apartments." These vulgar uses of andar are
not
common and
This
8
should be avoided.
A
is called
is
This last
called ta-yi tajahul

:
*
^
Also dun e^ti
not used in m.c.
Dar
Or
)t> is
also the Imperative of darldan &<*?.)&
" to tear."
6 7
bi javab.
Dar
is
called
-^>^&
o^
as
it
indicates the place or receptacle.
Or
bar vay
330
Vide also
(10)
(5)
PREPOSITIONS.
on andar
j*J|
"l exception of this, in addition to this. (11) The Arabic ft <y is used in Persian for per, as:
cent
'*
:
"except *' " ; except God I have no refuge &t-?t& Khuda-(yi) Ta'alq pandh-t na-ddram mihtar juz tamla no-bayad jd-l pa bi-guzdrad *)!<*& b ^'l-^ *jW A!?^ JA.^* " ct the groom ought not to get his foot any where except (in) the stable (m.c.) besides or except that juz az In Tci *&>\ ;>?-" with the juz az an e>f jt_>^
(or bi-juz) _>*. (or_>.J)
:
' e
Juz
"
' '
**>
<^
ft
sad "per
sal
JU ^
"
per
annum."
-
Remark.
jlitu.1
"Particles of exception" (>>
Sf
-^-lêtc.)
are called
o^
huruf-i istisnd.
of the prepositions are substantives or adjectives
(12)
The remainder
preceded by one of the simple prepositions expressed or understood. They take the izafat: zir-i zamin etf^jyj, or bi-zir-i* zamm e^3^>? " under the
city
ground" nazdik-i " bi-hukm-i

:
(or bi-nazdik-i] shahr
yf
-^j^>V or)
of
^.*y "near the
ziyarat
&>)
s
^<LJ (Sa'dl)
(+
ing, the
tufayl-i
shrine)": ba-vujud-i jahaz dowry" ow*f jJU

:
3^
by way pilgrimage (to a "in **^J^ (Sa'dl) spite of, notwithstand*JjkAlw
"
%fts<./o
shuma mahfuz manda

:
means"
"as
it
(;)
pi\&
a habit of mine
"
:
has been saved by your " Tci 'adat-i dashtam (J**^* bi-qarar-i according to (m.c.) az qarar-l ki ma'lum mi-shavad :>>** pjl** *&)\j*)\ (mod.)
ast (m.c.)
"
^ ^^J
zindagi-yi
man
bi-
my
life
)^
appears."
c
as: pish
The prepositions may be used adverbially when occasion requires, amad <wf ^û he came forward " andarun raft 5 ^) &)y\ (m.c.) " he went inside or he went into the women's apartments." (k) The following are a few of the commonest words used as prepo; :
sitions
#lj
bald 6 upon, aloft.
pasin down, below. zabar 1 above.

faraz
zzr
8
above.
beneath.
*
5
Also ghayr-i in \&llj*P or ghayr az In kiOr dar zir-i -jt\ )&.

Also jahlz
(class,
and
m.c.).
cUi
of
US ed metaphoricaUy in the sense of
&*ojj**^, from
;
tufayl, the
name
of
man
6
Kufa, who used to go uninvited to wedding-feasts Classically andar raft could be used.
hence an intruder, parasite.

tree
6
* '
With the
Zdbar,
zir
izafat c^Slb, as
' '
" bala-yi daraJcht
on the
"
:
& <j^~
su-yi bagh
in the direction of the garden.

1
and. pish are the Persian
names
of the three
Arabic vowel-points
fathah,
8
zammah, and Faraz u nishlb
kasrah.
(subs.)
"
ascent and descent."
PREPOSITIONS.
331
l
and ^*, furu and furud

before.
j
down.
pas
su
8
after,
behind.
i**
towards, direction. miyan between, in the middle.

of.
pahlu by the side
or -4.>V, wazo* or nazdik near.

,
vicinity.
out.
,
.
J|
andaru n in
( jl )
JU* #a&Z (az), before (of time)

6
vide (8).
*/o Sa'a*, after.
oâ.
?Vto, towards (old).
v-Jl*. janib, side.

.
for,
j
on account
of.
6am?/
siwa, except.
fj*
( jl
)j
ghayr
()&
)
(az),
except,
cjij/ctô
(dar)
payramun, around.
(2) All the
above
may
take simple prepositions before them in certain
cases.
(3)
C5*Lr?
The preposition ba b or bi *, however, cannot be prefixed to baray bahr jtf, or qabl u*$.
;
(4) No simple preposition can be prefixed to sipas (adv.) az an bi-ba'd csif j( azan si-pas.
but
***> u>f jf
^^
(5)
*i*j,
Ba'd *** may be followed either by the

or ba'd az hafta-i
izafat or
'
by az,
as
fo'd-i hafta-i
&&& jt
**j
after a week.'
6?rw7i
11^57*?,
(6)
The
4)
prepositions
p5^ ^J,
^6^
jt.
<J**>
an(i gho>yr
j&
(&*
may
pas
either be preceded or followed

JJNOJI
by az
(7) .4z
wards."
Si-pas
"from behind," but pas az jl 0^ " after that, aftero^^ (= Pas LT*t is a contraction of az pas cr^jt. In
)
modern language
'agafr
v^
is
preferred to pas
^.
Furud before a vowel. Zabar, zir and pta& are the Persian names faihah, zammah, and Icasrah.
1
of the three Arabic
vowel-points
Vide footnote 6, page 330.
In m.c. andarun ^)<^\
is
also
used as a substantive " the women's apartments"
" the stomach." classically and in m.c. it also means " 6 In modern Persian because, for."
6
Sivakardan
\sfrjf\y*
" to
select, separate."
332
(8) Ptsh-i
PREPOSITIONS.
az
man (^ ^xj "before me " (place), but pish " time) " before me "before me l qdbl az man u-* jl cU* = az jdnib-i man. man Jljjf ji
( ;
man
;
<>* jt
' '
(time)
az qibal-i
In m.c. pish-i man ur-^ an(* ^ esa commonly nazd-i man " I have." In &* &y, etc., signify Ispahan, instead of pish <Jty or nazd &; 2 pahtft-yi t^^tv is generally used with the same signification.
Remark.
(9)
Bi-nazdik-i khiradmanddn
this
&i***^
-^M>^
(Sa'dl)
"in the opinion
used in speaking by the Persians, Indians and of the wise"; 3 kishtl nazdlk-i ghalfidan or bi-nazdik-i ghaltidan rasid *~&ity t$**^ Afghans " " ax*) cXîj L cxiAkU (Afghan) the ship nearly rolled over ; in m.c. kishti nazdik bud ki bi-ghaltad ^>KU> t$ ^.^y t5S^'. Nazd &$, however,
idiom
is
^JxU
is
used only for persons.

(1)
The comparative and
superlative affixes tar
added to many
(adv.)
of these prepositions, as: pas-tar

;
y and tarln e^p can be y vj or payin-tar y e^4

^>>
"lower"
plshtar^^
(adv.)
nazdik-tarin
^^
(adv.), etc.
The preposition need not be repeated before <Wf ÂJ ^t ^^>^ 3 governed by the same preposition
(m)
:
successive words
^*s\*> ^ ^jtji^fcU.b
ba-khatir-dari va mahabbai va dusti bi-man pish*
dmad
(m.c.)
"he
treated
me
with hospitality and kindness and friendship."

In m.c. the substantives which most commonly take the place of prepositions are nouns giving the idea of position or direction, as: ru ^
(n)
''
face
'
;
sar
* '
head
' '
ru-yi
miz y&
;
^)
"on
(Afghan)
pusht-i
parda
(behind) Examples : the table"; sar-i asp *-**! j~ "on 6 the horse" " ^J oô behind the screen."
(on)
;
.
pusht owiu
'
back
' '
Frequently, in mod. Pers., the preposition, or the noun that is a substitute

for the preposition, is entirely omitted, as:
zamm
" dast-% " (for bar-ru-yi zamin bi-guzarjl*> <^=} c$j;^j) put it on the ground fisJ 0*0^1 vr^^ (m.c.) (for bi-dast-i uast cu^t o**>j (m.c.) "it is in his hand*'
:
bi-guzar
y&*
i^-*) (m.c.)
agjda
khdna
is
(for bi or
dar or andar khana 5 ) nisi
o~~-xi
iJLi.
I5f
(m.c.)
"the
master
not at home."
For plshtar az
man i^jiy^#.
In m.c. the comparative
is
generally
used
adverbially.
9 Compare the mere pas of Hindustani. never used in speaking.
3
The dative with ast,
as, rnara asp-Vst (old),
is
Qarlb Vir*
is
not used in this sense.

'
* Pish-i
man amad ^-*fe^*LT^{ would mean

this could
he came to me," and not *'h
treated
6
6
me."
In m.o.
mean "
;
the head of the horse."

is
Or
tu-yi
Miana
nlst m.c.
andar khana
rare
and vulgar,
vide (5), pp. 328-9.
PREPOSITIONS.
following examples illustrate the use so-called prepositions in m.c. and prepositions " In, into": (1)
(o)
*
:
333
of
The
a large number of the
i3'î
e*y
tu-yi utaq
'
"\
andarun-i utaq
*/ i
andar utaq
dar utaq
(class,
and
reside the room.

J
in the midst of the sea.
obs.)
miyan-i darya
dar miyan-i darya
IXj
bi-kishti nishasta seated in
a boat.
)\f
savar-i kishfi
:'
on board.
\
l>?
bud i-j asp bud > oar asp savar bud bi-zamm uftad
bi-asp savar
savar-i
-
(
} \
1
mounted on a
back.
horse,
on horse
*\
)jj bar
zamm
uftad
> he
fell
to the ground.
J zarnin uftad (m.c.)

*
d&& bi-zamm furud mi-ravad it penetrates into the earth.

dar rikab~i Shah
~]
.
rikab-i
Shah
(m.o.)
}>in J
the retinue of the King.
,.
*baghal-i
^
7.
f
in his arms.
dar baghal-i u
ura bi-bag&al mi-giram I will embrace him. Ji J^.( i ji âr dakhil-i shahr inside the city. -7i.-7-7 i
akhil-i shahr
8^j
LT*
^>i>* j-i dar nazdlkl-yi saraparda, in the vicinity of the Royal (or
tents.
)
I
y
)\
Government) pay-i u
dumoal-i
I.
6
J^
u
is
after
him, to look for him.
Remark
as: dar
'id-i
Dar
in m.c. chiefly used with towns or countries,

C jj; y H j^
and dates,
naw-ruz
**on
New
Year's
day":
dar dnjd lJfj,i
"
there, in that place."
Remark
l
II.
The preposition
in
common
(mod.) use for

disuse.
" in "
is
y tu.
*
8
The simple prepositions appear to be falling into Baghal <-U? also means "side, arm-pit," etc.
*j is
Birbaghal (or baghal) kardan &s^(d'*>\i but bi-baghal or baghal giriflan (^*j? d*J U (Jjb
*
6
)<J*J &>
"to
to
carry a child in the
arm,"
"
gharij-i ehahrj^ ^^, or dar k&arij-i shahr y? ^}^ Nazd <* or bi-nazd && only used for persons nazd
:
embrace a grown-up person." " outside the
bard
bj ;lyt e/
&
&
city."
or dar nazdi
man
iqrar
)t>
he confessed in
my
presence."
Vulg. *ayd Ax*.
334
(2)
PREPOSITIONS.
On, upon, over:

a bridge has been made over the
he sat on the chair.

atash (for bi-sar-i) bi~guzdr, put
\
sar*t>
it
on the
fire.
(i& )* dar bayn-i rah
on the way, in the midst of the

road.
W> ate bayn-i rah

OMM!
<3)
*Ûi ^xjj ^jy o^ barf ru-yi zamin na-manda " az, vide (h)
Across,"
or
jt
the
snow has not stayed on the
ast
(I)
ground.
and
(o) (11).
p*&*f
"
(4)
fj<^
S>
?^f
3t
1 aw;a ra^d shudim or guzashtim,
we
crossed
over that place.
To, towards, for" For the various uses of *j in this sense, vide (h) (3). Bi & is frequently omitted in speaking like the other prepositions, as
:
manzil
raft
oJ>
<J>U>
shahr rafta ast

\)
eW
*&j
etc.
also vulgarly
" kitab
give
rd bidih
man 91
er*
**>>
*-$& for kitab-rd bi-man bidih **>
^v
I;
v^ "
1
me
the book."
*>*
(
*J )
pa^' tumdn mi-farusham, or bi-panj tumdn mltumdns.

j
>
farusham,
(
I will sell it for five
o^fe, or)
O^M
îx
o**
or) c:^.)
towards the stage.
J
,
or 0*; c^t^J, he went to Teheran.
bi'bdld,
upwards.
(for & ar ^*6
rw bi-shimdl, towards the north.

c?lj
k>^
V^
not use(i in
m --) ^
is
situated on the
seashore.
Uf kindr-i daryd-st?
J,
it is
on the seashore.
shore.
or
pt***jj)X,
we reached the
(5)
"With, by":
Irdni-hd bd dost mi-khurand (or vulg. hamrdh-i) tojj***
m^^
Ifjî
the Persians eat with their fingers. bring the doctor with you.
f*^,
p^f^J
barddar-am hamrdh-am bud,
my
brother was with me.
Radd shudan
'
v^*xA<3> (m.c.)
a Or kinara-yi darya bank, shore." 8 Dost: note idiom.

*
to cross, pass
"
;
rodd kardan " to reject."
l)^
^*nar
;^
means "side," and Hnoro
Or 60 man
PREPOSITIONS.
x b
&(j |ab
i
335
Khuda-st, happen what may,
all this,
aa^fc
âr cfo badabad,
bio,
the issue
is
with God.
lj
^ an
(6)
Jb &*k
ass.
î
65 tn hamabaz Icharast, notwithstanding
he
is
"Without":
For
&fe}
^ bl
^jj
"
bidun-i
without," vide (h) (8). without information. ittild'

,
î>j
A&f e)^ bidun-i an ki bi-u khabar bi-diham raftam, ÂJJ ^xi. j| I went without informing him of my departure.
AJ
"
(7)
x>ij
Except
"
ÛiiÛ
jJt
(^fj
fctft
jt
bi-istisna-yi
banda,
all
are pleased except your

ytf
For /wz J*.,

vide
(8)
bi-juz^p**, Hid
if,
az in kar razi and humble servant (me). and âyr azy^*, all meaning " except,"
u^ ^^
âwa has
89
(r).
"
From, out
of } by, of, for

i
"
:
w ^'â6 a
tllis
Sa'di'st, this
book
is
by
Sa'di.
e*5'
bool belongs to
my
brother.
ejlAWt
*f; 31
az raA-
7^/a^,
v-jUo
by way
*
31
^^
of kindness, kindly. az ru-yi kitdb-i Tchush-khatt mashq mi-lcunam,
am
practising copying
l^-^^
not design.
A^
Ok*
from a beautifully written MS. HA*jyj*^r^> ^ e can copy (pictures), but
i.>> csjy j' *?V <^
I,
the child can write from a copy.

fear for your life?
/^ Jt, don't you

Vide also
(9)
f\
(A) (1).
"To, upto":
G
^c J|
az sw6/i a sham, from morning
till
evening.
ujU^ ^t
Vide also
(10)
îjt,
from Yezd to Kirman.
(h) (7).
"Under, below":
o;^ *-J^3
U|a ^, or
of the
z* r-*
^^
(lit.
r/
such a low voice
ma-zan (m.c.) don't speak indistinctly or in under your lip).

3
^ ^>l^ ddmana-yi kuh

^jj
or rfar ddmana-yi kuh, on the skirts
mountains.
jlxjjx)
Û
L|
pa-yi
wnar*
or bikh-i
minar or
6i- (or
dar pa-yi)
niinar, at the foot of the minaret.
Or har
chi ml-shavad bi-shavad ij~^ tj"***
*^*
(or Jiar chi bi-shavad bi-ahavad
*
3
t^*> <!k
Daman
)'
(;/|j>
or ^J Jl o 6or or az hifz navishtan " skirt of a dress," etc.
to write
down from memory.'
'
Colloquially vnuriar )\*>.
336
1
PREPOSITIONS.
fcjk
pdyin-i rnindr (somewhere) below the minaret.

:
(11)
"Through, across"
lAc*.;a *^}l
y\
|j
f*it
U&
;,sU chddar-i
shumd rd
az ld-yi* darakht-hd
dldam, I saw your tent through the trees.

*)J^ )^~i
l
t^
*c^
jt
*^
gwZiiZa 02 Za-^'
rcay&a bi-shikar khurd, the
bullet hit the
vÛT
4^}!,
game through the reeds. between the leaves of the book.

to
Forjf
(12)
"
through, across," vide
"Near, next
"
(h) (1).
*y nazdik-i shahr
j&ji> bi-nazdlk-i
*j.>>
shahr
near the city.
nazdik
bi- shahr
o^y ;a dar nazdiki-yi shahr, in the vicinity of the city. pahlu-yi u, close by him; alongside of him.
dam-i dar, near to the door, to the very threshold of the door. dam-i dftdb, at the edge of the sunlight (i.e. just within the f*
shade)
;
also near sunset.
jyo
(13)
,-a
li
id
dam-i marg,
till
death,
till
the last breath.
"Outside":
r#
blrun-i shahr
8
khdrij-i shahr
outside the city.
dar khdrij-i shahr
"
(14)
Before, in front of
pish-i
"
:
man
-i
;> dar-pish-i
man ru-yi man man
before
-s
me
(place).
(before
ru bi-ru-yi
)
me
(place).
before the 'Id (time).

XC ji
cwj qabl az
J!>
'id
r^ birru-yi
Qunsul khdna,* in front
of, opposite,
the
Consulate.
jilav-i
man
bi-raw, go
on ahead.
Or pa'in
-4
miyan-i
v^
jt
is
more common.
door
Fafc la-yi dar )&
^V <-&
or yak lingo- yi-dar
)& 1/oJ
(m.c.)
8
cJ^j
*
one door of the folding

fold of the
doors.*'
ho opened one
ra
"
Az
Dar
l&arija mi-ayad ^jf
puh kun
<l
^
;
^5*
'}
^;^
La-yi dar ra baz kard &jf } (j j* îl : dar-i du-darl cf.;Aj^ )* " folding doors.'* " imported.*' ;t
close the door,*'
i.e.
cr-J^
)* (m.c.)
put
it ajar.
Plsh-i
man &* L&tf

*
I have," like mSrB pas in Hindustani.

in Arabic
In Persian <J~JjJ
PREPOSITIONS.
337
^ ^"^\\
(15)
i!
az jilav-i
man
'id-i
bi-raw, get out of
Back, backwards, after

pas az
ba'd az
"
:
my
New
way.
* V LT-*
p3
***?
Naw Ruz 'td-i Naw Ruz
after
)
Year's Day.
Aa.
p*
back
2
o~iu pusht-i sar-am chi mi-kuni, what are you doing behind
?
my
îj
pusht-i par da, behind the screen.

;
ra/Z pa?/- i &ara,
he went to fetch
(after) butter.
Icashid, he retired, drew back.

LJ
(6)
^ô
^.^
aqab-i
man
biya,
come behind me.
"Opposite":
ru
jlflô
bi-ru-yi
masjid
"]
muqabil-i masjid
^r
(18)
barabar-i masjid
J*
opposite to the mosque.
mahazi-yi masjid
J
all
Around
' J
:round the lake.
dawr-a-dawr-i daryacha,
^kjW
I
chohw
taraf-i~}
o[^fcf
skahr biyaban-ast; or
rail
round the city

in
is
desert.
oô ÛUj atraf-i shahr biyabdn ast J ujbUj^t tPl^ hawali-yi shahr biyabdn
(suburbs) of the city there is desert.
1
ast,
the neighbourhood
round the basin

(19)
Q'wZM ra dawr-i hawz bi-chin, arrange the flowers of the fountain.
all
"
(
For, on account of, out of L$[tf 3 or) cfLr^ V**' asP baray-i (or az bardy-i)
:
f
"
tust,
the horse
is
for you.
*uft*
frj
&a^r-i
/noam*
u bakhsh-i fuqard**
>for the sake of the poor,

)
on account
darkness.
of,
because
of,
the
About the
Pusht-i
21st
f*>
March
***
the vernal Equniox.

after another, continuously."
2
s
ham
" one
Pay dar pay

l
(* >/ 1;;^ e^l to this business
" one behind ^ )& ^J kardam m b shudam wan May?* pa-pay ^j*^ ^
(m.c.)
continuously,
the other
"
:
ta
kar ra
(m.c.)
I stuck
till lit.
I carried
it
out."
*
5
Bakhsh,
"
lot,
share."
Vulg. vasih.
22
338
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
chdy vdsita-yi khdnum kujd'st, where
for the lady
?
is
the tea
mahz-i ihtirdm, out of respect.
merely for your sake.

*j bi-khdtir-i
,
Khudd
.
- .,,-,. baray-i khatw-i
m. jKhuda
for God's sake.
bi-khatir-i
of khublhd-yi pidaram, for the sake
my
father's
many
(+
kindnesses.
JUili)
ast,
UciJU ioj&sijo
^x> 4^*30}
life
zindagi-yi
man
bi-tufayl-i
shuma
mahfuz mdnda
(20)
my
has been saved by your means.
'Instead of":
8
**T
4
eApj 7 J c5 l ?^jf u
bi-jd-yi barddar-ash
dmad, he came instead
of his
brother.
<xlj alju
o^jUx* tuft**
(jej** bi-'ivaz-i
safid m%-bdyist siydh bashad, instead
Id/
of being white, it should <xtj ^si* iCijf (Jcy* jljj*.
have been black.

6
'ivaz-i
in-ki safld
bashad siydh karda-t,
(p) It will
instead of making it white you've made it black. be noticed that some of the prepositions are interchangeable,
lJ
:
U bd mihrbdm pish dmad can frequently be interchanged " " il ^ he treated (me) with kindness if, however, $ (m.c.) <vof <jktf L5 ^t the pronoun we is inserted, it is better to say bi-mihrbdrii ij^^j^t to avoid a
thus
*J
and
repetition of the
same preposition
^T
o**^
ti^
>)'"i^?
c^îTt^
-?'
^*~
mihrbdni-yi bisydr bd
(q)
man
pish
dmad
az
(m.c.).
Sometimes
different prepositions
may
f.
,
altering the meaning.
Thus
y or bar
,
be prefixed to a noun without or bi-muqtazd-yi rdy-i u <^LmiUj

is
conformably to his advice." Sometimes a preposition &j*+ changeable with an izdfat, as az shuma mamnun hastam
^\)
:
<c
interJi,
mamnun-i shuma hastam

>,
p*~~*
&>*+*
"
Â
U&
or
am
obliged to
you": mashghul
or mashghul-i
91.
(a)
Simple Conjunctions.
for conjunction.
y*> ***jj*),
There
is
no general word
huruf-i shart
(
The
this
tions
are
called
and
conditional conjuncterm includes the

final
temporal and concessional conjunctions.

are called
huruf-i
ta'lil
(
The causal and
conjunctions
'atj
J*l*3
o<^
and the conjunctives huruf-i
Chay, in m.c. generally chahl.
4
3
Mdhz
Or
(^ja.^^0
equals baray ^lj* in this sentence.

*j=
For baradar-i khud
)\j*
*
6
**
safld ast bayad ki siyah bashad
^^
U*
&'
the
RaTchfrshur In ra 'ivaz u badal karda ast (m.c.) *^^l U^^ J^ ) (jPj* ') washer-woman has changed this." (In Persia women, not men, wash
clothes).
).
339
Particles signifying
(
"moreover, rather, etc." are called

signifying "or" or huruf-i 'inad ( ^c
huruf-i izrab
v>^'
***jj*> )>
(
and
particles
),
(adversative
).
j,
particles) huruf-i tardid
^y ^jj^
oj^
e%ar
The
huruf-i 'atf
^JJa.
or huruf-i 'atifa AAiU

Â->,
J^
o^
are
va
pas
^^
sipas i/.v-,
âw
^*, mz_>iJ,
and sometimes
alif */(.
Remark.
The
difference
can occur both in the ma'tuf 'alayh
between ham p& and mz _>v is that the former **ic ojla*^, and in the ma'tuf J^w*xo a s
?
:
(6)
(1)
The simple conjunctions are " and " vide j vaoru (m.c.)
:
(2).
(m.c.)
jt
ar (class.)
gar
(class.)
J\ agar ya* ''or"; wWe

tj
(4).
U ya
s
<
2/a
either
or,"
4<
" but
or"
(after
a negative)
vide (4).
j*> juz
tfj*.
"
"
;
except
vide (5).
ty5.
khwahkhwah
"
(m.c.)
eitheror "
(wrfe 4)
<^l>&
;
^ty^
5 and
(poet.).
^^
311
magar
unless, except, perhaps, etc."
(flieZe
9).
t'Ha (m.c.)
"
as, but, except, still,

ftaZJfei,
;
Jj bal
or AiX
however, that (vide 6). rather" the on (in m.c. also "but, contrary,
;
"
"perhaps"
Â.
(videl).
) V
chu*
(class.)
"when, because,
since
"
;
vide (8)
and
(11).
ujja.
c^ww. (m.c.)
Uf
amma
"but"
;
(vide 9
and
5).
gar
3 (class.) "and if"; vagarna &>j (class.) "and if not, otherwise*'; Vagar and ar j\ poetical ; agar chunanchi Aawli*. j* and chunanchi *?^^ are also
' *
used in m.c. for
if .
"
In English the conditional conjunctions are it', (old Eng. and prov. an), unless, so (when it means if only), and but (meaning unless).
Provided
*
that,
in case that, are conditional phrases.
Or
varlikin
v^j
(m.c.), or
va-amma
l*lj (m.c.), or
va-ya ^j
(class.),
often va an-ki
*&f .j:
3
" as for
me" amma man &*

is
^l or manki
Chunki
Or bl-juzjr&u.
In m.c. j*.
isJjS-
Chun
also
" when, how, and because." c chun means "like," as in 'Amdlri padishah safar-i darya-aat " ** (Sa'di) office is like a journey by sea."
pronounced chu
ore/it.
*^^-
340
ct*j
pas "consequently." "afterwards."
(class.)
**> ba'd
qu
ku
> I
,
"although"
vide (10).
(vide 11).
(m.c.)
&A. chi
^
A^.
*J
13
chi
" " what does it matter one way or another
chi
"
since, because, seeing that
"
(vide 11).
&
ta
}
na
na "neither
nor"
(vide 4).
(vide 12). (vide 13).
*?
lei
bf dya (a particle of interrogation, etc.) (vide 14).
Conjunctions in English are chiefly of adverbial origin. for instance, is an adverb as well as a conjunction.
Remark.
'
Also,'
went where he was " " when he had gone I said," etc. ô.c or "con(2) The rule for the pronunciation of the vdv-i 'atf it is if which connects form one that two words notion, together junctive^," or connects words generally coupled together, or two verbs having the same subject, or nouns co-ordinate governed by the same verb, it is pronounced
;
There are two principal classes of conjunctions: 'co-ordinate,' which connect clauses of equal rank, and subordinate,' which connect a subordinate or dependent clause to the clause on which it depends, as: "I
'
u,
and
in speaking is joined to the
pronounced va* " sal

JL> ^ e>~
Examples
;
Shab-u-ruz
age"
tang-u-kushdd
word that precedes it: in other cases, it is " sinn-u" night and day )j) j v** " " 8 loose ^^ 3& or
:
(too) tight
(too)
pidar-u-mddar jÛj )*$ "father and mother"; dmad-u-raft o*Jj j came and went"; but darakht-hd va bdg^-hd va bul~bul-hd va khdnajdt
<wf "he
" the j lêb j J pddishdh va nawkardn &jj*j fc^'j king " ' ' dmad va madar va pisar *j~j ) jÛ mother and son and his servants ba d az yak hafta raft cujj A&gj 31 A*J^ vof " he came and after a week went
olsola*
j UjLjJb
V^P
<
away."
Also after a vowel, and generally after a silent the j is usually as: va sabu surdhi va burida (or u) dukhta pronounced va, (^f^* ^ jfbanda va bdbi u Also *^5 j dqd. sufi-garl ^J* ^^c $ ^jb, or bdbi-gari
,
va sufi-gari
visi
<jg
^?* )
LS/
LT?^?-
The^ may take the place of a colon or comma, etc., thus for veni; vidi; " dmadam u didam u giriftam p& ) p&>* j (*^f Td ^ is used for "and" in English, when the second verb expresses
.
the cause of the

l
first
vide (12).
that, until."
Also ta
&$
13
"in order that, so
Irregularities occur in speaking especially
amongst the vulgar.
It
is
also some-
times optional to give either pronunciation according to the idea in the speaker's mind. 8 Note that j is sometimes used in Persian, when in English we say or.
4
Or madar u pisar
is
341
to certain conjunctions,
sometimes added superfluously

*>
of
*$\)jj
as
Si
va
ammd
ilia
' '
Uij (or
amma
U|
va likin
^^ j (or llkin <^J

and
"
)
but,"
etc.
} va
" otherwise.
At the end
of letters
tales, the formula f&-Jf,
va's-salam signifies " and for the rest, good-bye." In m.c., the conjunctions are often omitted; hence short phrases or verbs are, in speaking, often entirely unconnected.
This particle sometimes indicates state or condition
(&*JU.
dmad va
gul-l
dar dast-iu bud

;
jt
o**o^
as
bachcha
j <Wf &su
the child
came with
a rose in his hand
(and then he had a rose in his hand)."
In such sentences, as: yak pin u sad bimdri tsJ+# x*o ^ this " the vdv of vdv-i called is ) fo &y~> tasviyat ( conjunction equality," the
^j ^
meaning being that one old age

sicknesses.
is
equal to, or accompanied by, a hundred

or
Sometimes j
(
is
equivalent to yd
lasts
"
;
L?
it is
then called vdv-i tardid
x3j3jlj
).
5
oÛ jjxw
In,
(Sa'di)
Example: "the rose
gul hamin panj ruz u shash bdshad j#
but for
five or six
1
.
days only."
man u
inkar-i sharab, in chi
Ifiarj-V sf
" I to refuse wine? what on earth are you saying?" the conjunction is but in man va in kdr Khudd na-kunad called vdv-i istighrdb ^fjix-f
^^ e^t ^ ex, the j course, mere hair-splitting.

lAi.
*&
is
called vav-i istib'dd
sl*Juo!
?^
).
This
is,
of
In
Jj-; Jf
cjL*l,i
c^^ ^ t^
J^w
;j
^r ^
the conjunction is WMM luzum daman ^y !** is ?a2*m ^V and malzum f)H#.
&(
(f^f^j^l
dfosZ
:
}, for the relation between
o^,> and
Another example
^ U*A
Jt
y p
" From the bone
In terror of
'
JU,
as"
(Anv. Suh., Chap. /, Pre/. the sanguine tide, flowed trickling

!
St. 3.)
its life it
fled
and cried
Could I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell Content with mine and the old woman's cell '."
He
(East. Trans.)
In
J^*^
pt^*
*x?T
l-
" next year Shiraz for me," the j
is
perhaps the
*
In
the^ is called vav-i mu'dvazdt or the "vav of compensation." As already stated in 43 several adjectives qualifying the same noun
are linked to
it
and to each other by the

i.e.
izdfat.
the cat.
342
and If, however, several adjectives follow a noun, the iza/ats are omitted, the conjunction ^ generally precedes the last only, as shakhs-ibud 'dqil, dana,
:
J5U ay câiui (m.c.) "he was a man, The > however, may be inserted intelligent, wise, clever and active." between all the adjectives, as: ba'd az an didam-ash zan-khwdsta va bikh-i
hushydr u ziring ^-&>jj .jÂy*
lit a
,
nashdt-ash burida, va gul-i-havas-ash pazhmurda &>>j *L]j^ &j J^**-!*

j^yo^* Jk-tjA. J? j
c^Jt
<>*>
I saw him married, and a^j îUJ with a family, and the root of his joy severed, and the rose of his happiness withered."
" after that (Sa'dl)
The
by^, as:
adjectives can also be classed in pairs, each pair being coupled
Shakhs-l
bud
'dqil
u ddnd, hushyar u
raft
ziring
Uf^ JiU
Compound words
and the two portions
to
fall
like
dmad-u
oJj ^
<*x>f
are treated as one word,
in writing are not separated.
at the
end
of a line, the
word
raft
Thus if dmad happened the top on written be would o^
some corner, and not carried on to the next line. In other cases, if the conjunction va j fall at the end of a line it is written, not as the last of that line, but as the first word of the following line, the conjunction
of it, or in
being treated as a portion of the word that follows
it,
Remark 7. The first noun, verb, or phrase preceding the *-&* (i.e. the copulative conjunction) is called <*jJU ojk**>, and the nouns, verbs, or phrases following the first j are called oy*>.
o^
^
tic
Remark
II.
Vav 3
is
1
also
an Arabic
va 'Hah*
"by
Allah.
"
;
particle
used in swearing, as
ham andar zdman (3) Ham p* "too, also, even" j*J\ p* (class.) " at this (or that) very time " qadr-i ham nazdilc-tar j&ty f* <*$)** (m.c.) " " ham bi-dih bi-Nisd LJ dj " then (emphayet a little nearer 55^ (m.c.)
^j
merely) give
(I)
it
to Nisa
"
:
m ham
p*>
^t "and
this is
>J
.
Fwfealso
89
(7).
Remark.
Particles
signifying
"also"
are called harf-i ma'iyyat
o^-
In English also
(4)
is
occasionally considered a Copulative Conjunction.

either,
&j*>
"Or, nor,
neither,
KJû?
khatar-ast,
2
*^t^
^ j
j^X
^^
yd duzd bi-yak bar
;j ) j&~ sim u zar dar safar mahall-i o**|jta, va bi-barad va yd khwdja bi-tafdnq bi-khurad
whether."
cU^
(Sa'dl)'
"
the robber
and makes
it
silver
off
with
and gold on a journey are a source of danger, for 8 it at one sweep, or else the owner (or merchant )
himself finishes
by degrees."
This expression, which corresponds to bi-Khuda

Sim,
in m.c.
t*^,
is
used in
m c.
vide (2).
*
8
"wire." Note pronunciation of va ya ^j and f*^ Formerly only merchants braved the dangers of travel.
343
"
He
ra Gujt chashm-i tang-i dunyd-ddr khak-i kunad Yd qand'at pur gur (Sa'dl). yd can fill the covetous eye of the wealthy, said
nothing
But contentment or the dust of the grave." and mod.) Khwdh dar razm Wiwah dar bazm >* W^ fj; ;> !A (class, khwdh khwdh mabut *\j^ >. council' in the "whether in the field or
&
'
or na-khwdh siysJ (class.), or khwdh-u ma- khwdh tff** j *>^ " nolens khwdhl volens," vide Adverbs. L^L*^ (class.)
or khwdhl na-
^\^^
1
Inva na an sometimes nah & also

Afo
;
&j
<^t *>
"neither this
,
nor that."
In
poetry
^ ne (Afghan)
tdb-i vasl
or
nay
Nay
''neither
dar am
ne,
taqat-i judd*i
have I the power to endure a greeting nor power to absent
myself."
'Urn hdsil shud yd na, likin bi-man fa* ida-i mi" ^ L *& d^l^ well, rasid&*tjxo loJl? ^^ i\^ |yiÛ ^f (m.c.) whether that poor ignorant learnt or not, I learnt something": magar %n
Pas an ndddn rd khwdh
^J
ma'lum na-bud ki ishdn dtash rd dida dar kishtl nishasta bi-taraf-i an raftand, yd an ki qabl azshikastan-ijahdz kishtl shikasta bud,yddnkimardumdn-i jahdz-i dlgar kumak bi-dnhd karda budand, yd ba'd az sawdr shudan-i kishtl db-i pur zur-l anhd rd burda bud
kutdh bdyad az dunyd Astin khwdh dardz khwdh kutdh
"At
Remark.
the last
we must go from
this world,
whether rich or poor."
*.) are called Vj*. Disjunctive conjunctions ( U or jblJLfr oj>^. In English these are also styled "alternative" and are a subdivision of adversative conjunctions.
* *
man &* Jf he asked every one except me," (or bi-juz az man ^/
(5)
Az hama
kas pursid magar az
**Vv or^***^!
(m.o.)
jt^su, or H-ghayr az
man
Called nun-i munfaatt az ejf
fi'l
J*i jf
cLflix> e>>>, as:
^f>R^ ^5*1^ (m.c.) "whether you like it or not, it's Persian who sees a didl ? Na J ^cx;,^ a proverb, said to a ^ ****) though he did not see it (dida ra na-dida kardan &*? *<^
\)
khwdhl na-khwahi Inkar shud been done." Shutur

thing, but
makes as
â & saves a lot of
trouble.
The
tribes
so as to be on the right side. people say na to every question

v-ft^.
The mullas say that naml-danam f\**+> is nisf-i 'Urn f* or bi-t&qat <^*U The lover becomes bt-tab
^^
when he
loses his mistress.
344
jf
ô
j***).
Juz in chdra-i
nist
? x;U- e^'->^ "there
is
no other course
but this."
dar sdya-yi dawlat-i khuddvandi hamkundn rd rdzi kardam magar hasud rd ki rdzl nami-shavad ilia bi-zavdl-i ni'mai-i man (Sa'dl) : J^ J e^;a <*^/t agarchi dar in kar dil-i man mdyil na-bud magar chi kunam
j Si
]
p&
&*-j*> &jU JjU (m.c.) what could I do ?"
"
although I did not desire this to happen,
still
The Adversative Conjunctions express difference, antithesis, In the sentence "he is honest but foolish," but is an cantrariety, etc. Adversative Conjunction and the whole proposition is called an " AdversaRemark.
tive
Proposition."
But,
yet,
however, etc.,
make an
arrest or restriction
of thought
and are
called'
"Arrestive Conjunctions."
By
Eastern gram-
marians,
may be
nifying
conjunctions signifying "but" are called ^\)*^\ *~*jj^> which translated "particles of emendation," while conjunctions sig1
"moreover, rather, nay rather," are called vLr* izrab " particles of turning from, adversative particles."
(6)
^j^
huruf-i
cwj>^ îu
31
a>&
v^~i*> ^^jUii tj) *

,
Ujiu
Âs^^J\
AÛA. chundnki
* agar shakhs-l bi-kharabdt ravad bi-namdz kardan
mansub na-shavad ilia bi-khamr

:
khurdan (Sa'd!) " for instance, if a person go to a tavern to pray, nothing else will be attributed to him, but that he goes to drink wine" J&\
^
I
f*iL>
1^0
xix
^*v
û,p aksar bi-in 'ayb mubtald shudand ilia
man
na~
shudam 3 (Afghan " not

:
hlch vaqt
them have fallen into coll.) in qadar na-khurda budam* ilia m hold
of
" most
this vice,
but
have
to;^so
j^J! oJj
^/b.
^1
jff
bi-yak
ddam
^
e^f
^*
"
:
(m.c.)
"I have
never eaten as
much
as I
have just done
sar-anjdm-i
kdr dushvdr bud va Hid bi-juz
chara-i no-bud
3?" Mj ty ;t^d;l^ (^Jt ^6(^ (*^f c^x (m.c.) "to accomplish this by means of one man was a difficult matter, still there was no other b remedy": dar in *arsa ba'zi ruz barish nami-shud ilia aksar mi-bdrid y!;b ^x jfS\ ^f o,^ ^(t A^ ^jz (Afghan coll.) "at this
1)^-
^ ^^
period there were a few days that it did not rain, still (or however) it imruz bi-yak sukhun pish-i tu mi-ayam 6 ilia harf rd pish-i generally did rain'
' ;
1
'
Kharabat
In modern Persian ham qatjar jUw /*<>. Ham-kun (^Â is obsolete. oU t^- " a ruin, a tavern; a brothel." Wine was sold generally in ruins.
' '
Kharabatl cP^ly^
Sufis.
s
a haunter of taverns.
' '
The word has a mystical meaning amongst
Better omit the words na-shudam [&***.
4
6
Or add na-khurdam ^jvîujôr na-kjiurda am

In m.c. substitute naml-band
&>)\j
ff
ld)j&J,
^J^
for
naml shad &i* *^, and ammo,
M for
**>
ilia
>.
tftf
<>
In m.c. substitute
vail
>
or ammo, ^1.
kas na-guyid AJUJ&
coll.)
tell
345
j^j
o^ ^Ji 3
^f
^y J^-u ^~
tell
j^t (Afghan
"to-day
come
to
you with something to
you, but
mind you don't
any body."
(7)
For
balki
*L "moreover"
and
in m.c. " perhaps," vide p. 299,
<*) (2).
In the following two examples,
ab
could be substituted for f&f
KU
and
(7Mw (or chunki ) urd didam shddshudam f* iLi^^d^f (,**^- or) " when I saw him, I was glad " u in amr rd kard chunki ( or chun) (m.c.) " he shumd rd dust mi-ddsht o^f^/o o*^^ tjl+ ( eâ. or ) *^>t;^l ^1 ^t
(8)
:
did this because he loved you." chird 1 ast^^>\ \j*-j&j*.^.
In
&>
matlab-i-ki bi-shumd guftam bi-chun

*'
on what I have told you u chigun ejja. ^

.
^^ ^
you must act implicitly chun (i.e. you must not ask why and wherefore)." Bi u chand i s an of the Also bi-chun Deity. epithet
iÂL* ^| (m.c.)
chird
p& Uo
bi-chun
" and introduce the principal clause agarchi ma bdz (or ammd, magar, likin, or vali) sdhil-i daryd bi-nazar nami-dmad s^j>\ ^f uP>J** ^.)* cU-L* ^j b ,^J .^Xx) U( ) Jlj^j^jjj^^ ^ (m.c.) " though we were
"
magar'jLe, likin ^J, vail and bdz Jb "yet, again." These frequently
(9)
Ammao),
^ and
:
itta*
"
t
but, still"
6
answer to
agarchi
although
&$$\ dur na-budlm
not far from

nishasta
it, still
the coast was not in view
"
agarchi havd qadr-i faru
bud ammd amvdj taskin na-ydft^^^ ^lô| &\ ty *'i>~<^ jj* l>* *^l calm "; become theseadidnot thewindhad "although dropped, o~t oâgarchi khildf karda ast bdz ddam-i khub-i'st (m.c.) "although he has not acted rightly, still he is a good man."
^V
^^
(m.c.)
^ ^>
)
*^
(10) (a)
Gu^
(the Imperative of guftan

4
in poetry, in the sense of "suppose
"
&&
"saythou,"
is
common
or "although."
Or bl-chun u chand
oat
chand
^
***$ e^^- ^. In qlmat-l ki bi-shuma guftam bi-chun u * it*less." -^^l l^J j &j*. &?.\(m.c.) "I won't take In modern Persian ammo, anci faz Jb are preferred after agarchi &*-jrl', the
^^
M
^^?
Afghans use
3
ilia Sll and the Indians magar j& and ta ham ^^. Or harchand ***;*> or harchand-ki îa.Â 55 wa/-i SwH *^>f
,
-^^> or halanki
4^*f^:U
example,
Atiy^,
or ba-vujud-lki
*&&j>jk
M>*
or ba-vujud-i anlci
*&(&*>& t&
ba-anki
these signify
"although" and could be substituted

jL>, etc.
Ijoj,
^ for agarchi *^jr\ in the
and answered by amma ^\ and 6az

*
/n dunya
gii
' '
ma-bash
oÛ^y
^|
(m.c,)
"suppose you have no wealth
(it
does not matter).
346
Darvish-i nik-sirat-i farkhunda khuy rd
Ndn-i ribdt u luqma-yi daryuza gu ma-bash 1 Khdtun-i khub-surat u pdkiza-ruy rd

"
Naqsh u nigdr u khdtam-i firuza gu ma-bash (Sa'di). Suppose the pure-hearted and unworldly darvish Have neither dole of bread nor morsel begged in charity.
Suppose the lady with figure and face Have neither adornment nor jewels, (i.e. what matters it?)."
^ *^H^T dnhd-l &> fj L^f |^ |3^ txi^j <y j*-t \> j Khudd rd shukr! ki dnhd rd asir-i khud dldim va gu hamisha bi-bimm (rare m.c.) " those who used to carry us off captives, praise be to God, we saw them our captives and may we always so see them." Gu bi-ydyad **\*^ " let him come."
j ^jj.Ji j^L^xyot ki
md
rd aslr mi-burdand
Remark
In m.c., ku
is
generally used for gu /.
Shumd
chird ghussa
mi-khurid ki u mi-mirad, ku bi-mirad *j*& j> *j M (rare m.c.) ''why are you sorry that he is dying, it matter to us (we don't like him)
'
:
^^ he does
if
** *i}>**' &1** t^die what does
(b)
say,
The 2nd Person Singular of the Aorist " " one would say ? and hence " like
:
gu*i
" ^J* means you would
Har
Guî
sabza ki dar kindr-i ju-i rust-ast

zi-lab-i firishta-khu*i rust-ast,
"Yon
margin of the stream, As down upon a Cherub's lip might seem." (0. K. b 2 Whin).
turf, fringing the
In modern Persian gufti would ordinarily be used for gu*i *a. Chi &* chi bar takht murdan chi bar ru-yi khdk o*iu (11) chi,
(
^^
ij>
Chi
HA.
c;iyo (Sa'dl)
throne or on the bare ground ?

pearl or oyster shell.
&*.
' '
"what "
:
matters
the same) to die on a ** " whether chi durr chi sadaf vJ<x* **it (it is
all
and in modern u bar dshubad (chi hargiz chundn harf-hd-yi bi-parvd bi-gush-ash na-khurda bud) asar-i khushnudl az chihra-ash numdydn shud^^-J^j^ *^- )^^f ^.^ c^'^^J' *&$ ^^.yty* ^\ *~ ^bUi (jSl^t^ 3t -cs^^y^ J*\ ( (TranslaJ)>J tr? L$ *^J^
also
means "because," both
in
classical
Persian
Ammd
sarddr bi-jd-yi in
ki az bi-parvd^t-yi
t>^
tion Haji
Baba
Ch. XL).
A*',
by a pleonastic
I
as:
In m.c.cfo* A^, et because," is sometimes followed Anchi mi-guyam, bi-pazirid, chi ki gharaz-i bd shumd
"
Note the 2nd person Imperative
after gu
i.e..
"say thou don't

;
be.'
347
[better omit ki
na-ddram fj\> UÛ
^jf &
or
^ o^jJo
)
AJ
flA*
*^
(
&}
( *
act on
what I
to it
am
:
"
(*
telling
you, because I have no
selfish object in
2
view with regard
AAI^
*^*> or
*?& y*j~
[
rd bi-kun chi'1 har shab asbdb-i sar-dard
shud)
= "do
this so that it
may
v-* ^r* *^ c^ L) ui * ro h r na-shavad (or mi-shavad or khwdhad not be a trouble every night": harchi
1
^> f~'
bi-guyam bi-khud ast chi s ki marhamat-i shumd bish az in-hd-'st p*j& **/*> " whatever I o*-i{Xjt jf ^JMAJ '^ o^*cwô t$ AA. o**i ^=n.x> (m.c.) say is inadequate because your kindness
is
more than
I can express.'
'
In poetry chu sometimes stands for e^, and is often incorrectly pronounced both chi and chu. Sometimes A*, occurs for^^- in writing, but it is a mistake.
v U**l^f|
Clvd,
j e^t^/o
j'^ j
v li*T
ioJLj
oof jj tejj*-
farda bar dyad buland dftdb
Man u gurz
' '
u may dan u Afrdsiydb
(Firdawsl).
When
There
the sun
will
is high in the sky to-morrow be I and my axe in the field with Afrasiyab."
(12)
Td and
ta*ki (adv., conj., prep.)
** $
id
and U
have
t>
tions
"up
:
"hitherto":
long reach
"? "
:
within, by": mjd $ "how G U p to the present": tdbi-kay " the 13 as far as td chashm kdr mlkunad <x6<j\<; eye can (m.c.) p&** (m.c.) nami-guzdram bi-ravi td na-guî mjd chi mi-kardi ^jj*
to,
until,
l^Juf
many significa"up to here,"
td bi-hdl
JUu
^*j**
(m.c.)
^^^
l*
ISLXJ|
^j&
l>
"I won't
let
you go
till*
you say what you were
doing here"; td yak " I will return
mdh-i digar bar mi-gardam by (within) another month."
f^*
"By
^3U
Ai;
the
time"
td ruz
:Td
haldk shud yak-i rd khalds kard digar-i,
I;
was dead "
igjL.* sj>
;
"
ucti^.
(Sa'dl)
other by the time he had saved one, the
tj ; #} îJU* jj> b hearted man had gone a good distance": td ki khatt dnjd rasU fasl-i ** U (class.) (< by the ** d*f ***) &tetf gandum guzashtd bud time the letter reached, the wheat season had passed."
rawshan shud an idnk-dil mablagji-i rah rafta bud xi (Sa'dl) " by the time it was light, the blackcJo,b
^^ p
&
Sar-dard
*& ~ "headache,"
but dard-i sar j*>
^ means
na
*>
trouble.
"
Or
3
ta-lnki
*>
In both classical and modern Persian the
after **> is usually omitted
and
stress should
*
bi-gu*i6
be laid on the word chi

*>
lit.
*^-.
Note na
"up
till
you do
alterins;
not." The
could be
omitted and
c5*j~ substituted without
this
Or the ki could be omitted. ta U is called
the sense. order that" Ta-ki *^13 also means "so that, in
348
' '
In order
that
that
to
AJ
"
:
guftam
ta
anra bi-bazar burdand

it
'
ta
bi-
farushand ***}* %***j*0* (and they j^jf UîK took it) to the bazaar in order to sell it " khwast ta sang-l bar darad &~& (Sa'dl also m.o.) " he wanted to pick up a stone." This ta 13 with the negative has also the force of "Let not," as
; ;
:
" I ordered them to take
biya ta gham-i farda na-khurim
Vin yak-dam
" Oh
let
umr-ra ghanimat shumurim

as gain
us not forecast to-morrow's fears,
brave compeers (0. K. 312 Whin). " And" ^ ~j [y c** j*& \)J ura bi-glr ta man turn yak tuman ÂX eA*y bi-diham (m.c.) " catch him and I'll give you a tuman 2 "; here j could
But count to-day
my
' '
not take the place of ta * As soon as " &$

'
:
13.
o^
oo*;G ta-rasid guft-ki
(m.c.)
"as soon
as
he
arrived he said
."
Ta
ki dast-i Nasir u -d-dm khatam-i shahl girift
Sit-i
dad u ma'dalat az mah

since
,
ta
mahl
girift
"The moment
The echo
3
)
(or
the hand of Nasiru'd-Dln took the seal
of sovereignity
of his equity
and
justice resounded
'
from the Moon to the
Pish (on whose back the Earth rests).' The above was the inscription on the seal of the late Nasiru'd-Dln Shah
As a
substitute for
*>
"
" than that," and *$
"
:
pZjj &*.j iJj^

'
^^ A^
o^
&ij
Umr-i giran-maya darin sarf shud
Ta chi khuram sayf u chi pusham shita (Sa'di). " Our precious life passed in the thought of what to eat in Summer and what to wear in Winter." ^so vu lg- m c Guftam bi-raw va bi-nigar ta klst *z~~v ^j&*) ( " I said, go and see (that) who is it."
'>
ld)
Kardan-i
m bihtar ast ta an &}tt ov-ty^j

"
U!
^^
(in.c.)
"it
is
better to
do
this than that."
The past tense shows that the order was

:
carried out
' *
;
ordered them
and they took if the Aorist bi-barand *ij> &> were (as it might be) used here, it would merely indicate that the order was given; it might or might not have been
carried out.
*
(in.c.)3
Or ura
bi-glr ;
man
tura yak
tuman ml-diham
Ta
This
is
13
not used like this in Urdu.

i
s called
It is not
349
known
'
perhaps
7?i
sabza ki imruz tamdshd-gah-i md'st

l
Td sabza-yi khdk-i ma tamdshd-gah-i kist. " As now these flowerets yield delight to me, So shall my dust yield flowers, God knows for whom.'* " Have a care " bewars? (This meaning of td & is poetical)
1
;
:
.
XA
^4?/
H shakhs-i man-at haqir namud

durushti hunar na-pinddri
(Sa'dl).
Ta
*'
Oh
thou to
whom my
person appeared
mean
whip you."
This
is
Have a
Bi-bm
care that thou mistakest not coarseness for merit."

I don't td chi
1 id turd na-zanam (m.c.) '* take care " Behold look here" ** Uf &*. 13 p\**j*
(Sa'di)
"now what
^45 long
fault
have
committed that
"
?
gundh karda-am ki
not the ta-yi
na-Tchur (m.c.
tajdhul, as it might, at first, appear.
" and
class.)
as" #&* ^*> ^)\t> clfl* *$ 13 td ki s 'aql dan may "so long as you have sense, drink no wine."
: :
Since the time that
K'in zamdn panj panj mi-girad Td shuda Mu*min u Musalmdnd (Mush u Gurba).
"
that
now
(the cat) kills five at a time
Until:
Td
Since he has become a believing Muslim." 13 with or without the 123 (e). negative: vide
the
"How much
td chi
more"
**)
&*. $:
Agar kardjak* az sardi mi-mirad
rasad
bi-bulbul JUJb AJ j-.; Aa.
^^
magpies die of cold,

(13) Ki i$ " That "
:
how much more must the bulbuls." "that" has still more significations than td Ruz-i digar chun gdzl hama rd talabld va chub-hd
l>
:
^ ^^
\^
j]
cJ^f^f
(m.c.) "if the
rd did ma'lum
jjy
kard ki duzd
(m.c.)
sticks,
kist
^~~*t &)& tf
&j> (*î*x3
***
lâ.
^ >jaU,
^ s+&
^m c?^ jî
"the next day when the Qazi summoned them
all,
and saw the
he discovered who the thief was"; this *Z first is called kdf-i baydn ^ ) or kdf-i tafsir (j*~& o^ ) " the k of expounding.'
'
This
ta
is
called
ta-yi
tajahul
Lla
^.
Kist ^~**
for
ki ml-bashad
2 3
This
is
called
Or omit the **. Or zagh

itj is
the
common
is
English Magpie; zaghcha &* '^j
is
the Chough, and
kitlagh-i
ablaq (jk\
e^
the Royston crow, and Kulagh, etc., the Raven.
Kaf-i istifham (*l^J^>t
O^,
vid,e
Interr. Pron.
350
" Because"
kasrat-i iqdam-i
:
Ba
in
hama
az u bi-ghayat kha*if va mutahazzir

ritf
budam
ki
I >
u bar
safk-i
dima mi-danistam
1
^<Wi^
Ui'lA.
cujUy y
1
(class.)
"in
spite of all this
1 stood in
great fear of
him and ever remained on

:
my
guard, because I
knew
his
excessive eagerness to shed blood" an pisar ra zadam ki mufsid bud tjj^J e/f zj *~&c tf (*^j "I beat the boy, because he was a mischief-maker." This
ki is
called
kaf-i
'illat
vÂc ol<
or kaf-i ta'liliyya
*Â*$ J'<
>
" the
causative
K."
;
" When*
hargiz
if"
o~Jlj^ îjf p&t*&j *t î& d**)j*
C5^
J d?^ e/f
3^
an zawq va shadi faramush na-kunam ki pindashtam ki gandum-i biryan-ast (Sa'dl) "never shall I forget my delight and joy when I fancied
it
was parched wheat " In ra mi-guft ki u dakhil shud & cU.'^ y " he was 8 saying this when she entered," this ki is called *sAtj& " &' when he had travelled Qadr-1 rah ki tay kard t5;v* (m.c.)
:
^^
jji;
a short way."
Sometimes
turd, ki
this
A*'
ki can
bi-Khan bi-dihim
be translated by ''if," as: Mi-danl khwdhar-i c< AJ *^ you know i^lÂf^L ^t^>o (m.c.) ÂH<V ÎL
give your sister to the Khan in marriage tive or Aorist after ** signifies supposition or doubt
that
if
we
"
;
here the Subjunc-
this ki *' is called
kdf~i shartiyya
' '
What will you lose if at your You cast one kind glance, oh
distressful lover
cruel girl
"
ya
" Whether":
khurdast* ^~*1
"nothing was known to me

f)$ vf jl *^'^ ^
(*4-y-
Ahvali in ja ma'lum nami-shud ^ ^-^> tyj*- (^ *$ *~
^* ^^- ^
(Afghan) " about this island whether it was large or small C*f J^jb baz khayal kardam ki bala-yi kalak
:
^ C^ ^ ^ J^
4
:
ki in jazira buzurg
bi-ravam ya piydda az db guzaram (m c.) *' again I considered whether [direct " va ray-i ham-kunan narration] I should go there in the raft or wade there
'
dar mashiyyat-i Allah ta'alq ast ki savab ayad ya khata o^^xj^^ cjUx** <^\)j Ika. U i>,jf v y* *> o^-.f ^1*3 î (Sa'dl) " and it depends upon the will of
God whether
1
the opinion expressed by
my
companions proves right or
Note meaning
to signify
of ba-in
hama
blood)
excess:
kasrat-i
" dima 9 f*& " in spite of pi. (streams of substantives dam two rendered in if flA3f oy^
&*(
English by a substantive and adjective. Perhaps elliptically used for vaqt-l ki *^-J^ " 3 falling on anything unexpectedly, rushing upon unawares" Mufajal from " sudden death." oUlix J>j* marg-i mufajat
.
lJ
In m.c. Icayflyyat ma'lum naml-shud ki in jazira kuchak ast ya buzurg
j*?***
wrong.
.
353
,^1X31 fJUL
* '
>Jf
Or "
7?i &&Ya&
ra mi'khwalii ki an ra tyf A^
want
this book & of opposing, or the disjunctive k."

;
or that?
"
c^lî*
t;
^^ ^t
(
* '
this ki A* is called kaf-i tardid
*}*j o(<)
do you " the
(t Man { Alavi-yam" 8 Sayyah-1 gisuvan* bar taft ki, *' Az hajj mi-ayam" va qasida-i pish-i va ba qafila-yi Hijaz bi-shahr dar dmad ki,
"Saying
that
"
malik burd
aiA>
j,'
ki,
"
Man
gufta
am
' '
}^^
&*UI
'?
3 4< a certain ^^ (Sa'dl) j^xj |JA^ ^ ^T <^ -^ )\ ** A.of traveller fingered his curls and said he was a descendant of 'Ali; he entered the city with the pilgrim caravan from Hijaz, and gave out that he had
*^
^ Û
j pi^* L/
^ o*>l3y tfj**i j^^
^^Lx*.
returned from the
Mekka
he had composed it himself " k of the object of discussion."

:
pilgrimage
he took a poem to the king and said
this ki is called kaf-i
maqula
( *)J&AJ
ofc
" the
for
For *xL "rather " wa
In the following, ki
is
used for balki &&>, and
*j
na
Na bulbul 4
Ki
6ar gul-ash tasblh khwan-ast har khar-i bi-tasbih-ash zaban-ast

praise,
Not only the bulbul on its rose is repeating His But each thorn is a tongue to praise Him."
Na
Ki
"
qand-i ki
arbab-i
mardum bi-surat khurand ma'm bi-kayhaz barand (Bustan).

are not sweets that
My poems
men
eat,
But they are sweets that poets write on paper."

This ki
is
called kaf-i
superiority," or the kaf-i taraqqi Instead of t:>Ux> or " lest"
mubalagha (**JU o' ) ( J*j>
o() "the k
<{
of amplification or
the k of climax."
ki dar panja-yi
:Mara bisyar khawf bud
anha
Note the order

Qisuvan
'Alatvi
is
of this sentence in Persian.
a
3
c>t.y""~
are the long locks like those
worn by the Baluchis.

of
^sjî or 'Alavl, a descendant of
'All, the son-in-law
Hijaz
Mecca and the adjacent territory, Arabia Petra.

of the three *
Qaslda
^^
the Prophet.
is
an ode
or
elegy longer than a ghazal Jj*.
Note that each

narration.
means "saying that" and introduces the
direct
Also that j takes the place of a point in punctuation.

* The bulbul <J^J or Persian nightingale when the roses come into bloom, and is said to
is
the lover of the rose.
It sings best
build its nest in rose-bushes.
350
l
" I had a *> *# J>j^ ;l*-o fy (Afghan) na-yuftam p&v lif &FUJ ;a great fear " lest I should fall again into their power correctly in m.c. khayll tars bud and bi-yuftam. Zan-i hajjdm az bim-i an ki dvdz-i u na-shindsad va bar an
:
hdl viiquf na-ydbad ydrd-yi javdb dddan na-ddsht

ouifoJ c^fa
<Wi> j jiyf
A&f
v^
C5~';^
^^ ***& J
ji
^(s^.
l<&k
barber's wife in terror lest he should recognize her voice and so " aware of what was going on, had not courage to answer (East. Trans.)]
u*Lr? a
(Anw. Suh., Chap.
I, St. 8)
"the become
the negatives are incorrect.
Bar zamin-i
bl-farsh
nami-nishmad
iîj fcjiSTjft. j\ ^t^-aU) tf *jai (m.c.) ^j9 ^j ^yoj the bare ground lest his clothes should get dirty."
ki
libdshd-yi
u chirkm bi-shavad
"he
does not
sit
on
Instead of *r
15,
Present Subjunctive, as
na-kunand
*xii&
^^
etc. Generally with a negative and the Sukhan-i yavana-khwaham guft ki mardum 'ayb-am ** if the *j^ â.** f&r* negative be omitted
< c
so that"
:
^^ ^\^
'illat
the conjunction becomes kaf-i

guft-ki
(
vÛ
o(^, as: sukhan-i
yava na-khwaham
Âf^w.i
mardum
o/
*ayb mi-kunand
(or bi-kunand)
f*j*
*' o*if
/j (^.iu.
<xiij or) tiJuXj^c S-Â^.
doing"
while
Khayal kardam ki bi-ravam

' '
**
ft>
JU=-
(m.c.)
4 '
I thought o/ going.
"
And;
"
:
.ffa/-* 'atf
-ftt*
o^
" the conjunction
k"
asp-i tlz-raw ki bi-mdnd

'
Ki
'
khar-i lang jdn bi-manzil burd.
(Gul.)
" Oh
11
Many the swift steed that has lagged behind, While (or and) the broken-down ass has reached the stage's end."
!
is
As; 8
just as
like
"
f;
f'^
J*** AJI^
cr^J *-^
l>
-^
t5^3
^^V
o'-^
Chundn rni-lchurad zangi-yi kham rd Ki zangi khurad maghz-i bdddm rd. Pleonastic *$ <*^l^ o^^st; o^t )* f^ *^ & td ki- jdn-am dar tan ast " Naml-ddnam as long as I live I'm ready to serve you." bi-khidmat hdzir-am <^~\ &*j Vf t or naml-danam ki dya rafta-ast yd na *i (m.c.) dyd raftapu*^ " I don't ^^- ***; ^f he has know whether ast yd ki naf^ *$ gone or ^'^ ^5^
:
lj
\*>
1 Mabada \t\**> could be substituted for **". Confusion regarding a negative verb after verbs of doubting and fearing, is not uncommon even in English for "I don't think he will come," English country people say, "I doubt that he will come," and " I doubt he won't come." In the example, the negative should be
:
omitted.
Similar
confusion also exists, after the particle ta
"as long
133.
as,
until," in
Persian
2
S
and after jab talc in Urdu. That he should not recognize,

;
cf.
Latin veror ne; vide also
Baray-i tashbih.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS,
not
' '
:
353
this
a*',
common
in India both in writing
though occasionally inserted in speaking in Persia, and though and talking, is probably incorrect. After
:
verbs of asking or saying, a pleonastic ki can be inserted, as
mi-raw ^)j*
(ki)
t^
*&
*x*j$ (m.c.)
(
" he asked
(m.c.)
me where
nami-ddnam
^Jf^x+i
a*')
o^
was going "
pursid
(ki)
:
kujd
guft
"he
:
said he did not
know":
'-aziz-tar
a pleonastic ki often occurs after an oath, as
bi-khudd ki urd az jdn
ddram
Native Grammarians
zinhar.
It
call this
a*',
&a/-i zinhdriyya,
and say
it is
equal to
may, however, be pleonastic. In m.c. Emphatic ** with Pronouns ***> man ki nami-ddnam pronoun: p*\***
:
ki is often used to emphasize

(m.c.)
/ don't know)
"
"I who don't know
(but
<c
zarar-i ki
bi-shumd na-ddrad *y<x
Uk
a*
^^
(m.c.)
it
phrase f&j (when about to start on a journey). gone Fatah 'Ali Shah on his death-bed.
won't do you any harm." " But" In m.c. a^, sometimes before a pronoun in a short phrase, has " in '* the signification of " but but he's dead." English t>j*> it j\ u ki murd " we're U md-ki The m.c.
: :
"
raftim (m.c.) signifies
off,
we're
These were the
last
words of
In:
the ki
it zd*id.
is
emphatic or bardy-i
Ditto in az kujd ki
?
tahsin-i kaldm,
t
but some Grammarians
call
chumn bi-kunam ? and

ti
bi-firdq-i ydrdn chi-hd ki
na-didam
Like
:
In na-buvad hich daghd-bdz ki u

(
j\
'^^ ^>
)
^, the ki
(
is
called
kdf-i tashbih
AJ^>
<J
"the k
of similarity"
(
and supposed to be equal

or kdf-i tasviya
&ij*3
to misl
it is
also called kdf-i
musdvdt
et^L.x>
,Jl
oK
"the k
46
of equality."
It might almost be translated by "but."
"Comparison":
(d) (3),
For the use

:
of
&
instead of
jf
in comparisons, 1 vide
)
and(v)
(1)
(
this is called kdf-i tafzll (J^flfiJ
&";
also kdf-i nafi

it.
^& o
"the negative
fc,"
" the comparative since na-ki can be sub-
JK
stituted for
For
this particle
1.
o^
and
as a relative pronoun, vide
42.
Remark
dnki *&f
Ki
*>
chi a^. are largely used in
forming compounds, as
etc.:
" " except magar dnki
"he who"; chundnki*

;
*&IU.
*
pas dngdh ki
*tf
"however much," "
af
j*>
(j^j
when,
after that
"
In
<wJb
^^
*&
*J
îxj,^
l3^r (Gul.);
for
either
jf
or
can be
substituted.
*
For various
significations of chandanki, vide
92 (d) (13).
23
354
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
<*&f
l#,
yd anki
dnchi
or yd dnchi
t(
aûf b [yd dnchi shumd mi-guîd sidq-ast va yd
rni-guyam ham-chundnchi AsuUaci*&
man
*.** LJ*
in the
lei
*&$
^ j ^**l (3***
^'j^* UA *Jf
l>
(m.c.)]
same manner
as, etc."
Remark
Subjunctive
II.
is
In m.c.,
frequently,
&
if
**g*&j* (m.c.) "tell

taqsir-i
them
man
chi chiz ast

is
come " similarly mard ml zanand ? oooj

to
:
introducing a subordinate clause in the not generally, omitted, as: bi-gu bi-ydyand
in interrogative sentences
:
(m.c.)
" what
^
,
A*. fyo o~*f JJA.
my fault
Both
it
:
(that)
they are beating
me
(for it)
is
"
^xâj
Remark
guftan (jia,
III.
classically
and in m.c.
ki *?
often omitted after
when
introduces the words of the speaker, and also after one or
two other verbs, as

insert
ki *
happen o*jt j<~ <^W* oU^f eôt^x4J

;
"
&*. u nami-ddnist chi khwdhad-shud <m\js c^~Jt<*A*i^t (or " he didn't know what would after nami-ddnist o-Jf^j*i (m.c.) ) but in, chunin ahmaq bud ki nami-ddnist dsmdn bdld-yi sar-i u-st
t$ *y (3*^'
e^$* (m.c.) the conjunction ki

<v*J for
could not be inserted after nami-ddnist cu~J

(14)
euphony's sake.
Ayd
is
LT "is
it
not?
as:
"
is
a particle of interrogation used in direct

%
and indirect narration,

"
(m.c.)
(
f
dyd
?
he standing or not
}
"
istdda ast yd (ki)

:
na?
&> *>
l>
o~*t
1
ali~j|
Lf
tr*-^ (^^
J
Ijf
*^ uV ^ *^ ^
5
*# fj~$ Jty f~\j**j

**
uV J J ^
^
l
Jj& V^
is
Va
W
:
st ?
^' ^
<
f
he not
here
ast
"
'*
Ayd
also signifies
*Iji; (
"
whether," as
yd na i b 8 " gone or not
of
;
^ or)
nami-ddnam dyd
*'
(or ki) rajta-
^^\
know
AS
(
whether the
o^t ^^stx ÛL,; " mahaut was captured or not oJj

)
Ijf
^f^
L,
(m.c.)
I don't
know
l;f
whether he has
;l*/
oÛ ^
1^5
^t^ I don't ^^ îfjj^j

;
$$
*A\yL
).
Oî U ^ji
Û) ^
89
^lu
tjf
JÛftjJ
^J
^j;
jl
JJ^j
As already stated in Interrogative Verbs, interrogation is usually expressed by intonation or gesture dyd ^f is rare in m.c., magar j*
j^jjl^t
f^
generally taking
1
its
place; vide
(?) (8).
'Whether" can be paraphrased

misl-i ham-ast
as follows:
(m.c.)
am*
I go or don't go
"
o*f ^> JA*
p&j
^ ^-A*)
"
Baftan-am yd na-raftanit is the same whether
(lit.
my
92.
going or not going are
alike).
Compound
Conjunctions.
:
(a)
Compounds
of
two or more Conjunctions

if.
m.c. j$j vagar, and
m.c. &>jtj vagar na, and
if
not, otherwise.
Ya
Inki sharab bi-khur ya anki az majlis-i
shuma ml-ravam
(m.c.)
" either drink

No.
or I'll go."
*
8
4 *
The *$ being unnecessary
is
better omitted
vide Pleonastic *
in
(13).
it is
In India ay a ^f can begin the sentence, as all same whether he goes or not.
' '
ay a ml-ravad ya naml-ravad yakl-'st
Note negative
infinitive
(^*y
na-raftan (j* 9) ^ would also be correct.
m.c.
vali
355
and but, but.

m.c. eAJj valikin
m.c. &*jS\ agarchi
(class.)
) J although.
a-^y
garchi
*
y
"I
m.c.
(obs.)
o^K Ms&
mc
aK
4*^
kashi
JkasM*
may
it}
baPP en
'
d send, oh, would that
m.c. cX
H0ft&
vide, (6).
m.c. t^"*^ kashak-i }
m.c.
m.c.
yj
Jj
if, although. or &b,bal-ki'i or 6aZ, what
va-law, even
is
more, moreover, rather: in m.c.
perhaps,
m.c.
91
(6) (7)
and
89
(k) (2).
(6) (8).
A%^
chun-ki, since, vide
91
(obs.) e>5
(6)
ww, but, yet, however
(obsolete).
<A>
The optative word kashki, etc. Persian followed by the Past Habitual
U*J
o^ or
8
l*^
o^
) is
in classical
is
tense,
whether the idea

(
future or
past: kashki sa'adat-i shahadat daryaftami ^^^.)^> &d^* o^l*^ (class.) " oh, would that I could obtain (or could have obtained) the happiness of martyrdom." Kash <J% or kashki ^^K, etc., can be preceded by ay, as:
^\^
i^jj
cjîôjf
^l^
^&&
^l ay
kdsh-ki ja-yi aramidan budi

(0.
"Ah! would
there were a place of rest from pain."
K. 442 Whin.)
In modern Persian, however, the Imperfect is generally used for future, and the Pluperfect for past, time kashki mi-amad <wf ^>\^ (m.c.) "would that he would come" (also had come), but kqah-fo dnja manda
:
(t
" would that I had remained there budam pty )fiJU IsoT (and (m.c.) not come here)." The Aorist can in modern Persian be also used as an Optative Future,
^|
as
kash bi-yayad
(c)
" ^(^ (m.c.) would that he would come." Conjunction and Preposition, etc.
x;Uj
:
m.c.j-su
m.c.
bi-juz,
excepting.
ba-ham or bi-ham, together. f*b p& m.c. 3 az-ham* apart.

or
f
Also kaj
(old).
Jal* " I have erred, misstated," and nay nay Occasionally ghalat. kardam f$j> " " balki of Bal Jj, balki *&?. the *&>. no no, place t> <y supply
2
S
This tense
to
;
is
formed by adding the ya-yi istimrarl

:
^jf^^t ^S!
the prefix
(the ya of repeated
(class,
action)
the Preterite
this
tense
may
also take
t
ml
me) of the
Imperfect
*
'*
but after agar

p*>
Ru-yi-ham
one behind the other, continuously

or colloquially ru-yi
the prefix is usually dispensed with. j\ and kashki one on the of another pusht-i sar-i ham p*> j<*> vû ^3) top " sar-i ham /*^ ham
' ' ' '
^^^
j*> contiguous
' '
ru-yi
rafta
ham
/**
^j) on an average.
,
356
m.c.
|*A
Ji*
misl-i
ham,
alike, the
same.
m.c. p* j* vû> ftusht-i sar-i ham, one behind the other. (Indian) p* $ ta-ham, nevertheless.
(d)
Conjunctions are also formed by the union of adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions,
AC*.
and pronouns
A har chi
har chand
notwithstanding
.
.
all
in spite of
however
har chand ki
i?
lij
much;
)
vide (1).
bind
barm
6ar 5
therefore; accordingly; in consequence

(this or that)
;
of
^dljrJjJk nazar bar
*.in ki
.
vide (2).
tj
zira
"^
tyi zira-ki
V therefore,
t
because; wrfe
(3).
AS"
tâ.
- ^ C^tVa
Jt
chira-lci
J
&z *^ yt/^
for this
m.c.
o^ ^j|
^
^jj!
.c.
ozinrtt
reason; therefore;
vide
(class.) jDfc*!j 2n-ri* m.c.) ^**o ^tjf az insabab
m.c. t^f
c5-tj?3f
az baray-i In
[
m.c. IA^ li-hdza
for this; therefore;
ro'efe
(3).
mod.
|3J
li-za
31 ^jS.^
>?s7z-
m.c. *Sof
az
an
ki, before
that
vide (4).
(4).
m.c. a&Tjt **> ba'daz an ki, after that; wde vide (5). m.c. **w (ô raw 6a'd, afterwards
;
m.c.
0*"$** si-pas,
afterwards.
m.c. *$
^31
2 bas ki,
1
inasmuch as
since (causal)
\
/
from much
vide (6).
m.c. *âff al-qissa'

m.c. &&&
khuldsa
&ar
t
well, in short.
m.c. m.c.
45-;^
ACjjjja.j
ba-vujud-i-ki
8
in
spite of; in spite of all this;
m.c. A&J|
m.c. A*A
J>j^ ba-vujud~i _ b 6a-?7i âma ^.jf

garchi*
m-A;i
J
i
although
(8).
while
vide (7)
and
m.c. *-/t agarchi
m.c.
*^/
although;
agarchand
w?e (7)
and
(8).
(class, only)
î^f
Misl, adj.,
Lit.
is
in
Arabic a noun.
baz.
* 8
"The
story," Ar.
Can be answered by
Garchi poetical only.
m.c. &$ ^j^yk karchand-ki ' harchi A.a.yfc
m.c. *$
t-^jf
~"i
357
m.c.
Juejlj
lj
bd vasf-i In ki or
^vide
(9).
m.c. a&iusj
bd-vdsf-t ki
m.c. A&f L bd-dn-ki

m.c.
*>"
fcy>
'
or
*tfj& 9
hargdh or hargdh
ki,
whenever; in m.c.
if,
wde
(10).
m.c. A^J^J jl az vaqt-i-ki m.c. 4 J| as aw

. .
j
since; vide (11).
m.c. f& e/f3' az-aw1
dam,
since, w'rfe (11).

^'a
(class.
and m.c.)
<J^
.
1^13^ az-aw
ki
.. ,- 7 m.c. A%*. chunki
since; seeing that; vide (3).

)
m.c. m.c.
j^le
e^ 4^ hamin
tawr, while
vide (25).
~]
c)^ hamdn
m.c. Aîi** hamin-ki
m.c. (jo.^+> bi-mahz

m.c. *^?wj bi-mujarrad [m.c.
m.c. AX>
m.c.
*yxtt.
J-as
soon
as,
mê
(12)
<a]
J
r
as soon as
chandanki*
chanddnchi
however much
.
:
not;
**
^
H <
withstanding
as long as
as
m.c. r
m.c. <*xfalo md-ddm-i>ki
as if; rife (15).
m.c.
mc
.
it 4xiJtxa.^t agrar chundnchi, as
were
> vide (16).
m.c. asuti*. chundnchi
m.c. ^JlLa- chundnki, as for example 8 that m.c. tawr~i-ki, in the manner
A;J>
vide (17).
fact
is
the
th
m.c.
m.c. ^t^'^ vdngahi (pronounced vungahi),
besides.
that;
whereas;
h;
notwithstanding;
more than
all,
beyond that,
m.c. *Q)j*>
)& dar
surat-i-ki,
inasmuch as; in case; in the event of;
vide (19).
m.c. Jl*-^ bi-har-hdl, at

(rare in
coll.) !*fc
*>
all
events; however; vide
(20).
(21).
ma'-hdzd, with that; in spite of; vide
In m.c. az-an
ja-i-ld
2
3
The use
of
chandanki
&}***
for
"as soon
as
"
is
classical only.
the
In English the comparative conjunctions are just as, in than, as (preceded by a correlative), etc.
4
same measure
as, as if,
Should not be written
*&^ j.
In Mod. Pers. always
*> e/T
J lak )
or
#f JU.
^.
358
(class.) j*$\ cujlî
u nihayat 'l-amr, at last; vide ta-ham ^ nevertheless; vide (23).
~\
(22).
(Indian)
p*>$
m.c.
tcLxx)
mabada
tars-i-lci
m.c. *x*yjt az
j
.
Mest; vide
'
(24).
*r
ta-kina
m.c.
m.c. *'
jrt
#*nra
H or *
giram
>
supposing that
vide
78
(6).
H
(1)
Harchand
l
^'^j*>,
harchand-M &f ^*-y*,

U**j
harclii
A^*
Harchandki
*$
(or
harchi) bi-shuma guftam ki-dnja ma-ravid qabulna-kardid
ai^*
or) A^/*>
^*y3 cW> 'Hj^ ?^T

I said to
*^
(*-^
(m.c.)
"in
2 spite of all (or
however much)
you about not going there, you didn't
listen to
)
my
' (
advice";
harchand (or harchi) tangtar bihtar J^ y&o ( A^y> or ^Â the narrower the better": harchi (or harchand) zudtar bihtar jty j**jj ( ^JÂ or) *^r* "the quicker the better." Harchi tamamtar A^.,A "as much
yÛ
as
possible," as: ba nadamat-i harchi tamam-tar birun
amadam
az pish-i
cA*J j' f^^T ^^jjyÛii &^j& cu/oi^lj (m.c.) "I came out from with a regret, exceedingly great." Harchi &^y*> "in the same manner," " the one as harchi in mt-zanad an mi-raqsad ^-*^ <^j^ e^f ^j* (m.c.)
his presence
:
makes the time and manner

the other."
(2) Bin/a
of
his
dance correspond to the playing of
for," as: Hala

ra'iyyat
l
bar yUj, or bina bi "having regard to, with regard man bina s bi-bad-raftariha-i ki dar ayyam-i iqtiddr nisbat bishugjil-i vizarat-ra
^j AJ
li>
^^
vanawkar azshumdburuzkardaast na-bayaddu-bara

*
bi-shuma ruju kunam

î< aâ.;
^^
*J
o-*-*J
;!^'t ^j\
i^'UÛJ;
U-**-* cU-^ *;^ j> *N?y -^~f <^ 3^ ^^ 3' j*J* -5 (m.c.) fj ^;'3j with due regard to (bearing in mind) your ill deeds done 5 by you towards the peasants and subordinates, must not again entrust you with the office of
ô JlL^. "now I,
vazir
"
amma
dar shugU-i vizarat bina
bi-islah-i
'umur-i mulk va millat az
man
haqq-i tavaqqu' na-khwahid dasht

a.
^ôjt
(m.c.)
"but
(I)
ment
in the state
and the people, you
will
having due regard for improvenot have the right of expecting
Indian and perhaps Afghan. In English the conjunction in this sentence could also be rendered by "notwith-
standing
3
"
or
'
although."
:
Bina bar could not be used here

anki
after bina bar
^k>
either an c/i
or
In (^f
follows, or
*
*&f
or Inlci *>ijf.
of the sentence,
Note the subject man at the beginning

Bur'/z kardtn
and the verb kunam
after bay ad <V>L

6
&&j>
jjr*
" to come out
"
birun
amadan ^-^^T
c^
' '
:
359
hold maqsud-i mard ddnistid ; bind bar an na-bdyad tajdvuz anything from me kunid ** jjl^J jjljj &\j> tw AxL-Jt^ tyo aj.,aaA> $(s* (m.c.) "you have now
understood my object; you must therefore not exceed your instructions'*: bindbardnkiman khddim-i qadimi-yi shuma hastan dnchi 'arz ml-kunam 'ayn-i
maslahat ast c^ÛLAx) ^.c ^>* (jcê A^f *.w& U^ C5 *J^> p&^ (ô *if y lx> " c>**t (m.c.) "because I am your old servant, what I tell you is quite right nazar bar in ki shuma marhamat na-ddrid man tark-i khidmat mi-kunam
:
{A&jo
e^xo^^y
(^x) jj;i<xj
o**Â3
U^
because)
you have no compassion
*&)\j)j&> (m.c.) "with regard to this on me, I will leave your service."
(i.e-
Remark.
Conjunctions denoting inference [therefore, wherefore, hence,

'illative.'
whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, then], are called

(3)
Chird-ki
&$
^
tell
" because that."
Man
*
.
shukhun rd bi-shumd
U-o fj^suc^f
^.yo
;
mi-guyam
chird ki ddam-i khub-l hastid
L
I;
" I (m.c.)
^f
tâ.
+?,}&**>
you
this because
tj-^-
j\^t> &tf f^j* ^J-*-^
you are a trustworthy person" Af cui^ u rd cfhayrat 1 girift ki chira C-ÂC };_)
(m.c.)
;
jami'-i
mardum
dukhtar rd dust ddrand
"emulation seized her
because every one was

is
fond of this
' '
girl
(note that chird
[^
after *S
properly interrogative introducing the
direct
:
narration,
saying that
everybody fond of this girl ? ") az in jihat (or az in ru, or az in sabab, or az bdrdy-i in] man bi-shumd guftam ki digar gird-i in khaydl na-gardid
"
why
is
J^ (i^
x>^
idea."
further
<&* tjSj&& p** c^y j' or Â- ^tjt or j) (^j\ or ) OA^X*)! this reason I told you this, that you should not think (m.c.) "for
J
(
*'
on the matter;
u
I told
you
this,
so that
you might give up

ddrad li-hdzd
this
Lihdzd
tifJ
: 1
ki nihdyal-i mihrabdni
11
rd bd
man
man ham
bd u mihrabdn' hastam pS*~* I? or tV O ld <tf* ^ b ^jv* ^V he is exceedingly kind to me, I too (therefore) am kind to "since (m.c.)
^j^^ ^
him."
Remark.
(4)
The causal conjunctions

(
are called
^^ 05^ or
3'
Pish az dn-ki *fjf v>^, ba d az an ki

s
bi-ydyam
u rd didam
'
came 8 here I saw him

dard-i sakht-l bi-man
ix
e
'
:
" before I ba'd az dnkiaz nazd-i shuma muratihkhas shudam sarj*ô

l;y
*^' ^-U* li?t a*^
u*^^ (m.c.)
driz
shud
u*;^
(m.c.)
"
^^ î^ ^j^>
I
(jo.^^ U^
after I left
you
had such a bad headache."
Ghayrat OJAP
is
a good quality
ghayrai-i
Note
this m.c.
pronunciation of
mihrban
religious zeal.'* mazhabi if**** &J& the Afghans also say mihraban, but
"
not the Indians.

S
Note the Present Subjunctive
in Persian for the Preterite in English
360
Remark.
Note that while the conjunction

'
Present Subjunctive in Persian,

English.
(5)
after that
'
is
requires a followed by the Preterite as in
before that
'
Min
ba'd A*J
" ^$>tf kunid jjj^;Ui)^Y **j up till the present what*^.y> ^13 (m.c.) ever has happened has happened, but for the future do better."
^ ^
jf
Td Mia
harchi bud guzasht,
minba'd
bihtar raftdr
(6)
Az
bas ki
A^ \Az
told
bas ki bi-u guftam khasta shudam
f*Al~&> (m.c.) mardumdn mi-mlrand, dar jahdn

^<~?
*jl*>
"I
him
so often that I got tired"; az bas-ki hama-y

dil
c '
na-bdyad bast *Jj+*

all
Jt>
o^
ji (Indian)
inasmuch as
men
&{*ty <*+*> *^? 3 die, one should not

f
cling to this
world only"; in this sentence chunki *&>**, or az an
jd-i
ki
**&ttWfjt, or bind bar In ki *i*]j> &, or zird ki **t/ij, or az in sabab ki **", or az jihat-i an ki *^>f >&^*>j\ etc., could be substituted.
t
^4z bas ki dost
mi-gazam u ah mi-kasham chu Atash zadam gul bi-tan-i lakht lakht-i khwlsh
(Hdfiz).
Jt
az 6as ki
atrdf va javdnib-i vay fard girifta
l
gham va anduh
az
va mihnat-i
ambuh bar
havdli-yi vay mustawli
gashta, hich chiz bar
V.,
St.
2.)
man az suhbat-i dil dushvdr-tdr nlst (Anv. Suh., Chap. "and inasmuch as grief and melancholy have usurped every
its limits,
quarter and part of

there
is
2 and a throng of troubles have overrun it, more hard for me to bear than the society of nothing
and"
Az
my
heart
(East Trans.). bas ki A&-J jf in Indian Persian often corresponds to the English
as,'
'inasmuch
and
differs
little
it
from
is
'
because
'
(vide last example).
In modern Persian, however,
used in the sense of " because I did
a great deal," as: Az bas ki muntazir-i shumd nishashtam khasta shudam " I waited for <x AA~^ ^ you such a long time that îÂv U^^fexxx> A&.-J y (m.c.) I got tired." Man zabdn-am muy dar-dvurd, az bas ki bi-in nasihat kardam l*^/ osiJj-A) ^jl a*o^f ^yf j& ^ô îy ^/o (m.c.) "hair grew on my tongue, from continually warning him." Bd vujud-i ki urd nasihat kardam na-shanid (7) Bd vujud-i ki A^^ÎJ:
^^ ^ osu^.i
1
aXjÂ-jb (m.c.)
listen." In
{<
in spite of the fact that (although)
warned him, he did not

Ast understood.
this
example, bd-vasf-i dnki* *&f
^
S
"It"
= "my heart."
by 3
This, as well as other words signifying " although," can often be answered
or Uf
*
Or
ba-vasf-l ki
or agarchi
361
or hdl-dn-ki *
&\,
or
harchi
*^j-
A
,
or bd-inki
A&JI
l>,
or har chand ki &^ <^j*>, could be substituted without materially altering the sense.
The
(8)
obsolete agarchand
<^^( would
give the
same meaning.
Agarchi *^/t
Bd-vasf-i
agarchi u murd
ammd
jd-yi afsus nlst
*/
^1 *=?
o~oJ
w~\ ^s^
(m.c.)
"
^\
although he died,
it's
no matter of sorrow."
(9)
mki
*&'|
--;
l>
Bd-vasf-i
m ki bi-shumd sifdrish
(jfytiu
kardam
b (m.c.)
bar khildf-i an kdr kardid *>*j? j& of
"
o^^j ftf
U&
*&>t
Juj
although I warned you
[or
hdldn
yet you acted against what I told you," instead of bd vasf-i in ki *i.!t Jt*j b ]. (vide 18) (10) Hargah&j* in m.c. has usually the meaning of "if": Hargdh
many times,
ki
*&f Jl^
bi-shumd na-gufta budam haqq bd-shumd bud oj U^ (3^ " if I had not told would have in been the (m.c.) you, you
lj
fd^?
AiAJo
'
l*^ *fyk
'
right.'
'
Classically
it
means " whenever," but
'
'
if
can sometimes be substituted for

:
whenever
without substantially altering the meaning har-gdh yddgdr-i shumd Ichwaham did shumd rd ydd khwdham kard Ijl*^ ^>[^ fj U^ ^^b " whenever I look at 1 z>j$ >L| (class.) your keep-sake, it will remind p*\j&*
rd
!f>*
me
:
of
you."
(11)
Az
vaqt-i-ki *&*5j y, az
an gdh
ki **
&f jt,
az an
dam
ki
& j*^f
31
urd dida-am hdl-am digar-gun-ast & j*& jl f*** \) j\ **\ (m.c.) "since I have seen him I have been either of the upset" quite
vaqti-ki
Az
^^
*^
other two conjunctions, or az an zamdn-i ki

for az vaqt-i-ki A&ujj
(12)
jf.
*^*Jboj iff Jt,
could be substituted
"As
time when/'
dmadam, u raft ^+*j y j*ôf *^MA " as soon as I he went." (m.c.) came, Davd khurdan hamdn, murdan hamdn&{+* &*j> c) ** î)y^ l,?a (m.c.) as soon as he took the medicine he died." Bi-mahz-i* khurdan-i davd murd
;
soon as." Hamin-ki* *XWA (m.c.) hence " as soon as" hamin-ki
elliptical for
" at the very
c *
*'
^
(m.c.)
merely by taking
(i.e.
as soon as he took) the
medicine, he died
(m.c.);
"
;
or bi-mijarrad-i khurdan-i davd

ki
murd
&j*
13*
Jkl
or bi-mujarrad-i
davd khurd, murd
*j*>
yj*> \^ *^|d/fUJ
(m.c.)
In m.c. har-vaqt
*^*$j j*>
would be substituted
for
liar
gah
*^
an(i
the
Subjunctive bi-binam pi# *J for the Future 4 Or az andam-l-ki *$ t^!A>T j

f
Khwaham
did
But haman
'
lei
" I saw " (m.c.) just what you did

time.
*
'
shuma dldld man haman ra dldam f*i haman ki *&Ud> cannot be used
:
for
" at that very
Mahz-i
kjiatir-i
shuma
(+
" in m.c. mahz c^î o^sx+j " at the mere sight of you oUAU is frequently used for baray <^\j* as mahz-i mulaqat-i u anja raftam ^ "I W ent In dava mahz-i khurdan va malidan-aat there to him": see Uuf ptij " this medicine is to be taken and
mahz-i dldan-i tu
:
t :
j&-
(je-ûc (m.c.)
"merely
to please
you";
6t-
internally
externally."
362
died.'
'
" as soon as he took the medicine he

(class,
Td-davd khurd murd
andm.c.)."
kW
Mujarrad *>M>
signifies
properly
"
stripped, bare
"
;
also a
" bachelor
' ' ;
" on a mere bi-mujarrad-i gumdn e>U^ tj^+> suspicion, merely on suspicion." Chanddn ki a&f<\U> also sometimes signifies " as soon as," vide (13). " as (13) Chanddn ki *i|jj^ "as soon
l
:
*^**)j (s^j**.
-
gtipfih
(>U>*sj)& j&> j\ J&I&XA* chanddnki az nazar-i darvishdn " as soon as he was concealed from the gasht bi-burj-i bar raft (Sa'dl) sight
i
' '
:
^^ *~^l*
of the darvishes he scaled a tower

>
\\
chanddnki pds-i az shab bi-guzasht a " as soon as a watch of the ^M (Sa'dl) night was passed." " However much'' " spite of all A&I^ Axf ^
^b
' '
^5U.;b
*$-
&jf *-*&> duzd-i dar khana-yi parsa-i dar
dmad ; chanddnki
talab kard
house of a certain pious person; however much he searched (in spite of all his search) he found nothing guft zdhiddnrd chanddn-ki talab kardam na-ydftam *i*V ^-^ *^f^ tyi^^tj ^*^
chiz-l na-ydft (Sa'dl)
"a
thief entered the
' '
j*^/
(Sa d!)
t(
he said,
'
in spite of
all
my search
'
did not (could not) find those
who were
' '
recluses."
Iftj ^b ^ oy \) Jli. ^t3J^. chandanki khdk rd buvad u Ij bad rd baqd (Sa'dl) " as long as the Earth and the Wind exist."
^4s long'1 as
"
/C)j **W
o^f &\Ljj t^^ ^JLfe î ^J^ ;^ fy *$jfîa. chanddnki mard dar haqq-i In tafifa-yi khuddf^ ^yi jjj) u irddat ast in rd 'addvat-ast u inkdr (Sa'dl) *'as shukh-dida parastdn iqrdr,
:
"As much as"

c&^fiV9
^jS\ j cu~t
8>JA
much
fellow
as I like
8
nafrat-ast sad
td bi-ddni ki chanddn ki chanddn na-ddn rd az ddnd vahshat ast &)zbj\ \j li|i Axilla. ^\& $ SM! owi^-j Ufi y yi^li eJl*^ x o^t cîi (Sa'd!) "so that you may understand that the ignorant man dreads the wise a hundred times as
:
and believe in " hates and denies them
this
body
of God-fearing
men, this saucy ddnd rd az nd-ddn
much
wise
as the wise
man
").
4
hates' the ignorant
'
'
(lit.
that as
much
as the
man
dislikes the ignorant,
a hundred-fold of that the ignorant

' '
:
man
dreads the wise
man
to
" So much
such a degree
A&toVXa.
A)
^jwJ &'\>j>
^.j&J
v*~OJ
Â*
'
ep-i
fj>o
ÎtXJtiO
Bi-diddr-i
mardum shudan
'ayb mst
Va
" There
is
likin
na chanddn ki guyand
bas
'
(Sad!).
no harm in visiting people, But not to such an extent that they exclaim
'
this
is
enough
V
mueh
In modern Persian, chandanki *iol<i^

or va qt-i ki *****, or
2
is
not used in this signification; hangam-i ki

in m.c.
chun e>^, is used instead. In modern Persian used in this signification in writing only:
This
is
" as
however much."
3
Note the order
said half laughingly. in the Persian
and English.
Remark.
Persian.
363
Chandanchi
<*sutxU. is obsolete
it
rarely occurs even in old
Harcliand ura bi-maktab burdandl az miydn-i
mayddn
khatti
sar bi-zadi va
chandanchi ta'lim-i khatt-ash dddandl
mayl bi-nayza-yi
namudi
would
^
(14)
(Anvar-i Suhaylf)
off
"when they conveyed him

in the midst of the plain
;
to school, he
suddenly make instructed him
and appear
and whenever they
in writing, his thoughts darted
away
to the straight spear."
(Eastwick's Trans.).
" md-ddm-i-ki *^b U G " as long as " 2 ousjf ,*)&(*> ma-dam a-'l-hayat as long as life lasts. 3 Mudam *t&* is an adj. bachcha-yi man mudam " *&* ** little child cries
:
[Mdddma
(*tik
Ar.]
ma-dam
ki
(*^^,
md*ddm-t-ki
'
A^l^,
ta-
f\*
mudam ast
^lâcu (m.c.) OA^! p\*<o o^.xj (m.c.)

c<
girya
mi-kunad
my
"he
"
is
always intoxicated*"
mast-i continually mudamT-'l: :
"
aioqat oU>î f\&* (m.c.) (also perpetually or misl-i Inki *$'^ cjl (15) Guy a b
:
dayim
-'l-awqat ol^^li
^b
(m.c.).
xjfâvA* ^~$ ( îjf Jt or) (^^ cs3tyf avaz-i shamdam guya (or misl-i " I heard a voice as if some one were mki) kas-i mi-khwanad (m.c.) singing, " misl-i mki bi-shuma heard a bi-kumd sound like (m.c.) (I guftam, singing) <xuj Uij *Tij| Jix: " do as I told to do."
:
^
:
pss$
you
(16)
Chunan
ki &&0*. (old)
5
chunanchi *^-Ua. (mod.)

'
oi^lkx) a&UA.
ki
5
chunanki ml-guyand
(old)
as the saying
&&j(ls
is
"
:
guft chundn-
tu gufti ta*ifa-i hasad

*
burdand
as you said, a number envied me.' Chunan-l ki *&iU^., or ham chunan ki *&li*A, and aw chunan ki have a similar signification, as: chundn-t-ki^ ura zadam turd ham mt-zanam
'
" he replied,
^^
&**>
îtf
<*6Ua.
^&
ftl*
f*
^j
6
I;
j'
*^Jli^ (m.c.)
"I'll beat
ham-chundn
ftilrf
'arm
ddshtam
+*^
*>*j*
^ ^JUapu+A ^
you
as
beat
him": maw
" I have
(m.c.)
The
final
<_$
of the
va-yi maihul in classical Persian,
Past Habit, (with the exception of the 2nd pers. singular) is but by modern Persians it is pronounced as aya-yi
ma'ruf.
2
5
Ar.
*>>^ hay at.
Ta-dam-i marg
^^ fb^
^t+^l
.
"
till
the last breath."
*
6 6
Dayim
u-' Irkhamr
*?.\&
(wi.c.)
a drunkard."
Mudam
written
also
means " wine. "

daram
(or
>
Or chunanchi
'Arz U^,*
*J^
"
;
"an
oral petition"; 'ariza

'arz
^^*,
"a
one":
**
arz
(*;ti
O-b* " I have a petition to make";

but
in
ml-Tcunam p*&y (jPj*
I will
make
am
making) a petition 'arza dashtam î^b *^*

f
the Past tense in m.c. 'arz Jcardam f^r^
Dj f
or
(not 'arz dashtam
*&1&
(jtj*
).
The Afghans, however,
say 'arz dashtam .*^
364
it
related the matter exactly as
happened
"
:
guft
an chundnki shunidi khalq-
bar-u bi~ta assub

(Sa'dl)
gird
dmadand
you have heard, a whole people collected round him from fellow-feeling 1 dvarda-and ki kazhdwn* ra vilddat-i ma' hud mst
said, as
:
"he
hayvdndt ra yL> a&U*. o~v ^t** ea5(j \) ftty ** **t **>jT "it is said that the scorpion is not born in the ordinary L) oGj^jk*. (Sa'dl) manner like all other living things."
chunanki 3
scfir-i
mardum chunanchi
nagardidand
(Tr.
j.^ Aîf an hama ham muta^ssir "the whole of them were as little Haji Baba, Chapter VII)
jj<xJ
jJU* î-i^
jt
*JliA.
az durushti muta*allim na-shudand az narml
exactly." 1*^ (Afghan) accordingly, Though in modern Persian chunanchi *f.Ui^ may occasionally be rendered " or in English by "accordingly," its proper meaning is " so that "like,"
or "for
as they were by wheedling." In Indian and Afghan Persian, chunanchi Aawli^ a t the beginning of a " clause means " accordingly Chunanchi ham-chunan kardam Ûxu*.* *f^^ " I did so
:
moved by roughness
example,"
and,
its
in translation into Persian, chunanchi

will
must be
employed only when
meaning
"like,
(misl-i)
admit
of
one of these interpretations.
Chunanchi &aJ&*khurakl bud chunanchi
for
example": Dar yak sanduq ashya-yi nan va* birinj va pariir va-gkayra <*&> ji
*J&)
j^
girt
ufi
*^^
*# c/'Jt^
^^
($)**'*
(Afghan
coll.)
va har
pddishah-i dgah ki madar-i kar-i khudbar hikmdt nihada, mava'iz-i hukama ra dastur u 'l-'amal sazad, ham mamldkat-ash abadan bdshad va ham ra'iyyat-ash
khush-dil va khurram, chunanchi Ray-i A'zam-i Ddbishlim-i Hindi
(Anvar-i Suh.,
Chap.
on wisdom, I, Intro.) makes the advice of sages his rule of conduct, his state will be prosperous and his people joyful and happy, like the great king of Hind, Dabishlim
:
" and every wise king who, basing
his acts
who."
Agar chunanchi u dmad 6 man mi-ravam f}j* e/
*'
^T $
*i^*fj^l (m.c.)
if
for instance he comes, I'll go; here chunanchi Apulia, could be expressed
|<J1|J;
by
fi-l-masal
^.6
means "
Ta'assub V-ÔA
zeal,
party spirit."
f-ij
-^
Anciently this word was gazh-dum
mc
-
-'
^ne
Arabic word 'aqrab
^*
fl
is
preferred.
8
Or chunanchi *^*>*-
The copulative ^ could be omitted.

}
For chunanchi
*^^,
it
is
better
to
substitute here az qdbll-i LÛJ J| * Note past tense in a condition, for present.
O r ma$alan 5ll.
not correct Arabic.
" In m.c., chundnchi **Jk<? alone is often used for
u
365
if
" and "
so that"
y>
<>>o
jjj>
*so^ ^>y eo^ ^j^^ti
yj o*acu*
t;j|
(m.c.)
"they bastinadoed
him
so severely that he died the next

(17) Tawr-i-ki: 2 5fj ), Û*
day."
hud
Js bi-shumd guftam pis& U^? AJJJ i[aw;r-*-&i (m.c.) "it happened exactly as I told you."
hamdn tawr vagi
(18)
Hal an
an
ki
/7o7
ki *&T Jl^ ':-bi-shuma guftam na-shumdid
*><***<&
p&
Uiu A&f JU. (m.c.)
"although (in spite of the fact that) I told you, you did not listen bd-vasf-i mki axvl <-**>j ^ [vide (9)], instead of hal an ki xCf Jla.. " the event of (19) Dar surat-i ki *#)j* jt> "in
:
":
or
Dar
surat-i ki
u bi-yayad man mi-ravam {%*#

I'll
&
<\!
# jl
:
*&i?)j*>jt>
(m.c,)
"in the event of his coming,

(20) Bi-har hal
Bi-har
hal
anyhow, at any rate Jl^.^, etc., " chara-i mst ^^^ i;la- J^t? (m.c.) anyhow there
ba
go." "
"
is
no
help for it."

(21)
I
A*
^ ma* haza =
Ba-vujud-i-ki bi-u guftam

dustl
"
\**> namt-kunam p& LS*>~J* to do this and he didn't, him told I although
m hama *4^xjf U m kar bi-kunad
<
still,
in spite of
"
:
va na-kard y ma' haza tark-i *ij ;1^ î>^^ (m.c.) *j& 5
^ f%
>.
still (in
spite of that) I
won't
cxxi^
give
up
(22)
u
his friendship."
y^J
/**
tf
^V>
"at
nihayat^l-amr occurs rarely in writing

*
forj./o)/|
aqibat 'l-amr
(23)
length, at last."
la-ham
nevertheless
'
is
:
not used at
all in
Persia.
It is a
translation of the Hindi tau-bhi

(24)
" Lest "
<^y
;
it is
Hindustani.
:
Mabdda
if
tÛxs
shdyad .xU
The poet
for
says,
you earn anything to-day, you should keep a portion
to-morrow
Mabdda
ki dar dahr dlr isil

nistl (Firdausi).
Musibat buvad pin u
" Lest you live long; For old age and want are a calamity."
^^ (*^X y J& jt **^ guft-az fikr-i tu mi-tarsam u^3^ duzddn asp rd bi-barand (m.c.) "I fear lest while you are think" the horse mi-tarsam ki mabddd az injd na-ravam ing, the thieves may steal " I fear I shall not Af get away from here." ^yux) (m.c.) fjj lapxjt y tÛ/c alone could be substituted for mabddd fÛ* In the above examples
jjjj *j
\j
i^Mit
mabddd'1
ki
without altering the sense

1
ham shakk bud
ki shdyad (or
mabddd) sang
az
Or dar har hal Or ml-tarsam Or

sang-i
ki
*
8
mabada
366
bala-yi
(m.c.)
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC. kuh bar

''
man
was
uftad *&\
&*j
c5^ 3'
(lest)
there
also
some doubt that
a stone might
fall
on me from
the
cliff."
In the following Afghan colloquial sentence, mi-tarsam mabddd dar

I am afraid I may panja-yi dushman na-yuftam p&y cy**^ âs-u )& tÛ* p**^* ' the negative is wrongly inserted owing fall into the hands of the enemy,
tl
'
to a confusion of thought.
In the following example from the Gulistan the same confusion seems to
andishid ki agar bar mala uftad fitna na-shavad *i*\ 1 &*j*j\ & " he thought that if the matter became known it might give tj& ail* (Sa'dl) rise to discord" (i.e., should it become known I hope it won't give rise
exist
:
9'
modern Persians object to the negative here. (25) Hamln tawr kl ml-dawd uftad aUif &jj&*) &? ^^ &&*> while he was running."
to
)
:
(m.c.)
" he
fell
93.
Interjections
and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings,

Compliments,
etc.
of
Interjections
consist
either
indeclinable
particles
emotion or
else of substantives in the vocative case.*
expressive of Short exclamative
and Arabic, also act as interjections. 8 There is no general term for "Interjection." Interjections for regret for lamentation and grief, huruf-i-nudba are called huruf-i afsus (j*j~**\
phrases, both Persian
o^
aj*i
Ojjj=**
for attracting attention
(ay,
ya,
etc.)
huruf-i nidd
l<^
ojjt
for
admiration,
>&)
:
wonder, huruf-i-ta'ajjub
v?^
^hj^
(or kalima-yita'ajjub
for warning, huruf-i-rad t , etc., etc.

Interjections.
The following are simple

(1)
Regret
(harf-i-afsus orharf-i-ta'assuf), or
)
sorrow (harf-i-nudba)
m.c. o*r~*t afsus*

class. U^-^jf afsusa
Jalas!
}
m.c.
m.c.
^^
My;3
*
dirigh
\j
l*J>d
dirlgha
or
va
I
f
danglid
m.c. ^r^^h va hasrata

1
Mala*
note that the
final
letter
is
hamza and not
alif
the a
is
the favha
of the lam.
by
The vocative is either the same form a final 5. The vocative alif in such words,
1
as the nominative
or
else
is
marked
as dirigha
is
^*4jt>,
&\so
ay dirigha
^ji ^t,
Dirigh
>)*
is called atif-i-nudba
*^
"
:
*-^t.
The
latter
form
used in the singular only.
Icardan
vtf^fep
or dashtan
e^^
to be sorry, regret
dirlgh nlst
" to withhold, deny '*: dirlgh amadan cJ**T ^ & &)* "you are welcome to it."
to a species of musical note that gives a S Chodzko aptly compares the interjection tone to the whole phrase.
*
Also sad hayf î**-
^ and
hazar afsus
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
367
.c.
JU=w hdyf
)
c
P ltv
class. l%=*
class. \&j*
hayfa
\j
class.
l>
vd dardd or \^& dardd, oh grief! vah

")
m.c.
class.
^
*j
vd
Vah,
)
alas.
vuh
^s\j vd,l
m.c. ^+J m.c.

f
a>
bi-man,
woe
to
me.
aA
m.c.
m.c. olfAA hayhdt alas.

class.
/f
dvakh?
alas.
class. *^j vayla, alas.
m.c.
class.
^5
Ij tj
va vayla, alas.
&f
vaasafa, oh
my
m.c. f^* ^J v^lA, ^1 ay occasion of death or
khaW
sorrow, alas. bar sar-am, dust on

false
my
head! (said on
;
when a
statement
is
Examples
cu*.i
<jÛ
" nd-khush ast (m.c.)
^^ ^ *^ o>Jf
r;
made)
vide (3).
salcht
afsus
is
baradaram
my
brother, I regret to say,
very
ill."
Dauyr-i-javdni bi-shud az dast-i-man
Ah u Ah
darlgh / an ziman-i dil furuz

(revolution) of
(Sa'di)
The time
youth
left
me,
alas! for that glad time."
ki shah
an kunad
ki
u guyad
Hayf bdshad ki juz niku guyad (Sa'dl). " He on whose word the King (relies and) acts
he should speak aught but the truth." " 6 " Hayf ast ki in-hd rd bi-burand (m.c.) it is a pity to cut these 1 e>!^ ^; f^* hayf-i-Ghuldm Rizd javdnbud (m.c.) "alas for GhulamKiza,
:
A pity it were
***
he was young."
Also sad hayf
*"*-l-a>
&* and
\
hazar afsus
In speaking, aWi
is
used for "Alas," as well as for an exclamation of pain
"Oh!"
Or bar sar-am alone: chi khak bar sar-am r j> *$ "Oh what shall I do." The Persians refer all changes of fortune to the revolution of the heavens. Dawr " also means the circulation of the wine cup. ))& "revolution 8 From also dil afruz )jj\ J^ (generally applied for afruJehtan e^j^t to kindle
3
^^
a lover).
6 1
Generally pronounced with only one Applied to a dead person.
r.
368
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION AL PHRASES, ETC.

*
\jj
v lv
Jij-j
_y j*G Ai"
vya
Xyc
^f
^4% murgh'i tarab ki nam-i
u bud shabab
Faryad
na-danam
youth
!
ki
kay amad kay shud
"A bird
of
mark not when you came,

and
left
Nor when you
fled,
me
thus forlorn."
(0.
155 K. Whin.)
:
In the following, the poet's plaint
is
addressed to himself
Va asaja! va asafa/ Iran 'ajab dar khwab-i ghafiat ast (modern) " Alas " In what a sleep of f orgetfulness is Iran sunk alas ay khak bar sar-am In " alas what words are these (i.e. they are untrue)/' chi haif-ist (m.c.)
! ! :
Remark.
Sometimes a verb
is
equivalent to an interjection, as
C~h&n bad-i ajal chiragh-i 'umrat bi-kushad
Tarsam
"
ki tura zi-nang
nap
zirad khak
When
winds
lest
Beware
death shall quench your vital touch, earth your guilty dust expel.'
of
'
(0.
K. 296 Whin.) and surprise
(2)
Admiration
e^f
e^-J
J^
(real or
feigned),
m.c. vah vah

m.c.
m.c.
3u
AJ
i\j tj, good, good. bah bah, well done also,

1 ;
how
!
nice.
t^T
afinn, (create *)
"j
class. j
class.
zih
^
ziht
3
well done
^)
m.s. (^bUi shabash
hurrah
rate
!
(in
India, well done).
m.c. uj-^t ahsanf
first
is
1 For bih bih * (=afrlnbud afrlnama **>^.j <Ju, "good, good", " Oh God a Zend word occurring at the end of Gabr prayers, and signifies
may
our
prayer be more than what

4
8
we
are able to express."
O God
'
,
create
:
more
for us.
Classical also
much used by Afghans and

->
Indians in speaking.
f
~t
cUif
(/
'
or
* V" <-U*f are
' '<*'
two Arabic forms expressing admiration, as:

Zaid."
O>
of
<H^
LT^*'^
"how handsome
is

m.c.
l*a-y
<*.Ul
369
m.c.
m.c.
aJLft
marhabd, well done (not welcome) c;b barak Allah, may God bless you, good. J[y.kJ tabdrak Allah, good, strange (also used to express
1
dis-
belief).
class. fx*>
m.o. j$\ m.c.
M *&U ma
2 v*- ?**
habbazd, well done.
Alldh u akbar,
God
is
most great
will.
(for
wonder or admiration).
shd* Allah, as
God
m.c.
'ajab,
)\j*
A-*
wonderful!
sad hazdr a firm, by
all
m.c. e^Jf
means, a thousand times yes.
Examples
aîa
^^
!
** *Ul
>ti U>
khub-% ddrid (m.c.)
"what
a nice
little
$j>
chi kar-i khub-i-st 'ajab kdr-l
kard
(m.c.)
"
^K
^4Wa& C/M bachcha-yi child you have got ": barak Attdh V* ^*-*^ j^ ** *J^t -^^>
sâ*
1
ma
bi-Mahmud ^+^*> ^ ^yf (m.c.) " well done Mahmud " Firdawsi, the author of the Shdh-Ndma, the great epic of Persia, claims that it is written in pure Persian. He was confronted with his verses
wonders"
:
may God
afirin
bless it
how
excellent a thing this is! he has performed

!
Qazd guft glr u Qadar guft dih Falak guft ahsan Malak guft zih
Firdawsl's reply was that the Falak (not he) had said ahsan.
(3)
Lamentation mourning
.
m.c.
't
e^* fughdn
afghan
.Lament! Oh! Alas!
m.c. /c
m.c.
^?jtj
Oh
vd vayla
>
misery
(1).
m.c.
(4)
v^LL
Ma^
bar sar-am, vide
m.c.
Hatred, aversion, contempt ( >3 . uu . o! uf, b tuf, tufu,

smell)
;
fie,
for shame, alao
*jpah
(for
a bad
&f wa^ (for a bad smell).
m.c.
a&.
" well done," for marhab"* In Arabic "welcome," but in Persian

Lit
p. 382, foot-note (1). *
*UU avertsthe what a nice-." The ma sha* Allah Allah sha* mo without remark the make If a stranger were to evil eye. added. formula this being on insist once at would child the of the relations
"As God
wills it,
*
There
is
a distinction between qaza
^*^J
and qadar )**
Fughan kardan
^)^
u^
"to cry aloud, lament."
In Arabic uff Jt.
For Ar.
24
370
m.c.

\)& dur, avaunt. m.c. *l'b &ft\ a'uz u bi-lldh.
God defend me
(I
take refuge with God).
m.c. <M pah.

(5)
Attention or warning ^> lA!t injd nigdh kun, look here, m.c. (Û ^{~^j~ sar-i hisdb bash, look out
:
m.c.
class, (rare m.c.) class,

class,
-&.
*waA, behold
")
now
and poet. c;U hdn ?know! __ and poet. <^*& Mn )
in truth
m.c. *$tjA
m.c. ;l^J zinhar, beware, never do! on no account! 1 look here; (ay is always followed by a ^5' a y mardaka
1
substantive). m.c. &Sy> ^y o*i mardaka, you there, fellow m.c. (j**" 2 c4tf <j;l ay /êw kas, oh So-and-so
!
(o*
can be used alone),
m.c.
addressed to one older ;<3J ^f ay pidar, oh you there, (oh father! than the speaker),
8
m.c. j+t
^t
a?/
'amw, oh uncle
m.c. ^c^^/o î ay mashhadl, oh Mashhad!
m.c.
m.c.
^^J/
j,ii^
cc>
a>V karbalaft, oh Karbala*!

!
*
)>
^t
ay baradar, oh brother
m.c. y'Ux> î ay musafir, oh traveller
Zinhdr
either
jlî),
or zinhar
^^j, when an
by the 2nd person
of the
interjection of warning, is followed Imperative or of the Aorist, as zinhar bi-din

:
tama' dlgar-bdr gird-i in dam na-gard >,& &*? jfati p*& &>\ *$ $>. jt** " take heed, don't again through greediness approach the snare": (Sa'd!) guft zinhar na-sitam ki bi-panjah dinar ham rdzl shavand *$ îli-J j^j
&b
^M
&j
^|;
it, for
^bjlxji }fl?LiAj (Sa'd!) they will even consent to give

(
" he said beware
lest
thou (on no account) take
Zinhdr Ichwdstan er^L^ ) " under adj. protection"
&
:
to go elsewhere')." (' you " " to seek zinhdri protection, sanctuary ^^) bi-zinhdr dmada-am ^ jjo^f & (m.c.) "I have
fifty dinars
come
to
you
for protection."
In the sentence guft mard kushta shudan qabul ast likan zinhar barahna
na-khwdham shud
<x
^(^J
(m.c.) for
Aijy
; t>j
^J o^t
j^j
^^ axiir
jô
^,s
(m.c.)
Mardaka A^,^
Or fulana
A)31*.
mardak
2
8
'Amu
or
'
ammu
all
j+*
(m.c.), for
'amm
in Ar.
These are
one who has made o^* &&>j\ one who has been to Karbala, are respectfully addressed to any stranger, and do not mean that the person addressed has really made any pilgrimage. The Arabs use Fa hajj L' in the same manner,
;
m.c. forms of addressing or calling to a stranger. the pilgrimage to Mashhad and Karbalal
Mashhadl
371
"she
said
she could rather perish than undress,"
zinhar y^Jj
may be
considered either an interjection or an adverb of negation. In modern colloquial, zinhar )^j is used without a negative in the sense
of
"mind you do,"
as:
zinhar zinhar khidmat-i khud ra shalch u barg-i bisydr
bi-guzar jiaX? jU~o
^j jlîj (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. 40) that whatever embellish you "mind, you do, your services when relating
J^j
j
f;
&
^L.
CUA=JX^
them."
Remark.
a, as
:
Ha U "
is
have a care
f
-
behold
l+i
;
"
!
is
shuma ra mi-zanam-a
f i>j^ ^
mja
in m.c. often corrupted into - U> Han Ixojf. biya-a f
(with nasal n)
similarly used.
(6)
Impatience
m.c.
^/ *& nigah kun, look
here,
come
here.
m.c.
^
!
t* dih bi-raw,
go along, do; (also dih for wonder).

shaw, go to hell. hang him.
t
m.c. ?>
m.c.
fi^ jahannam
(J^^ gum-ash kun
m.c.
m.c.
^> ^ gum shaw, be (j&, or Kb, or JU^

2
off
with you.
or 6a/a, or kinar),
m.c. j+e )j $& c^ô cxio p^ 5
6a;^ biraw 'aqab (or dumbal, good woman, you are in the way. A;mar bi-raw 'ammu> my good man, please move,
or) v-ic
^ ^b
8 8
my
pusht
(class., obs.).
(jb$ <Jf$ posh posh (Afghan, class.). U. ja bi-dihld, make room m.c.
Â^
m.c. <Xfcb^},3 dur bashid, clear the
way
m.c.
cjU*a._j-* ji <^x^ khabardarf sar-i hisab, take care, look out
(gen.
by
a person riding).
m.c.
m.c.
f^
^l#
*&&>
&)&
khafa
bi-shi,
oJ^
dil-at
be hanged (lit. throttled), dard bi-yayad, as above (lit. may you have a
may you
stomachache).
(7) Distress,
want
m.c. c>kf aman, quarter
Hajl Agha nigah kun being in the next room)."

1
&*
^>
Uf
t^ ^
1
(m.c.)
"
Haji Agha come here (H. A.
JBS/t
c^^>
li<; -
'sister'!
'J.mw^*
(for
'ammw)
'uncle,' not necessarily one older
than the speaker: two boys quarrelling will say biraw
'ammu f+*
:
)j.
" what can you
do to
S
me ?"
For explanation
of these terms, vide p. 372, foot-note (3)
guyand ki pusht pusht
hammal amad **$ JUa. Owij cu^j A^ packs." (0. K. Rub. 218,
Aw/
" here comes the porter with his precious
372
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.

m.c. aljy L faryad, injustice m.c. MH> bt-dad, injustice, tyranny
!
m.c.
m.c.
^
y
ijfc
yd Rabb, O Lord ow*a jt e>M aman az

!
dast>i-tu,
help from
thine
hand
(of
m.c.
(8)
oppression). <^ &a> jl ,it^ dad az jafa-yi tu, oh

l
redress from thine injustice.
Fie, for
shame:
m.c.
m.c.
ij&
xf
oJlA
ejU
nami-ayad, feelest thou no shame ? m.c. *U* ^rlji; ruy-at siyah, thy face is blackened. U>^,> w^-jjAa. v.^ Ua. /aai/a Mw& cH2s*s dar dunya, a feeling of shame a good thing to cultivate.
'oV-atf
khajalat bi-kash, feel
shame
is
(9)
Repentance
m.c. f
m.c.
^^ &
(*j>y
tU
ghalat
(lit.
repent humbly
kardam, guh khurdam, I have erred have eaten human excrement).

will
tf
+*lj*^j*>.z digar
na-kh,waham kard, I
never do so again!
(10) Miscellaneous:
^t
* &? j) $b yalia raw kun, oh! begin! 3 look out class. o*-iu oJio pusht pusht, make way
m.c.
m.c.
v-^ khub,
all right,
go on, continue.
m.c. ))& ^ m.c. ejUuj
p^
y
chashm-i bad dur, avaunt the evil eye. dur az dustan (Sa'dl), may you and
like.
*
my friends
never
know
m.c.
A.Ulj
the
3ytJ
na'uz bi-llah
m.c.
<5JLJb
'iÛ* 'aydz
\*o>.
an bi-llah
m.c. *xi&
m.c.
Khuda na-kunad
ii.i.
\-God forbid.
Lfjio
Khuda
na-Tchwasta
m.c. LÛ. hashd
Dad u
u)2J>
:
faryad kardan
c;Us j ^L^j
'<
&f
'
*^j*J
>'*
" to
call
aloud for justice"
faryad
u fughan
c^sist,
kardan
to
lament":
birfaryad rasidan &*$*>)
&\4j& "to
jt
succour"
1
8
hakim faryadl hastam making a complaint against the Governor."

az dast-i
^-** c55^r*
^^
o**i
(m.c.)
"lam
Vulg. for
Possibly
Y a Allah
*Ul
t}.
great lady passes)."

posjgl
posh
"turn your backs (i.e., face the wall; as a Afghanistan and the Indian N.-W. Frontier say, for "get out of the way," which is perhaps a corruption of the old
or
"mind your backs"

The camel-men
of
pusht pusht
"
^^> *^~$
(as
veil
your eyes
-5 Another suggested derivation is that posh posh may mean a lady is coming)." Pusht pusht also means " one behind the other
in close succession."
4
stoned )
God defend "

.
us!
lit:
"we
take refuge with
God (from Satan
the accursed or
Quran.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.

m.c.
373
Al)fy&ut
astagfir- 'llah,
God
grant.
forbid
(lit.
ask
pardon
of
God).' m.c. &*$ l*o*

m.c. AÎ
Khuda kunad, God
^
L
3^*
Subhana llah, Praise be to God

\
I
(for
wonder, m.c.).
m.c.
!*
^t ay Khuda
m.c. Ijt*^
m.c. *Mi
m.c.
Khudaya
ya Allah
Hahi,
Oh God!
"I hope
(or
*
^\
(
my God!
fxk
(in m.c.
.")
m.c.
m.c.
oj|ivx
or) *>\*
Khuda danad
if it
c
mt-danad),
God knows.
Alii
*lc^' in sha* Allah,

*Ui > UJt tn sâ
please God.
if it
m.c. m.c.
i^t*-
.4Z&Z/&
Ta'alq,
t
please
God most High.
f^
lAi.
*-Ul
cfLrO* az baray-i
Khuda
for
m.c.
class.
yaliu oi-khatir-i
J^fJ5I^
Khuda
l
God's sake.
/* sab'il
-'
>
llah
in
.c.
ti^>
Ail
î aar raA-%
Khuda
li-'ilah,
God's name.
m.c.
*.sJf al-hamd u
praise be to
God (Thank God).

shuma
(or
m.c. \*^
m.c.
j&
shukr-i
Khuda, thank God!
(U.
!x^ or)
2
U^
laJU* (*&>
Khuda
hafiz-i
Khuda
hafiz),
good-bye
m.c. ;ta
(God protect you),

nigah-dar
")
& tAi.
t;
Khuda
ijld *î
tAa.
Khuda shuma
vtrfe (5).
may God guard
you.
m.c.
;lf*j
zinhdr, beware!
s
m.c.
Si
alld,
go on, begin,
m.c. t^sw ly
^m bi-Khuda*
fear
for
mc
.
b iî- ;b
Khudaya,
6
mercy's sake Great God

!
class.
-^xl labbayk
(in
m.c. labbe), here I am.

6
^ A)^ gulula-yi shash

you
quiet); or
misqali,
you want a
bullet (to keep
tu-yi kun-al bashad.
U& p^ qadam-i shuma

guest)
;
bar chashm, welcome (to the coming
or speed (to departing guest).

1
m.c.
IA Aacu
bachcha-ha
servants! attendants! (waiter!)
Ilahl! rahmat-at
kam
na-shavad
^^ *> oJ^j ^^Ji

*'
(m.c.).
2
3
Khuda
hafizl
kardan
o^^
C5^ 5 '^ 1*^^
to say good-bye."
Corruption of Allah.
Qasam ml-diham ^k^xx:

LdbbayJc
a
.^Jl understood. I
:
fi
ÂAJ, Ar.
" here
J'Âx:
am
i
for
you (waiting your orders)."
6 '
A bullet of six
mieqals
n m>c> one
m i? qal
72 gandum.
Corresponds to
fco,i /ia*
of Urdu.
374
m.c.
;t^
c*^
3'
OA*O
dast
giriban bardar
me
_}
!
m.c.
j\* )j
/*t
'
*ftj
Jt
OA*O dast az yaqqa
go.
am
m.c.
gr*A
J>JAJ
vardar
#*>
^c/
Ac//, nothing, nothing

")
m.c.
^vxa. chlz-l na-bud

o-oJbli'
> it
m.c.
m.c.
^&>
j>3;t
qabiliyyat na-ddrad
was nothing,
of no consequence.
î*^
bi-zahmat-ash
nami-arzad,
it's
not
worth
the
trouble.
m.c.
4itvo
^f o**
^5-1
m.c.
cÛ^
(_/^J
help ^ct ai/ madad ay madad, help olJUi-^ ^f ay musalmanan ay musalmanan,

!
Oh Muslims
come
to
Oh Muslims
m c.
/^4^J
bi-kumuk-am
bi-ras
^come
to
!
my
help,
my
cries m.c. u*j> C^j^ bi-faryad-am bi-ras ) a m.c. jÛ ^5} jÛ a?/ madar ay madar, help, help (children) Û. Axi ^t s a?/ nana~jan, O dear mother (children to mothers
also in
addressing
women
o^
m.c.
L?b
^f ay bdba jan,
startled).
used by women when startled) dear father (a man's exclamation when

!
m.c. x
Aa.^Cc
^T
^ ^b
(2^2(2
magar
A^
chi shud,
what have
ki
done
Û^f asman
fall.
paym
~\
nami-ayad, do so, don't fear,
the sky won't

m.c. aja ^)^
.
duzd
m.c. i-T
^ duzd amad
foV/tr bigir,
thieves
robbers
m.c.^j^J^^
m.c.
m.c.
m.c.
seize
!
him, seize him!
o j| tj va 1st, stop v^?00 ^ j az ja ma-jumb

xj
o^
ham/cat ma-kun
")
>
don't move!
m.c. v-jt^v bi-khivab
m.c.
kham shaw
4
crouch down take shelter.

,
m.c. o^./cLk khamush, silence!
m.c. (j&*j\*j*&> khabardar bash, look out! 4 m.c. ^b *& fj c^- sar-at-ra nigah dar, heads m.c. iio.AU oJiiLo multafit bashid, please pay attention, listen!
!
m.c.
m.c.
e/u/ S'wsA kun, listen (give ear) ob ^^ mutawajjih bash, pay attention
!
In m.c. yakha
*^v!, T.
vardar J&)j m.c. for 6ar dar

job*-.
2 8
A man
Nana
would address an elderly woman as madar
&> ^ J or
Nana jan
c>^- ^ J **
is
children, or
by children
to their mothers.
a pet name used by mothers to their * Vide also (6).

m.c. <S"b
375
&*
IA
lj
i^^vi dilitdn
bd
man
bdshad, just pay attention to
me
!
for
a few minutes.
m,c.^&
(11)
^^r^
bi-gir,
ha ha
bi-gir,
soo on then (to a greyhound)

:
The following imitative sounds

$
or cries are used to animals
P*sh pish, puss, puss.
x^
J
chit,
shoo
6^2/e,
(for
1
driving
away a
cat).
AAJ
6^ye
for calling fowls, pigeons, dogs, etc.

(for frightening
Mich? shoo
away
dogs).
tu tu, fowls or pigeons (in

<JiA
'
Kerman).
hush hush, stand still (to donkeys). if achish, stand still (horses, donkeys).
t
pikh pikh, for driving sheep.
hun, for urging on a donkey.

*
8
15*
to/, uttered at intervals
by cam el- men
to keep camels in motion.
Remark
cries
There are
many
other imitative cries used for calling camels,
goats, sheep, asses, etc., etc., as well as for urging on beasts of burden: such
cannot be represented in writing.
In the south of Persia, distance is represented by uttering ha several times with a peculiar intonation, as: Hd-hd-hd-hd-hd-d Kirmdn* "there
yonder in the distance
is Kirman. [In the Panjab a peculiar way of " there it is the voice hai raising (ohh pare yonder ") has a similar use. are called ism-isawt ( nouns (6) (1) Onomatopoetic p*\ ), Examples
jik jik
^^ -*V chirping of small birds

lj
" ku ku
:
o^
"
cooing of
" doves
"noise of laughter": chir chir y^ "fizzling of meat la*, "the and chakdchak whizzing of a chaqachaq cooking": J^ U> and air": the sword, club, etc., through trang-d-trang fash-a-fash Û Jbjti J^ji "the whizzing of arrows through the air": qul-qul Jal* "the
qah qah
li
Qa-am has -y*j* ** *jjf c>^gurgling of wine being poured out, etc., etc." ;U j ^w/c jt &tf chun gurba ki mu mu kunad az masti-yi bisyar. Such words,
:
however, as pish pish J^^

(c)
J^ anci chikh, etc., are particles

commoner dervish
6
(harf).
The following
(j
are the
cries
Ya Hu
Ya Haqq
Ho
/
Truth
(or
God)
For biya biya
^ ^
J
" come, come."

*>
^
8
The Afghans say chilche ^^^ also m.c. Can this have any connection with the m.c.
particle of continuation hay
^
" the
Both are pronounced the same. 4 For things far off only.
6
H~i
is
Truth "
the 3rd pers. sing.
masc. Arabic pronoun
"he"
also
"He."
Haqq
is
another
name
of
God.
376
Yd 'Alt madad, O 'AH! help (Shi'a dervishes). Yd Mawjud* Oh Omnipresent. b Yd Qdziy- a 'l-hdjdt, O Granter of the needs of man. (^-al* Yd Ghaffdr~l-zunub Forgiver of sins (of the 'All
b
1
(j
Allah l
sect).
yij* (J$
Gul-Mawld, a rose).
(a
dervish greeting in
which
'All is
compared
to
Certain cries are peculiar to certain sects Sadd-yi yd 'All b ^t*^ could only be oib ( L> or ) s applied to Shi 'as, and sadd-yi yd Char Ydr ;b ;U- l ^**> to Sunnis only. Yd Allah *JL/f It could be used by either sect.
:
Remarks.
(or
yd Husayri) buland shud
^-^
^
*
(d)
The following are some

:
of the street cries
they are not current in
all
parts of Persia
Persia
is
the very home of flowery and figurative language, and striking examples of this are to be found even in the street cries. (1) Fruit or sweets:
b t&jjjjb oy> quwat-i bdzu, b quwat-i pd, strength to your arms, strength
your Sweetmeats
1
to
legs.
:
**>>T
es'L*
L5
'
fc
-^4
-^
C5
'
'c^li.
^L?-^ ^t
ay
halvd-yi
khdrak
ay
pashmak Figs :-
1 ay halvd-yi drda.
ovi^j ib JljJbÂ^M
Âan.Jf
anjir, anjir-i bulbul-i bdgh-i bihisht, figs! figs
fit
for the nightingales of the

l
Garden
of Paradise.
The Sunni dervishes say Ya char yar

Ali.
)^.
)^
M,
i.e.
Abu Bakr, 'Umar. 'Usman
and
used by dervishes either to announce their arrival at the doors of when seeking alms in the bazars. A dervish entering does not salute he utters one of these cries. The writer saw a Persian dervish in Baghdad crying Ya Mawjud <^^^ b in an unpleasant and excited voice till utterance nearly failed, and
cries are
These
the great, or else
the sweat streamed
down
his
'
face
to
from the exertion.

'
The shop-keepers were only
too willing to give him

3
move him on. Abu Bakr u 'Umar, 'Usman u Haydar )^.^ j c^*-^ J j+* 3
money
is
&?i
(miara).
Haydar
*
title of 'All.
Jl.
Republished from the
As. Soc. Beag., 1906,
by the courteous permission
of the
Council.
Those interested in the

old London.
&
subject should compare these with the street cries of Needless to add, some of them show a fine imagination. snack by the polite, but guest is sometimes pressed to stay and eat a
'
colloquial phrase yak chlz-l bi-kjj,ur ki quwat-i
the idea apparently strength to the leave-taker's legs.

^>fj
(
:
zanu payda
Tcunl o^j' **
;ysu c_>*$-
(<>JO
m .c.)
is
that the refreshment will give the necessary
6
7
Kharak J[;UL a dried date.

Halva-yi arda <^T
^j^
is
made
of
sesame seeds, sugar,
flour,
and butter.
377
figs.
utyj
-StJ
o^J> quvvat-i
:
zdnu anjir
ast,
strength to the knees are
Pomegranates
| f IjjCi rJ AJ
U MOT *iram
<mar-i)
P omeg r anate 8
have
I;
pomeof Para-
granates of the
Garden
bihisht
dil-i
;li
blmdr.
1
p|^
^tif atabald
tar,
daram
ridr',
atdkabl
daram
nar.
Cucumbers
^**>J> ****
c5l
ay qand-i
khiyar, oh liquid sugar, cucumbers!
Plums:
yf
L^ \^"^ ^s\
:
ay safra-shikan alu oh plums

,
a cure for
bile.
Grapes
&ls tild daram, mushtari, gold have ^^Lixi f)\z Pistachio-nuts

:
I,
oh buyer
^-J ^t ay pista-yi Damghan, mushtari\ Damghan, oh buyer! Nuts and edible seeds
8
^cjIAxs
c; l*x=fi
pistachio-nuts from
t^^ j pb ^^f
Mulberries
:
A*A
hama
'ajil
daram va bishkan.
bl-ddna nabdt ; bt-dana db-i haydt; bi-ddna shakar-nabdt ; bi-ddna, bi-yd lazzat mi-bari az ruh, (mulberries) luscious without seeds,
sweet as sugar-candy, priceless as the water of life seedless mulberries like crystal sugar come and delight thy seedless mulberries
;
;
soul.
Black Mulberries
Ij-yo
mlva-yi safra-bur shah miva.

iJ^
hila ) sweets with
White Mulberries
(
cx*|
(
Jji>
^la,
nuql-i
cardamoms
(in
India
= Ml
c5J
o-
ast]
ildchl ddna).
(2)
Tripe :sirafu,
:
^Lr-i^*
oh
tripe!
(3)
Cinnamon Tea
eH^-/^
l<
v_~
$-
^f
all
?/
chdy-i ddr-chm nabdt,*
oh tea and cinnamon* and
sugar-candy
1
mixed!
Aiabakl
L^^f
is
a good variety of pomegranate.

this
'
Qand
is
loaf sugar, the kind

:
Pronounced Damghun
most liked in Persia. and Simrian both mean Mash-had and are famous
for
pistachio-nuts.
* Ndbat ciUi is "sugar-candy." Some Persians do not eat qand. A few oldfashioned Muslims will not take tea, which comes from Hindus nor loaf-sugar, which is
:
najis <j**3*J
firstly,
because sugar
is
made by
the hands of unbelievers, and secondly,
because
it is
purified
by bones.
378
(4)
INTERJECTIONS AND INTEBJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
Water
bi-nush bi-ydd-i Shahid-i
Karbald, drink in remem-
brance
(5)
'
of the
:
Martyr
of Karbala.
Kerosine-oil
V JI?
Jl^ p| a îi] na fi-1* ddram misl-i guldb, a naptha have

water.
like
rose-
(6) Castor-oil (for
lamps)
jjt& ij
1^.
(7)
lj
M ,a.
:
yj%
shdh-i chirdgh
yd shdh-i chirdgh.
pdrcha ddram
5
For clothes
.
^ta alx^
(*)tj>
a^b
ptj>
ô***'
es
1 '
a 2/ g'awts ddram
cloth have I, sdlu
shtla
(8)
ddram. oh long-cloth have

6
:
I,
have
I.
For pins and needles

iliXi} Jjlauuo
Jf^j
(9)
ay swsaw sinjdq angushtdna yaraq, oh needles, pins, thimbles, gold and silver lace. Scissors and embroidery (hawked in villages only)'
eijyi. ^ci
j^
(10)
j*^ c3|^ c5'
u^t^
8
:
2/
m iq raz ay yaraq-i dam-i
chadar, oh scissors,
oh gold
1 (or silver) lace for chddars.
For antimony
&cjMt
^^f
^Lc
(11)
^Lj
d/c^w
^y
o-
surma-yi sang,
o-i
surma-yi sang,
oh antimony
Indigo
10
:
of stone. 9
LsJ & +*J cf^l <>*

11
vasmaf ol vasma, oh leaves
of Indigo,
oh leaves of
indigo.
1 Husayn er**"^ slain at Karbala, was wounded in the mouth by an arrow, when he stooped to drink from the Euphrates. His death occurred twelve years after that of
his brother
1
3
Hasan (^y^^
is
oJa, Persian for

There
^
.
a shrine in Shiraz called Shah-i chiragh
'^\jîs
*^
where
is
buried the
brother of
Imam
Riza
^;
f**f, the 8th
Imam
(the latter
entombed at Mash-had).
Some Muslims
salute the newly-lighted
lamp by salam ya
shah-i chiragh
Wj^ ^^ ^
j**-.
Tlie Gabrs say Shab-i Tchayr

* Called also chihil-var
j^ v^
to each other, generally juniors to seniors.
in forty var; var
)\j L*^, or chihil-yar )^?. L^^, because each piece is folded be the Persian word " time, turn, regulation," or a corruption of the English word yard; derivation doubtful. 5 Salu yl* or shalu Û* Indian names of the red cotton stuff. Shila A!J^
may
is
vulg. for shilla

6
T
8
*1^*>.
These
&
10
articles are usually sold by Jews. The Zardushti women wear a special chadar ji^ without yaraq (JjljJ For the eyes and eyelashes. For some reason the best antimony is called surma-yi sang <-* &*>j<*> For the eyebrows; the dried leaves are pounded and boiled. Sa'dl says
.
kushish-i
bl ja*ida
astvasma bar abru-yi Mr )isf*)j$j*. A ***5 **^ ***^ Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Gabr women.
{J^y.
Story 28, Book III.

(12)
Rouge:
surkhab, oh paint Patches (13) (for the face)

wjU-r*
^y
o-i
(lit.
red water).
Jbtkk
(14)
î ay Tchitat, oh moles Amulets:
!
!
Not hawked
from a Mulla.
(15)
t
in the streets in Persia
generally obtained as a Jiadiyya
They are, however, hawked in India.

:
Love
w
- jC
philters
c^L?^
^* S(
jf
dava-yi mihr u mahabbat, medicine for love and affection.

:
(16)
For
live
animals
<-!^
-^ J^C5"J' -^
^y
o-i pul-i
!
buz, o-i pul-i buz,
oh money
for goats*!
oh
money
j^>
J|J-M.
for goats
'Id-i
ij;>.^\
For sheep in the j*j

:
Qurban!
3
shdkh-ash
bi-gir,
savdr shaw.
Small lambs
csjt
o-i barra-yi
!
parvdr,
o-i
barra-yi parvdr, oh fatted
lambs
oh fatted lambs
:
Bulls (for the plough)

4 ^;^ v^ c5J
f
-*
gab-i kdri,
oh ploughing bull
Cows
<7a&-i
s^m, oh milch cow
oh milch cow
oh milch cow
Calves
AJUjfî aJUjf ^t JL^^f ay gawsala, ay gawsdla, ay gawsala, oh calves oh calves oh calves For poultry:
!
!
L5"J^
uvj^
:
cffj'
o-i khurus-i Ldri,
oh cocks
of
Ldr
(i.e.
big cocks).
Hens
t^*
3
oh laying hens a ^r* cs*' 2/ murgh-i tukhmi, Chickens (alive)

:
^ chickens
oh chickens
Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Gabr women.
2
3
Buz Jj
There
at the
Day
the female; the he-goat is called chapish (J^.^- or narl ^j*. a belief that those who sacrifice a ram at this 'Id, will ride this very ram of Judgment. The Persian Shi'as usually sacrifice a ram, and not a camel
is
is
nor a cow.
for
j karl (^^ from kashtan e^^* " to cultivate, sow, plough." No Muslim would buy dead poultry famous Lar for its large breed of poultry. The hens are cried as mur$,. fear it had not been slaughtered properly.
*
5
Vulg. for gav

is
baz
is
Modern, for the obsolete *;>$ chuza an old woman fond of young men.
still
in use in India and Afghanistan: chuzaIn falcony chuz, vulg. chui, is the Indian
(in
technical term for an
immature hawk or falcon
Persia buz or buzyur, T.).
380

Nightingales
:
cUb ^f ay bulbul-i khwananda, ay bulbul-i pur

chahcha, oh singing bulbuls, oh bulbuls in full song.
(17)
Qur*ans:
ay hadiyya-yi Qur*an, oh presents of Qur*ans

:
for
Remark. It is impious to sell a Qurân hence it is offered as a present, which the owner takes a present of money in return. When a vendor of
Qur*ans cries his ''presents," the following comedy is enacted: A woman or would-be purchaser enquires, "in Quran chand hadiyya mi-khivahad c/fj5 e^' " is bi-rizdAJ^XA ^XA. ?
The reply what The would-be purchaser you please." mandt-yi khudat oj^ î/cl^j " " then takes the book, kisses it, produces some security, and tells the giver to call again. In the meantime the Mulla is consulted who says, for instance
'
Âf^cRAx>
how many
presents for this Qur*an
panj tuman hadiyya darad j>jtd f!** <jl*y ^. The" giver" calls again " and if dissatisfied, for his "present says bi-panj tuman hadiyya nami-diham
(18)
(e)
Old clothes:
A^
)j*> ***
*>\ 8
ana muna
ho.
The following
are
some expressions
in saluting, or in
welcoming and
a visitor or guest.* Some of these are properly used feriors only, but there is no fixed rule in the matter
speeding
by
in-
tX*^T
(J^
khush amadid "welcome!"
(lit.
you have come happily;
used on arrival or departure). " musharraf I am honoured (by your coming)." " muzayyan (my house is) adorned (by your coming)."
mujtakhir jarmudid "you have made me (or us) proud." matbakh-i khud-i-tanast, or *^*~*\ *^ AJl^^^f ashpaz-khanaf
yi
shuma
ast
"
(our house) safa
is
*JdjT &*
avardid
your own kitchen." "you have brought us happiness" (by your
coming; used either on arrival or departure).
Rlza-Miwanl
^f^-
Q.)
is
the term
applied
by
fanciers
is
to
the low warbling
of cage-birds before they are in full song.
Chahcha *^-^
the spring song
when
the
bulbul
a
s
is
mast.
sp.
Hadiyya,
a present to a superior.
or ^) buy old clothes and broken articles in Calcutta this by Bengali Hindus (blkrl walahs). 4 The term for walking or riding out some distance to meet an expected guest is while that for accompanying a departing guest some little distance to JUaJL! istiqbal,
Jews
(called
*^^^-
trade
is
carried on chiefly
speed him on his
way
is
o**jlx
or
&3j& badraqa.
The
latter
word
also signifies
guide, escort, safe conduct."

i
381
bismillah "please enter (in the name of God)." p~j " a tXxixSJu please take a seat.'' *x5Uîi bi-farmd*id bi-nishmid owjf j(r JL* *JL^ khana mdl-i sarkdr ast, cs**f U J^* manzil-i shuma ast " our house is
aJUf
yours." khana vdhid ast 3 "our houses are one."
shuma va khudam banda-yi shumd~yam " my children are your house-born slaves, and my wife is your handmaid, and I shuma va Ichanum-am
myself your
kaniz-i
ij^ j*+JU^ U
bij
j*5lp
joily
awldd-am ghuldm-zdda-yi
va farud a ki khana khana-yi lust "be kind and alight, because this house belongs to you," (said to a great friend or to an exalted person. JJ^J^T o^^j ijk^khayli zahmat kashidid "you have troubled
jvjî
own slave." cuJ &U. ail^ *> f
t4o
^ karam
numa
yourself
*
much (to come and see us)." o*! oî; OW-AJ (^^3 zahmat-i
'
'
!
nlst rahat
ast
( l
no trouble at
all
pleasure
U-i
Jl&.
(^
or
^l^
t*^ 6
Khudd
hdfiz, or
Khudd
hafiz-i
shuma, ''good-bye
a
(God be your Protector)." J+A tc>^ Khudd hamrdh,

traveller)
.
"God
be with thee
"
(spec, to
departing
to
fi>,ô
t^=su
|jU
shuma rd bi-Khuddsupurdam,
.
tl
I entrust
you
God"
(to
a parting
^jfc^j
traveller)
îw 5a/ar bi'khatar, starting on a journey).

(*>"*
"may
" your journey be without danger (on
" c^ L^*^/ murakhkhas mi-shavam, "I must go (on taking leave). " don't forget me." OJjxT ^b tÛ ma rd ydd kumd, xxjU^ji/oâcvxo }yo ^)U ^JsUL )\ az khdtir-i 'all mar a mahv ma-farmayid, "don't forget me."
lazzat mi-baram, "I am enjoying myself" (at seeing your the good things you are giving me to eat). or at nice house,
&
+^.0 e>J
A
AJ
bah bah, " good, good."
Bi-'sm-i'llah *^tf-J, this formula is used by Muslims before commencing any work, i.e. before eating, mounting a horse, firing a gun, casting off a falcon, slipping
l
a grey-hound,
1
etc., etc.
Note
spelling;
for after the Qur'an; f-J
p*b.
please." The right hand only should lost his right be used in eating; vide Arabian Nights in the story of the young man who
Note this use of bifarmayld
^5UyiJ
(m.c.)
"
hand
8
for theft.
Used
This
in India, not in Persia.

civil
*
6
Khudd
'
phrase can, of course, be said on any suitable occasion. kardan hafizl <J*>^ t^- is a subs, and adj.: Khuda hafizi
to say good-bye."
382
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
awghur-i shuma bi khayr bashad, "may your omen be " (a form of greeting specially used by muleteers, camel-men good; good luck with Vide also h (2). loads, etc.). donkey-men
Remark.
ahlan
The Arabic greeting

t
*
for
welcome
'
dhl an
wa
sahl an &t**j **f, or
wa marhab anl kat>*j
3Ut is
used by pedantic Mullas only, generally on
return from the pilgrimage.

(/)
The wife
of a host or of a friend should
never be enquired after except
in exceptional
circumstances.
respectable
mentioning his wife
would
refer to her as his khana'1

;
Muslim "
(not
'
house,'
Gabr) when kuch -^ (rare)'

'
or 'iyal JU*, or dhl cU>f, or andarun &j)>\ * and for the Shah, haram p^. A Persian who was farangi-ma*db ( ->** ufjj* ) or Europeanized might speak of his wife as khanum v^, or of his mother as ÂJJ bi-bi-yi man.
'
going about without a veil is liable to have filthy remarks passed on her by the shop-keepers or street people. and Jews (g) The Muslim greeting (in Persia accorded to Christians, Gabrs
the Arabic phrase pê f&~ 8 salam un alay-kum "peace be on ye," un to which in Persia the reply is the same, viz., salam 'alay-kum The Indian Sunnls and the Afghans say as-salam -' alaykum
also) is
11
An Englishwoman
^^
va alay-kum^ s-salam "the peace be on you," to which the reply and on you the peace." The Indian Shi' as among themselves say f&Jf salam 'alayk pA* f&** " peace on thee," to which the reply is va 'alaykum" and on you the peace." "s-salam ^^Jf ^Lcj Indian The Afghans, Muslims, Arabs, and Turks would not give- the
is
'
<
4 greeting to any but to a Muslim, but in Persia, in no distinction is made.
many
parts at any rate,
and to say to he replied be to which on him as-samm alayk f&l* pU-J "poison thee," " and on thee." 5 va alayk" *~&^*j
The Jews
u
in the Prophet's time used to slur the greeting

a
Tarhlb
V*
31
" to welcome ";
for the m.c. use of
marhaba
^/,
vide (a) (2).
i
3
Adarun-am
it.
or Tchiana-um na-khush-ast cu*f <j^^- ^ j*t*JL=^. p*3J**\ In Persia the classical nun ation is retained, but the modern Arabs, Indians, etc.,
slightly corrupt the
omit
4
The Jews
of
in
Baghdad
Jewish salutation when greeting a
sometimes fancy the Muslim greeting is Englishmen person it is in reality addressed to the sais behind. when The author has been to them, given frequently given the Muslim salutation in Persia even by mullas who objected to shaking hands with him. In India a vessel used by a Christian would be washed three
another faith.
times before use, but Persians will freely drink from an unwashed glass used by a
Christian.
6
in India
The Persians
neither salam, as in India, nor raise the
hand
to the
head
in saluta-
tion without bending the body as do Central Asians. Gentlemen incline the head in a bow, and servants place the right hand on the heart while bowing from the waist.
[T.O.-

(h)
(I)
38.'}
host, etc., speaks of his house as
<j;ix> JJÂJ
banda-manzil
''the slave."
'
slave's
dwelling,''
of
'
and
in
of
himself
is
as
banda
coming
the guest
bring honouring.'
To an
cw;jf -a.j/^ invitation to call or honour the house, the invited

>t
person
tashrif
dvardan
"the The "to
*m sM* ^4Wa^ farda skaraf-yab miwould reply fr-** v^V* '*7* a *M*U shavam " I hope D.V. to have that honour to-morrow." A visit and return visit are did <x^> and baz-did cxja jb and old residents
,
England. A Persian does not call after dining out: it is the host's business to call on the guest, who has honoured him by 4 accepting his hospitality and thus earned a return visit. A foreigner should call on fete-days, such as the Shah's birthday, and
call
on new
arrivals, as in
the
Naw-Ruz
it is
a fault on the right side to
call
on
religious festivals, such
as the 'Id, etc.
c**^ JL^' ahval-pursi is "asking after a person's health," " 'lyadat e^lxc is enquiries on meeting. visiting a sick person."
To
give and return salutations
i.e.,
kind
is
of the Prophet.
Salam sunnat
ast va javab farz.
a duty founded on the Quran, and the practice A horseman salutes a footman, and
It
is sufficient
a person on foot those return a salute.
who
are seated.
for one of a party to give or
Muslim women do not and are not saluted

their
in the street,
but Zardushti
women salute
Persian recognizing his wife (veiled) in the street would not speak to her. The laws of Islam forbid a man saluting a woman unless she be old.
men.
Salutations
must not be made with the

:
left
hand, as
it is
used for legal ablutions
and unclean purposes.

1
A compound noun
With the
verb
no
izafat.
1st person singular. Classically, and in India and Afghanistan in speaking, the verb is in the 3rd person singular after banda. " I 3 In alia 9 Allah *Ut U*if "if God wills" corresponds to hope so and think " a Muslim says in sha 9 Allah so." To the common question " is it going to rain ? AjJf Uof where an says "yes": no Muslim would dare to decide for the
*
in the
Englishman
Almighty. A failure to grasp this idea sometimes causes Europeans " they cannot understand not getting a straight answer."
much
irritation
To accept an invitation is, according to a sunnat o^*>, obligatory on a Muslim. The word farda !y enters largely into the Persian vocabulary. During a two cannot once recollect hearing the word imruz years' residence in Kirman the author An opium-smoker and it is estimated that 60% of the Kirmanis are opium jjj*l.
smokers
*
run into years. morning before noon (gen. for business), or It is usual to send a sunset before (for pleasure). hours in the evening about two to arrange for servant a day before, or on the morning of the day, with an oral message of honour, seat The receive. a visit, so that the host may be at home and prepared to have Persians hand. expressed are on the host's the
will let
'
to-morrow
' '
The time
for visiting is either in the
sadr,
and chief guest right the top of his table at a dinner-party and surprise to the author that he should take It is no easy matter to arrange the place the chief guests on his right and left.
seats
Guests sometimes ask at dinner for Persian guests, without giving offence. a higher place. unless come to decline promised and beforehand where they are to sit
384
(2)
(e)
The following complimentary phrases

"
are in
common
use; vide also
:-
$y U* ^^ lutf-i shumd ziydd thank you (lit. your favour " thank * elJ&l iltifdt-i shumd ziyad you (as above)." sty U&
1
is
great)."
^Lj U-i
04^*3 marhamai-i shuma

az
fat/-
ziyad
" thank you."

az
iltifat-i
uifcJ jt
shuma, or
ci>U#f
jt
shuma " thank you
(by your favour)." U jt az tavajjuh-i
*y
l*& cufi&&
^Lj
jt
az
shumd " thank you (by your consideration)." " thank you (by your indulgence)." shafaqat-i shumd
o-jsvx)
mahabbat-i
shumd ziydd
' '
thank you (your affection for
me
is
great)."
^\ U* "
great)
;
Oj*
U^
[
'izzat-i
shumd ziydd
"thank you (may your rank be

I
(said to a departing guest).
Sjb^SJ
&U
sdya-yi
shumd kamna-shavad "

'
am much
obliged
also,
good-bye (may your shadow never grow less)." >i& &)& ^> o~o dast-i shumd dard na-kunad
arm never pain you)":*

and women).
(said
when
thanks (may your hand or receiving help: used by both men

'
^^ ^ pir shavi
child)'.
c
"
mayest thou grow old" (generally said to a small

life
umr-i shumd ziydd "long
to
you
"
!
Khudd shumd rd nigdh ddrad " God keep you !" -^ ^jUo (yx Khudd sdya-yi shumd rd az sar-i md kam
kunad
na-
"may ÛA U"S>

U^--
God never remove your shade from our heads ai-Jo (JJoî dar zill-i pandJi-i shumd hasfim "we
!
'
'
are under the
shade of your protection."

aib
<;
CA*-[
" shumd buland " may your fortune be high! v^^ U^ Jf^t ahvdl-i shumd khub astl "I hope you are quite
%)&
tdli'-i
well
your circumstances good ?) "I 6 hope you are quite well (you have ^tiJ &^ Î-J bdk-l ki na-ddnd?
(are
"
no solicitude?)
"
This phrase has often been used as a reproach against Persians, through a notion that ziyad means "more." Ziyad is a positive adjective which in certain cases only (not in the example) can be substituted for the comparative.
1
mistaken
2
8
lltifat eul&Jf
means "to pay attention to."

:
This phrase is often used at meeting or parting in a street properly used by an Some Persians state, it signifies May old inferior to a superior. age never overtake ' you (an old man's shadow is less than that of a young man); but it properly means may your shadow on us always remain.'
1
Said especially by a
woman when
is
a dish
is
handed to her,
etc.
also to
any one
is it
after a display of skill in cookery, sewing, etc.

5
The
force of the *&
that of aya kf a t the beginning of a sentence
"
not
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
385
^
well?)"
C
Ui
**
2
'
eoj^ kayf-i
shumd kuk
ast
"are you well
(is
your condition
*4)t*j
^j**
3
khushi ki na-ddnd?
"I hope you have no

(ia
indisposition."
o^t <3U
<iuJL**
' '
lî
your brain quite

ilcaô
1
fit ?)
Û^ "
dimdcfh-i
shuma chdq
ast
"are you quite well?

of health
sar-i
dimagh hastid* "are you in the best
and
spirits
*^ f \j^ chird kam iltifdtl kardid " why have you shown a lack c^ of kindness (in not coming to see me) ? The answers to the above would be some such phrase as az dawlat-i sar-i
*>.tjf
' '
shuma U^^ oJj^ jf " by your good fortune (I am well, etc.)," or az shafaqat-i shumd U^> e*ai jt etc.. or jokingly, az marhamat-i ki na-ddnd **)!*> *xv*a.^x> j|
,
"
through the kindness you don't
rasam
f*^
^ oô^^
show"
if it
in shd*Alldh khidmat-i
shumd mi' '
&U\
*U
^f
"
please
God
I will
:
come
to see
/0 *
you
o~f jL, î/ kayf-am sdz ast "my health is in dimdgh-i ddram "I am happy, exhilarated (either from wine, or from scent from a garden, or company of friends)," [but j>;(^ pUo ^^^juldnkas dimdgh ddrad " he is (m.c.) proud"]: ^)lx> ^pU^ j^f imriZs; dimdgjjri na-ddram (m.c.) "I
" tune
^^
am
in low spirits to-day."

(?)
Expressions of tenderness
p*j>
^Jlsw
e^jji ^1 ay
djj^.i
dawr-i sar-at bi-gardam "
may
be thy
sacrifice.'*
dard-at bi-jdn-am
"your pain be on me."
yby*
qurbdn-i sar-at
sar-at salamat
"
may
I be
'
thy
sacrifice.'
ci^
"may
you be well."
Kayf *-^ modern
for Icayj*
" " how," and hence the how

kardan &&j?
:
of one's health
also
exhilaration of intoxicants.
Kuk
^^
"I
(m.o.) is
to
*
wind up, or tune,

t)3^*
musical instruments, a watch, or clock, etc.
saz ra kuk
kun
yf
"
fcune tne
instruments": saz-ash kuk na bud &ju

kuk-ash raftam p&) ash kardam ki bi-asman raft
:
tune
* '
tu-yi
L&
ul*f
^^ U)^*
*J
(m.c.)
"his instrument was not in
cfiP (slang)
pulled his leg, chaffed
him
'
':
kuktill
^j
**
{*/
" I chaffed him Lf^J* (slang)

(slang)
drew him well

2
'
'
fulan
Teas
kuk shud &" <jf (j^ (D&
" he
:
is
drawn."
Na-Jchushl c^w j^t) i n " India, etc.) displeasure."

8
modern Persian
"sickness"
in old Persian (and in
In modern Persian dimagh
pride"; dimagh faruTchtan
pÂ means "nose (^Lk^* Û^ (class, and
"
:
in old 'Persian
*'
*'
brain, palate
m.c.)
in his
to
display pride": chi

?
* dar dimagh darad &)]& eU^ jj> am zad (local) " he shut the door in
what idea has he
head
"
:
dar ra bi-dimagh-
my
face."
* An expression used by both men and women. The woman sometimes circles round a sick person's bed with the idea of taking on herself any danger or calamity that is to fall on the beloved. The custom is dying out.
25
386

i^*j ^la. ^5!
ay
jan-i pidar
"oh
life
of thy father (said to a son or
daughter, by the father)."

ifl
" oh all my lives (said to a mistress)." ay jdndn (in poetry) " of nur-i chashm-am my eyes (said to a son)." light
^(^.jdn-i jdn-am "life of

.U
taj-i
sar-am " crown
my life." of my head
"
(a
servant to a master, or wife to
husband)."
(
albatta ndzat bi-kdsham "I'll willingly

:
put up with your
whims
(or coquettish wilfulness)
said to babies or a mistress.

like a soul to
&ry
tu ki misl-i ruh-i
'
' '
thou art
me."
C5> ay a commonly used expression without any great force) "
aziz-i
man
(used to friends, children, husband to wife;
my
dear."
(k) s
Adjurations
bi-sar-i
" eujajjfb |y turn bi-qabr-i pidarat

(*)*t
if
U^~o
shuma "by your head."

(I
ÛA
bi-arvdh-i pidar-am
is
"by
adjure) thee by thy father's grave." my father's soul" (plural for sing.:
the father
alive bi-jdn-i pidar-am).
cjtsu bi-jdn-i 'aziz-i

o
by thy moustache." khudat " by thy dear life." " bi-marg-i shumd by your death." " " bi-miri mayst thou die," or by thy life."
a* bi-sabil-at
qasam
"
(vulg.)
Remark.
says,
A man
say
" Swear
tu bi-miri
promises to come at a certain time. His friend " tu bi-miri, mi-dyam >>," the reply is
^.+*
(^L^ cc^*jy."
zud bi-ya f ld
me
By thy life Ûj j^j ^w

*'
I wiil come.
"
The host then says man bi-miram, "May I die! Come soon" (if you want
is
to die like an enemy,

(I)
come
ass's
late).
Sar-i khar fj+
head"
guest who is for any reason a check on khar paidd shud <^ fiUjâ.^..
a term applied to an unwelcome the conversation; m.c. sar-i
Sometimes a
sar-i Ichar
visitor will jokingly
announce himself by
e^-^}, (or
zamm
paydd-shud *& faooy^^*,
o^&u
(m)
(1)
ers of 'All the son- iii-law, 6
The Persians belong to the Shl'a sect and first cousin of the Prophet.
t^ <H?p e^J)^_>* of Muslims and are followThey maintain

L5"'
bi-shigdft,
Used when giving exhortations.
mother would say ay jan-i madar oA^

is
d^l*.
2
This word though apparently a plural

a>|ii^T.
always used as a singular.

it is
The an
e/1
may
jaria
be a suffix as in abadan
\
According to some
an
extension of the vocative
The idea
in your head
is
worth swearing by, mine
is
not
therefore a servant, for
instance, would say to his master bi-sar-i shuma U*^~o. * You are so dear to me that I swear by your death in preference to mine. 6 ' AH, the darling of the Persians, was the husband of Fatimah the Prophet's
daughter.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION A L PHRASES, ETC.

that 'All was the
first
387
legitimate
Imam
fUf or Khalifa aMi. (successor to the
Prophet), and therefore consider Abu Bakr^yf, 'Umar^+c and 'Usman e>Ui* The Sunnfs on the contrary maintain the claims of these three as usurpers.
as well as of Ali. 1
(2)
The following
j
are
some
of the
commoner maledictions 2
s o/~J <Û. khak bi-sar-at (bi-kunand )
^
~*s
"may
they bury thee."
khak-ash bi-dahan
" curse him."
*>
" fy ), ttyo murda-shur tura bi-barad thee away."

bi-sar-at ~bi-]churad
may
the corpse-washer bear
"may
about)
fall
on your head,
^xs"
jo |<x4. Khuda marg-at euxlp |*. Khuda tamam-at kunad

''-
(the matter you are worrying me n the whole thing." God bi-dihad " thee death."
ec
may may God

boy
give
finish
thee."
gU. e)(}jp
j
ruzagar-at siyah
may thy days become black."

"
J^>
eJf
a so bachcha buzurg na-shi,
may you
"
never grow up."

the vulgar).
'
j>
a?-a^ bi-zanad,
"
may
the
^.Z strike thee. 4
6? sar o tan-durust (a disguised curse to
teujfj* hargiz bi-kbana-yi hakim piyada na-n = be so sick that you will have to be carried to the doctor.'
)
may y
libas-at
naw
bashad,
"
may you
die
and not wear out your
clothes."
Eastern languages have a rich and varied vocabulary of abuse, and Persian perhaps stands foremost. The following are a few mild terms of
(3)
abuse in ordinary use

6 6
pidar-sag, dog- fathered.
j*j
pidar
sukhta,
blackguard
(lit.
your
father
is
burnt).
Sunni, lit. "one of the path." The Shi'as still possess mujtahids or "enlightened doctors": they observe the ceremonies of Muharram, while the Sunnls
1
only observe the 10th day ('ashura t^* ^), the day God created Adam. The Shi' as also allow temporary marriages and observe slight differences in ablutions and the forms
1
of prayer.
They
Jl.
also say that taqiyya

is
*&
(or
kitman &1+&),
i.e.
concealing one's
religion to escape persecution,

2 5
permitted.
Vide
As. Soc. Beng., 1912.
A
A
" earth of lettuce "
third person, in joke, on hearing this sometimes adds khak-i kahu the lettuce is manured by human excrement, and is reckoned the
:
dirtiest feeder of all vegetables. * woman's curse to a
woman.
The Al
'
is
women.
6
Persian
woman
that sees the
Al
'
insists
a monster that attacks pregnant on dying, such is the power
of imagination.
A compound noun,
pi. pidctr-sag-ha
Subs, pidar siikhtagl
388

jjjiô nasnas,
L
ourang outang.
z-zina
walad-i zina
offspring of adultery.
*
ay lavand, fascinating coquette ay lakata, oh flighty one.

qurumsaq, cuckold.
(often used to little girls).
T.
ja-kash, pimp.
dayyus, cuckold.
))
zan-qaliba?
husband
of a prostitute.
meddler.
ahmaq,
t5 *J^,.> J|
fool.
is
j* hir az pir nami-danad, he whether the word is hir or pir.*
such a fool he can't read
ablah, a fool.
kawdan, a dunce.
haram-zada, base-born, illegitimate; frequently used in the sense
of trickster.
6
luti,
blackguard.
<J&*
(4)
qallash, cheat.
The
following, not to be translated,
is
a mild example of expres-
amongst the educated. It is inserted, as it is sometimes as well to understand what is being said as a protection against covert insult
sions heard even
:
<J)*$ (&** )*
(*?.)
rtdam dar dahan-i pidar-ash
"I
spit
on
his father's
beard
' '
(mildly paraphrased).
a whole vocabulary of abuse called jAjjjÛ ^J^J mddar u The examples already given fuhsh-i pidar, that is best omitted. will be found more than enough to indicate the general lines of such 8 language language found in the mouths of even tiny children.
is
There
1
besides
Though the Persians use the crudest expressions in their daily speech, they even the humblest and poorest of them can, when they choose,
administer a veiled and delicate reproof with exquisite
skill.
2
8
Not often used as it is considered a Used also in a bad sense.

Qahba AASUJ
in Arabic signifies
lit.
sin to call a
man
this,
who
is
not.
"cough."
is
In Arabic J-wf
*
'
j^j\ *
OÂJ
J/,
which
explained as meaning
"he knows not
a hirr or
5
cat,'
from a
birr or
fox's cub.'
"
Luty,
derived from Lot.

is
In Urdu a " sodomite." used in the Punjab.

vJi<k^
6 7
8
A similar expression
dtd
)&* f U-0
is
\j* Mj
o&
(Sa'di).
It
perhaps some extenuation, that, from constant use, these words have lost
much
of their force.
SIGNS
94.
AND
SIGNALS.
1
389
Signs and Signals.
signs are not only in constant use, but reference to in ancient and modern writings: occurs both frequently
l
The following
them
Silence:
Dast bar
sar-i
damagh zadan
(j^j
eU^^^j
ow-o.
is
The
right
held perpendithe with middle the joint touching tip of the nose; cularly (point upwards) front of the forefinger to the left or the tip of the forefinger is laid on the
is
:
hand
closed with the exception of the forefinger, which
tip of the nose.
Less
commonly the
here, biya LJ
tip of the forefinger is placed

is
on the
closed lips as in
England.
Biting the lower lip

:
Come
a secret sign to keep silence. As in India, i.e. the right arm is more or less
extended to the front, palm of the hand downwards. The signal is then made by closing the fingers towards the palm, and extending them a few times.
No
*J
As
in India.
The open
is
right hand,
palm
to the front,
held
(roughly) level
emphasis
is
agitated from side to side. Additional given by turning the head to the left, closing the eyes and
with the head
smiling idiotically with the lips closed. Slightly throwing the head back and closing the eyes
also
indicates
"No,"
as well as,
"He
is
talking rot."
' '
Don't do it." Raising the eyebrows slightly is a secret signal "No," or " Ask him." = means a head them of the with turn slight Raising
Yes: Dast bar chashm nihadan
/**><^
c^V H*^ J
*-
Tnis action generally
and signifies implicit obedience. The tips of the fingers of the open right hand (back to the front) are laid on the right " Yes." Also placing the right hand on the left breast and bowing = eye. " Lowering the eyelids is also a sign for Yes." Astonishment: Angusht gazidan ej^j? cu&l, or angusht-i tahayyur (or
accompanies the reply chashm
gv
ta'ajjub) gazidan^
()*>> jf
(-^sui3 or)
j*& ^*&l
The
is
tip of the forefinger is
placed on the teeth of the lower jaw. This action in pictures of the meeting of Farhad and Shirin.
the
commonly represented
The Afghans lay the forefinger (underside to the front) transversely across mouth and close the teeth on itopening the eyes at the same time in
Halt
:
an astonished gaze.
Va
ist
or bi-lst o~j|
&>
or ^~-Jf
Ij.
The
right
arm
is
held
perpendicularly,
much
open and extended right hand shoulder, palm to the front.

1
as in the British Cavalry signal for "halt," or the is held up a little above the level of the right
Republished for the Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1907, by kind permission of the Council. that a European visitor at an Eastern Court nearly lost his life by his accidentally biting finger (the signal for astonishment) when the king was relating
2 It is related
one of his best

3
stories.
Istgah
uJ| " railway station."
390
BIBLIOMANCY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.
with the tip of the forefinger dirndl-ash (JÛ^ "he's cracked." Drawing the open right hand across the mouth downwards, from wrist to tips of fingers, and blowing on it at the same time = "All gas, he's
Mad:
Tapping the right side
of the nose
khushk~ast OMI J^.
talking rot.
' '
Go
out
Slightly poking the chin forwards.

1
95.
Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions,

*
etc.
(a) Istikhara &)UJL| signifies asking divine direction as to any course to be pursued about which the seeker is doubtful, by opening the Qur*an and
finding the answer on the right-hand page. The seeker first repeats the Surat u -l-Fdtihah A^JlA^t g,^ or "Opening Chapter of the Qur*an," the Su" " On the declaration rat u -l-Ikhlds *)r of God's Unity (Chap. 112) and u the 58th verse of the Surat -'l-An dm fU#f the Chapter of Cattle" (6th
^^ty
Chapter) three times, and then opens the Qur*an. Sometimes seven Salawdt are repeated in addition or else the seeker first si salawdt 8 mi-firistad Sl^JLo &~* &' x &, 9 * .&'** He then &L~j*#o, i.e. he says three times **3R^c Jf j *+&.* ^.U JL*
;
"
î
says one Al-hamd

ai)iy>
Jjf,
the Fdtihah or Opening Chapter) and then Qul hufllah and lastly the Aya-yi-mafatih^l-Ghayl} *-*#J\ f(A* &j which is the
(i.e.
58th verse of the sixth chapter or "Chapter of the Cattle."

.
Then saying ^ysil^f the book Û| Allahumma? stakhir-ni*

}
is
opened by
the seeker at random, by the forefinger of the right hand, .and the top line of the right-hand page is selected. If no verse begins in this line, the seeker
turns back and goes to the beginning of the verse. or expressing pity, etc., are propitious.
Verses issuing commands,
number
is, after opening the book as above, to count the word Allah occurs on the page, and then to turn over (forward) the same number of pages, and again count the same number of lines from the top and then if no verse commences in that line to read forward and take the first verse that occurs after that line.
Another method
of times the
Republished from the

Istifehata *)\&5*\,
Jl.
As. Soc. Beng., 1906, by kind permission of the Council.
lit.
"
asking favours, etc."
The
istikhara
i)lS*! that the

except perhaps an
Prophet taught was a prayer asking for guidance. The seeker goes to a Mulla for an istilchara, who takes no
offering of sweets or fruit.
fee
One form
first
of
bibliomancy in England
enough.
person heard reading the Scriptures.

is still
an omen from the first word of the a Taking an omen from a Bible suspended by
is
to take
key
common
Salat
i^J^ is properly
any prayer, being the Arabic equivalent
of
namaz
)^
by the Persians, however, the word has generally a special signification. " choose for me." * Incorrect Arabic for Tch.ir-11
BIBLIOMANCY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.
391
is of course often extremely vague. In addition to the above, the Persians, even the most irreligious, " The rosary." generally take an istikhdra ^=^3^\ from the tasbih p**** or Fatihah is recited three times and any two beads are taken hold of at random.
*
The answer
As the
slipped
first
seeker says Subhdn^lldh
bead between these two points slips through the fingers the &tt\ ejUsu^ "Holiness be to God "; as the second is " as the third is Al-hamd u llah &M +^l\ " Praise be to God
slipped
Vjwald = "don't do
According as the
is
it."
till
These expressions are repeated in this order

first,
the last bead
is
,
reached.
second, or third expression falls on the last bead the reply

}
favourable, indifferent, or negative, i.e. khub v^, miydna *iUx> or bad From laziness, the Fatihah is in practice usually recited only once.
^J,
This form of istikhdra fyUxLot takes
little
time or trouble
for
most
it is
Persians carry a rosary in their pockets as a kind of play-thing and resorted to on the most trivial as well as the most serious occasions.^
Taja*ul Jjj^ "auguring,"
'
omen
'
from Hafiz.
s generally applied to seeking a fal or volume of the Divan of the poet is held in the left
is
hand and the following words are said ^s'Jyj* uii^y c^K*" ^'^ *^'^ ^ Uj ^j Yd jl^juj JU> ^.wlU Û Khwdja Hdfiz-i Shirdzi tu kdshif-i har j U^j
:
rdz-i bar-i
ma biyd va yak fdl-i JÂAXJ .iyk v^t^t;^ fj J>>'
& arÂÂx^J
mundsib-i hdl biyanddz,

oLxi
jA
or
ccj'j-**
"^'^
^H^ ^
rd
Jû
fy
Yd Khwdja
Hdfiz-i Shlrdzi turd bi-haqq-i Shdkh-i
Nabdt qasam rm-diham ki
kull-i ahvdl
dar in kitdb-i khud mu'ayyan kun. The eyes are closed, the volume opened at hazard 6 and the first line of the page on the right-hand is taken, and the seeker
turns back to the beginning of that ghazal J>. If the omen is unfavourable, the ghazal J>^ following it is read (called the shdhid-i ghazal-i avval
Jy J)
(c)
<id>U)
and if propitious is acted on in preference to the first. The Persians also consult astronomers, and geomancers, 6 before
start-
There are several ways of making this istikhara tyteuuwt, one wav is merely a game of " odds and evens." " 2 " Shall I or shall I not take a Out come the beads. Many a European purge ? anxious to a surgeon perform critical operation has fretted and fumed, because day after beads said the the day was unfavourable. day " to take an omen" 3 Fal giriftan zadan
1
Jlj
tafa*ul
^J J5&^
*
6
There
is rio
fixed formula.
the leaves, the book being held in the left

8
of running the nail of the forefinger of the right hand through the top edges the towards front sky. hand by the back, edges JLc " astrology "; rammal Munajjim *:SUA> "astrologer"; 'ilm-i nujum
By
^ô
ilm-i hayat
"geomancer": ilm-i raml J>cj JU (raml andakhtan ^^(^f cU>) ctU* /JU "astronomy", a term also applied to Euclid.
'
eomancy
Zlch-i t&
kashUan
^^^
Fal-glr
^Jli
is
"to
cast a horoscope."
Jl*
applied to any professional omen-taker.
392
BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.
ing on a journey, closing a bargain, or even changing a sleeping-room in a house, etc., etc.; they believe in lucky faces, fortunate numbers, and
unlucky days.
therefore, before casting, say,
by Daniel. Geomancers, " *itJ> " Ya Hazrat-i J Daniyal oÂa* l>. 13th of the The second in the Muslim month calendar, and (d) Safar, the 13th of Nawruz, are days of evil omen also the 5th and 13th of every
Geomancy is supposed
to have been discovered
month.
doors,
all
To avoid the
to
that might overtake them were they to remain inPersians leave their homes on the 13th of Nawruz, and spend the
evil
day from sun-up

over a
(e)
fire.
2
sun-down in the open
air.
Disaster follows a quarrel
during these hours.
On
the last
Wednesday
of Safar,
boys and
girls
jump
Omens
are also taken from birds, animals, the
number
of times a
first,
person sneezes, the crossing of a threshold with the right or left foot and many other things too numerous to mention.
(/)
Persians also believe in the evil eye, chashm-i bad &* or chashm{+**, zakhm p**j f^*- 8 Any one may be possessed of the evil eye without knowing
it,
4
and some superstitious people say
Ma
sha* Allah &Uf
&U
before
gazing at their
effects of their
own countenances own admiring eyes.

off
in a mirror, so as to
ward
off
the evil
Blue wards
adorned with beads of
the evil eye, and for this reason valued animals are this colour. Also the ispand seed is burnt in the fire.
Pretty children are often purposely kept dirty &nd unkempt, and further 6 guarded from malign influence by amulets la'viz *Jj*3.
Carpets are generally woven by the tribes- people with some small defect,
in the pattern, to avert the evil eye.
Marihus ^^.su/o or bad
ao.
The Prophet died

on the
last
in the
month
of Safar.
It
is
supposed that the Last

the kingdom unveiled,
Day
and
will fall
8
Wednesday
fortunate.
of a Safar.
The Shah has the

is
right to see every
woman
in
the royal glance
The Mujtahids have the same * In mard bad-chashm ast

yto
(
right, being considered

<3>j
mahram.
ast
oW
:
Pf"
or
)J"* /***
mc
-
-)
VM^ &j* ^1, n shakhs-zaban-ash shum
or chasm-i shur (or shum) darad

pj2> (J&Jli}
(jaxuw
^1
always prophesies unlucky things." 6 Bazu-band tXw a charm made by writing a text, wrapping it in bulghar ÛJb jj(j, An amulet is or scented leather (qab-i Quran), which is then bound on the child's arm. also called *~JLk Warn or "talisman."
(m.c.)
o*t
this
man
more commonly sar-rahl Dam-rahi ^\j is money expended in charity f^, ^*l^^>, on the threshold, by a departing traveller, to insure a safe return. In India some Muslim women bind a coin on the arm of the departing relative to be expended in charity on reaching the journey's end in safety.
BIBLIOMANCY, DIVINATIONS, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.

Strange to say, a pig horses and mules.
(g)
1
393
in the stables will
ward
off
the evil eye from the
Mullas' houses, a Consulate, the stable of certain big people, etc., constitute sanctuary or bast o*~j. The writer once saw a soldier vr j, clinging to a big gun in the square of Kirman, declaring it was bast Certain
cities,
However
in
spite
of
his
protestations he was
finally
removed by the
Governor's farr ashes.

(h)
The time
of
Naw Ruz jjj y

is
is
a general holiday.
People
all
make picnics
for 13
days, and every master
supposed to present
his servants with
one month's pay. The chief of a dervish sect will auction certain sites, such as the Governor's Palace, the British Consulate, etc., to his followers. The purchaser erects a tent and blows a horn and refuses to move on, unless
given a sufficient
site.
(i)
sum
of
money over
the
sum
for
which he purchased the
Persians attribute misfortunes to the revolution of the heavens, to

'
the 'evil eye
of time, to the world, etc., etc.*
The influence of the heavens on the fortunes of man, appears to be an ancient superstition dating back to a pre-Islamic period. It has been supposed that Persians attribute their ill to the heavens, to avoid the appearance
even of attributing misfortune to the Deity.
This
is
not, I think, the case.
The Persians
still
believe that the revolution of the skies affects

ill
man's
fate.
Muslims who wish to avoid ascribing

occurrence to Fate, Qazd UcJ, Qadar
j<*5,
to the Deity, attribute the
or
drama
of
Husayn, the sky

:
is
accused
of being the
Taqdlr jjxa5. In the religious author of his misfortunes.
Examples
dA~3
&/
jt
yfif*
-!
j*-
^t
K.)
Ay charkh-i jalak kharabiaz kma-yi tust (0. " Ah Wheel of heaven to tyranny inclined."
!
(Whin, trans. Rub.
25).
occasionally done in Persia.
Tweedie mentions a wild boar being kept in the stables at Baghdad, and this is Some say the breath of a pig is good for horses. In 'ArabistSn, pigs' flesh is said to be eaten under the name of gusfand-i farangi
1
&&$
said to
jj*/'.
Ham
in Persia
is
sometimes called
gusht-i bulbul JLvL
oJ^,
name
have been invented by a telegraph clerk. The Baluchis of Bampur (Persian Baluchistan), a very different-looking race from the fine people near the Dera Ghazi Khan Frontier in
India, eat wild pig and foxes. 2 Gardish-i Falak .JUJ
<j^,
Dunya
Uij,
Dahr Â^, Qardun
&j^
CharJsh
Chashm-zakhm-i Zamana
394
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
dll-bunydd Hargiz girih-i kdr-i kas-i rd na-gushdd Ear jd ki dil-i did ki ddgh-i ddrad
In
charkh-i jafd-pi-sha-yi
'
Ddgh-i digar-1 bar sar-i an ddgh nihdd (0. K.) " The wheel on high, still busied with despite, Will nev'r unloose a wretch from his sad plight;
But when
it lights
upon a smitten heart,

(Whin. Rub. 154).
Straightway essays another blow to smite.
y
Ay
"
charkh chi karda-am turd
:
ft
**f
**>
rdst biguy
Payvasta figanda-i mard dar tag u puy (0. K.) Oh wheel of heaven, what have I done to you That you should thus annoy me ? Tell me true."
(
Whin. Rub.
499).
bi-Naw-ruz qadah gir bi-dast
Bd
Idla-rukh-i agar turd fur sat hast
May nush
bi-khurrarm ki in charkh-i kabud
Ndgdh (0. K.) " Like a tulips in the Spring your cups lift up, And, with a tulip-cheeked companion, sup
turd chu bad garddnad past.
With joy your wine, or e'er this azure wheel With some unlooked-for blast upset your cup."
(Whin. Rub.
44).
CHAPTER
96.
(a)
:
XI.
Diminutive Nouns (yÂ^^t or^âii ^\ ). Diminutive terminations are <J" - *Z- 8 and &* also colloquially
;
j.
express contempt, pity, affection, or simply give the idea of diminutiveness. The diminutive nouns may further
These diminutive forms
may
be qualified by an adjective signifying "small," "little," etc. &$ or % are used, as (6) For rational beings the three first only 3 mardak " a small man."
(1)
tX>y
mamdk
1
"little
mother"
(Sa'dl).
In prose ast would be used. Lola is in Persia, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, the
Colloquially
name
of the
common
called
red
poppy.
3
mardaka
J^,}y>
also
5
zanaka A&)
(m.c.).
This k
is
Tcaf-i
tasghhir
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
-&j zanak
1
395
"a
little
woman "
ast o**of
(rare).
little girl."
<jUiLfc>
d^t
:
dukhtarak or fy&tdukhtara " a
Tiflak-i
man nd-khush
u*A
"
e>x=
(m.c.)
"
my poor
little
child
is
sick"
Farangiyak (Trans. H.B.)
contemptible European."
(so styled
Remark. In bdd-i khurusak -~j^ ^t "croup" sound of the cough) the is nisbati.
from the
(2)
a*'
generally gives a sense of contempt:

%
iSô
2
mardaka
y
(m.c. only) "fellow."
<*6j (3) s
zanaka " virago."

:
generally gives the idea of immatureness, as
^r~j pisara "little
boy."
it^* dukhtara
"little girl."
In dushiza *)*3j& " virgin " (from dush%dan cJ^H^ji to milk) the termination appears to be the Aa., referred to in Remark to No. (5).
JU
*^J
bachcha " child, or young of any animal."
Remark
life,
/.The
termination
also
occurs
in
substantives
without
a camel-
as: i&tju,
safida (from safid, adj.
"white"):
4<
AA^ &wM
<c
hump"
(from
"a
hill"):
#&*
/a/aAra
bastinado pole" (from falak
"the sky"), videS8(b).

Remark
II.
The forms pisaru
j?/~^,
dakhtaru j*^*, kuchuku
are
colloquial only.
Remark
III.
In
juja
&wm
"
"a
foal
(of
"a lamb,"
fication.
^^
chicken,"
etc., the final
horse or donkey) ," ^ barra * has no diminutive signi-
Remark IV.
x>
Final
bandak
(class.)
frequently elided, as: Mod. Pers. v-| *îj, or cj [in

s is
^x?
banda
;].
:<
slave," dim.
*x?G
Ruz-nama
j^
"newspaper," dim. ruz-ndmcha Aûcli)^, "small book, or a daily account." Sometimes it is changed into gr, w'de (5). Similarly ^5 is sometimes elided ^ as: dim. tutak JU>t> (class.); tutiyak (mod.). ^-fe^fc tvtf, "parrot,"
ô>
An unmarried
girl
or
woman
is
called dukhtar
j>&
(m.c.).
least)
These words are properly contemptuous, but from frequent use (in Kirman at they have so far lost their force that a husband and wife use these forms in adGenerally
Aîj.
if
dressing each other.
woman
is
addressed as zanaka
*&) sne
replica,
zanaka madar-at
8
eÛ
Said to be derived from an obsolete form bach.
The "
tashdld
is
apparently used
to distinguish this word from bi-chi '*for what,
why
(or any plant) has sent out a sprout." Also falak : to which the feet are fastened by a loop and held soles upward*. The pole is held by two men.
*
Darakht bach-zada " the tree
396
(4)
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
The only termination found

L kharak-i
*>
in irrational animals
is
-, as
miskm " poor wretched
ass."
$~t
murghak-i kuchak "a little chick." " a little horse or aspak-i kuchak pony."
is
This
termination
c c
haywdnak
last
generally added to the generic noun, as: ' ' ' (vide, also ; poor creature J^y murg&ak wee little bird
'
' ' ;
example (c). or uCiy^ (5) For inanimate objects ^ and ** (or za) are used " hawzak or hawzcha (m.c.) " a small artificial pond **^ baghcha (m.c.) " a ittle garden": *f^ a kafcha "a, ladle" (fca/ the palm of the hand):
:
^^^
" a Asujb bdztcha
little
game": *^&i
"a spangle, a
" a violin
**.y kucha
'
fish's scale,
:
bow "
'
tufangcha " a scale on a bird's leg
"a
:
pistol":
c^>
pwM
(m.c.)
f*^ uô^x mardumak-i chashm (m.c.) pupil" ' a small leathern bottle lane mashkiza >j^ô
'
;
AûU^ kamdncha " of the

3
;
"
eye
:
baytak-i chand (m.c.)
"a
few
little
verses
"
;
w^ t5^^
*ia-
t^JD
ruzak-l chand (Sa'dl)
"a few
days."
jîu JS; JT
bb*
^Cix*
uX. b
îu Jtw* ^C^

*
cJo
v^xî
Diltang sham yak javak-l
6awgr bi-khur
Yd yak manak-i *
1 '
bada-yi gul-rang bi-khur.

;
Are you depressed ? then take of bang one grain Of rosy grape- juice take one pint or twain."
(O.K. 251. Whin.). " In lakhsha "a live coal, a spark," naysha a small reed " and in one or "two words the s&a is merely a corruption of cha.
Words ending
daryacha;
[f&*e
in aft/
take the termination
A*.,
as: L^d darya, dim. Aa. Uj^

\j~>
sahra,
dim. *^
l^-
sahracha;
sara, dim. saracha
As when forming the plural in an, final silent * becomes g, so sometimes with the diminutive in *, as jama &*U>" garment," wJ&cL^ jdmagak 6 " a little
:
garment
"
(wde also
(3)
Remark
IV).
The termination u is also added to adjectives, ''measles"; ^^03 talkh-ak (class.) "somewhat
as
LÛ
;
surkhak (m.c.)
bitter
" kam-tar-ak " a little less"; ^^dur-tarak (m.c.) "a little -ÛS" (m.c.) " dir-tarak a little later "; past-tarak ^y **~j (m.c.) further"; (m.c.)
the colocynth ";
^y^
" in Indian In modern Persian aspak -^*! also means a " toy horse Cavalry the when carried on wallets. the to for it is the leather cape Regiments applied covering
1
:
2 S
In m.c. kaf-glr
AsJ)Ji,
j*r^
is
name
also given to a shovel for the

for qizilcha
fire.
qiziljih
" measles"
*
(in the diet, also
properly a gold coin and a bag).
(dim. of qizil) P.: surk&ak
(m.c.)
=
or
Javak-l
t5\^
" a small barley corn or so," manak-l

-|
A/clA>
(f
$*'
"a
small
man
-so."
*
Also in mod. Pers.
jama-ale.
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
' *
397
' '
:
little
lower
' '
:
c^>
j>j>j
zudtarak " a
bad-ak na
all
dddam
(Tr.
f,M*J<J*j
t^Ûk
muzd-i hammdmi rd "I &yo tipped the bath attendant not at

little
quicker
badly"
Haj. Bab. chap. 17).
Remark.
Sta, danja or
ddnzha
The termination *j appears to be a form of **., as Aôfa "a (class.) lentil," the diminutive of Jb|d ddna.
:
or
t&>\ occur, as daricha *$u;d " a small like a window *>AU mdhicha door, i.e., "a crescent; orna(opening door)" 2 ment." In bdzicha J^jk, the Iza is also for belongs to the original form. " " animate nouns, as dushiza V&*jt> naviza a^jli a small boat." ; virgin
In a few words icha Asuj and isha
(c) The words pisar ^-o and bachcha ASU added to rational nouns, sometimes give a diminutive sense yy ?r~v C5 8 a2/ pisara mihtar or pisar-mihtar (m.c.) '* oh sa5 boy "
:
f
(not
" son of groom"); gkulam-bachcha

bachcha *fJ
1
AJ
Ûr (m.c.)
"a
boy slave":
shutar-
y^
Joe jl
(Sa'di)
"young camel";
darvish-pisar j~$ cAj;^ (Sa'dl)
a boy dervish."
j>jf^
Aaeu
âf ^
.iAUs
^jj^ j <Xf
l
Murgk-ak az bayza birun dyad u
ruzi talabad
Va ddami-bachcha na-ddrad khabar az aql u tamiz (Sa'df). The chick comes out of the egg and seeks its living, But the young of man has nothing of sense or discernment.
Remark /.Words
the
like
^ju
:
(or
juy
<^j**)
" a brook or stream" require
in the diminutive, as
^t^ or
" becomes
javak
a grain of barley
Remark 11. These diminutive suffixes are called chim-i tasykir and kdf-i tas&hir j***> ol^. In kharak ^j "poor ass" and pisark
darling
boy," the
suffix
may be
called kdf-i tarahhum
the k of compassion or kindness." or superfluous. (gen. zdlu) the kdf is zdy*id

(d)
In zaluk
^j
"a
leech" for zalu
*Jfc
The diminutive termination ak

:
also gives
a modified signification
to the original noun, as
chashmak
(m.c.)
"a wink,"
hands," (dast (t " o pusktak* somersault," (pusht back ").

"
astak "clapping of the
(chasm "eye"). " hand
").
Similarly kaj
**
crooked
is
sometimes gazh.
1
3
Baghcha
&*&
"a
little
garden
(m.c.
"
is in
Urdu
baghlcha.
Pisar-i mihtar
J^*J~T>
Dar ab pushtak
bi-zan (m.c.
and class.) " the elder son." and local) " dive into the water."
398
AFFIXED
L$
AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN.

salted);
tulchmalc
"water-melon seeds" (roasted and
(tukhm
"seed"
J"d;3
or
"egg").
bad-i khurusak
zardak " a carrot."
JUjyL Û
Remark.
signify "behold
(e)
"
croup
"
;
(imitative word).
of in
Inak and anak <-i| and -&T, the diminutives

!,
and an,
here
is
"
! ;
(anak not used in m.c.).

or kuchuli
The
' '
m.c. k&chulu
^^
very
<^^
'
' '
tiny
(for
children or
or things in a good sense) is creeping into writing. ' ' is less diminutive than the former. kuchuku small
Kuchuku
>^y
This diminutive^
-,
is
common
in m.c., as: pisaru jj~$, dulchtaru
aspu >**!, kitabujjW, etc. Mardu jby> and zanu j>j are not used, but mardaku jf^j* and zanaku } (vulg. and local) are used to express greater diminutiveness than mardak Ydru jjb (m.c. and vulg.) is used as " boy " is, by the or zanak Jo). This suffix is called vav-i tasghlr Irish, and does not express diminutiveness.
Khurasanis, in speaking, use the suffix gak Jtf as a diminutive, as " " dear or tiny little child bachchagak cj aû baradar-gak-i shumd )t>ty l*^ "your small brother." Persians however look upon Khurasanis as
(f)
;
savages.
(g)
Mashkula
*f&* "a
small mashk
J^ "
(leather water-skin),
and
rule,
mushkula *^Ckx> " a small bit of musk," are formed according to no and are probably the only examples of the diminutive terminations ula.
97.
(a)
Affixed
^, and
Arabic Abstract Noun.
Grammarians enumerate
several kinds of (Persian) formative

)
l
:
{!)
By
affixing a
^ (ma'ruf ci^**
formed, as:
to an adjective, simple or
compound,
an abstract noun
is
"wisdom,"
rom JjJ
<jQ niki "goodness," ^ta dariafi "good," and Ufa "wise": ^su ;J zar-bakhshi "the
bestowing of gold"; ^jta ^l^ jahan-dari "empire," (from J^^j), adj., " " giving gold and;!d e^l^, adj., world-holding ").* Abstract nouns are also formed by affixing this to nouns, pronouns,
verbal roots, and past participles, etc., etc., as: pddishdh aU^b
1
"king,"
Briefly,
from
*
:
all
adjectives
and from some

gi.
participles, abstract
nouns are formed
by adding
*'
silent
h becomes
From nouns,
*
adjectives are formed

' '
by adding
(_$*, as:
t^^y 8l?uJ
panjah tumanl
worth 50 tumans.
alif, as garma ^jf or cold sarma from weather" hot "cold, "hot"; garm (m.c.) (m.c.) "heat, l^/ weather"; shay da, P. "mad from love" from ahayd, substantive: vide foot-note
:
few abstract nouns and adjectives are formed by adding
<2)
to (6)
(3).
AFFIXED
padishahi ^tAÛ " non-existence "
AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN.

hasti ^j***
399
nisti
"sovereignty":
;
mam
"
"existence";
"
egotism."
In hastl
being," the
is
^Â
existence, being
" and
nisti
^^J
"
non-existence, not
If the adjective
is
added to the 3rd pers.
sing. Pres. Tense.
compound,
as: bi-dast
u pa bj e-*a
"helpless, unweildy," the

only, as: bi-dast
is
usually added to the second part of the

(^Sb j
compound
pd*i
0*0
"
helplessness."
Similarly in the case of a double simple adjective, the
^ is
usually added
(for this vide
" " ups and downs below) past u bulandi XLI, p. 236). Compare also: *Jb <J^
;
to the second only,* as: L/J J

|
jy
tar
u
;
tazagi
"freshness"
ba kamal-i saf sadiqi (H. B. Chap.
) &*& f* c>y*^ ** &$ t?4 p*> he "for me H. to sit in his B., XXII) Chap. permitted <j^& f* fJ&U " to even and smoke with to his eat him, here, however, presence, pipe,
jl
lj
(Tr.
ham-nishini (xjj^> This Persian
/*A
should be substituted for ham-nishin
eH^
/*
participles.
may
also
be added to some Arabic past
Thus from
muraTchTchas (jaa^/o
"permitted to leave and licensed," conies the

is
m.c. substantive
now
preferred to the correct

If
mura]Mhasi ^Â^Ô "permission to depart, leave" which form rukhsat o*a*;. 8

,
changed into *-^,as: banda *w "slave," bandagi ^J*u "'bondage"; shikasta AJw^ "broken," { " chuni " fracture, also being worn out, broken down (old age) shikastagi
the
55
the noun ends in silent
is
J~&
LS>J*-
and chigunagi (j&&$- "the how and wherefore; state."

This
(.5
is
called the ya-yi
masdar 4^;3âx5 ^\J

.
or the
of the verbal
noun, and also ya-yi ismi ^^-^f (^^ Such nouns are included in hasil-i masdar j^ô cLcU., vide 115. A noun may be formed from the Imperative root of the verb by
LS,
affixing
as:
(e)
khud
siicfi
<J*&*
fy^
"self-praise"
(compound word);
vide also
115
and
(i).
is the ya-yi mushabih, (2) Nearly allied to the ya-yi masdari ^ÂA/O ^b or ya*yi musahabat O.AÛAX? Û, which expresses similitude or assumption
of character, as
*>
Zagh
Sar
bi-farr-i tu
humaî kunad
(Nizaml).
ki rasad ptsh-i tu pa*i kunad.
"
Mani, P. egotism," but Ar. from root " thouart with me."
l
'
(iS
ô
seminal fluid
"
;
also ba man-l
(^>^
^
S
An instance
Rufehsat
is
of the Persian dislike to the repetition of the
same word or sound.
always used in India.
Maslar
;**A*>
source,
and hence the
Inf.
of
a Persian verb or the root
in Arabic.
400
AFFIXED
AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN
" At seeing thy splendour the magpie acts the huma, The head that comes near thee humbles itself (lit. acts the foot)." of In this example huma*i Û* and pal <^b both illustrate the " boundless Hatim of famous similitude. Hatimi cs*^ generosity (from Tay,
1
for his generosity)."

(3)
'
'
The
' '
,
Persian
from Iran
ya-yi jiisbatl ' ' Persia.

l '
^^J Û
indicates relationship, as: Irani
,
t
has a tashdid, as: Arabic relative the of tashdid but in Persian the
In Arabic, the relative
^*^
^
ô^
is
un "solar shamsiyy omitted in the mas.
"
culine, as
If
is
4 j~+>, but restored in the feminine, as, shamsiyya 4u~+ the substantive is Persian and ends in ha-yi makhfi cs^ a hamza
:
shamsl
substituted for the ya-yi nisbati
(J*~'>
ii-J " light-green, i.e. pista 6 -coloured." The forms <^*f and colour is changed into however also occur, but are incorrect. Sometimes the as: *H^ khana "a house," ^Xil^L Tchanagl "domestic' before the 6 " In India the form Ichanl "fort," garrison- soldier." qal'a ^5^* qal'agi
: ,
"
^***
as
surma-*}
' '
blue- black in
occurs as well as khanagl, vulg. Tchangl, vide also (a) (1). If, however, the word is Arabic, the relative adjective should be correctly formed according to the Arabic rule, 7 (vide Ar. Gr., Appendix); thus from
derived (j*#, Ar. "oval." The form LAV is incorrect, " silver " though occasionally used in Persian. Nuqra ly*i nuqra*i (mod.) " " made of silver but classically ^ôi is also found.
AAXJ bayza
"egg"
is
As regards the final relative
^ in words like Shirazl

S*
'
vide p. 179 of Volume
Jl.
1 Called Huma *' the Common Lammergeyer " (vide B\somurgh-i dawlat ClJjj> As. Soc. Beng., 1906) (not a mythical bird) is supposed to be fortunate; hurriayun
' '
adj.
fortunate.
' '
* This is not the Arabic that forms Arabic relatives, as (js^r** (Pers. (^ misn) "Egyptian," etc., though it corresponds to it. un 3 The "relative noun" is a substantive or adjective, as: arziyy "earthy";
:
miriyywn "an Egyptian."
For the Arabic
pi. of
these nouns vide Ar. Gr., Appendix.

&J
,
Similarly abstract (Ar.) nouns are formed
by adding
as: ilahiyyat &*&\
"God-
head"
is
also
^LJt insaniyyat "humanity." In imitation of the Arabic, this termination added to Persian words, as: Wlftriyyat "stupidity," also &harl; zaniyyat
"womanliness"; mardumiyyat, etc., bide (1) (1). The words *>}jS&> fafuliyyat " childhood " and *A*{^ karahiyat, etc., "aversion," are Arabic infinitives and not abstract nouns of the above class. Vide (c).
w
&
Similarly with plural of sects, as
c^>,
pi.
dahriyya &tj*t>
" the sect of dahrls."
tne
6
i.e.
Hebrew language
* '
is
the feminine of the word
the light-green colour of the skin of the kernel.

(.5*15
But
7
"a
tinman."
Words
of the
form **** generally make

*
<*".*
4*!*' * +
AFFIXED
1, 2, p.
^c, ETC.
is
401
the Pahlavi
179 of the Grundries der Tranischen Philologie. It Pahlavi din-ik, Persian dim, pious. This Ik Ik.
derived from
derived from
is
an older yaka (old Iranian) or possibly ika. The Hindi * is derived from a Sanskrit ika and other terminations. The old Iranian yaka or ika, and the Sanskrit ika, etc., have a common origin in
the old Aryan language.
I. This <_$ is added to the native city of a person as a but to the name of a tribe, as : Muhammad Hasan-i Shirdzi not patronymic, " Muhammad Hasan the Shirazi (or of Shiraz) " but Fath (j-jt^ (.j**^ &3uo
Remark
~Al\
Shdh-i Qajar jUtf
lfc
<Ali-yi
Afshar
" Ghulam
Jtf: Afrasiyab-i
Turk
wJfy
v^L^l
Qhuldm
however, the
' '
is
the Afshar Tribe)." For things, added to both the city and the tribe, as: Shal-i Kirmani
'All the
(of
Afshar
^yU^ JU "a Kirman

carpet.
shawl" and
qdli-yi Afshdri
ÎkJi ^l*
"an Afshar
The Persians, however, say mardum-i Kirman &(<*j> ^^ (not Kirmani) "the people of Kirman," and zariha-yi Shiraz j<j*$> <^^j "the women of
Shiraz (and not Shirazi).'
9
Remark
II.
The
;
Ar. ordinal <^ti sani (for &fc

4
1
)
" second
" does not end
in the relative
<_$
there
is
no
tashdid, neither in the masculine nor in the
feminine
' " a second of (<vCi saniya the feminine of ^ti; also means time).* " Tahudi ^3^. (P.) has for its feminine Yahudiyya AJ^^J "a Jewess also,
:
" Judea
"
and
for its plural
Yahud
^J
"the Jews."
The forms bayzavi LSJ^J

L$jj'A> (for Bisri
(for bayzi
^^
a
)
"elliptical" and Basrdvi

;
^^
though used in Persian are incorrect
vide
Notes on
Ar.
Grammar.
Remark
III.
This
is
as
dust-i
s
qadimi
qadimi ^^^ shuda and &\ JJA^ ^5*.^ l^t (m.c.) "these have become antiquated."
o***)^
:
sometimes added unnecessarily to an adjective, (m.c.) and dust-i samimi 4^*-^*-^ ^+jt> tn-ha
This
yd-yi za*i
^
"
might be considered the ya-yi nisbat
ouv~>
^b,
or perhaps the
Remark IV.
adj. (m.c.)
This
Participle
1
" that has to be written "

ordinals
" = manuscript
<_$
can be added to the

4
Infinitive,
as:
navishtani,
^^
khatti.
;
Navistani
(b) (1).
îi^y
is
also the
Future
vide
formed on the measure of In mod. in Arabic "elliptical." but Bayzi in Persian "whiteness, purity," " " " and oval Persian tukhm-murghl { elliptical." " the moderns " S The Indian Parsis are divided into two classes, rasmi ^^>) (adj.) " and qadlml ^^<^ " the old-fashioned.
The Arabic
from
2 to 10 inclusive are
^^
In India qalami
26
402
AFFIXED ^, ETC.
iM
Remark
Delhi."
V.
From
(J^^> or
From
^filaô comes
'
"Delhi," <Û,> Dihlavi "a man from ^ftk-ox^ also ^cy&^/o modern and corrupt.
^z
Marvazl ^JJJM
'
man
*
of
Marv
'
is
an irregular form of Margjiazi

'
man
Marv)
of
;
of
Margh (the supposition being that Margh was the ancient name and Razl ^Jt; an inhabitant of Ray is derived from Raz jl; the
'
older
name of the city. From Kaslian &\&\$

Badakhshan,
is
formed Kashi
^K
and from
Badakhsh).
If this
Badakhsharii
^\&
is
'an inhabitant of Kash,' or BadakhsTn uAi.bo (of
is
affixed to the Arabic Icunyat ***, the
words abu
j*\,
ibn
disappear; thus, from ibn-i Zubayr : #j &\ Abu Hanifa &&i^*j\ comes Hanafi ^5*^ .
formed Zubayri^jX), and from
Remark VI.
used
in
Another form
of the
Arabic relative termination, chiefly

.
technical or scientific terms,
is
^\
s
as:
:
^l*^.
jismani
"
corpo-
real" (no tashdld in Persian on the final ) <yK ruhanl ^spiritual"; î^y nuranl "bright, luminous" îUai nafsani "psychologic, etc." vide
notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix.

(4)
The
ya-yi maf'ul J^*i*
^L
or
^ of the object,
:
expresses
dast khattl
some person
or thing being affected by some act, as
tjb.*>
c~o
"signed"
:
J&d
la'nati
"cursed."
ya-yi fa'il cUl*
;
" warrior " hikmatl LfZ*^ (6) Other descriptions of

(1)
(5)
The
is
Û^ ^ are:
the ^ of the agent in such words as " man of science."
jangi
The
;
'
fitness
the of ya-yi liyaqat &J>(d Îj, or ya-yi qabiliyyat *z+*kti ^lj, " fit to be added to the Infinitive, as sukhtam this is the
'
^^^
burned
(2)
'
vide Remark IV. The ya-yi wdhdat oix^ ^b, the

'
'
^ of unity,' and ya-yi tanklr^^ Û

of address,'
is
the c5 of indefiniteness
(3)
' ;
vide
41.
The
ya-yi khitabi
of
1
^k*- ^.,
or
'^5-
the
person singular <e thou art good."
nik-i <^j the verb, as: kardl ^j* This second is, however, usually distinguished as,
;
" thou madest "
of the
2nd
J*5
oUjif
(4)
^(j ya-yi isbdt-i
fi'l.
The
ya-yi mutakallim
p&*
^Lj, or
'^
of the speaker,' is (in Arabic
phrases) the affixed pronoun of the 1st person sing., as:
^\
ilahl or
MM
rabbi
4 '
1 In Ya Rabb Oh God thou art

,
first
Karlm-i va karlmi karam ast o^t f L$+?J^ J ' the accent distinguishes the generous and generosity is clemency, karim-i from the second which is a substantive karlmi.
tu
'
ETC.
403
This
Lord"
lj
â**
mushfiq-i
"my
'
friend."
yd-yi muldtafati
The ya-yi si fat ^ that is ^b, ^ followed by the relative particle *>', and gives the force of the demonstrative pronoun vide 42 (b) for other names of this <^. (6) The yd-yi zdîd^j^b, or redundant ^,' occurs in the Imperative
(5)
;
" the yd of courtesy (or benignity)." *+&* or of qualification,' is the
is
also
called
after a quiescent
this
''
' '
:
alif
or j
as
bi-guy <jr^ for

;
a clever
(7)
%** workman " vide also (a) (3), Remark III. The ya-yi ishbd aUi ^k, the ^ of satiating
1
bi-gushdy Û^J for bi-gushd U> open Also in other words as in ^X;K (for /;fl)
'
or filling up,'
is
the
45-
of poetical license
used to eke out the measure of a verse as when an izdfat
is
lengthened into i:
The metre
is
Jj*J
Ûc^ e^^^ and
the izdfats after Â/O) and fio have
therefore to be pronounced long.

(8)
The
ya-yi istimrdrl
^j^\
Û,
or
^ of
repeated action,'
z
;
'
is
the
^
J )
;
added to the Preterite tense to form the Past Habitual

(9)
vide p. 225.
so
The ya-yi ma'ruf o^**> ^Lj is the ^ pronounced i (as in police named by the Arab invaders because they were acquainted with
(10)
its
sound.
The
yd-yi majhul
J^^
C5"
^ is the
classically
sounded
like e\
so
named by the Arabs because the sound was unknown to them. (11) The L$ preceded by fatha and pronounced like the English diphthong
*
ai in
*
aisle' or ey in 'they,' is called yd-yi

^j-,' its
sdkin-i maftuh
md
qabl,
i.e.,
preceding letter being movable by fatha. ^L>, is the (12) The yd-yi izdfat o^Lit Îj, or yd-yi izdfl the substitute for the izdfat after the weak consonants and j, as in
quiescent
^^
that
is
^ ^**>
and J^ 4^.
Remark
I.
e>*atj ^L;, or else
The ^ in adverbs of time may be either the yd-yi vahdat what might be called the yd-yi taqrib s-^3 ^l> (< the yd of
approximation," as in f<vof Ailiu tf ^sf** 'asr-i bud ki bi-khdna dmadam 'asr-i may also mean (m.c.) "it was about evening when I reached home"
;
subh-l
In shab-l " he must be here one of these bdyad bi-ydyadto\jg ^^xxo^^x^ (m.c.) may be either yd-yi vahdat nights or mornings, i.e. in a few days," the
this
"one
evening, an evening;
night"
(Scottice 'the night').
<*AJ
t, or the yd-yi taqrib
With
verbs, and certain particles that resemble verbs, this Arabic
C5"
becomes
trS as:
India.
8
he struck me." Obsolete in Persian" colloquial, but preserved in the speech of Afghanistan and
t5*Jf
"verily";
^j**
**
Preserved by Indians and Afghans.
404
THE TERMINAL
Remark
for
II.
Yd
is
sometimes substituted for
alif,
l
as: &\**jj
yarmaghan
armughan
(c)
^1**;! (class,
and
m.c.)
"a
present."
Arabic abstract nouns of quality are formed:
(1)
By
adding iyyat
First to nouns.
Strictly speaking these are
formed by adding the femi"

being dis-
nine
to the relative adjectives, as:

**iUol
oî
"divinity": &}**
cordant";
"humanity; politeness."
:
Second to adjectives, as
&ix<~/>3
"
poverty."
jj
:
Third to participles, active and passive, as
*JJ**XA>
mun'imiyyat
" bestow-
ment "
AJ^?^ mujarradiyyat "being

:
in solitude."
Fourth to particles, as
" how o^juf from *-^

?
"
t
:
ooAU " substance,"

gy
from >klx> ma-huw

(2)
' '
what
is it
"
is
-
This Arabic termination

oJLaj't
even added to Persian words, as:

.
oj^S*..
Other Persian forms are
OJJ>*A>
OJÂ
j:
^ri^
w'dte p.
400, foot-
note 3, and notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix. Words formed by this addition are
infinitives.
called
"*
^^
jaLaxj
"artificial
In the same way, the Persian words padshahat (Indian) and nazakat o/tJJ are formed on the Arabic measure of najabat ^*^, hamaqat
Remark
I.
Remark
II.
If
the feminine termination

is
is
added to an adjective
^l*,
fern. *jJU,
terminating in a single ^c, there

<{
no
lashdid, as:
but
" has high
of course for its feminine <uJU.
98.
(a)
(i.e.
The Terminal
* is
*.
In Persian the terminal
of
two kinds, viz.ÛS
%dhir,
" manifest "
sounded), and
9
^^/o
makhfl or
^suo
The former maybe preceded by any one

andftli
of the short vowels, as

is
mukhtafl "hidden" (i.e. mute). rah '*/' road,"

:
B-M
"grief"; farbih&j* "fat," and
8 consequently sounded.
:
As
it is
when mute is unsounded and transliterated a already stated, final considered a vowel by some Grammarians. 4
1
Also rah-avurd &)>} W)
(class.)
and
ot^w
eawghat;
all
mean a
present brought
back from a journey.

V-
Infinitive in the sense of the Arabic
Grammar,
i.e.,
verbal noun.
Panja
**
claws, grasp," but panjah (for panjah) "fifty."

8,
4 After silent
the izafat assumes the form of hamza, but after sounded
8,
it
i&
written in the ordinary manner, viz. */*^ kasrah. dropped in writing before the ha of the plural.
Mute
* should be,
but
is
not always,
THE TERMINAL
405
The
final
in Arabic
words though aspirated in Arabic as in <uK

*
kali-
x
,
mah
the pausal
orm
of
+A^
become
silent in
Persian, thus kalima; the
a of
(6)
mim
drops out.
silent 8 is
Mute or
(1)
A noun
"
to form a
added to noun that bears a

:
relationship or resemblance to
it,
;
as: dast^^^>
"hand,"
dasta
***& " handle"; garm-dba
&^^ = hammam
"
chahar-chuba &j*. ^-^ " frame Ujiyf reputation; singing (of door, " ewer." This * is called o^l^x> picture, etc.) aftdba Ajlwf ha-yi musha-
avdza
"
Û
bahat "the
(2)
of resemblance.'
'
from boston
of the verb to form substantives. Thus *b stem "to bind" comes bandd "a u>X~j (Imp. slave," band) and from didan o*^ (shortened Inf. did) comes dida *&:>* "eye": ginston
It
is
added to both stems
&*~?jZ (girl) "to weep," girya *>J ''lamentation": nalidan iâJU (nal), ndla *HJ "complaint": shukufa &>^ "blossom": larza *jj) "trembling"
from larzldan &&jj)

This
verbal h."
%
khanda >ia." laughter."

(^1*'
is
called
^LÔ
Û
ha-yi makhfi-yi
fi'li
"the
silent
added to adjectives to form analogous nouns, as: safid **&* U-o "black," siyaha AA!JU "an (adj.) "white," safida fexJi* siyah "a claw, a bunch five," panja *=uy inventory, list of items" pan?
(3) It is
1
:
'
îj
of fives, grasp, possession"

(4) It is
but chap*-*** "left," chappa***." left-handed."
" chahar-sJidba *& every fourth night har-ruza fyj j& (t daily ; ; t^ shaban-ruza &(& "lasting 24 hours"; du-dila *)*j* "wavering, of two " &** " endurminds dvrbam JJ;^ " once more, over again" ; chand-ruza ing for a few days, short-lived": har-sdla *JU y, -''yearly": ruza *j " " " 3 " five du-ruya **)) daily, also a fast pronged panj-shakha a^ti Ju " " " of two men double, two-faced "; du-marda* ^yo jt> (task, work, etc.).
old
l
;
used to form adjectives or adverbs of time, age, number, etc., as: chaharsala,'1 ^JU^l^. "four years' old"; du-maha *Al/oj^ "two months'
"
"
"
This
8 is
called ha-yi nisbat O*A~O
Û
Safida-yi
(or
saplda-yi)
subh
**>
^jj*
"the dawn":
Tiisab
siyahl-yi
chashm
(m.c.)
*'a
list
Alx^ (m.c.) "the black of the eye," but siyaha-yi of the account, statement."
v -^
1
^^
Subs, chahar-salagl <^&\* being four and five years' old."
j^,
panj-salagl
(^L-
ÂJ,
etc., etc.,
"the
state of
3 Du-ruya sipah *^** fyjj* "the opposing (facing) armies." Du-ruya &>)) j<> sometimes means in two ranks, but whether facing each other or one behind the other is
doubtful.
4
Ml-daniatam chand-marda hallaj budam fty
knew
^^
tej*
***
p*"*^*
(m.c.)
" I
my limitations
capabilities."
406
(5)
THE SUFFIXES ban, ETC.
The feminine form

:
of
some Arabic past

*j
participles
is
used substan-
tively in Persian, as
" embod" a statue ", from mujassam mujassama *+~.x>

yd
ied":
a feminine agreeing with surat, etc., understood: t}^* " vide "an inclosure." This is also the " h of resemblance (b) (1). " " mardana fit for a king (or kings) (6) In such words as shdhdna aUl the is g some called native cJ>lj{l by A>!<5j*>, etc., grammarians hd-yi liydqat
it is really
;
:
^^
"the h
of fitness or suitability,"
and
is
supposed to be added to the noun

self-
in the plural (shdhdn, etc.).
Ana
interested
(c)
&if,
manner"
however, occurs as a separate suffix, as in &>U; "in a " vide 108. dastana "glove" sdldna "yearly
;
:
Further uses of mute
are
(1)
To form
" the
" the departed, the dead ").

yi maf'ul
silent
the past participle, as: rafta *ij>; This I is called JJ*A*>
"gone" (pi. raftagan eJ&J; âii^ Û hd-yi mukhtafi-
h of the passive participle."
"
the participle is past active, as: shumda guft oJtf jf*xxJJV " having heard he replied," the * is called -Al^ ^5 lA hd-yi atf "copulative
When, however,
is
and
considered equal to the conjunction j
"and,"
as: shunid va guft
(2) It is
navisanda
used to form the agent (a present participle) of the verb, as: &k "writer" (also part, "writing") and is then called
&
oJbU
"the silent of agency." ^(A ha-yi mukhtafi-yi ja'iliyyat used to form the feminine of Arabic words, thus malik "king" malika " Queen" (in Arabic malikah). This is called eoJG ha-yi tanis.
^JUsfe.x
(3) It is
Û
Remark.
In Persian,
this feminine s is considered a silent h,
but not so
in Arabic, thus
(4)
*&* malikat un (and malikah) Ar.

of nouns, vide
To form the diminutive
96
(b) (3)
and Remark.
<J
Remark I. The final mute 8 of a Persian " in Arabic, thus 3&~J pista, P. " a pistachio-nut
Remark
Kina. 99.
II.
word sometimes becomes

'
is (jS~- ?
fustaq in Arabic.
:
The
final
is
sometimes redundant, as in ty^ chara
The
Suffixes
^
&j>1
ban or
van;
^ vdna;
and
(a)
un and &j
van.
from mdnanda g&UU
be a corruption of man &(*, contracted " remaining" (also resembling "). They are more probably the Sanskrit suffix van or wan, and are, accord-
These
suffixes are said to

<c
ing to Platts, in 0. P. and Zend pdna.
Gari-wan or gari-ban
e^j^
or ovfjj'^ Hindustani,
" driver
of hackney-coach
etc."
THE SUFFIXES
(6)
gar, ETC.
407
:
(1)
This suffix added to substantives forms substantives, as &(&(> bdcfkbdn (m.c.) gardener "; darvdn (m.c.)
' '
pdsbdn
is
c*
"
***^
^z
e<
AjU sdya-bdn "a shelter (from sun, rain, etc.)"; (this last written "collar of a coat" (that which u>UjL) giribdn usually guards the neck )."
of camels)
:
"
sentry,
watchman
:
' '
;
shuturbdn olî*
"porter"; camel-man (in charge
^
it
' '
^J
:
(2)
To nouns
*).
forms adjectives, as
cA^t*
mihr-ban
"kind"
(in
m.c.
mihrabdn
(3)
Gar dun
2
humayun OJ^+A
astarvana
fortunate."
"the wheel of heaven"; wazhun &$j "inverted" Van c/j, and vdna *'*j (and un) are also affixes
,
forming substantives of relation, as: parvdna Aii^
"moth
(feather-like)";
Wj?/-*', astarvan &jj*~1, satarvan cyy^, etc. (lit. mule-like) "barren, a barren woman"; pulvdn uL5<~L> (bridge-like) the raised path or partition
in
a field."
100.
(a)
The
Suffixes gar
/,
gar
^,
gari
^,
"
kdr
it signifies
The Persian suffix gar "doer or maker,"

;
is
the old Persian suffix kara, Sanskrit kdr

t:
attendant"
parvardagdr
:
(also a king)"
performer of service, i.e. God one who nourishment, provides *}^^^ " teacher " " successful" kdm-gdr jZ*^ dmuz-gar ffij*>\ (m.c.)
;
as: khidmat-gdr ^l**^
ruz-gdr
jtfjj)
"time, etc."
;^t| ydd-gdr
(in
:
m.c.
ydd-i-gdr)
"souvenir";
jg**$ gunah-gdr
or;(<^ gundh-kdr "sinner"
;lfjU sdz-gdr also jfcjU* sdz-kdr
"
(class.)
agreeing with (of food, climate)."
Remark.
is
In ydd-gdr
j&
;
"
memorial, souvenir,"
etc.,
the idea of agency
not marked.
" it is even less In ruz-gdr jfjjj " time fortune prominent. in Sanskrit kar: kara and Gar is a in Zend similar (6) suffix,
;
it is
f$
probably connected with, or contracted from, kdr y<, gar )tf, etc. vide (a). It has the signification of the English suffix -er. Examples: zargar } " " " kdr-gar ^&ty tavdngar rich goldsmith (or a worker or maker in gold) "one skilful in business; also taking effect (as of medicine, of an
1 ' ;
;
oration, etc.)
"
^tx**^ Icimiyd-gar
" an alchemist."
Mihr, P.: Sanskrit mitr or mitra or mihira.

97
(a) (1)]
By
affixing a
<jT
\ya-yi
masdar or
ya-yi mushabahat, vide
wo
;
get further substantives, as: shiitur-bani
jkj&
" the work or office of camel-man

*
"
mihrbarii
^^jif*
" kindness."
Huma
I**
or
humay
^c^
the Lammergeier or Ossifrage, a bird anciently
reverenced.
3
" to do," Sanskrit kartum, All are connected with the verb &Sj' kardan, P.
and
give the idea of actor or action.

*
Sometimes written as
408
ar, ETC.
Remark
while gar
I.
It should be noticed that gar
generally signifies a maker,
^ indicates a performer.
II.
Remark
which
*>\*
By
adding a formative ^, the

:
suffix
gan
<jr/ is
formed
^
If
signifies
(m.c.)
bawar-chi-Miana-gari
"art, business," as u shikar-chl-garl nami-danad ^c/ " he knows nothing about the business of a shikari." In India " the AiUL art."
^-^^
^b
culinary
two words occur together,

l
it is
usual
second only, as: Babl u

religions."
(c)
Sufl-garl (s
add the suffix to the "the Babi and Sufi \f*+ $ <Jb
to
Kar ft
' '
work
' '
is
another suffix sometimes interchangeable with

' ' ' (
^
(in
gar.
lk$ gunah-kar India gunah-gar) "evil-doer, sinner "; taqsir-kar*1 j\6j>&& "one who has
;
Bad-kar ;<* " evil-doer
' '
jafa-kar
)\t(&*>
oppressor
committed a fault."
Possibly in amuz-gar j(fjyf and kam-gar j^fK, tuted for kar^. s
101.
(a)
etc.,
the affix
is
substi-
Ar /, dar jt,
al Jf.
4
By
cutting
:
off
the final
of the Infinitive
and adding
kirdar
b
ar, verbal
nouns are formed

(1)
Indicating action
as
(as opposed to words)

(2)
"
guftar ;Uj
"speech";
j*j>
"works
j*>j^
)\&>.t> "seeing, sight." This termination sometimes gives the sense of an agent, as kharidar ' " a wor" " deceiver ' 6 (m.c.) buyer firiftar )^j parastar j&jt
;
:
didar
'
'
shipper
(3)
(class.);
a nurse (modern)." Occasionally this termination

<f
is
found in concrete nouns, as

anything
kushtar
slain in
;
;lio (m.c.)
sacrifice
anything that has died of itself (m.c.) anything killed otherwise than with the orthodox Muslim rite."
;
"
anything
killed (also slaughter); classically
murdar y^'
"
carrion,
i.e.
also
If,
however, the
wa, as:
suffix
be added to both words, then the copulative j must be
pronounced
foot-note
babi-gari va sufl-garl (^
taqslr
(ji^J
'
(Sjp
(*\*.
vide also 97 (6) (3),
(3).
Similarly
u gunah-kar or taqsir-kar va gunah-kar
Also jf^Jj-cW taqsir-war, jt^^âft taqsir-dar and <*> ^-JyAftJ taqsir-mand. substantives like ^jff j./o^^ khidmat-gari "service, office of By adding attendant " zargarl " the business of goldsmith " c/JV^ kargari " skill (in doing or " are formed. making anything)
*
8
According to Platt's (Hindustani Grammar) the
suffixes are tar,
and
dar,
added
after cutting off dan.

6
Note
not kardar as might have been expected.
Farushanda
ftoiwi
(m.c.) not farukj^tar
;L^J>y
farlbanda
^^
(m.c.).
THE TURKISH AFFIX

(4)
ji,
ETC.
409
as
adjectives with a passive signification are formed by this suffix, ' ' ' taken captive ; arrested. giriftar ;&*/ " " " is said to be derived from dav 1 j\& " stratum wall (5) Divdr j.jj*
'
Some
and
dr.
(b)
Ddr y* is the Imperative stem of ddshtan (^\^> " to have, to hold," and in compounds generally signifies "holder, keeper," as: pishdniddr * jbîlkAJ (m.c.) "fortunate"; db-ddr jla vf (m.o.) "a man who looks after
*>
tea, pipes, etc."
hissa-dar jta &*&* (class.)
" share-holder."
It
11
is
also
used in forming adjectives from nouns, as: pich-ddr j\**^
twisted."
If the
;^
noun be a compound of two synonyms, the affix is added to the second noun only, as: pick u kham "twists," pick u Tchamdar " <: u hush-ddr J& 3 " twisted
^ ^
-?
p^J %
'aql
y^
uy^
intelligent, etc."
:
Remark.
The
Infinitive itself
man &*
Âx>f
my
coming
"
;
can be used as verbal noun, as

115
(h).
dmadan-i
vide
The shortened
farukht
*?>*
infinitive
<
can also be used as a verbal noun as

,
kharid
^ tx^k
p*^
^
(c)
;
c^t
v^
buying and selling"
(m.c.)
"I
az guft-i u man Tear kardam did this at his instigation"; vide

;
m
:
| llfi
((*).
" claw
Al Jf is a relative suffix that forms substantives, as J&^ changal fork" JUia dumbdl " tail, after-part." In zangdl Jîj " rust " (for zangar, the letters I and r being interchange;
able) the termination appears to be redundant.
102.
The Turkish
Affixes Ji
or ch%
Bash
Task or Dash
(a)
The Turkish
1
affix chi affixed to

;
a noun, forms a noun of the agent or
a noun indicating possession

C5^ o^y qush-chl
chi
*'
it
;
falconer
;
"
" " u&)<& a shikari

prepares coffee." In Persian this chi
6
qatir-chl
" a musketeer " shikar^sJiîj banduq-chi " a servant " a muleteer "
occurs chiefly in
modern
Persian.
Example
;
who
^^*
^^
appears to be applied to professions only.
By
imala, dlv.
<jr;!^T is
:
Abdarl
a mule with saddle-bags fitted for a journey; lamp, tea-materials,
pipe, etc., etc.

3
also called j'-ij^ nahar-dar-
Or ba
'aql
u hush
o^ ^ J&c b
Chi has
much
the same signification as wala in Urdu.

this suffix is
of Turkish
Infinitive to signify the agent,
(Kashghar and Yarkand), and to a noun to signify profession, as: zakat-chl

are continually dropping in.
In the Uighur dialect added to the Future participle of
"custom's official." 6 The business of one servant, as guests
410
If
dan. the substantive

;
end
in
"treasurer"
scullion)"
:
mash'al-chi
parvanchi ^sul^j
^ "one who
cUi^
1
&,
the
* is dropped, as khizan-chi ^su]^ "torch-bearer (in India dish-washer,

:
writes parwanas,
or
Government
as
:
orders, etc."
After a soft letter like ^, chi

bustdnjl ^suli-ojj instead of chi is
^^
in m.c. sometimes
becomes
jt
(_$=*,
"a gardener";
ji
commoner in Tehran owing
miyanji ^/sxJU** to Turkish influence.
"a mediator."
Possibly
For the forms shikar-chi-gari ^j*

etc., ride
(6)
^^
j^**,
qush-chi-gan
^cj>
(^ u^>
100
(6)
Remark
II.
few compounds are formed by the Turkish words bash " head," and tdsh or dash " companion," as qizil-bash (lit. red- headed) " a soldier; a
Persian;
tash
Qizil-bash; etc.,
etc."; yul-dash" a guide "; beg-tash or khwaja103.
"
fellow- servant."
Dan
e>b.
The
as:
ej!>
;
affix
" case
khak-dan (m.c.) "the grave " kumaj-dan &\*** \+* "a, copper 6 cooking-pot" o'a Aj^ anfiyya-dcin (m.c.) "snuff-box."
e^tA^la.
;
1
^b signifies something that holds, or contains, a vessel, " a t**J namak-dan "a salt-cellar"; ^1^*^ 3 qalam-dan (m.c.) pen;
dan
Remark.
after
Compounds with the

'place,'
'
suffixes
-
j'a,
.
and those mentioned here-
that
signify
as:
&tf
AJLL
ÎLo
^13
'
!f
^
:
jb
(as
)
in
rud-bar), etc.,
form Persian compound nouns of place

'
v-^
' '
-ir^
pl
In Arabic the
noun
S\*AJ
of
time and place
"
place of slaughter, a vital spot

;
"
; '
has special forms, as maqtal clia*= " the East (time or place mashriq (j^-M
'
of rising)
masjid
*
mosque.'
Those
the term
nouns
suffixes zar jfj,
of place' that signify 'abounding in' (formed by the - -- are sometimes sar ;U, barjl, lakh distinguished by
&j&
'
c5^***'
nouns
6
of excess.'
Such words as ^'.UJ
"cursed"
are
included under Jy*xi ^f.
For
^t,
104-
vide
^13,
!
68 VIII.
sar
6ad5
Zar
graA
55
f,
jL, sâw ^l^ or istan &&*>, lakh $, kada ^f gard &jl -, khana AJl^, sfom t^, ?ia t>.
,
:
*>,
(a)
(1)
The
affix zar
fj signifies abounding in, as
Namak
zar )]j+* "salt-ground (where nothing
grows)"; shura-zar
In Arabic
J*
is
c*,
but in Persian also

chi.
2
8
a Western Turkish form of

sliding
long box with a
drawer that contains pens, an inkpot, and scissors with
specially-shaped handles, for cutting the paper. painted and are very costly.
*
6
Some qalam-dans cM+A*
are beautifully
Originally used for baking a kind of bread in fat.
In Persian anfiya &fc&t without tashdid.
Compare
<Û^
'
skilful
' :
vide
108 (a) Remark.
zdr, ETC.
411
oils
saltpetre
ground";
'alaf-zdr
;
;|j
"meadow"
(m.c.)
1 ;
kdr-zdr )\j
jf
"
field of battle
(6)
"
(place of deeds)
gul-zar ;tj
J^
"any garden."
:
The affix sar jU has the same meaning, and forms substantives and adjectives, and denotes plenty, magnitude, similitude, or possession, as 2 chashma-sdr ;U <x+^ "a place full of (1) Kuhsar ; U */ "hilly"
;
"
springs
sharm-sdr ;L>
I.
"full of shame."
Remark
Sang-sdr kardan
cwX;Uu.
'
" to stone a person."
to
Remark //.In rukhsar jU^; " face modify the word rukh ^>
(2)
cheek," the termination appears merely

(m.c.)."
born"
subuk-sar )(*>*
" light-headed; also unburdened by luggage nigu-sar, or nigun-sar j& or^L^y^, in classical Persian = "one who hangs the head from shame"; but in modern Persian only "inverted (= sar-nigun)."
"
;
"like." khak-sar* ;l~^tk shah- sar ;U*U "like a king, kingly." " (3) It is used for sar head," as \-sag-sar jL.
:
It also denotes
"like dust, base, low-
"
(old)
' '
dog-headed
(c)
The
affix stan
' (
the Sanskrit sthan

in a vowel
" &^~* or istan &&*\ signifies place,' and is derived from The former is used after a substantive ending place.'
'
'
and the
(place of scent)
"
;
latter after a consonant, as: bu-stan c^^? "a garden " Hindustan* &\ij&i& " India garden gulistan ^^J^
' ' ' '
;
(place of roses or flowers); qabristan
olL^M "grave-yard"; Farangistan

:
"Europe."
In a few words the termination gives the idea of time, as tdbistan ' summer zamistdn Û-xj winter spring. cA*-jitf bahdristdn
<
<
' '
< '
' '
' '
'
Remark.
As regards the termination

:
c/f
an found
in so
many names,
M. Chodzko writes
"
du
Quelques erudits persans m'ont assure qu'anciennement le formatif pluriel &\, donnait aux mots primitifs le meme sens geographique que leur stdn\ i.e. qui est tres probable; car an veut dire aussi propriete de,
:
appartenant a
appartient.
^f
:
jt
ez
an hud, de son propre avoir, de ce qui lu

ville,
Examples hemadan nom d'une
&V
<>;f
ardelan
nom
d'une province,
nom d'une
province,
e^j^
mazenderan de meme,
zar j'j
*
3
Chaman is an artificial lawn or any stretch of good grass ^-^ a green spot covered with weeds and grass.
Kuhistan
\d*~>&jfi
or a
meadow,
etc.,
'alaf-
means country with
big
mountains; kuhaar y**tjr "hilly."
With the formative

Also Hind.
^,
Tchak-sarl
Û-S'l^ "humility."
an
(bamdadan
vi>^f5
*
6
For
the adverbial termination
^,
na-gahan
c>^
and
rastan c^^tj) (Afghan), etc. vide Adverbs.
412
azer-btjan de
zar, ETC.
meme, &>(*> cî

la contree
desht-i
haveran,
les
il
le
desert
de Haveran,
les Ardels,
doivent,
suivant ces
erudits, etre traduits:
Hemeds,
les
marais
(jil),
dans
la quelle (ender)
y a beancoup de grands
du
(maz) arbres ou des chenes (mazu), les adorateurs ou les enfants (big-beee) feu (azer), les deserts de 1' Occident (haver), etc."
Remark.
cAL,
In poetry istan
is
sometimes pronounced
sitan, as: gulsitan
Jf
(d)
for gulistan &\Z~tf.
The
i
affix lakh
$ signifies "place," or
"numerous, copious," as
rocky, stony ":
&&,
* '
sang-ldkh (m.c.)
"a stony place
^^
div lakh
a demon-haunted place."
(e)
Kada
**>
;
compound, "place,"
may-lcada
mourning"
"habitation, house," and as the last number of a :Atash-kada ** <j&f (m.c.) " temple of the Magi " " a tavern " mdtam kada *** "house of (m.c.) ^3lx>* (class.) but-kada **? o*j " an idol
*&
signifies
as
temple."
Remark.
banujA]<tf
In kad-khuda \<&*f
"a
"a
housewife, a good manageress," the prefix
married man, a householder"; leadis an abbreviation
of kada *^.
(/)
Oah *% (Sanskrit
"
Place," as:
;
gatu)
is
an
affix
*tf
(1)
bedding"
jarud-gah " a seat "
(2)
Khwab-gah ^^ bedroom, also a cloth valise for " an ^ cuu takht-gah (m.c.) open-air platform for sitting on" ^ ^ (m.c.) "halting place"; nishiman-gah er*A^J (m.c.)
;
denoting "
jjlf
dram-gdh
as:
itf
^*f;f
(m.c.)
"a
resting place."
"Time"
;
(m.c.)
" then "
of season."
"the evening time"; an-gah* a&f that" bi-gah j$Kjj " untimely, out "after pasangdh '^fo^ Sukhan na-bdyad guft magar dngdh ki maslahat bdshad (class.
Shdm-gdh
a'f
;
116. and modern) &k cusJLA/o *^ jjlôf ^/c oA^ Ûi îu vide also suffixed to a noun denotes a city or place of (g) The word dbdd* abode, as Bahrdm-dbdd aUf ft^j (Bahram Town). The adjective dbdddn ^tk'f is not used in forming compounds. found in a few names of towns, appears to (h) The affix gird or gard have a similar signification, as &J> f l^j Bahram-gird : &j&> *jt Yazdijurd (for
^
:
Yazdigird).
In Ddrdb-kard
^ ^y*
(near Shiraz), the suffix
is
perhaps a corruption.
Also sang-lakha (m.c.) and sangistan (m.c.).
In m.c. matam-khana or matam-sara
Gah is sometimes contracted which means " human excrement)."

%
into gah &>
no t to be confounded with
&
guh
"
Abad kardan "to cultivate a place, or found a cultivation; also the condition of being populous or inhabited."
*
&&}&$
town ": i^S^f abadl
umand, ETC.
()
413
"house" as a suffix has a somewhat similar meaning and & s(f as: kdr-khdna AJU^tf " factory": rud-khdna aiU. " bed of a river and hence " a river.' 1 properly added to nouns, also forms a noun of place, (j) The suffix sfaw
Khana
*JIA>
to kada i*
' '
'
as
" window "

(k)
gul-shan <îJ?
it is
"a rose-garden or rose-bed. a corruption.
5 '
In rawshan <jj;
(for
rawzan)
is added to nouns or adjectives, as: narrow place"; tdz-nd or tiz-ndy j (class.) "the prominent part of the sword edge that does the work (lit. place of sharp" " strait." db-nd
Nd
U (sometimes way Û)
tang-na U&3
"a
ness)
Uuf
In Indian Persian,
this suffix is often written ÎJ.
Remark.
Nd
is
:
also
added to some adjectives to form substantives

"
tijlp (class.)
of
cognate meaning, as
105.
dardz-nd
length."
,
Umand
is
***J,
Ndk
(a)
Wand *Jj and ^, Ik sSf.
Mand ^^
"
a suffix joined to nouns, generally to form adjectives,
and
signifies
possessor of, possessed of," as:
"
intelligent
Khiradmand ^v*^. 4 "possessed " sud-mand ^*> "

;
In arjumand
'
t>i*a>t) (also
is
" wisdom, wise"; aqlmand <yuiap tanu-mand Ûî3 strong." s^ profitable " arjmand) "noble," and barumand <>i^ fertile,
of
' '
;
fruitful,'
the suffix
a form of maud.
Wand &>j is occasionally found for mand î*, as in khwishd-wand toji&jijtL <e hard (like steel)"; khudd-wand &>y*> "kinsman"; puldd-wand <^^|
"master."
(6)
Ndk
-Û
added
to substantives, forms
an adjective
of quality, as
gham-ndk uU*p "sad"; khawf-ndk clxj. "frightful"; khatar-ndk ^b^*. " dard-ndk <Jti " " *}* painful." dangerous used to form some substantives from verbs, JJfc is a termination u^f (c) from as: pushdk tÛ^j "raiment" c;^^; khurdk Jt;>^ "food" from
;
oji)^
5MzaA;
tJ'lJô
"gonorrhoea."
Remark.
In maghak
^~
'
"ditch; low place, etc.," from

vide
magh&
"depth,"
is
and tabdk
'
*M
"fever," the termination, apparently the same,
termed a relative
suffix
by native Grammarians
115
(e).
106(a)
i.e.
Bar
&
and Ydr
;l>.
(1)
The
'
suffix bar
signifies
'abounding
in,'
as: zang-bdr jb
^j,
"channel of a abounding in blacks'); rud-lar $** (class.) Zangibdr " river" sang-bdr jb t^Ju* (old) abounding in stones, stony."
(
:
There
is
is
hardly a river in Persia.
Any dry
nala
'
that becomes a stream after
rain,
*
called Ail&^jp rud-khana.
With the formative
c5> l&hiradmandl
414
(2)
dvar, ETC.
Bar ^
used
;
is
also the root of c*H>lj
and
"
signifies
raining, scattering,"
l
"scattering fcj* mellifluous." shakar-bdr raining sugar, ;l^ pearls (3) Bar ju is also a substantive signifying "load," and is also used in compounds, as: pur-bar jt^j "fruitful (of fruit trees)"; sar-bar jly (m.c.)
5 '
' '
and
is
to
form
compounds, "
as:
gawhar-bdr
a small extra load on a transport animal. In a few adjectives, the suffix takes the form of yar ;l>, as
(also bakht-dvar,
' '
"fortunate"
bakht-var or baTchtur,
and bakht-mand)
j** or htishyar jU&*>

107.
"
full of senses, intelligent."
-4ww
jyf
(contracted /f
);
Far
j.,
and
var
c^; and
(a)
Man Û
tives
The affixes avar ^/T, and o> yf, which are used in forming adj Acfrom substantives, are from the verb e^;/T "to bring" and signify
or displaying," as:
"bringing, producing,
:
j^
dil-avar
"brave
(dis-
;jT;^j; zur-avar "strong (bringing strength)." playing heart)" In solar jilU " chief," the suffix is the same, but contracted.
(6)
Related to the above mentioned are var )\j and var
^*
and
tyj vara
these suffixes
}j (J>'^t
" hopeful; a candidate "; " " a gush-var (or gush-vara] )\yj ear-ring (becoming or adorning the ear) shah-var yj*>\*;i "befitting, or worthy of a king, kingly "; zarra-var " " sukhan-var " an animal "like an atom jan-var jt>l^ (possessed of life)
;
mean "endowed with, possessed (m.c.) "learned"; umrmdvar ;tjoA/ct
of, full
of," as:
ddnish-var
eloquent "; nam- var j^/oli "famous." In musht-vdra tyj&>>< "handful, the measure of a hand," the * is redundant. In ditirjd* (also dil-avar ))$&) " brave," is another contraction of the
"
same
suffix.
Remark.
''worthy."
The
suffix
var jj
is
sometimes redundant, as: sazd-vdr jtjt>*

is
In;>?U) ranjur "sick," the suffix

(c)
The
suffix
;
gdn
perhaps the same as var.

similitude,
as: Tchuddygan
5
signifies
cXjl&^
"a great lord

"worthless " fit for a
happy."
"
;fj,
It also, like vdr

(fit
to be cast
;
king"
worthy of ," as: rdygdn* c;&.i; ( tij ) on the road)": shdy-gdn* J&>& (for shdh-gdn) " merchant." bdzar-gdn ofe^b (for bdzdr-gdn)
signifies
Gawhar-barl ()*j*jr subs, with the formative <^.
2
3
In India generally, but vulgarly, hoshiyar.
With the formative
t^, dil-avari ^^jilj.
* All adjectives
may
be used as adverbs, but adjectives in var

ra-e-gan, sha-e-gan, etc.
)\j
and ana O
specially adverbial in their signification.

6
In India pronounced Khuda-e~gan
ana, ETC.
415
Remark.
Dihqdn &\AA*
is
the v.^** of dihgdn &%*>& or

suffix is
dih-Tchan
In girdgdn d$*J> -like."

(d)
" walnut " the
perhaps a corruption of
&
"sky" (like a revolving In shddmdn c/*>^ the suffix 'mill-stone'); Û^ "guest." seems to mean ''continuity": or ,>& = " glad" (i.e. temporarily happy). Musalmdn cA+A*~*> is by some said to stand for muslim-man, by
cA* "like,"
Man
as:
ds-mdn e/*-f
mih-mdn
Û
others to be a corruption of the Persian
pi. of
muslim, and by others to be a
corruption of the
Arabic plural.
108.
Ana *f
l ;
Ina
&
*
In
&
*
and An & and An ^1 Ray, and Vdv
j.
(a)
The inseparable
adjective
suffix
it
is
"like"; as an
as
:
ana added to nouns or adjectives signifies usually applicable to things, not to persons,
Marddna
' '
*i|ayo
"like a man,
manly";
dlv-dna
**[?>&
:
"mad
*Jlij
div)
rubahdna AJUby
"
fox-like (in behaviour)

;
"
;
wily
zandna
(like a " femi-
nine, peculiar to
AJ&JJ
**'>\j j}
"in an ugly manner"; ziringana " in a smart or clever manner" dast-dna &lLo "glove"; ruzdna " vide 43 also 98 and (adj.) (6) (6). daily" (aa)
zishtdna AJU^j
;
women"
;
added to Arabic adjectives 'djizdna in a helpless or humbled manner."

It can also be
4t
^f^lc "helplessly,
" (but not mard-i dustana Kdghaz-i dustdna Aitt*o^ 6^(^ "a friendly letter a friendly man"); dustdna AJU**^^ could, however, be used as an adverb, " he acted in a as dustdna Tear kard friendly manner." ajliâ " he In khawfndk-dnapursid **jj ai^lii^ (m.c.) enquired fearingly," the added to the Arabic substantive khawf Jy^, forms an Persian affixed ndk
:
^^
"fearful," applicable to persons; while the additional affix ana Tarsnak-dna Aif forms an adverb or an adjective applicable to things. Persian. all are its has the same signification, but compounds
adjective
aitflL-y
(b)
(1)
In
trt
*
and
ma
are
two more formative elements used

:
for
forming adjectives of relation

of gold
c>x*^J,
(nisbat), as
zarrm^j)
(m.c.)
" from zar adj. "made
gold;
of
simm* e^*^* (m.c.) "made wool," or pashmma A^*J, subs, "a woollen stuff"
:
golden, made silver" of pashmin

;
"
All adjectives
may be
used as adverbs, but those
in var
and ana are
specially
adverbial in their signification.

*
S
silver
" daily; daily pay, pension." (class.) In modern Persian rim means "wire"; the Arabic word *> nuqra " " and tila &> for gold but khayll zar darad (m.c.) he is very rich
Buzina
:
' '
is
;
used for
zar-varaq
(m.c.)
gold
leaf.'
'
416
puslin
1
ana, ETC.
&**<*x>
coat"; pustma* &^~jj (adj.) "; dirina 3 dti^j^ (m.c.) skins"; pishin ^^-^ "of silver" (also "old, ancient: ^5 jôi (rare) *;&, also ^^QJ and f^ftj).
Afghan
sheep-skin
"an
"made
of
"
of former times
Adjectives formed by the terminations asa Uf, -ana *Jf etc., signifying "like," or by fdm fti, gun &^ t etc. "colour," are classed as "nouns (adjectives) of similitude."
Remark.
(2)
The termination
in &J
also
denotes resemblance in colour, as:

(.#
zumurradin e^^3> "emerald green"; zarrin

bulurin
"golden coloured";
It also forms superlatives.
c*>b
^&<
"like crystal or
made
of crystal."
Remark
but sangi
I.
c '
From sang *_&* "stone" comes made of stone."

The
suffix in
sangin ^^**
"heavy,"
Remark
pisJiin LJ-J^J
II.
&*
also forms the superlative degree,
but in
and pasin
&*?"$ it
seems to have a comparative sense.

:
It is also
(c)
added to the cardinal numbers, as avvalin ^xfy vide 48 (c). 4 like the suffix in <^J, is used to form relative The suffix an ^T
; ,
adjectives
eAjlj
and nouns as in biydbdn &M# "desert" (from vt cs^) pdydn "end " kuhdn cAy "horse-saddle; camel-hump." " " The suffix in pishdni J>^% forehead is probably formed from this arc.
;
;
This suffix
6
;
is
found
in
names, as
Iran
&]jt\
and Turdn
<jf;y
Isfahan
Kerman). In dbdddn c>'^T "inhabited," it appears to be redundant. In subhgdhdn e>Ul^sUAC, bdmddddn ^ti&'ck, yagdn yagdn d&* &&, bahdrdn
(near
y
Mdhan ^lÛ
the suffix
is
adverbial.
it is
In jdviddn
(d)
^^(A. and jdndn e^^^
adjectival.
joined to some substantives forms relative nouns, as: riman from rim p*) " pus, matter," etc. jushan c^J^ " coat of mail " from jush L^>^ " a rm g ( m a coa t of mail, etc.)." It is sometimes pleonastic, as: pdddshan ^tÛ for pdddsh u ib " " ^ z ^ sun or ^ or direction zibdn
(adj.)
;
An &
ct>^3
^3
&***
SU^K
side,
lafchan^s^
for
lafch
^"thick-lipped, camel-lipped."
" to blab out a secret" and
Pustln darldan
M)&?.)& (zj*?~jJ
(class.)
pustln kandan (class.) or dar pustin-i kas-l uftadan c>^^l ^5-^" " are classical backbite idioms.
*
eH^^J
î\
;^
(class.)
"to
In
pust-i
mlshma
?
ast
ya buzlna?
a sheep or goat's skin

3
"
M.O-J
î
^**!
*i*k* ou*^J
.c.)
"is this
4
6 6
Dlr j4& "late," but yar-i dirina *ijj& An-i nisbat.
)\j
" an old friend."
Ir ji\ and Tur )j> are said to have been sons of Farldun.
Always pronounced Mahun:
agin, ETC.,
(e)
AND THE FORMATIVE,

final
alif.
417
According to native Grammarians a
is
added
to
some
substantives for nisbat, as: angushtar >&&T "ring" " " tavern " from lah tJ " wine." finger" lahar
;
from angusht e~Jof
Grammarians give instances of final formative vav (/) Native (vav-i c*lcU fa'iliyyat ^) in patu yj, from pat oo "goat's hair, wool"; (pattu in India is a woollen stuff, but patujbin. Persia " a blanket"): shashu ^(^ "bearded": the last, however, is probably a "piss-a-bed"; rishu
&>
corruption.
109.
" " to a contraction of agin from agandan fill gin and agin therefore signify " filled with." They are used as suffixes to nouns, to form possessive adjectives, as: gâm-gin (^+1 "full of grief, sorrowGin
is
Agin
^f,
or Gin
^.
^^f
;
^T
ful";
jchashm-gin
t^XJU.
"full
'ambar-agin
^\ ^jic
surma
(or
antimony
for the eyelashes)
"angry"; sharm-gin of amber" surma-gin e^x&o^ "

; ;
^^
"ashamed";
(class.)
"full of
khirad-dgin
^^jL.
(m.c.)
" wise."
110.
(a)
The Formative a
(alif T)
This inseparable suffix forms adjectives and participles from verbal " to know " roots, as, from dan crta the root of danistan ^-o'^ dana * lif^ bina Ixu vide also learned 70 (a) guyd k
, * * ' '
It is
sarma
added to adjectives to form abstract nouns as garmd (^ "heat," " " cold " pahna li^j "breadth 4>~> (also pahna-i ^^).
:
Remark.
The
of
following examples illustrate the forms that are included

3
under the
title
Û.
(
cUtf
p~*l
"Irregular
distinguished from the
^-k'
or) <^Le|
*>
:
Jd
Ufa
' ' ;
<
^.|
Present Participle," as the Real or the Regular

' '
:
Present
^|joyL
'
'
Participle
inanda
knowing
^^
:
* '
skilful
' '
:
"purchaser": ty "thief" (Imp. rt.) u*)îr' (= ^.j* i^;) "hearer " of little sense ": "fond of learning": die of complaints ": vs*-ji ^JU f " 4 "of pleasing speech ": ;îx5^ servant Jô^ ejiy^ "feeble"
:
^ o^
" a wise
uili^ as steel"
^j^ "painful" &(*& "painful": ^j^. "rifleman":

:
:
:
man"
cJf
" camel-man
"
j^ti
"
"
king
^l*^ "Lord": ^V^* "hard

* ' ' '
:
"hero."
head are also included such words as <j*r*lA> spy " kind " " of course, etc. Also, mischievous," y^ pif " the Arabic Present Participle of the form JUli, as: Jl " tyrant.
this
Under
" executioner
"
Sharm-ru j)
This verbal
j*
"shy, bashful."
Alif-i fa'iliyyat
' '
'
2
S
alif is called
Many
The "
r )
of these are also *~^j*>

participle
t
-^compound adjectives. f~( " formed by adding an Impera. root to a noun is generally
'
called
27
418
(b)
/am, ETC.
Some
adjectives expressing fulness and completeness are formed
by
to
inserting an alif between the

lip; also
two compounds,
*
as
lab-a-lab
n-Juf
8
"
lip
brimful":
140
sar-a-sar
j~*\j~
many
colours, variegated
";
sar-a-pa
U^
l>j? "entirely"; gun-a-gun "from head to foot, cap-a-pie."
&
"of
Vide also
(c)
(h) (5), (6), (7)
and
foot-note.
it signifies
Prefixed to some Persian words

motionless, fixed."
Alif is used to
privation, as:
ajumban
ejU&^t
"
(d)
or to attract attention
When
alij-i
When used to summon " the uUi called alif-i nida**** alif of calling." used in the vocative of distress, as in darigha *ip "alas! " it is called
form the vocative
singular.
it is
l
nudba &*>
-&!
" the
is
alif of
plaint."
2.
For the
(e)
1
different kinds of alif, vide
Bukhara f;Uu
said to be derived from bukhar ;liu (Zand) "
wisdom,
earning,"
because of the learning that
prevailed
there.
Some native
as further
grammarians
examples
style this final a, alif-i vasfiyyat c<a&*j *JMt,
and give
ziba fj
and ganda
**
2,
in these, however, the alif appears to

II].
be
that of the participle [vide

111.
(a)
Remarks
Fam*
suflfix
fl>,
(Pam ft and Warn fa}

(rarely
Gun
Charta
colour, form,
:
The
fam ^>
is
orfj)
indicates
"of the
siyah-fam fbfcUu (me.) "blackish"; la'l-fam ^ J*) "somewhat ruby- col oured ": " rather like the "bluish"; zumurrud-fdm pti ^\ nil-jam (^ green hue " b = of an emerald misl-i surma (&^ (Ji>c). kuhl-fam j*l* J.*\.f Instead of ^J, sometimes (b is found, as Û ^- sapid-barn " whitish." (b) Gun signifies "colour, species, form, fashion, etc.," and in
or likeness of," and
affixed to both substantives
and adjectives
^
"
&ty "poppy-coloured, scarlet"; Idla-gun compounds of the colour of " rose-coloured " 6 "of various colours, also, &*&$ & gun-a-gun gul-gun
: :
"
of various sorts."
Guna-ash zard shuda

(c)
Charta
*>,
" ne s become ^3 o* pale (from sickness)." sometimes written charda tej*. and also jarta w^, means
*
'
"
colour,
hue," and occurs
in
a few compounds, as: zard-charda
^ ^3 and
Syn. lab-rizj'jd "overflowing," lab bi-lab
Or
2
sar bi sar y~> Jj~>

(m.c.)
as bi-dih va bisitan
v^-r^ " lip to lip." man sar-b -sar mi-guzarad
"
my
income and expenditure are equal."
*
*rt
f
Syn. rang- a rang. In Tersian / and p are often interchangeable; pil or /tZ " elephant "; sapida " white " pam or warn are not used in modern Persian as suffixes 9 snflda ^jA*
Jf
,
but warn or
6
pam
(m.c.)
" debt."
KuTil or
surra " antimony, collyrium."

" various coloured flowers"; kutub-i gun-a-gun " books by various authors murgh-l ba'parha-yi gun-a-gun dldam " I saw a bi r(^ ^ C colours."
\*jf
Oulha-yi gun- a gun iy^
Sr
many
asa, ETC.
419
zard-charta
*o^
^j
"
(old)
yellow coloured
this affix is
"
(not used of people).
Accord-
ing to
some grammarians
found only in the word siyah-charda

)*-, etc.,
Ji^*.
(d)
Rang J^)
is
also used, as :*igul-rang Jti^jf, sabza-rang J5>
I12(/).
(e)
In old Persian dlz
^^
>u are also found for dls î^, as: "night-coloured, black'*; "the name of Khusrau's horse."
diza
^ and
These suffixes are
now
obsolete
^^
|L.
;
).
112.
Asa Uf, Sa U;
Saw,
Fas&
ufc, etc.;
Das o^,
(a)
$a
'
and asa Uf are
asa " scented

sihr-sa
like
musk "
affixes signifying
"
like," as
Uf JL* mushk' '
U^su^ "like magic
"
ambar-sa laj* resembling amber (in scent) like a man, manly." ;mard-asa Lfjyo
"
Remark.
These suffixes must not be confounded with sa L from sayidan "to rub," and asa Uf from asudan uj f a (m.c. intr.) "to be
Lo
satisfied, refreshed, etc.,"
both of which also occur in compounds, as: jabha'*> e,**^ "rubbing the forehead on the ground, (OT jabin-) -sa *Â^ or " ruh-asa Ut ^jj " soothing the mind." making a profound reverence
;
has the same signification as the suffix asa or sa, and is probably akin to the Sanskrit saman and the Hindi sa. Examples shir-san Ûî (class.) "like a lion": sham ~san Û î (m.c.) "like a candle": " like the sun " khurshid san d~* khurshld-war
(6)
san
e)U.
^;^ (m.c.)
(also
j\j ***>}?=*> )
yak-san &\~&. (m.c.) "alike."
Remark.
{class.) for
San &1* sometimes stands
for istan
c>&', as: kharsan
kharistan ÎJUÛ. (m.c.)
"a thorny place."
In modern Persian san-i qushun didan 8 c>^^d>>*?.u^* "to review an " Imruz sarbazha san dadand *>&)* ^< ^3^r*3j?/ x> or az s n guzashtand army " the ^xLi>f were reviewed."
'
) (m.c.)
troops
(c)
(I)
Vash
(Jtj
(pash
J^
or fash
^j
obsolete), is
an
affix signifying
"like,"
mah-vash oJS?i* (m.c.) "like, or beautiful as, the moon": " " like a bud (of a pretty mouth) qamar-vash <J*> j+* gliuncha-vash oj Af^ (class., rare) farMta-vash x&f (m.c.) [also farishta-san ^~> *3j (m.c.)
as:
;
or farishta-var
^ *Liy (m.c.)].
sa
(kala-sa
tl
like
* 3
me "
San
Probably connected with the Hindi dev ka sa " like a demon ").
;
"black-looking";
mujh-sa
In modern Persian
awda kardan ^br^ it*T and asuda shudan ^^* *i>*T.

:
^^
is
Eastern Turkish
in
Uighur
it signifies
the total (in number).

is
The
author Qazzaq use son cJ^> for either ten or a hundred millions (the
which).
uncertain
420
(2)
THE TERMINATIONS, Um,
ish,
ETC.
In place of vash, are sometimes found fash and pash (but not in "like a Shah"; sarv-pash J^j^r modern Persian), as: shah- fash " like a cypress." " like a Native Grammars also give the form bas as: shir-bas <JMJ^
<_&
tiger."
(d)
Das u** and
dis
u*^
:
are also suffixes signifying "like," which are

;
" like the sun" mdh-dis used to form adjectives, as khurdis ^r*^ ^^^ but dis as the same has das the "like signification moon"; <j^
tf*
is
^^
very rarely used.
Remark.
fi*l
The Zardushtis sometimes

(3>.
(
write
Khuda
bi
das va
daman
ast
c;^
(e)
j o"^
^ (ld
5 '
Persian)
:
= "God is
eternal."
Vand **j
' :
like,
as
hence by contraction khavand**^ master, "hard as steel, also the name of a hero.
5
'
Khuda-vand ^j\*Z* like God, lord, possessor " husband" pulad-vand

;
"
5 '
^^
This suffix
is
also used for
mand
î* "possessed of," as: dawlat-vand
&j
v^Jj,5
dawlat-mand tUJjt.
Remark
vand
/.The word
55
<H?f
,
ture (as pots and pans)
" avand "furniture," especially kitchen furni55 and appears to be derived from ab vt "water,
(old)
"experiment; labour; praise; vessel; vase; cup."
Remark //.These nouns and adjectives of similitude, formed by the suffixes asa Uf vash eA?, swr ;U, ana *if, gun u;/, vand *>j, man c;U, etc.,
,
are styled <uxJô|.
Remark
III-
Kirdar )\^
is
also used to
form adjectives
of resemblance
farishta-kirdarjtj* *Aj* "like an angel."

113.
The
Suffix
um J
The termination
as: chahar~um
fj!_
^;^
added to the cardinal numbers forms the ordinals, "fourth"; bist-uhaftum f&fc j O-AJ "the twentyis
seventh."
Note that in a compound number the termination

last only.
added to the
114.
The Termination
-ish
^f,
danish i^Jb
This termination added to the Imperative root forms abstract nouns, as " to know " liinish "knowledge" from danistan J^^ (m.c.)
;
"sight
" from didan
(root bin)
" to see "
jushish
t_^>^
(m.c.) "boiling
"
azmayish J^tf (m.c.) "proving"; arayish <J>*\$ (m.c.) "adornment"; nikuhish J^}& (m.c.) "reproaching, blaming," also sar-zanish J^jj** (m.c.).
Called shm-i masdarl <_)^*A>
is
^J-^, or ahin-i masdar.
Radical
sh>
as in the
word
called shln-i asli
CHAPTER
115.
XII.
Verbal Nouns, and Nouns and Adjectives derived from Verbs.

l
The Imperative root of the verb is sometimes a substantive, as from " sukhtan &&;* (tr. and intr.) " to burn ", suz jy* (m.c.) burning, inflam" " " " to be grieved ", ranj **) mation bi-dih u biranjidan ^^^j grief
(a)
; ;
stan-i
man 2
z&
kar
&
as
(b)
c/f
" debtor " creditor." (m.c.) ft (m.c.) A few of the verbs ending in udan u^/f form substantives ending in an 8 " an order from farmudan paymdn c;U*j " promise jarman ^*j*
;
&*> c^JU-j j
%&
(m.c.)
expenditure and my income"; " bistan-kar &\3~4

' '
"
my
bidih-
' '
from paymudan
Remark.
' '
to
measure
,
to travel.
'
'
Asan Ûf however, is an adjective "easy" (from asudan). nouns are formed by adding ak few to the imperative stem, as (c) suzak " gonorrhoea," vide 105 (d).
(d)
For nouns derived from verbs and terminating in

(2).
silent
vide
98
(b)
(e)
Some nouns,
ya, to
hamza and
generally compounds, are formed by adding a yd, or *j ; rakht-shifi the Imperative stem, as: had-guî
J^
^jZ
(i).
c*^;;*j; bidih
(m.c.)
'*debt-";
^^J
bidihi
(m.c.)
district"; ^f^jJi shinavd^l
"power
is
of hearing
"
;
guy
"revenue
(obs.), vide,
of
97
In binaî
^M the termination
114.
added to the verbal adjective UJ.

crea-
For jahandari" sovereignty," vide 97 (a) (1). " as: afarinish J&i^f (/) For tsh added to the Imperative stem,
tion
"from
(g)
afrldan, vide
For verbal nouns in ar^f, as
didar j*t* "seeing,"
vide
101
(a)
(1).
(h)
The Infinitive
alone, affirmative or negative, can be used as a noun, as

*
az
" there
dad ufaryad kardan hlch fa*ida-i nist <~~# " is no use in screaming and crying out
pashiman-am Ûxiu mention this."

In bar
Infinitive is
^^ J^ ^f
Js^
c;*/ &jp j tf*j\ (m.c.) 6 in harf khayli " I am very sorry I did not Ujf (m.c.)
1
l^
g*
az
nd
guftan-i
ma
takhtan dvurdand *^)>f ,<;&# Ujj used as an object.
"they charged us," the
Suzish <Ju)y is commoner. Bistan for bisitan.
Arabic broken plural faramin ^vx|y.
Farman ^Lo^j has become

etc., etc.
anglicized
under the guises firmaun, firmand, phirmaun,

*
f>
Or
fafida
(without
^
j
of unity).
is
In modern Persian
often prefixed instead of
lj,
vide
(q).
422
VERBAL NOUNS, AND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS.

Poetically,
and sometimes
in m.c., this Infinitive
can be used in the
plural, as
paridanhd-yi rang u az tapidanhd-yi dil 'Ashiq-i bichdra har jd hast rusvd mi-shavad.
Az
"
By
his changings of colour,
The wretched
and the beatings of his heart, lover compromises himself wherever he is."
In dmadan-hd va raftan-Tid-yi ma, samar na-kard &j& j+* '* " but it would " these comings and goings of ours produced no result (m.c,) be better to substitute here dmad u raft-i bisydr for the plural Infinitive
;
IfijjjO^(e)
af guh-khurdan-hd is a
common
expression in m.c.
affixing
For compound nouns formed from the Imperative stem by

97
(a) (1).
is, vide
Further examples
From cj^Jjj "to smell" comes buy ^^ "scent"; from e;*^J intr. " to traverse" comes (m.c.) "he puy ^j, (but puy mt-kunad &*<* " " " to s searching ") e) J i&; intr. grow," ruy fj) &**')* intr. to mourn
^^
st fj* J>j& ^ ^~>>shus'ht u shuy washing, etc." rakht-shuy " a but rakht-shuî washerwoman," "washing clothes the act ^V* ^; state of being a washerwoman."
muy
or
(j)
It
was stated
in (a) that the Imperative root
is
sometimes a noun.
Similarly the Preterite stem (or shortened Infinitive) " as sar-navisht 0*6^ j*o " destiny guzasht kardan
1
: ;
is
" let off
rikht O.SRJ>
*'
the casting
;
form
"
&*/
sometimes a noun, oJi^ " to

pardon,
***
didu bdzdld * to* )^ j
"
visiting
and returning visits" vide also 116 (;'). (k) Sometimes the Preterite stems or shortened
Infinitives of two verbs,

:
with or without the copula j, are used as a substantive, as dad u sitad " commercial transactions" kharid u at a (m.c.) farukht o*Ly*j ^^* dmad u shud * * ^/cf, or dmad u raft, oJ>; ^ <y/of, or in m.c.
:
also raft
u dmad
&*tfj
&*j
guft
u shunid
&**
^J$
:
(Syn, guft-u-gu).
These
forms are sometimes in m.c. used in the plural, as dad u sitadha-yi u ziydd " he has extensive ast o~*| ualjjjf ÛALo jîd dealings."
Lawh-i Mahfuz
J_t*)
of
Jeîsi>o _^J
''the Preserved
Tablet,"
on
which the decrees

is
God
j
regarding
men
are recorded.
In the Qur*an the term
used for
the Qur*an
2
itself.
The law
jlj
tablets of
Moses are called alwah.
Baz-did
j|
raftam +lfj
8
^^*?
(na.c.)
can be used alone (for the return visit), but not did: bi-didan-i u not did " I went to visit him."
*
6
Compare Hindi len den. Or kharid farujcht oâ^'

Qll
iSî.
also kharid
is
farush
J^j^
qal Jlj' j(JjJ "noise of taking"

,
somewhat
similar;
3 Aî. (m.c). Ar. "it was qll
said" and qala
Ar.
(c)
j wa)
vide
16
"he said," are coupled by Remark on doubled words.
the Persian conjunction
uj
(in
Arabic

(/)
423
Sometimes both stems

j, as
:
of the
same verb are used to form a noun with

or guft u guy cj^* or guft-gu ? o^ " conversation "; just-ju or just u ju
,
or without the copula
guft-u-gu
(&)]
jZ
" search j ^~~= (or just u juy). This form, also, can have the usual plural. (ra) Sometimes in modern Persian two Imperatives of different verbs " arrestJ are used, as: u bi-kush subs, and
bi-gir
oJ, [=
guft
shuriid, 'vide'
J^
_,
(m.c.) (seize
kill)
ing";
or gir
bi-gir
bi-gir
u bizan
cJ,V
j^
(rare)
(seize
u dar y$ 3 jJ, or ddr-gir j4 )* u bi-band &**> j j*&> (m.c.) " tumult." (n) Sometimes the Imperative stems alone
and beat) " tumult, noise," "tumult, confusion, trouble";

are used,
1
as:
gir
u dar
y&j^f
(m.c.) (m.c.) "searching"; tak-a-pu jj** tak-a-daw jd& "running." 2 as: (o) Sometimes the Imperative stem of the same verb is repeated,
;
"tumult":
vide (m)
kash-ma-kash
(J&
J^
"
pulling different ways; also quarrelling
"
(kash ma-
kash dashtari): bi-kush
bi-kush
8
and
kash-a-kash J^V^S î-'U/ "allurement, attracting"). (old) attracting" ( kashish, (p) For the Noun of Agency farushanda i*\$jj "seller" gu-yanda i^'^ i( speaker," etc. vide 43 (r), and
kill')
;
;
;
"
u^ô^^
" a (m.c.) struggling" " subs. m.c.
"fighting, rowing (crying 'kill kasha-kashi
Sazanda-yi kar-i murda u zinda
tu-i
tu-i.
?
Daranda-yi in charkh-i paraganda
"
Who framed the lots of quick and dead but Thou Who turns the troublous wheel of heaven but Thou
(0.
' '
K. 471 Whin.).
The suffix ^ added to an nouns and adjectives. Examples

(q)
Infinitive (as kardani, pi. kardani-hd) forms

:
in zuruf rikhtani hast o*~* chjt " these vessels have been cast " in rang pukhtani, na shustani Jb) ^.\ (vulg.) ai jîJLJi 15^*^ (vulg.) "this has been coloured by boiling not merely
:
^^) o^
dipping"; in sukhtani
khurdani'hd (tfJy 9 c5^x ^
ast
o^f
"
îii.^-
î
(m.c.)
food, eatables
&
^^- f*"*
(m.c.) "Christ
ijioJ
had
to
"this is for burning"; Masih dar dunya dmadani bud come into the world" in khana
(m.c.)
"
kharab-shudani na-darad
strong
it will
^^
v y^
aiLL ^ji (m.c.)
" this house
is
so
not go to ruin."
This
alif is
called alif-i
'at.f
eftkc cJJ|
'
'
Also tak u puy
For force of repetition, vide
doubled words.'
Mard bayad
ki dar kashakash dahr
Sang-i zlrln-i
asya bashad.
424
The negative
"unfit to
is
be uttered "
formed by prefixed nd ^ as: nd-guftani (m.c. " nd-shumdani-hd tû***^ (m.c.) things unfit to be
)
;
^'^
heard
"
;
vide also
116 (m).
In modern Persian, however, ai can be substituted, as: l^î^. stand for a noun, as: (r) The Past Participle, Persian or Arabic, can
s^-v
jt
^4z hddisa-yi
Va'z
liar chi
zamdn-i ayanda ma-purs rasad chu mst payanda ma- purs
In yak-dama naqd ra ghariimat mi *-dan Az rafta mayandish vaz ayanda ma-purs

" Ask not the chances of the time to be,
And
for the past, 'tis vanished, as
you
see
This ready-money breath set down as gain, Future and past concern not you or me."
(O.
K. 278 Whin.).
is
Rafta t**) and ayanda <xijf "what hence " the Past " and " the Future."
,
is
past" and "what
to
come,"
X,c
&
_v
j-su
&
An bih ki bi-jam-i bada dil shad kumm Vaz amada u guzashta kam 8 yad kunlm
" 'Tis well to drink, and leave anxiety For what is past, and what is yet to be."
(0.
K. 308 Whin.).
'
Vide also Example in
(p).
Guzashtagdn or murdagdn
CJ'ÔT*
or
d&&^
' '
the dead
'
vide also
43
M.
Muharramdt ol^suc "things forbidden; black clothes"; mahsunn ^y&s^Q the beseiged"; manzur jj*'*> (m.c.) "aim; objection, view, " written a intention"; maktub v yx> letter"; almaktub v^^t "Holy
4 '
Writ."
Remark.
Persian nouns derived from verbs are called
verbal nouns," or
^^y
)
J>*AA> ^-t
"compound
the real Infinitive
when
as opposed to or;<*^J^ or used as a noun, which is then styled (mSô\ ^.f,

(
j^*> JÛ.
(Jôl^
^ô
In original zamana
A^J
perhaps a njisprint for zaman-i
Note continuative Imperative. Kam, negative; not " less ", but " not."
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
The Past
masdar.
Participle,
425
is
however (used as a noun),

(*Jf f*l) are
:
not called
hdsll-i
few Persian nouns of instrument
included in the hasil-i masdar JÂ> JloU, as AJUjJ "a razor, " but this seems to be an error.
"a
by some grammarians cup, a measure" and
COMPOUND WORDS.
116.
(a)
Compound
in
Substantives.
chiefly
Persian
abounds
compound words
substantives
and
adjectives.
Compound substantives are formed as follows (b) A compound noun analogous to such English compound as cart- horse,
:
is
izdfat,
formed by the juxta-position of two nouns (in the English order) without * as ruz-nama <Û>j newspaper diary account of daily expendi* <
:
ture "; jahdn-pandh aUu
^l^ "Asylum
of
the World
3
(in
addressing the
house
speaking)"; dsh-paz khana *U> _>A*f (m.c.) "cooksMb-khun *&;&* (class.) " night attack " barf-db 6 ^T J^ " snow" Ostrich" water from the hills"; shutur-murgh (but properly the j*>ji
"
in writing or
;
;
Shah
wrongly applied to other birds): gul-barg djd& (poet.) ''rose-petal"; but " gul-i barg tJ^ JZ (m.c.) any non-flowering plant with coloured or variegated " leaves "; khdvar-zamm ^: ) the e^j jj(^ (class.) (or mashriq-zamm Orient"; gkarq-ab v f "deep water": miydn-pacha *^b ulfr (m.c.) "a
^^ ^
certain portion of the breeches
' '
;
tah-jur'ah
A*^
7
*3
(
"
dregs."
This compound
is
styled murakkab-i mazji
Remark
I.
In some Arabic-Persian compounds the second part of the

tautological, as: sahar-gdh
;
compound
is
lf
/*u
(m.c.)
"morning,"
also
sahar-gdhdn ^(A^S^. (mod.) manzil-gdh " place "; maklab-khdna Aili, î^xs "school
'
&
;
Jk^
(m.c.)
" a stage, halting

(3j&*> (m.c.)
mashriq-zamm e^*}
*JUL
"the East, Easter n Countri es "; matba* khana

Adjectives are also formed by two nouns, as
5 -J
gja* (m.c.) "printing

" fortunate; rich "
bakt^t-yar j^j*^
shir-dil.
Vide
44
(6) (3).
The words ikhbar and akhbar

'
'
are also occasionally used for " newspaper."
3 a cook. Ash-paz JJ <jJjf bawar, subs, and adj., and the T.
an
officer
whose duty
' '
it
In India a cook is called bawar-chl fjfrj^* (from " " a originally person to be trusted was to taste the chief's food, perhaps to prove that it was not
affix chi), i.e.
:
' '
poisoned: barwar-chl khana * the culinary art.

'
&>^
j^-)j^ (India)
"cook-house"; bawar-chl-garl
(India)
*
6
"8
Better
shab-'i
khun
But
But
ab-i barf
tah-i
oy
(m.c.), also
used by Firdawsi. " iced water " (cooled by snow).
ab *-$ *3 "the bottom of the water."

incorrectly
Amongst Indian Grammarians
426
(f
house"; ma'bad-gah " ^

(ra.c.)
Â*X> (m.c.)
"any
place of worship"; maw'id-gah
appointed place of any meeting, rendezvous."

:
In a few compounds an adjective is prefixed to a noun, as bad-bu " stench " *J* or khushk-sali Jl^ " a famine khusk-sal (also adj.)
;
JU
^L
year
(a
year of drought)"; safid-risk Â?;
*&
lf
(subs,
and
adj.)
"grey
bearded; an old man."
Remark
102,
II.
been mentioned in Derivation

(6),
Such compounds as khwab-gah of Words, vide

104.
v!^-> etc., have already 101 99 (a) and (6), 100,
103,
Remark III.
"a spring
Many compounds
of
water," vide
are formed with sarj**, as 117 III (a) (4).
sar-chashma
(c) Two substantives of the same signification joined by the copula, form a copulative compound noun, as: marz u bum (j j ),*> (me.) "empire, country" marz u kishvar j^*' j )j* (class.) = marz u bum (mod.); " tab utdb*-3j*-tt " heat nashv u nama ptch u tab v tf ^ writhing lt *(+> j&j) growing (i.e. growing and increasing)"; khar u khass (j~^ ^ ;l^ " dad u bi-dad " 2 thorns and for
;
' '
' '
* '
' '
crying
help
(shouting justice
injustice).
Remark.
Arabic,
(d)
lit.
qil*
In qil u qal JL?^ cl*^ the two portions of the compound are " it was said " and " he said." qal*
Also two substantives of different significations may be joined climate by Vav-i Atf <-fiK^ jj or by an alif, as ab u hawa \}*> 3 v f " " an 3 and air and zana u shikar (water hunting ) *;'<& j ;** outing sayr " wife " wedlock from zan " shu^ 5 husband and
either
'
c *
' '
^y& Cj
' '
in
ddam
misl-i div
u dad
(m.c.) 3^
' '
(&*>
(of
shuy
^^
' '
" this
man
like
a beast."
In khirt u pirt e^j j words have separately
o^
and tumult "

etc.).
"odds and ends, small belongings," the "noise no signification. Zur u shur ;^ ^ )
(m.c.)
a waterfall, river, or of attacking soldiers entering a city, Often the second word is a ' meaningless appositive' 6 ( tabi'-i muhmal
(of
r'l'->,
as: shur
u sharj&j)?* = zur u shur jj
)jj.
Remark I. Adjectives used as substantives are also so employed, as: garm u sard jy ^ ^f, and talkh u shirin ÂW j vtf "the ups and downs"
1
*
3
Compare
from Ar. \J^. also shakh dar shakh
(adj.)
"intertwined."
Easterns attribute good or ill-health to either the water or air of a place. Hava can be used alone for "climate" ab alone generally means literally that the water
;
of
a,
place
4
5
6
is
good or bad.
Persian gentleman's shikar
y&
is
a sort of picnic.
114 (n).
For such compounds as tak-a-pu <^^^>j vide
By some
Persians considered a radlfa &&>&)
'
synonym.'
427
and "bitter and sweet" (of the world). In zir u zabar kardan &sjS jj ) jj "to make topsy-turvy," the words zir u zabar are in reality nouns used
ordinarily as prepositions.
In nlst u na-bud kardan &$

not
'
tyti j
^~V "to
and
was not
'
the two portions of the
compound
annihilate" (to make 'is are verbs used as
substantives.
Remark //.The compound may consist of two Arabic words, as: akl u shwrb ^j& 5 cUf ''eating and drinking; meat and drink" uM)^c( &* j >) " " and <Ji* " cleaving, closing a fissure, mending [Jp; ordering of affairs
:
' '
' '
rending"].
(e)
For qH-u-qal, vide
(c)
Remark. two
different verbs, or the contracted
The contracted
Infinitives of
combined with the Imperative root of the same verb, substantives as amad u rait eJj j *x>f such form did compound together vide 115 and ubaz-did &>>*$> ) 5 (k) (I). guft-u-gu
Infinitive of a verb
:
^ ^M
noun formed from two Imperatives or Imperative (/) For a compound 115 vide stems, (m) (n) and (o).
(g)
A Numeral
noun, as
chahdr-pa
or an adjective, with a substantive, form a " " " yak-shamba <*AX& si-pahar^^ the afternoon
;
^)^
all
" "a quadruped
char-fasl J-^
;^ (m.c.)
^ "
compound " Sunday summer-house

;
(open on
four sides)."
is
98 (b) (4)], the final formative adjectives similarly formed [vide " '* aJU* as into for nouns changed of fifty years gi, panjah-sala t?uj, adj.
:
;
From
panjah-salagi
Û
of
lt
jjl.u
" the state
of being fifty years old."

:
Examples
safid-ab
(h)
an adjective and substantive

a liquid-white for the face."
surkh-ab vjl^j*. "
rouge"
vT ^^>
(or
Substantives are also compounded from an Imperative root preceded

8
s an adverb or a preposition), as ash-paz jj owf"cook"; " a " archer " ru-numa present given to the bride by U^j jl^f j&
:
by a noun
tlr-andaz
the bridgegroom to induce her to show her face (for the 6 " a * *i*J cobbler, who patches shoes."
first
>s
time*)
pina
Also Charhar-paya
Ajlj
jl*A-,
but in India
this is
a " bedstead."
bishtar
(
'2
Ba
ij
(jj>
years I can walk

8
^>^H ^'
call
In panjah-salagl ml-tavanam ruz-l dah farsakh /B JLs * l?li ^-^ **
^J
ty^
m c>)
'
pa-piyada bi-ravatn " in spite of my fifty
more than ten farsakhs a day."

''the
office
Ash-pazl
^V* jWf
the
or
business
of
cook":
i'tr-andazl
<_cj'*iol
&
"
archery."
*
The Afghans
first
wife "
my
father's wife,"
i.e.
the wife married to please
the father: the second wife they choose for themselves. In Persia, girls generally refuse to accept him. manage to get a secret view of their intended, and of ten flatly rii-baz. are in not ru-band, they Ditto with the men. The Parsi women are
5
'
Kafsh-duz
utf
" a shoemaker."
428
In pisli-kash J&r
ÂJ "present,
gift", pish
is
noun used
jjwj
as a preposi-
tion: dast-band
o**^ "bracelet"; pas-anddz " servant" (also adj.).
&
jf*i'
"savings"
Remark.- In zar-baft ^^jj, the corruption of zar-bafta, the verbal

the Imperative stem.
is
not
in
(?) A few compound nouns are formed by adding the Present Participle cm to a noun, as: khil at-pushan ejl&jj o**i^ a place outside big cities where the recipient of a robe of honour from the Shah advances to meet it and
(
be
invested:
barg-rizan c>lH>
*-CjJ
"autumn";
ab rizan
is
ol>.-?;
vjf
a fete
observed by Zardushtis and Armenians, in which water
thrown.
fast
Remark
I.
Slna-suzan
c/j>*
***
(m.c.) adj.
"running
"
Remark
II.
as:
compound, dast-mal "handkerchief," but in Arabic there are special forms, as: miftah " mibrad " file " vide Notes on Arabic Grammar. key Û&c are formed by suffixing the contracted (j) A few compound nouns
' :
Persian 'noun of instrument' (aJf is generally a p*\) 1 bdd-bizan "fan": JUl*a u*y ptt "penknife";
Infinitive or Preterite root to a substantive or adverb, as
'
'
(1) Qardr-dadtl* ^"arrangement, engagement "; sar-guzasht " memorandum ' adventures chashm-ddsht yad-dasht oAfa Û
' '
"
expectation of favours."
This form can take the usual plural, vide also

(2)
115
Baz-did
(/).
"return visit"
baz-tihwast
o^tyL jb "calling to
taken"; bdz-dasht "to recover from (a o,^ jb jL>"" hindering"; [bdz ydft (k.) &sf " person) ] pish raft ddshtan or kardan &*/ or ^^SAi^ o^j ÂJ "to progress, improve" pish-nihad ^J^ "custom."
account,
retribution;
for
demanding reasons
action
ow&i
and a substantive may combine to form a compound noun, as: pish khidmat o*/o^ (m.c.) "a servant";
(k)
(I)
preposition (or adverb)
û
pish khana *jl^
(jSaj
(m.c.)
that portion of a
be ready
on
arrival; pish- daman
^fa 0^!
camp sent on ahead "apron"; ham-rdh

:
to
"fellow-traveller."
pish-khwan vDfy (2) Also a preposition and Imperative root as one who announces the arrivals of guests a leader in religious recita" first-fruits." tions
' * ;
' ' ;
pish-ras ^-j
J^J
Also a preposition and the contracted Infinitives, as: pish-ddd " an "a *'* early and (class.) law-giver" ; pish-khwurd yj^ <Jk> (rare) " for breakfast ^^j leavings." light f vulg. root may form a noun, as (I) An adjective prefixed to an Imperative
(3)
u^
^^ ^
i^
In India ru-mal
e^ji^ durbm
khush-navis
1
429
ijj&
"field- glasses,
opera-glasses,"
' '
durughgu^
"a
liar'';
^y u^" calligraphist
are
:
(either professional or unprofessional).
^ ^k
way
to
Eemark /.Adjectives
"
last
also
formed in
this
manner, as: lank-bin

trifles
looking into details
also, particular
about
(m.c.)."
The two
examples
in (1)
m&y
also be adjectives.
Eemark //.In dur-bash-kun &$ <Jk

for a personage, a
^
&^
(m.c.)
'
man who
clears the
man who
cries
'
dur-bash,
(J*k
two Imperative stems: dur-bash kardan
way
"
an adjective is prefixed " to clear the (m.c.)
dur-bash <J&*
%&
subs, (class.)
"a
baton for clearing the way."
(m)
An
as
:
Infinitive or
a noun,
t
na-shumdan
a Future Gerundive preceded by na may form non- h earing "; rast na-guftaniha Âjlfcli "the
t j>ii?lj
* o~,i> (m.c.);' tellings of untruths
= durugh-gujtanha (m.c.)
ria-shunidam
(^jjUU
also
(n)
(m.c.), pi.
(h)
na-shumdam-ha L^xi^^G "things

(q).
unfit to be heard
"
;
vide
115
and
Many
(m.c.)
adjectives are used substantively.
Compounds
like pidar-
"blackguard," etc., etc., are treated under the head of Compound Adjectives. Shah-zada "Prince" is a substantive. Vide 44
sftkhta
(6) (6).
11
"a
Sometimes a phrase is used as a substantive, as dar-bi-dar j^j;^ mendicant" (lit. from door to door); khana bi-dush (J)*> iili.
(o)
:
(m.c.)
(m.c.}
;
such as the Gypsies, etc. (lit. house on shoulder)" " slave *&*> kun~wa-kun <^Co <jw*A> (lit. ring in the ear)" halqa bi-gush " " do and don't do ") (lit. hesitating also a commander also orders."
"any wandering
8
tribe,
Such phrases can also be treated as adjectives and joined to a substantive by the izafat, as ghulam-i halqabi-gush <Jj& Afll^ f&* " bond-slave." (p) In modern Persian there are a few Turkish compounds, confined
:
to titles or
offices.
In Turkish
lar is
These, however, present no difficulty. the plural termination, and i (after a vowel
si) is
the 3rd Person affixed possessive pronoun "his," as: jj-tu lj& daryabeg-i "lord of the sea (a title) [lit. the sea, his lord] ": beglar beg-% (^j ÎXu
(title)
lit.
"Chief
of
Chiefs"
(in certain districts
= Mayor)";
ishikaqa-si
bash-l
" " a door, gate (q) A few Arabic phrases are treated as substantives,
;
^k
^^^
-*Af (modern) "chief usher" (apparently from ishik aqa-si L5~U>f "its master," and bash-1 ^k "its head."
as
:
^Ûs
is,
;
rnd hazar
"
(m.c.)
is,
present
pot-luck or anything prepared in haste, (lit.) " ma-hazar-i (JÔA.U (with ya-yi tankir
;
that what
or whatever
II
lit.
" I don't care
"
laytula'all J*J ^
"
oJ
"
ô
<^t>
la-uba
^J Ll
if
"
prevarication, procrastination
Zarra-bin
^J
if
fy
l
microscope or magnifying glass."
a PI.
8
pidar sukhta-ha
izafat:
t^^** J ^(
No
the izafat
were inserted after halqa,
it
might be mistaken
for the
<^ of unity.
430
a
(lit.
layt
Ar.
"would that" and

).
la' all"
and perhaps
"
"perhaps," saying
" would that
^4z hastiyi khwislitan bi-kulli rasta
Payvasta bi-mihrab-i dlast-im imruz.
"
am become
beside myself, and rest
In that pure temple, "
Am
Not
Your Lord
(0.
"
?
K. 272 Whin.)
Alast u o**J| in Arabic signifies
<c
Am I
not
" and
in the Qur*an occurs
the phrase f*y

the
cu^)i
hence in Persian
'
ruz-i alast the
day
of the
' '
'
original
' '
Covenant of God with

(lit.
man
*
;
Sani'-i kun fa-yakun
&*? ^
\*c
the Creator
maker
of
be and
it will
be
').
Ma-jara |Û> Pers. "an event" " the Creation " a Kun
fa~kan
(for Ar.
d& &$
(lit.
" be and
<j?/^ "what happened"). " the words used it was
by God
(r)
at the Creation)
Malik-i kun fa-kdna
c^
" " \& JJUo the Creator.
substantive, as
(m.c.)
Also a Persian phrase may sometimes be considered a compound l hdla va yak sa'at-i dtgar mi-kunad j^.^ *^ - **** ) il 1^
:
imruz u fardd ml-kunad
*xir
&^
\tjfr
})&*\ (m.c.)
"he
is
pro-
crastinating."
Before the creation of this world.
PART
II
CHAPTER
SYNTAX.
117.
XIII.
On
the use and omission of the izafat.
Something has already been said about the use, the pronunciation, and
the forms
'
of the izafat in
43.
it
Though omitted
speaking.
/.
(a)
in writing (being a short vowel),
cannot be omitted in
Cases in which the izafat must be inserted.
The izafat is, in Persia but not in India, always inserted between the proper name of a person and his profession, or between the title and profesMuhammad Khan-i tajir, na Muhammad Khan-i saqat-farush (vulg. sion, as
:
na-ki
*&) <j>y ka- Û.

;
the
merchant
not
Vazir y)j
Vazir~i
Kir/nan
" " u dikLJi^^ the Dabir-us-Saltana, the Vazir (but Dabir -s-Saltana Kirman oUy^j, jjLfeLJt ÂJ,* "the Dabir-us-Saltana, the Vazir of " "
:
aiÛ &(** <x*aR./o (m.c.) Muhammad Khan the grocer
tx*.**.*
"
;
Muhammad Khan
Dabir u-s-Saltana-yi
' '
Mvfayyid^l-Islam-i
Mudir^ô
j*3L,Vl
<yyo
the M. of Islam, the
Editor."
(6)
The
izafat is
always inserted after a proper name followed by the

thus, Haji Agha-yi Shirazi ^'jj^ <^l*T " Hatim" of the tribe of Hatim-i Td*i s jm>
;
territorial or tribal designation
Haji Agha " Hasan-i Afshar Tay"; Hasan-i Baluch* ^^Jb (?-*>> "Hasan the Baluch " j&] r**> Hasan the Afshar." The izafat also couples the proper name and a nickname, or a descriptive Gur Iskandar-i Zu'l Qirnayn fytf (not Bahram Gfur) epithet, as Bahram-i *~\ Alexander the Great (lit. the two-horned)"; lsa-yi Masih
;
:
"
of Shiraz*"
^^
(in (in
India 'Isa Masih) India
Musa
PaigJtambar)
.
"Jesus Christ"; Musa-yi Payg&ambar "the Prophet Moses."

(after the
.
The
izafat
:
has three forms
^
t
weak consoaants and J

j
and
f-
after silent h
after
it is
it is
either
* or
When
e,
its
stood,
is
pronounced
like short
or
as in
form, expressed or under" bid " and " bed "; in other
cases like yi.

a S
Note the Persian adjective where we use a substantive in the genitive

is
case.
gu'l Baluch and Afahar are to be considered adjectives. The latter word " an Afshari carpet." Afshari, as an adjective, qall-yi Afsharl (not Afshar)
*
a relative adjective.
is
also
28
434
ON THE USE AND OMISSION OF THE IZAFAT.
to their (c) The words country, kingdom, city, river, etc., are coupled names by the izdfat, as: Mulk-i Iran ^j\ ^*> "the country of Persia" " the " the darakht-i bid *y cu^; shahr-i Kirman &\*j* j\* city of Kirman" willow tree" gul-i nastaran "the white nastaran rose, sweet-briar" rud-i " " the bird Nil J^ by " the river Nile (known as) murgh-i humdy (^+* ej* Huma." As the last two examples show, the izdfat is sometimes used between two nouns that in English are in apposition. (d) The izdfat is also used in the titles of books, as: Kitab-i makr-i zandn
; ;
c^j j&
v^
" tne Book of

.
(or on) the
Wiles of
Woman "
kitab-i Gulistdn-i
Sa'di Compare also Injil-i Yuhannd ^Jju. ÎLJf v-jli^ " and the Arabic Kitdb u 'l-Muluk eST^Vi Gospel of St. John
U^#
<-^?u|
"the
v^
<<fc
he Book of
Kings."
used to form patronymics and surnames, as " Rustam-i Zdl Jij Isd-yi Maryam fo*> ^\~*? pl) Rustam (the son) of Zal " " Solomon the son "Jesus the son of Mary Sulaymdn-i Ddûd ^t^y. (D^+d* " " of David ^T Aîa Khan the Eunuch Aglid Khdn-i Khwdja &*\j*(e)
The
izdfat is
also
"
' '
&^
crowd"; v^ quarters Nim, on the other hand, is treated as an adjective, and is always without the izdfat as: nim ndn-l
t
Umar-i Khayyam fUS^** "Omar the tent-maker "; Husayn-i Imam (but Imam Husayn) " Husayn the Imam." (/) The izdfat is used with the Persian and Arabic fractions, as nisf-i ndn-i Û -ft>A> "half a loaf"; sih-yak-i jam-'iyyat oa*+a. -^j "^ "three ^^ " one- third of the book." of the suls-i kitdb
{
1
:
man &*
(g)
^
The
is
f#
used in compounds, "half a loaf,"
mm
"half a maund."
superlative, whether Persian or Arabic,
is usually followed by of the izdfat but as an means the genitive plural, the two being connected by intensive epithet, it merely qualifies its noun like an ordinary adjective, as " the ashraj mard-i ^s^j* o^| a most noble man khilqat-i ahsan ^j-^ oJlU;
:
* '
' '
best creation," or ahsan khilqat-i oJil^ er"^!-
An Arabic
as'ad-i*
superlative before a
:
in such cases, as
oi^bj
noun used collectively may retain the izafat ^**^ dost khatt-i mubdrak dar Ûj &*^\ ^ ^^^
ziydrat shud "your letter reached me in the best of time," but dar as ad zamdn-i or dar bihtann vaqt-i 3 without izafat) "in a most " u mard-i bihtann ast x fortunate time (Indian) or u bihtarin ^r
zamdn
1
mard
ast
o*|
ot Ô^
-5-
wljty
)\
(class.),
or
it
bihiann-i
mardum
Remark.
The
use of an izafat after an Arabic superlative preceding a

is
singular noun that
without the
^ of unity
is
probably in imitation of the
Arabic construction
1
Khayyam, the takhallus or nom de plume,' and the profession of the Dar as'ad-i zaman-l t^^j ^**t )& is also used, but is incorrect.
'
poet.
Izafat-i maglubl.
ON THE USE AND OMISSION OF THE
izdfat.
435
(h) A noun or an infinitive qualified by a phrase must be coupled to it by ruz-i ba d the izdfat as though the qualifying phrase were an adjective, as " the az after this skirmish" az In zad u khurd *)j=*j aj trt j <-^3j; day or az du bdkhtan **J^ "from bdkhian-i du daf'a &*>*)* v*^)\ daf'a i^b j*j twice losing" bi-bisha-yi nazdlk-i shahr *J^>* && &> "to the forest near
J ( :
1
the city";
an sanduq\ tumdnhd-yi dar (j^*** kamar-am fj4f)*Lel*& *j!* "the tumans tied up in my kamarband." In rahm dvardan bar baddn sitam ast bar nikdn c^jj eu-| î*. ^fjj ^ i^/f +*>) (Sa'di) "to show pity to the bad is to show tyranny to the good," there
^'J*
(
Lff^/Sfc
chizhd-yi dar
should be no izdfat after dvardan
ctfji/f ,
often inserted; reverse the sentence bar baddn
though in modern Persian one is rahm dvardan c^;>T f^j cJ' *^

4
and the reason for the omission becomes
clear
kushish kardan-i dar in kdr
" " (but dar In kdr kushish striving in this business ft &>)* &*jf (J>j* (m.c.) kardan c^/ iJ&jf wtj* ); bisydr lab-i chu la' I u zulfayn-i chu mushk uî^c &j*. (^^3 j J*J &JA. r*0^ and many a ruby lip and musky tress " (0.
' '
Rub. 137 Whin.)
va pish az dnki bichdra bi-rasad nass-i sarih-i al-haria u
mahrum
latifa bar-anglkhta
bud
fij****>
u4j^*^l ^.O**
o^ ^y.
St. 3)
o>iui^ AA>U (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, Introduc., helpless one could arrive there, the clear text
'
*;^5H^ ^tjl u**^^ " and before that
of
'the
avaricious
is
dis.
appointed,
etc.'
/.
Izdfat after Particular Words.
(a]
After the words jandb
v'^ and hazrat e^^,

:
the izdfatis always inserted,
as: jandb-i haklm-bdshi
jandb
mirzd
fj^-x*
v-jU^
'*
^^ ^^ vU^"
Mr. Clerk
"His Honour the
jdndb-i qunsal JLJ^J
v^> e tc.
:
Chief Physician" Hazrat-i

:
&j^: Hazrat-i Sulay man cjUJ.^ ci^-aa. A'alq Hazrat-i Shdhinshdh-i Iran oi^f jjl^tLi o^-isHJUf (Title of the Shah). (b) The izdfat is used after the word mablagh. &*> (sum), as: mablayh-i " the sum of 200 tumans duvist tumdn vajh-i naqd *w ^j &\*j* ^ tjt &*> (m.c.)
Payg&ambar ^****$
in cash."
The Arabic word ahl<J&\ " people" (belonging to any particular place, creed, art, etc.), and its plural <^^ ahdli, is always followed by the izdfat, " ahl-i Islam as: ahl-i Kirmdn ^Lo/cUl "the people of Kirman fÛ cUl " the Muslims" ahl-i va ahl-i "veiled" d*\ ^^ qalam f say v (class.); hijdb " the oJLxa. JAI ahl-i and civil" JAI (m.c.) khiydnat (m.c.) military j t^fljj*.
(c)
:
:
pti
"treacherous"
ahl-i zahir j&\& J*t
"hypocrites";
ahl-i
qubur*
)&
J*t
"the dead."
Remark
ahl
u'
I.
t'tariqat
Occasionally the Arabic construction " fellow ahl-i

tariqat
is
used, as
religionists."
This izafat though required in modern /Persian,

Mahalla-yi khamushan
'
is
"the quarter
of the silent"
Indian. generally omitted in (a city cemetery): shahr-
the city of the silent
"
(any largo burial-ground).
436
ON THE USE AND OMISSION OF THE Remark

II.
izafat.
Ahl also means " a person
of sense
a worthy man, etc.
as
Man May
For
I
mi-khuram u har-ki chu man ahl buvad khwurdan-i u nizd-i Khudd sahl buvad
like
True I drink wine,
every
man
of sense,
know
Allah will not take offence."

(0.
K. Rub. 197 Whin.)
t>j>
JU| U o-xsue (D^>

suhbat-i
'
*>.
r))t>
Duzakh bi-jahan
"
111
na-ahl buvad
company
will
make
this earth
(0.
a hell."
K. Rub. 232 Whin.).

" but from the
Az nd ahldn
hazdr farsakh gwnzjt

(0.
fit
^ *j* jts* <j^>l
;l
worthless keep your walk remote." U ahl-i in kdr ast (m.c.) " he is
(d)
to
K. Rub. 263 Whin.) do this."

" masters "
is also
The Arabic
:
plural
a
wordar66
jî.
t-jb^f
v^;'
followed by the
ma'arif
3
izafat, as
arbdb-i kharad
" masters of wisdom, wise
": arbdb-i
ojUx v U;t
as
:
people of science." In m.c., arbdb ^)\ia used as a singular, " Arbdb-i shumd kist e j/ U v^t^t (m.c.) " who is your master ?
"
The singular Rabb means '"Lord" and

applied to the Deity.
(e)
if
used independently
its
is
only
In modern colloquial the word

izafat, as:
^jtff
marhum
fe^j* precedes
p^^y*
substantive
with the
Marhum-i pidar-am
^tx*
mar hum- i dqd-yam

However,
form,
is
^^
43
"my
late
father":
"
my
late
master."
Grammatically the izafat

the correct
should be omitted, vide

classically
(6).
and
in m.c. pidar-i
marhum fj=v
;*J,
used.
The word abnd'-r&l, pi. of ibn (vide III (a) (3) ), takes the izafat before " " men and the noun following, as ^^-^ o^' C5^' dbna*-i ins u jdnn jinns " (i.e. everything ^l^ ^lut abna*-i jahdn (m.c.) "men, plants and animals " *jlj t;l*> o**J^ ^5^1 abnd*-i jins-i mdrd bay ad in the world): people of our
(/)
:
order or class should
";
^j
' '
Ûut abncf-yi vatan (m.c.)
"fellow-country-
when not forming possessed of, master of when more than a the This the case takes is a compound, izafat. especially
(g)
The word
sahib
"
*
3
na-muvaftq Prop, and in India Tchirad.
Na-ahl cMf
&\J*
or " people without sense, etc."
PL
of

single notion
is
:
izdfdt.
437
owner
of the house."
sdhib-i in khdna &\A. ^>\ *-*^l* (m.c.) " the expressed, as Vide also III (a) (5).
sahib u 'lOccasionally the Arabic construction is used, as: ooJf " sahib^.l-amr (m.c.) "The Mahdl." bayt (m.c.) ''the master of the house
;
^Û
Very rarely the feminine

"possessed
of
is
used,
beauty" (woman) sdhiba-yi in khana ast o-t AJUL î &^\^ &j ^Mj (in writing), but more commonly sdhib-i In khana ast o*l &U. ^t ^-^Le (m.c. and in writing). The Arabic plural of sahib ^-^L^, is ashdb ^lsut ashdb-i tadblr j#&* v-lxu*f
:
sdhibat"' l-jamdl malikat u l-jamdl (modern): fuldn zan

'
as: JU?Jf
&^l*
1 *
the prudent
' '
;
good managers.
Fakk-i Izdfat (Dispensing with
the Izdfat).
jt*\, or
///.
(a)
(1)
The
bin
izafat is frequently
l
omitted after the words amir
mir
>j^>, vail
^,
^,
sar
and sahib
v^
^ when
:
this is the case the
two
words forming the compound express one notion.

is
This omission of the izafat
called fakk-i izafat*

ejUjjÂ/cf
oJUt
<->.
Amir-tumdn
"a commander
of
10,000" (nominal, as a
also a goot shot."
rule),
but amlr-i tup-khdna
il4pjA*h.
; l '
" ;^-*^xj3 mlr-shikdr a head game- keeper
master of the horse. }y^1 jô mlr-dkhur "chief of 5 (battalions); commander of 5,000"; also mlr-panj ij^.jj/o
amlr-panj.
<-.*&
' '
J*>Q mlr-cfhazab
" executioner."
v.jf^xxj
mlr-db* (m.c. and Indian)
"an
official
in charge
of
a stream,
who
But
superintends the distribution of the water for irrigation purposes." ^jJlaxxj^jj^ mlr-i majlis and some other expressions the izafat. require
AbUf^jj/o mlr-i qdfila
;
(2)
Vall*^,:vail
6
(
V (^
o~**J
(lit.
^j
"
vail
ahd "heir- apparent." ni'mat "
sovereign, father, a person in a father's place
'lord of bounty')."
^ 5
But not after ibn, vide (3). Not to be confounded with

In India, in words like
izafat-i maqlubi, for
which vide IV.
India every falconer's or bird-catcher's assistant
In title war is purely honorary. honoured by the title of mlr-shikar. The word \j} * mirza, which before a name corresponds to Mr., but after a name to
;i^x/o
mir-shikar, the
is
Prince,
4
6
is
a contraction of
JJ^Jj^Jô
mir-zada.
In
Kerman
^vf
=
ab-yar.
In Arabic valiyy un (tashdU over the

(proverb)
^f
).
Vail vail ra ml-shinasad Ijtjfjijb
"set a thief to catch a thief
"
:
^1)
" a governor."
servant writing to his master would style him vail ni'mat
438

Remark
fJt
izafat.
valiyy
u'
d-dam
"a
relative entitled
to exact retalia-
tion"
(legal).
al-vali
is
Vail ijy
the
title is
" The Helper" (one of the 99 special attributes). also a reputed saint who has worked miracles, but in Persia
given to any saintly person, generally after death. In Afghanistan and India the word pir is used for a departed saint and
' '
also for the spiritual guide (living).
Karamat euUfy are miracles performed by ei>** are miracles performed by "prophets."
(3)
saints
' '
while mu'jizaf
Ibn
e>jf
or bin ^j
l
(pi.
abna* *Uu|
cjlkU
etc.).
&
bin sultan
" " son of a (on coins, on king
official
documents,
Ibn
jjji,
ibn u-l-vaqt oJî
however, is generally used with the Arabic construction, as: " a time-server " ibn u ~s-sabtt <JUx~Jf " " <^jf ^t (m.c.) traveller r
:
ibn u 'l-batn
^\ ^\
name
(glutton).
jf
In Arabic the word

preceding the
loses its initial alif (vide Appendix) when o 9 of the father or mother, as *+.kb ^^-^ Husayn u 'bn u
^t
" a son"
Fatimah. In Atabak Abu Bakr-i bin Sa'd-i Zangl ^j&j *>*u Amw-i kablr-i FaTchr u d-din Abu Bakr-i bin Nasr
T^^J!
^&\ and
t
in Zikr-i
(^.Îj^^^ j*o\ y3
is
âJl^^Xj^jt
(Preface to the Gulistan), the Arabic construction
retained.
Usually, however, in such cases ibn is in Persian written in full and is followed by the izafat, as ^\ &+s^> Muhammad ibn-i Karim.
:
(4)
Sar:
' '
sar-maya,
capital."
"a sar-rishta slight knowledge of a thing." " sar-dard headache." * " sar-db " source, fountain-head."
sar-aghaz, "beginning."
3
"
tether and halter." " conclusion." sar-anjam

sar-afsar
"head
sar-angusht (m.c.) "tips of the fingers." sar-bar (m.c.) " a last small load added on the top."
sar-chashma " the hole or head of a spring."
This
is
treated as an Arabic genitive
in
modern Arabic the

sar j*3
genitive
is
formed by
simple juxtaposition.
2
Sar-dard &}&
j<*>
(m.c.)
"headache"
but dard-i
&J&
(m.c.)
generally
"worry, nuisance, trouble."

3
Sarab wf^*
Ar.
"mirage": but
v'tr*'
sar-i
ab
W.
C.

1^. ,-* sar-khatt
izdfat.
439
to point
a copy out letters

' '
J
:
also a thin stick used

also
by boys in schools an agreement paper kept in duplicate

of
between master and servant/' a 8 sarkdr " a head land-agent, an overseer J6j*
anything."
o j^
f
sar-rast "straight, complete, settled in full
"
(of
account).
" .J&^w sarhang a rank just junior to a Lt.-Col. commanding a regiment.'*

sar-fitna (m.c.)
"the ringleader
of a disturbance."
sar-qufll
"money
*
paid for goodwill to a shop master on transfer
of business."
ijy**
" the top of a Persian pipe." B " the head of a tribe (or of an army, or j~ sar-karda " address on an Gj* sar-nama envelope."
sar-qalyan
>
of a riot)."
sar-shir (m.c.)
" cream " for sar-i shir
(class.).
" the source of a qanat." vLr* sar-db (i-qanat) (m.c.) <c uW)j~ sar-rahi (m.c.) a present before a journey, to the traveller." Further examples of this common and idiomatic word with and without
&j& ejli*^ ;tjf ^> î- u dmhmanan-i dustan-i Tchud sulh kunad sar-i "vhoever makes friendship with the enemies
thi izdfat: *tf
1
^
"
^^
9
^î
^ ^7* ^
azar-i
dustan ddrad (Sa'd!)

it
of his friends, has
in his
mhd
to injure his friends."

sar-i vaqt (m.c.)
sar-i dast (m.c.)

sar-i
sar-i
\
punctually." " at hand."
zabdn " on the tip of the tongue." rah " on the road."
az sar-i
naw " anew."

"a purse sealed up."
(
kisa-yi sar bi-muhr
" eH**^-^ >> A-^Jy' j &\-+)l up and went to the table j5^r,AU jang-i Almdn u 6 Fransa dar sar-i hamin shahzada shud (Shah's "the Franco-German war was concerning this very Prince": I'iary) " sar-bala raftim " we ascended, went up hill nÛJt $(j^~> JyLr~ pttij 1 A> *^y^ bi*^ ki adam WMS| istada ast khud ar-* ***^JL>^ qawl-i cAi ^y f^f lavdnad harf-ash ra bdvar kunad (m.c.) "when has he ever kept to his word
&*tiqal a sar-i sang ast (m.c.) "the fort is on the rock." *L*l^^j A*J ba'd bar khasta sar-i miz raftim (Shah's Diary)
:
"after that we got
^^
!)
Also sar-ma^hq
^ô^
(m.c.)
"
copy."
if
2
2
One copy kept by each. Each month payments, Or mubfohir j\$* (m.c.) or sardar )^^> (m.c.).
The shops
rent
is
any, are entered on the back. to
in a karavanaaray
whom
*
paid.
He
of the isir^byf belong to the owner cannot turn out a tenant who pays his rent.
labter,
Sar-guruh tjj^j^ (Af.)
" a chief of a body."
6
1
Or
va.
|*^f
Note adarn
for
"one"
(indef. pron.
and the subjunctive
after *^
440

him "
:
that one should trust

i^LajiL
^^t-o
^^
ay lakdta ! dkhir kdr-at ra bi-jd*i rasdnida^l ki kariiz-i
mard
fuhsh
bi-dihi, bi-sar-i
man
advanced
1
matters
as
" oh bi-firistl (m.c.) you trollope so you've so to use abuse to my maid and set her at me
!
worry me)?": ^t^ <3^' ^y* _^ sar-i mu*i farq na-ddrad (m.c.) " there's not a hair's difference between them ": z?**> )j& v^ eÔ* * " the db dawr mi-kard in sar-i circled over the water" (class.) eagle uqdbbar bar sar zad from az zamln the "sprouted ground": &&** i}_>j_>* t7i*JJt " to bi-sar burdan pass the days, the time" A/cf^-u ^?^ c^x^ ;^-J pisar " the dar san'at va quvvat bi-sar dmad (Sadi) boy became perfected in his art " and in his strength ^^t jt j j^j^j j L ^6** ^^ man muddat-i bo f^^
(to
^ v^
'
bi-sar
burdam
*
va az u sar
khwurdam
(m.c.)
"I
lived
jl
with him some

Sultan
oz
time and
sar-darakhtl
suffered
chiz-i
much":
naml-girad
:
^^^ c>^
(class.)
<J&)* ^**
cAb.U
duce of
cXuiA.
fruit
trees"
^
on
"the King takes no tax on the prosar bi-zdnu nishastan "to sit pensive î-^Jyjj^
* :
^Îj^-yo
" So-and-so sar-i juldn mi-jumbad (m.c.)
is still alive,
he's
still
got a kick in him

salt
"
:
fixJUy
^) ^r*
sar ~^ ô,kham-i u mdlidam
"I rubbed
:
his
wound
"to
(figuratively); hit
him when he was down "

*/ &&j>
(class.)
sar-i khir
:
^r
ishdrat
("intruder"):
let
\&&f ^jtj*
sargushi kardan "to whisper"

ct>;t^'
&d**
pus
sar dddan
loose"; ^; e.^ ^* j~ jk kardand ki bdz sar-i sarud guftan ravam
^^
"a signal
it
wis
then made to
me
to begin singing again."

will
Remark
1.
It
be noticed that when sar
is
a preposition,
alwars
requires the izafat.
Remark
gives the
II.
idea of amplification or excess

sar-shdr
According to native grammarians the word sar sometimes as in the words sar-mast (<**Jl.x*)
<^*~*r,
sar-sabz_j**>j<*> ,
;U^
Vide also II. (g). This word is frequently used (without (5) Sahib. the izdfat) to form compounds. In modern Persian the izafat is sometimes used where it is omitted in old Persian. 5
Examples
of sahib
w^lo
in
6
compounds
' *
^=Û>
sdhib-mansab
an
officer."
at
Sar-i
man
w**^?"3
means "set her
me":
the maid worries the mistress to
take her part and so makes herself a nuisance.

5
3
In m.c. dawr mi-zad
<&
)}*
Zan
sar-i
shawhar-ash ra ml-Tchurad, or u sar-khwar ast

j\
îuô
t^
{jitj&y*^"*
&j
or
o^l y.^**
*
(m.c.)
"whomsoever she marries

s
dies."
Also applied to owners
of an unlucky animal.
Sar-darakhtl
5^ 5>i^
>
"
produce of
fruit trees
"
:
in
some
localities
applied only
to oranges
6
and lemons,
citrons, etc.
The Afghans
I
follow the old Persian idiom in this as in other points.
6
44
1.
sahib-mansaban (or ha ^>} Û-ei.*

office.
' '
^.Û,
O r sahiban-i mansab
the possessors of

sdhib-kamdl
O* sdhib-qirdn
]
izdfdt.
441
"a
master
(in
any art)."
" Lord
of the
happy conjunction."
sdhib-dawlat "rich."
JU wÛ>
sdhib
mdl
(m.c.)
" rich."
" skilled." sdhib hunar

Lc sa/w'6 iqtiddr " potent, possessed of
sahib- jamdl
((
power."
beautiful."
(b)
The
sahib-divan " supdt. of finance." following are further examples of oJUt

l
;&> tJAU
bdz
(local?)
ashiq shikar (rare in m.c.)
J^ /a-i izdfat: "devoted to sport'2 ";

;
'
ashiq
of the
"player" with 'dshiq or

;
knucklebones
(the
sides
(m.c.)
bone are called Shah, Vazir, Shaykh, " under-executioner "
Duzd)
jJij
<^&-J
^^
to the
nd*ib-nasaqchi
^ÛU.
na*ib
chdpdrchl
"who
looks
after post-horses," but
o UU s-JU
;
nd*ib-i si fdrat
(also
"second
^.SLi
ambassador/'
a
and
title
;
v-ikL
^.JLJ
nafib-i
saltanat
oikLJf
nd*ib u s-saltanat)
iitiuiKJ
:
^.JU
nd*ib-i
farrdsh-khdna "the one under the
farrdshl
chdpdr (m.c.) = ^^;UU ^*5b ndîb-chdpdrchl ^/ ^ Jj c^T shagird dsh-paz "cook-boy, cook's assistant "; J1>J j~$ pisar-bazzdz
bdshi"
jljU.
ÎA shagird
^3 ASU bachcha-Turk "a young " ^l^ 'A shah-khana " yâjj bachcha-shutur (m.c.) a young camel " " a noble house " " U shdh-balut chestnut oy IA shah-tut" a kind l^Jb ;
(m.c.)
"a young
;
cloth-merchant,
etc.";
Turk "
of
mulberry
"
jj
IA
the wing of a bird
"
;
" the longest flight feather in shdh-par or j^ Ai shah-par " " a bridegroom aU?a IA M7i ddmdd (m.c.) (polite
;
term for);
^
;
:
shdh-tir (m.c.)
(m.c.)
"
abeam "
;[^
shdh-savdr
(m.c.)
"a
good
rider "; ^5" ^^cii
daman kuh
or/ er^fo
ddman-ikuh
" the
skirt of
(m.c.)
the mountain"
4 *
Û^f gush-mdhi (m.c.) also <Âl*c4^ gush-%

;
mdhl
a small shell
'
*J^b
4jjf sag-dbi or
^T ^-
mikh-tavlla (m.c.)
'
'
horse picketing-peg
;
5^-* dbi (m.c.)
"an
otter"
^^
AJ
(m.c.)
"night dress"; ;y iâ.

chashma-db;
a*^
chashma-nur (m.c.) *^j* darydcha db

;
"source
of
light";
(m.c.)
^^j
tah-butn
(-W
"the
ii*
dregs in a bottle";
a<y?*
ai
tah-jur'a,
(m.c.);
&
^x man-banda
(m.c.
and
but
better
l
than
*^
=
tah-jdm:
or
maw-^
6a?it?a
(^
man-i mukhlis
Z
etc.),
*;
iJ
(^ X
man-i bichdra and man-i bandaA;z*c/ia
Jjj
|jJu ,^c.
[Kucha-bdzdr yjU A^.y

' '
va bdzdrj^ j *^/-]
After the prepositions \y sivd except," and b pd "at the foot of," and one or two words ending in alif, the izdfat is sometimes omitted, as
:
One born under an
auspicious conjunction
(of
two or more
planets);
a fortunate
and
invincible hero; a great emperor: title of honour.

*
L# <>^
'ashiq-kush (m.c.)
"
"
lady-killer
(as
Joseph); or of woman,
"man
killer."
3
Not the " son
of the
cloth-merchant."
442
ON THE USB AND OMISSION OF THE

\j*
izdfat.
sivdman &*
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
o*~j|
&j^^c
U pdsandali
bi-ist (m.c.)
jUiU, jd-namdz
"prayer-carpet," but Ûi (^^ ?-2A namaz " a back street," but &*.?> *^/<j^ pas-kucha (m.c.)
"a
place for
pas-i
praying";
L
"behind the street"
jtitj?
.*
gul-andr (m.c.)
" a flower resembling the pome-
^^
Mc&a
(m.c.)
" Such " the blossom of the granate," but/JtJ? gwZ-f anar pomegranate. common compounds, as f nay-shakar (m.c.) -'sugarcane" and jj *Jf " have come to be db-ru (m.c.) "honour regarded as one word.
:
Before an adjective
dukhtar Farangl (m.c.) Turkish girl";
gunjishk-zard (m.c.)
(c)
pisar farangl
^j* y-o "a

;
Frank boy
"
c^/ j*^*
<>;j
" a Frank girl"

(kind of) finch."
is
^5^*!^*.
halclm-Farangi
*Jy " the Frank doctor";
y^
dukhtar Turk (m.c.) " a
^J^^jS
"a
By
:
poetical license the izdfat
sometimes discarded specially after a
silent
sanam
IV.
bini
u man khdna Khudd ml-blnam.
Izdfat-i
Maqlubl
1
The oJt*f
*J* fakk-i
izdfat''
"tho
releasing of the izdfat" of
which
izdfat-i
examples are given
in (III) is
not to be confused with the
^Ja* oJUf
maqlubi "the inverted construction": in the former the usual order of the two words in construction is observed, in the latter the order is inverted.
(or o***J jfy kdfir-i ni'mat) ungrateful of facts" (or (^^ are "denier kdfir-i ma jam) kdfir-mdjard jÛjfa for Iran zamin-i of zamm "Persia"; Iran) fakk-i izdfat. (m.c. examples
Examples
Kdfir-ni'mat O**AJ
"
"
y'l
^/o-,
($jZ**>
mashriq
zamin
as
(m.c.)
"the East";
*Uj
"Asylum of the Compounds such

examples
World "
^^
jdhan-pandh
are examples of the izdfat-i maqlubi.
AiULj^T dsh-paz khdna "cook-house" are also
of the in verted izdfat.
Adjectives that precede their nouns do not properly take the izdfat
are examples of the "inverted construction
V.
and
"
(vide
4'* (6)
).
Cases in which the Izafat must be omitted.
(a) There is no izdfat between the proper name and the title following it, thus: &\*jf Û*& ^'UiUJ= ^x*.* \JJ&Q Mirzd Mahmud Tabdtabd*-i s u Ald l-Mulk Hdkim-i Kirmdn "His Excellency Mirza Mahmud of the tribe
f^
Compare
J^l avval
ahab " the
first
night
" and
v^
" the tjj avval-i shab

of
beginning of the night."

2
In Persian also fak.
Bi-riam Izad <t\
/*txj
" j n the name
God "
is
an instance
of this 'releasing of the izafat.'

3
The proper name here
is
Mirza Mahmud, and Tabaiaba/'l
is
the adjective indicat-
ing the family (derived from a famous Sayyid
who stammered).

Tabdtabd
tfitwUpi;!
tzafat.
443
the
other hand
the
p(a Governor here

(6)
Ala u l-mulk, Governor of Kirman." " u ast ^JLJ| s.&c Ald l-mulk-i Hdkim
l
On
is
mjd
the 'Ala u l-Mulk th&
"
1
ojj,>l*
Compound words are not coupled together by the izdfat, thus mddar-zan (m.c.) "mother-in-law "; ^j yUji. khwdhar-zan "sister"
(but
ij
in-law"; <Jj*> *>{=*> khdna-bi-dush "wandering, vagrant asbdb-i barham zada; JL* b^* mard-i bd mdl).
(c)
^*y
v.;Uat
The
izdfat
seldom
occurs after
quantity, as:
*v&*
ooUtf" ,_L*
Â^ ^ ^^
measures of number, length or guft sad dirham sang kifdyat mlis
kunad
(Sa'dl)
jJua.
"he
said the weight of a 100 dirhams

*
a sufficient quantity
"
dam-i chand db dshdmld (Sa'd!) " he drank a few sips of ^/oUif v f ^*t> ' " 3 c5U. water ^S** mu^ht-l du, khvk (Sa'dl) a couple of handfuls or so of
'
" earth
sim
vO^
-& yak gaz
<*>b
" a yard's depth of water

*'
' '
:
^^^
:
yak jav
a barley corn's, a grain's weight of a>aj ^ya. jav-t nuqra (m.c.) *>&- J^fi ^^ silver" yak sang db vT >-&* (m.c.) "one sang of water" " two shares of 6Zw c?awgr khdna (m.c.) the house *" v-jf os-U JL| yak qdmat b
(class.) or
;
dah nafar shutur (in writing) " ten camels " ndn-i p*> " half a loaf " 6 ua-ai <*>. but ndn-i and L*\4 m.c.) nisf-i (m.c.) (class, butîli " *-(^ ^ du khum yak kdsa db" a, glass of water ;>* yak kasa-yi db or
ab
;
y^^>
**
^
;
mm
li
jav
two
c^lsxi'
jars
^^
(large
;
earthenware vessels) of barley "; yak finjan chdhl

<?*
riim
man
p&
"
half a
maund
' '
;
y*J
^^
>
" a nuqra cup of silver" (i.e. either made of " wX> yak finjdn-l nuqra^l a cup made fâi &(=
VI.
(a)
silver or full of silver),
yak finjdn but
of silver."
Further remarks and examples on the use of the Izafat.

erratic in the use
j*U|
Modern Persians are rather

thus the iMmlims say A**.^
1
and omission of the
izdfat,
Ivn/im
chief church dignitary in each district
by
Jum'a (a title given to the the Shah), while the Zardushti&

(m.c.)
correctly say **+*.

(b)
pLo,
Imdm-i Jum'a.
(with izdfat}
Yak khwurda-yi db
v f !^^ u4
"
may
be translated
Also
yk^Ûo
f
madar-shawhar
'
mother-in-law
(i.e.
husband's mother)
Also
3
M^- khush-daman (class.). <^* dam- 1 chand az ab vf j A
(class.)
could be used:
v^
(*$)** qadr-l ab.
Musht-i
du az khak
*&*
:
j\
jd^JJ*.* (class,
and m.c.);
-^
viJ^j^ du mushtis
khak: CA-^î^JjJ cÛ. *JU^ kX; yak musht khak blahtar nlst (m.c.) "there more than a handful of earth " in m.c. the izafat is sometimes inserted.
4
i
not
or sang
_&* and dang

(or kalla
t-&lii
6 6
Or qadd
^
+i
(colloquially dung), vide
65
(6).
or sar
j>)
ab.
Izafat always follows m's/, subs., but not nlm adj. the tea-leaf; it is 7 A weed that grows in the qanata has a leaf resembling dried^ and infused to form a medicine ; hence Persians assumed that cea was grown in a wel
and have corrupted the word cha 9 l into chahl and chayi.
444

of
izdfdt.
"a very small quantity

without
izafat
water," while
;
^ jj^^tX) yak khwurda db
(m.c.)
" in this case there is " the remainder of the perhaps day )j) c**^ baqi-yi ruz an ellipsis of the word vaqt. In IAJJ; Û bdqi ruzhd, or c^^k; ruzhd-yi In India eyjaL* mddor-i zan " mother-inbdqi, ^5(t bdqi is an adjective.
;
no difference in meaning (unless water" Yak dasta muqallid â-o AX-O^J (without izafat and stress be laid on yak). " noun in singular) a band of mummers," but o!<UAA3 IL*^ dasta-yi muqallidan and ^ft*> &-.* dasta-yi muqallid (m.c.) "the band of mummers." Yak dasta-yi muqallidan î&lfeo &Lo tô would be wrong. but in AJJ c/f (c) In o~~f e/f o*:JLa*> maslahat an ast there is no izafat and similar places the izafat should be inserted. The izafat bim-i an bud is used after the Arabic participle bdqi,' when it is treated as a noun, as
little
"a
there
is
^b
law," but in modern Persian

(d)
^^ mddar-zan without
' '
the izafat. 8
Bishtar
mardum f&f
bishtar-i
y&i-?
most men
' '
;
blshtar awqdt et$y
j&%
' '
;
" most times," but
mardum
men
awqdt oLJ^f Û? the meaning in both the constructions

;
' '
bishtar-i
^^ "
is
the greater part of the the greater part of the times

Â^-VJ
*'
the same.
Bishtar-i tshdn
y&#
with
awqdt
(^k)\
''the
izafat
1
greater part
of
them"
jt
(not
bishtar-ishdn
&&>\
j&y)
the
construction
c^**J|
y-k# bishtar az ishan.
Ghdlib-i
o^jt v^ *
ig
used, not ghalib-awqal.
Similarly out^t ^JUt agjilab-i awqdt and oL5ji_>î aksar-i awqdt are correct, though the izafat is sometimes omitted. The izafat is also correct in
o^l
e>T k-Jl
(e)
cA^ gumdn-i
ghalib
an
ast.
Persians omit the izafat before an Infinitive governed a the on by preposition ground that c>t^ y c^>jT f^; rahm dvardan bar baddn In India is the equivalent of e^jt /*-^ cJ'^/J &^y baddn rahm dvardan.
Some modern
omitted before a preposition even in such a sentence, as ;b- j' **? az savdr shudan-i dar Tcishti. The advantage of the insertion 6a'c? vi)^ ^Âfj.i of the izafat is apparent from the following examples: ^jj/y ul*^ ji eMiy
the
t'za/erf is
:
mardumdn-i dar Kirmdn mi-ravand

^*jj
^sof )& c)^^/
" " the people of Kirmanare going mardumdn dar Kirman mi-ravand (m.c.) "the people
(m.c.)
are going to Kirman"; (^'^ j* kishtl or C5xi^r jj> &sJl y^> jf ^*u
&*&
fea'c?
)\>*
jt
**> ba'd az savar
shudan dar
az savar shudan-i dar kishti "after
embarking").
dar-dmadan-i
amadan
khdna
1
^*J ba'daz agree that jt> }t az darba'd the of &k bacfh, being equivalent ^j! &?*$}&$ **! dar bag&, the izafat is necessary. In pas az dmadan-i Eustam bi-
Some modern Persian
^ ^^
*û
^)
&**$ j!
<j**J
no
izafat is possible after
Rustam. 4
(chiz)
Maslahat an bud " that was the prudent measure," but blm-i an
In this case baqiyya can be substituted. Similarly in all compounds of madar.
bud " there
was
fear of that (thing).

2
3
incorrect
In m.c. pas az amadan-i bi-khana " after : the izafat should be omitted,
my
return
home"
though common,
is
ON THE USE OF
(/)
)&.
445
of oar
The
in
objective
and subjective genitives "love
neighbours,"
may
both
English and Persian signify
either the love that our neighbours
nishat bi-ma Uo CUA^
bear us or the love that we bear over neighbours. U&U* OASI.X> and mahabbat-i
are unequivocal.
Mahabbat-i hamsayagan
ma
nishat bi-hamsayagdn
VII.
On
the use of
is
jj
The Arabic word ^ "possessed of."

ing substantive
Fern.
(
;
always connected with a followl

:
it is
fully declined in Arabic as follows
plur.
)
Masc.
(;),!
( )
plur.
Fern. sing.
oily
ey
ofji ^
*
<j;jj "
*
^
'
Masc. sing.
oVjf X
<^f
ofi
'^
^
"
Subjective.
Dependent.
Objective.
Examples
J&sJj ^j zu'l-jalal "possessed of dignity, majestic."

&l i
zat^l-kamalat
"
possessed of
all
perfections."
>
zu-funun "learned."
/ 9
ulu'l-absdr" the prudent." this word is often wrongly constructed, no count being taken of the Arabic number, case and gender: so the month before Muharram
^f
In
Persian
is
in Persian *^sj)
or &*&J\
indifferently
it is
even combined with
Persian words, as
o*^
L?^ "intelligent."
Moreover, the plural is sometimes, in modern colloquial, used as a singular, as in In shakhs Tchayli ulu'l-qadr ast o*! ;^^ ^\ " " this man has " khayll ulu'l-'azm ast great rank, is honoured (m.c.) very
^û^^
resolute or enterprising."
sing, or pi.)
2
Ulu'l
amr "Emperor
or
Emperors"
(used as a
meaning of the definite article in the word following so eÂ*^^ (m.c.) means the same in Persian as ui>M jc\ Some Persian Arabophiles, however, use the correct Arabic cases even
The Persians ignore

:
also the
when the compound by a Persian noun or
is
used in a Persian construction,
i.e.
when governed
verb.
118.
The Cases
in
of Nouns.
Nominative
(a)
The Nominative case
the beginning of a sentence in

1
modern Persian is an absolute sense

omitted as
it
often employed at or near

to introduce the subject,
The Arabic dual
of this
word
is
does not occur in Persian.
Shi'as style their
Imams
only ulu'l-amr.
446
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
construction avoids the

genitive.
being independent of the grammatical construction that follows it. This use of two or more consecutive nouns in the
Sometimes the subject
is
a subordinate clause: the sentence
introduced qualified by a relative or by is then broken off and left standing
^ ^t
dlrak-i
without a verb, a pronoun or noun in apposition to the subject being l man chashm-am namiintroduced and followed by its verb. **&+> (*+***" " I can't see I don't blnad (m.c.) (lit. see) my eyes *y> *$ *** fj <jyj^ dukhtar-l rd did ki harki chashm-ash bar ijkjfo JUr Ûiiô y^j iJ*+&*.
u mi-uftad kamal-i mihrbani mi-namud "she saw a young girl whom every one that saw her loved. In, & tjljii JT^ **&# ;b^j ti jL* jl^>> l *> j^?* -*ir* *i,3jj jw^j eft-aJ qanb-i jahaz-i ma du jahaz-i digar ki pur -bar budand
budand "near our ship were two other laden ships that had had half of their masts cut down," there is no verb for L& jl^^j>; and if there were, some conjunctions would be required before
anha rd
ta nisf burlda
A somewhat similar construction is common in English ballad "My heart, it loves a gypsy, oh!" In, "the Prophets, do
for ever?
poetry as
they live
"
(Zee. 1. 5), the
pleonasm
is
allowable for the sake of emphasis.
*>*jl LTJ^;^ darwsh az (*^-k *l> cs-kk^jL* AJ^yL> rah va az muta*alim khasta sakhtt-yi pa-yash az jay namisadma-yi safar Darvish "the wearied the by journey and its hardjumbld (mod. Pers.)
Â*^ t5^ C5^- 3' <-P^
ships was unable to

*'
lift
;
his feet/'
Compare the
old English construction

<(
" the courtiers their nosys." Thy Kinge hys eyes" The subject of a passive verb is called Alcl*
whose subject is put in the Nominative

In modern
object of the action,
accusative.'
2
" and not known

case.
is
p~* in Persian, ancient
I*
Jy*^
the object
and modern, always
subject or patient of a passive verb, being the can in the case of certain compound verbs be put in the This construction has found its way into Indian Persian.
Urdu the
In the following example, taken from a public notice in India, the pronoun ura is incorrectly in the accusative: ju/oj3U j; \^\ <j$ c>*$- fj^* f'^^b " should 3 servant accept a tip, he will be dismissed." any ,>A|^L s^ oj-b,,.?
Genitive case
(b)
There
is
no proper Genitive case in Persian.

is
This construction
common
in
Arabic, from which language

is
it
is
probably
borrowed. This use of the nominative absolute
<iT*t^ a sentence with two faces, or aspects.
called by native grammarians Such a sentence as 'aql-am qabul naml

is
kunani /***} J^-^ t*& c though sometimes heard

2
obviously incorrect.
Thus Usko
kiya giya
qatl
kiya giya
<-ix5
Wuh
qatl
3
Kudam
/*t>f,
Instead of
girift
^ "he was killed." idiom. 'any' as the equivalent of the Urdu ko,l is an Afghan *+* it would be better here to substitute bi-girad
^^
^ ^ <J$J j~*>\
"him was
killed"
is
as correct as
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
447
When two nouns

"the regent
i
' '
are placed together in a "state of regimen" as " the son malik of the king," the first or pisar-i governing word is
(
called
ol^*Ji
),
the second or the word governed *Jf

]
and the short

This
is
that couples the two words together is called the izafat. but the izdfat is used, besides, to the proper genitive construction
;
couple the substantive to the adjective or adjectives that follow it, vide 43 (#), and also to couple substantives together as a name and a trade or
nickname, vide
117.
we
substantives coupled by the izdfat are often used where in English use a substantive and an adjective (the governing word having the effect
Two
of the adjective),
The
great experience." be used construction can also to izafat signify the material out of
:
as
*^3
o;ir, kasrat-i tajriba
"
which a thing
is
made, as: At o^L.

tild*i (adj.)
l<
sd'at-i tild
"a
^fc
watch
jl
of
gold"
(also
tilla
ÎLfc o-cLo sd'at-i
a golden watch," or
^^l** sa'at-i az
watch made from gold"); <j*U\ yA&f angushtar-i almas "a diamond " a a ring," but angushtar-i az almas would mean ring made from diamonds."
"a
The
with a
genitive construction
is
^> preposition would be f^fy^ " one yak shab ta*ammul-i ayydm-i guzashta mi-kardam (Sa'd!) night I was pondering on olden days" here in Persian a preposition could be substi:
often used where in English a substantive AJ&a? f Ljl cU& *Jj used, as
tuted, as
t^ j*. d*& tat-ammul bar ayydm-i guzashta mi-kardam. (*i^^ This construction also occurs with the Infinitive, which is treated
:
*j-tf
as a
simple
noun (though
(
it
may
also
govern an accusative), as:
*>*j
ba d az savdr shudan-i kashti "after getting into the i^&JSif &*& jj* y. 3 SJS^ boat" [or {J ^ &* )\y* savdr shudan dar kashti (m.c.) vide 117 (h)~\; * ô *j o-i ^cj^.t> o-yj l^f e^b \y sazd dddan-i dnhd bi-dast-i digari-stna man " " viJUs mine
(m.c.)
&>
their punishing lies in the
hands
of another, not in
\j
jf
cu*ol^T &t>\t> J> urd yo " to punish them, not I
" he has power tdqat-i sazd dddan-i dnhd-st na mard L> **> b ad az nizd kardan-i bd u (m.c.) ; ^1 31
&^ ^f>
"after quarrelling with him," but y ^'^î?j **> ba'd az nizd' kardan-i u vide also remarks on "after his quarrelling (with me or some one else)"
f
the izdfat
117.
In the story of the second darvish, Chapter XI of the Persian translation " of Haji Baba," occurs the following peculiar passage: L> [Ûjy ] c>!jta*J v^-cl o>JU. ba'd az an [bimdr] bd hdlat-i
When
2
an adjective follows and
qualifies
5
a noun,
the oUox> muzaf and the

iulan.
muzayf ilayh are separated, as: U^ d&*J^j~i pisar-i Tchush-gil-i There may sometimes be a slight difference in signification between tha two con" &>k kasa-yi nuqra may mean either " a silver cup," or a cup structions, thus
full of silver
S
Or
" a silver cup kasa-yi muqra*i pieces," but *;> omit the izafat. In India this izafat would be omitted.
^^
"
only.
For er*
^^
bi-dast'i
man.
Persians are very fond of elliptical expressions.
448
bd'is-i hayrat-i
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

hama,
balki
the astonishment of
all,
va hakim ham, arugh-i ! chand zad " when, to not excepting myself and the doctor, he (the sick man)
man
"
In this passage f*^j <^./o manva (Haji Baba). groaned, opened hakim are in the genitive case, though, owing to the faulty collocation or incorrect construction, there is no izafat to distinguish the case. The words
his eyes
O^XA.
c*pb bd'is-i hayrat-i should be repeated after
*b
balki, vide
120
(h)
Remark. Note the genitive case or the use of the izafat in the following " The road from Kirman to Yezd " * AJ &\s^ fy rah-i Kir man bi-Yazd "the B. Abbas road" (Ûc^Ju ; rah-i Bandar-i Abbas; "authority for
:
this" j*\
in
e>j
****
sanad-i in amr; "fear of death
"
J>j*
^^3
"
tars-i
marg;
" he
is
" a horse worth a thousand rupees
"^-^yjD*
v~*' asp-i hazdr tumdrii;
need of
money"
%a*-i
J*J Ûw.* y
muhtdj-i pul ast;
Devil"
tt>UL*
li^jf dzmuda-yi Shaytdn [vide

of the objective genitive
121
(a)]
tempted of the and 121 (o) ]

;
contrary to reason, impossible" c&c Jl./o muhdl-i 'aql (m.c.).
Example
khud ^y^
cJi;y^
c5^
j*
bi-hukm-i ghurur-i pa-yi suturan-i H. B., Chap. V) " confident in the surefZ*** (Tr.
:
footedness of their
horses."
:
Example
''the
117.
(c)
of the subjective genitive
gunkhtan-i Haji Baba
Ijt
<^^ ^^.j*
Vide also
flight of
Haji
Baba";
vide also 120 (a) (1), of
me; my.
The Dative
There
are
(1)
two forms
2
of
p$s&
\j)
(2)
I said (to) him urd guftam (also In m.c. the dative with *j is usual.
:
"
bi-u guftam or the dative, thus, f*v&jl?
"
p& jt
'j
bd u guftam}.
(3)
with
\)
is
These two forms are not however always interchangeable. The dative obligatory when it signifies possession, with or without the verb
c^
3 budan, and also with the impersonal verbs, as *î;i4? c^-k&t &1^ jl^> *j*> CJ b A-iL \y j\ Jil^ td har ki tir az halqa-yi angushtan bi-guzardnad khdtim urd
:
that the ring will be his who shoots an arrow through it"; bdshad (Sa'dl) " 6 ki and dvarda gazhdum rd vilddat-i ma hud nisi chundn ki sdîr-i hayvdndt Ct aCUa. ** lt is rd \) dU.xa.yu o*î *t^ ^;jf (Sa'df) \j
1
^^
f^
stated that the scorpion has not an ordinary birth like other
1
' '
animals."
Arugh zjj is a belch which Persians consider relieves the stomach. Either form of the dative can also be used after f<Mi> da tan " to give."
The dative
is
not necessary with impersonal verbs (vide

used, the form with
\)
Impersonal verbs)
used.
but when
*
the dative
is
and not with
&t
must be
In modern Persian ji&>f angushtar.
Also instead of
*&k
t;^t
ura bashad the

it
phrase
^1^1 JUÂCl
"
is
but
rnl-basliad
6
"
or
'
angushtar mal-i u bashad would be used: bashad "let will be."
be"
Or
tlr-i.
6
t(
Sa fir j${<
signifies
"the remainder, the
rest," but
is
frequently employed for
the whole."
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
449
Har Har
"
kird td*us bdyad jawr-i Hindustan kashad kira mahbub bdyad kunda u zinddn kashad (Sad!).
He who wants He who wants
his mistress
a peacock must endure the journey to India, must endure fetters and prison."
Yak-i rd dil az dast rafta bud *# AAJ; eu^jf J^ j^c, (Sa'di) " a certain person had quite lost his heart." [Vide also (10) Remark].
va har shab sanam-i dar bar ki subh-i tdbdn ra dast az
ast va sarv-i khirdmdn ra az khajdlat-i u pay dar gil have each night a fresh mistress who shames the bright "the .rich (Gulistan) morning by her beauty and humbles the waving cypress by her exquisite In none of these cases could & be substituted for t> figure." &f -b ^1^ Û** J&+A. "praise to In hamd u sipds Khudd-yi pdk ra ki \) " and similar the verb is understood. God the Holy constructions,
sabdhat'i
u bar
dil
|ô bagh-Vst ÂA I have a garden that no one has yet seen." ki Inch kas na-dida ast (m.c.) In the above cases, the dative by native grammarians is considered the
:
This dative
is
rare in m.c.
o^f xxoo
&
OM-*XPU
mard
cc
muzdf
ilayh.
^.jj^LU
Thus
Ûi
l*j
in,
ô^f
+&A. &}*.
savdrdn rd chun chashm bi-md uftdd tdkhtan dvardand "when the mounted men saw us they lyt^tjô
rd
\)
charged chashm
down upon us," savdrdn
\s)tyj>*
is
considered the muzdf ilayh of
^^,
the phrase being equal to

:
savdrdn bi-md uftdd

the nominative
chun chashm-i p**> &?*. ideas to savdrdn should be in o>fjt^ according English
t>&>\ l+J
^fo>
and be the subject to <^ ^\ dvardand.

in
Remark.
The datives
two clauses should balance one another
hamdn
tawr ki u bi-vay (urd) khil'at ddd, bi-man (mard) niz yak shdl-i Kashmiri dad
(4)
If the indirect object express

<*j,
locality,
the dative in
' '
;
t;
cannot be
;
substituted for
" we reached the as: ^JÂV.^^J bi-shahr rastdim city"

' (
:
we attained our object bi-maqsud rasidim " hit the 'game' "the bullet bi-shikdr khivurd gulula (m.c.) preceding examples could \y be substituted for *?
^x^
,iâfl4J
^^ j^t** djtf
none of the
^\
in
But
mi-dyad)
*jf jô
v f^
\j
}\
urd khwdb mi-dyad (or Ajf
" he
^ J^\^
u khwdb-ash
is
The m.c. phrase " what's the matter with you ? " can be rendered either by & Aa. |y turd chi shud ? or *& &*> j> bi-tu chi shud. (5) The preposition AJ has many other significations besides the "to" of the dative, as o~|^ v (^ b pd bi-rikdb guzdsht " he put his foot in the
: ' '
:
feeling sleepy."
stirrup iron
obviously in such instances
its
place could not be taken
Another and
common
reading
is
ranj-i Hindustan.
29
450
(6)
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

Duration
of
l
2 time can also be expressed by as ; of the dative, ruz rd na'l tamdm-i chahdr ixjb yurtma A*JJJJ jj; ij JUj^l^ yd 0,5; fU3 must one trot or canter the whole day ? " shab 3 rd dnjd bdyad raft? (m.c.) mdndam f&ilo IssJf (^ t.^ (m.c.) " I stayed there the (whole) night." In the first example the preposition ;^ dar (dar tamdm-i ruz) could be
:
<;
'
'
substituted for the
f&iU Uof
^> j&
dar shab dnjd raftam be wrong here).
but not in the second for dar shab dnjd mdndam fj, would mean " I stayed there at night (not by day) " so also " I went there at rd would Uuf
;
^^
night," (shab
"by
few adverbs can also be formed by the dative in I;, as !j L5 qazd rd by chance," (but ittifdq, not t; <3&t ittifdq rd). Some consider this a form of the ablative case, apparently because grammarians
:
accident,
the ablative (az qazd UaJ' jt) can be substituted.* Andak fur sat rd gard-i (and az an bar-dyad ^f^ c>t jt ^' >/ '; 0,^5 ^^1 " at the (Anvdr-i Suhayli) slightest opportunity (or in a short time) it ceases " to exist rdsti rd khildf-i aql buvad 89 (h) (3). (Qa,ani), vide
: :
(7) If
more substantives than one
in the dative are coupled together, rd
is
usually added to the last only. 5 Amr(u) u Zayd rd kitdb dddam

(
f*\*
u Zayd dddam ft>\t> AJ) ^ ^>u \* V U^. (8) The affixed pronouns may take the place ^ *tf (.g* o^t (m.c.) tiich ydd-at mi-dyad ki
ÂO,
\>
or kitdb rd
bi-
Amr(u)
as:
I/
of the
?,
dative in
t;,
or &?
turd htch ydd mi-dyad

*Jt
" ki(m.c.)" do you at all remember that? J^ly^ vf^ \^\ urd khwdb mi-dyad (less common, ^khwdb-ash mi-dyad, or *>J
:
*$(j
&
*A
m.c.)
"he
feels
sleepy."
The
affixed
pronoun of
itself
does not admit of rd
but a noun in the
dative case to which a possessive affixed pronoun is attached may be followed by (;, as c>\* <j, j îU sildh va diram dad lashkar-'sh fj rd (Shah-Nama) "he gave arms and money to his the more
:
jU
army";
is
ordinary construction would be <JjJ &> bi-lashkar-ash. (9) When the dative in t; has a noun in apposition, or
adjectives, the affix rd
is
qualified
by
usually added at the end, as:
The accusative with

:
or without
(j
is
used with compound verbs formed

^1*3
dadan, as
yak-l az vuzara pa-yi takht-i malik busa dad
*-^J ^JUs
:
" one of the vizirs kissed the throne of the king {Sa'di)
"
oiu ^b \^ j|
ra
\)
could be inserted after
iJ^* malik.
2 As the preposition dar can be substituted for to consider this the dative and not the accusative case.
*
this
\)
it
is,
I think, better
*
*
Or shab an/a mandam f<Û Uof *_*. The Arabic accusative used adverbially,
j+*
'C/raar;
e.g. (qaza
an
)
can also be substituted.
but }j+* 'Amr (the
final
j not pronounced).
<Amr and Zayd
are
common
in Arabic
grammars.
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

Zaydpisar-i vazlr ra guftam (or ^~j <x>j " I said to Zeyd the son of the Wazir
451
ki"
&f
f&
<fc
bi-Zayd pisar-i vazir guftam)
j\& j a^jf î^ ati*j*y ^^.s^> shakhs-l az mardan-i jang-azmuda va kar-dida ra guftam ki p*s$ t; "I said to a certain experienced warrior ." In Minnat ra 'azz a
:
>J^
Khuday
va
a
jatt(
cU j> ty^ oix

God
.
jj
**>
(Sa'di)
"
thanksgiving to the
Great
and
Glorious
(
", the
I;
ra could also be placed last after the phrase
J^ jj*
azza va jall a
Similarly in *
3 04Vo ^J** j+*
^^
/0
J'L>
t5^* yak-i
ra az muluk muddat-i
'umr
sipari
shud (Gul. B.
II.
S.
28), the ra would, in modern Persian,
be preferably inserted after uÎ^ muluk.
Remark.
\)
When
the dative in
f;
ra
is
qualified
:
by a phrase, the affix
ra
is
preferably added at the end

^y.stxj ^
of the phrase, as
^j<^
f;
<*->jc
v^lx>
j\
^j
bi~
<&j&
^J
yak-i az muluk-i 'Arab ra hadis-i Layla u

10).
Majnun
guftand(Gul. B. S.
(10)
still
ra preceded by the particle sometimes used in books, but not in letters.

in
ij
The dative
mar
(vide (d) 12), is
Remark.
dative
is
sometimes in
classical, rarely in
:
modern, Persian
used as the logical subject of the clause, as
Sag-l ra luqma-l hargiz faramush
Na-gardad gar
"
zarii
sad nawbat-ash sang.
(Sa'di).
dog ne'er forgets a morsel (thrown to it) Even if afterwards you stone it a hundred times "
In the example,
"dog
' '
"
is
in the dative case.

t>}
Urd
f '
hlch chiz faramush nami-shavad
(tS
(J^\j9 JA^. ^JA ^
j\
(m.c.)
he forgets nothing.
(11) The dative in ra f; sometimes takes the place of the preposition îr bardy, as: Khuda ra i^tsA "for God's sake." For further remarks on the locative dative, *J J>*A*> and **' J^*A^, vide under these heads.
The accusative case (1) The accusative has two forms: one form is the same nominative, and the other as the nominative plus the suffix f;. One of the difficulties to a beginner is the correct use or omission
(d)
:
as
the
of f>
(2)
Generally speaking, as already stated,
(;
corresponds to the definite
article
and should be
affixed to definite parts of speech such as definite nouns,
'Azza va
jail
(be His name) the wisher assuming the completion of the action,
:
"
exalted and magnified are Ar. verbs, Pret., and signify in Arabic the Preterite is used in precative sentences and in cursing,
(a)
<-U.
jj*
"
452
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
1 proper names, the separate pronouns, the demonstrative pronouns, the 2 A/, the reflexive pronouns, and the pronominal adjectives interrogative
and
indefinite
all three, all four, etc.
pronouns signifying "all; each; every; so-and-so; and both, a certain person one the others." In m.c. it also
;
;
;
follows the affixed possessive

tive case
:
pronouns when
(6).
affixed to a
noun
in the accusa-
vide
(c) (8)
and
40
Remark.
definite, as
:
After the
"I
name of a language, the t; is only added if the noun is wish to learn Persian" mi-khwaham p)j*l&. \f*j^* eÔ /^t^Rjô
(m.c),
zabdn-i
Farsi
bi-yamuzam
but
will
in
Arabic."
at school the pupil might say, Zaban-i Farsi ra mi-amuzam

f;
"I
selecting a course of study take up the Persian and not the

I;
fjyf ^y
15*^^ &ty
it
matically correct to insert the

stilted
here, the sentence with
though gramhas the same
"I sound, as
am now
going to study the French language."

direct objects of the Imperative
(3)
The ra
tj
must be added to the
mood
or of causal verbs,
when
the object
is
definite (not
when
it is indefinite).
Remark. An adjective qualifying a noun often makes it definite, while the omission of the adjective indicates that it is indefinite. Vide p. 461 note 8.
,
(4)
When
a
a phrase, Arabic or Persian,

at the
is
:
in apposition to a noun, the

s
I;
must be added
'All
(raziy
end
of the phrase, as
{**&
vL*^
I;
*^ *^
<^*)
^*
*llah 'an-h' u) *
ra bi-khwab dtdam
"I saw 'AH (may

<M.^
Allah be
pleased with
him
in a
dream."
jtfd**&*jjb|j foyojf
^x^j
*iJ,N **5f^ \s)\**j*
tan-i
chaud az mardu-
man-i vaqi'a dida va jang azmuda ra bi-firistadand ki

several
(Sa'd!)
;
"they sent
warriors
tiJjjj^j yak-i
of experience, I; Ji ^j ^!; " az 'ulama-yi rasikh 6 ra pursldand (Sa'di) they asked one of the
tried in battle, to
' '
^LU
learned
men
of fixed principles."
:
In
classical Persian,
however, such
is
not
always the case
tf **.'& o.j&a>
^.sv_c
^l/o
fj
^j
of
yak-l ra az muluk-i
'Ajam
Jiikayat
one of the kings of Persia that "; in this example the ra could with equal propriety be inserted after the word
ki
kunand
(Sa'di) *'they
relate
Similiarly in the apposition of substitution
and
of explanation,
f;
must
But not The ra
^t
\)
an
qadr, jxax.|
In qadr.
is
in
m.c.
sometimes incorrectly omitted after the interrogative

1
kudam kitab kudam, or <^J p\**kudam yak-i, unless definite, as: C5A [> :iHi/0 v^^* mi-khwahi (vulg.) "which book do you want ?": c^tj'^-it* (,5^! ft^ kudam yak-l mi" kJiwahl ? (vulg.) "which do you want ?
3 *
6
Final
Vide also Apposition. u omitted after the pause.

f+*\)
RasikJii
means
of
sound
x**
belief, of
jt
firm faith in his religion.

yak-l az muluk-i
In modern Persian
\)
Û
^J
'Ajam
ra.
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
453
be placed at the end, as: Zayd pisar-i Vazir rd didam f*jj> \) j&j j-~$ *>) "I 139 (b) (4). the son of the Wazir," vide " the of In (5) qualification," a past or present participle apposition denoting state or condition, or an adjective, is placed in apposition to a
saw Zaid
'
noun, and the noun

**
if
f
definite takes
*W
J^b*-
zdlim-i ra khufta
t*J' f didam nim-ruz guftam in
~ *&
&
Ij,
as
*
pi* f*--'*
L>
c**^
didam
fitna ast Tchwdbashburda bih (Sa'dl)
"I saw
(*?.*
a certain tyrant asleep at mid-day
"
fil-i
ra uftdnu khizdn
(m.c.) "I saw an elephant limping and stumbling cH>^^tt^*l sang-i* dar rah uftdda didam f&* Jtolij't fy <^&~> (m.c.) "I saw a stone on the road vide also in these lying (8) examples ra I; could not be
b^V
' '
;
"
omitted.
Remark
I.
If,
however, the participle or adjective be in apposition

fj
to an indefinite
noun the
is
siydh-i ddsht
kawdan
according to the usual rule omitted, as: " " he had a slave, a blockhead (Sa'dl)
ablafi (m.c.)
a servant, an ass." In e>-i+3 _>J ;i ra didam samin va khil'at-i dar ablah-i 3 eH:*** f*i& h tj^\ " bar samin (Sa'd!) " I saw a fool, a fat fool, with a fine robe, a costly one the first substantive is definite and the second indefinite.
nawkar-i dashtam
"I had
^^
Remark II. Man mar-i rd s dar rah murda didam *.>yo *t>; \) \s^* &* " and man mar-i murda-i rd B dar rah " I saw a snake dead on the road fAp " I saw a dead snake on the road " zdlim-i ra didam f<^ t>\) \^ b^x> ;U^/o
;
khufta
didam
^
^
*iia.
I;
Ûs
' '
saw a tyrant who

\j
(or
when) he was asleep
and zdlim-i
tihufta-i
rd didam
p*>*
<&&*
The shade
(6) If
of difference in
meaning
is slight, if
," especially if followed by the shumd requires tj, sawghdt dvarda-am(m.c.) " if rd be added it I have brought a book as a present for you signifies "a certain book as a present" and the sentence is incomplete and &f ki Idyiq-i shumd ast is necessary to some such phrase as o~-.U <Jjil
I;*:
if,
-merely an indefinite " a certain however, the ^signify

the
is
^JlJeÎsawa sleeping tyrant." indeed any really exist. article, its noun does not require
relative**", it
(
as
Kitdb-i bardy-i
'
complete the sense:
it
would
U.
also
be correct to omit the

kitdb-i bardy-i
t;
and say
o~*U
(Jj^J
&f
p]
u^yf oUy*.
ast.
^|y ^liT
fil-i
shumd sawghdt dvarda

*'
am
ki ld*iq-i
shumd
Similarly in fx,>
j^t
^JUi
imruz didam (m.c.)

fil-i
to-day,"
1
it
would be incorrect to say

(
rd
f;
Û'
unless
saw an elephant some qualifying

examples
in
Zaid and 'Amr
*t^^
are two fictitious
names used
'
in syntactic
Arabic grammars: the English boy learns that Balbus the Muslim boy is taught that Zaid is striking Amr(u).
*
'
is
building a wall,' while
2
S
But
The
',)
(fi
*^-* sang-lra
"a
certain stone."
appears to be redundant. Unless the omission of I; would cause ambiguity; vide

ra,
(d) (11).
454
clause followed, such as
t>#
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

<^\Ls
l
^\^
&t ki-khayll qashang bud;

:
imruz didam ki khayll qashang bud (m.c.) " I saw a didam nest," but f&>& ( \) ) u*j*> &^T dshiydna-l " nest of a bird didam I saw the ^^/o &*U&f ashiydna-yi murgh-i (ra) " I saw ^3pj )(f*. dshlydna~yi murgh-% bd chdjidr tukhm didam (m.c {&)*,
*>
fll-l
(or fll-l-rd
' '
L>
a bird's nest with four eggs."
Dukhtar-l ddsht vsJta <jr/^
(Sa'dl)
" he
had a daughter
unless
dukhtar-l ra here it would be wrong to say !;. ** ^ LSJ^* 0> a relative clause followed, as cî *is; oLrt-k *> ra Tci didl bi-Tihrdn du]chtar-l rafta ast (m.c.) "the girl you saw has gone to Tehran," where the ra is necessary.
; :
"
(^^
^
'
t>j
in
41
(),
*^j tJ^T $$&
J^f
t;
^'^. Tchana-i ra atash zadand.
*$
For I; in relative sentences qualifying a and Demonstrative ^.

(7)
definite
noun, vide the Relative
Nouns preceded by a cardinal number do not usually admit of f; Hazar sarbaz didam f*i* j^^jD* "I saw a thousand " soldiers ^^ v*" '-^ a5 P didam " I saw two horses," but f&& f; î ^^ ^w asp ra didam "I saw the two horses" cu^^ c)^;^ '; *i5 -b^^> u- er* x> wan In du laîfa ra dar jahan dust ml-ddram 'ulama h tfajj (; ^ va zuhhad ra (Sa'dl) " these two classses I cherish dearly in this world,
unless definite, as
: :
Jt
tt
viz.,
the learned and the devotional."
Vide, also (15).

if
Remark.
tive pronoun,
A
is
noun with a cardinal number,

definite,
' '
:
as: j^j
\j
AiiJ
î
In
In du takhta ra bibur
takhta ra
preceded by a demonstra" cut
these two planks

(8)
o'~^-
/*#
\)
*i3 j$ ^\
du
biham bi-chaspan.
noun
but
in apposition to a definite
I;
admit
OA*ot
of
f;,
must be
^J(jL
affixed to
noun in the accusative does not A &) ^-^ A [y^ the first noun, as cM> f
:
^^
jjÛ^* e*l5j
*1*^
^(^j
fj
t&
AA)
^.jt
tana-ra baray-i Hidayat Khan-i Rashtl In ast (m.c.) " I'll say that the wife of Hidayat Khan of Resht has sent this a jacket ( f; ) as a present (without I; ) for Shu'la Khanam" ^f^ ^J&
:
mm
khwaham guft zan-i Shu'la Khanam sawqat firistada

Lf***)
a g u ft Khuday azz va jail mar a " mdlik-i in mumlakat garddnlda ast (Sa'dl) he said God the glorious has made me master of this kingdom." Vide also (5) and end of (4), and (c) (9).
OA-I
<HJ|j>/
^^JU/o
^
f
I
tJjU
\j*>
J^
If
an indefinite noun has a noun in apposition to

:
it,
ra
to either noun, as
^f oUj->
^ty
c>^
chlz-l bardy-i
is not added shumd sawqat
dvarda
am
(m.c.)
" I have brought you back something (from a journey) as a
present."
In writing, and preferably in speaking, the ra should be inserted.
rah-avard "a present or 8'j Sawqat ^\)j* is the m.c. for the classical " also u)U4)| armaghan (class, and m.c.), curiosity brought from a journey
4
^T
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

(9)
455
it is
Rd
\)
jir
ml guftan va dor ugh guftan ra tark namikunad il he does not give up loose talk and lying " SJ|*AX> V>JL ^ lii " he is a shina kardan ra khub mi-ddnad (m.c.) good swimmer." (10) With several nouns coupled together by ^ it is necessary to add
^3
t;
can be added to the Infinitive when

'j)*j
the object, as
&&
J)
^y
t;
to the last only, vide
example above
in (9).
' '
Two
j>y
affixes of
I;
close together are
sentence " He invited
oy^
I;
fjAJ^ uj*
jl
the grammatical
(11) Finally
^ ^j&$
I;
heavy to the Persian ear. Thus the father and me" would in Persian be rendered by my u man u pidar-am ra da' vat kard and rarely by
1
' '
\)
is
added even to
u mard va pidaram ra da'vat kard. j*;^ 3 \j*$ indefinite nouns if its omission would
cause any ambiguity, vide 41 (t). " sirka shir ra " In the sentence mi-burrad, the ra vinegar curdles milk In speaking, however, if a pause be made after sirka, and stress is correct.
laid in shir, the ra
may
be omitted, as the intonation prevents any ambi-
guity.
Vide
Remark
mki
to (12).
guft agar kas-i
ra bi-badi muqabala kunad va khayr ra bi-sharr paddsh ravd " Damna ddrad (Anw. Suh., chap. II, S. 6) answered, If one return evil for good, and think injury a just recompense for benefit (I am, then,
indeed, without hope)."
(East. Trans.).
is
Remark.
shardb
ra
Just as in m.c. the ra
sometimes omitted
nouns, as:
â^T
it is
sometimes
'awaz
unnecessarily inserted
bi-db
after indefinite
u^vÔv!/^
bi-db
'awaz*
kardan
is
o^
u^* v^
vLr^
is,
-shardb
kardan; in both, vLr"* shardb

sary and
(12)
indefinite: the ra
in speaking, unneces-
may be
omitted.
Vide (19).
is
An
old form of the accusative

:
? mar and suffixing \> ra, as mar is not here emphatic.

Remark.
he know
reply
{** \\ ?*
'mar
formed by prefixing the particle " urddidam (old) " I saw him
;
In
*(**>
&&j>(& shina
", the object
is
kardan
mi-ddnad
(m.c.)
"does
how to swim? cW!^ ^^ &$jS

\)
regarded as indefinite, but in the
shina kardan ra Tchub mi-ddnad the object having

definite,
been previously mentioned becomes

(13)
and ra must be
inserted.
The
affix
I;
ra being equivalent to the definite article,
its
omission
In
the Persian
idiom the speaker puts himself
first.
Here &< man
is
used
instead of f^ mara. It should be noticed that \) &*> man ra is a vulgar of man : in the example given ra is understood after the first object.
*
accusative
'Awaz colloquial
for 'waz.
456
should
case
:
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
make the noun
indefinite.
This,
however,
is
not
always
the
(14)
Rd
t;
cannot be used for both the dative and the accusative in

If,
the same clause.

1}
therefore,
the accusative
:
is
definite
and requires
ra, the dative should
of bi,
as:
(m.c.)
but requires );, 1&> y or &V &** b " me the book"
be expressed by bi if the dative does not admit then the I; rd of the accusative must be omitted,
v^
v^
:
kitdb-rd
give
ata
(m.c.), or
ab j^j~-j the crown to gave

shabhd ndlida
I
<*j
.tj
ij
fcli
%$ t; Shah tdjrd
:
bi-man bi-dih, or kitdb mard bi-dih Shdh pisar-i khud rd tdj dad **^S~i " the Shah khud dad
bi-pisar-i
(m.c.)
\j*>
his (own)
td
son"
*a*-t
i*iu ^jy
<^t
^
fl
' ;
<H^
Lrf^
am
wept
till
He
mard In farzand bakhshida ast (Sa'dl) long nights " = td bi-man In farzand bakhshida ast gave me this son (^ U (mod.), QI td in farzand rd bi- man bakhshida ast
;
t
î U (mod.); here t; rd is really necessary to show that clearly A*^ farzand is not the subject its omission in such cases sometimes causes ambiguity. (15) The rd must be omitted after nouns preceded by cardinal numbers
unless
definite
si
vide
(7)),
as:
ûî^t v^-k b
*j&
j& *^
***
jj)
ruz-i
shamba
thieves
*>*)
** nafar duzd rd tandb anddkhtand, means they hanged the three on Saturday"; omit t; rd and it means "three thieves":
c>i/ \)j& }*) îla.i^, V UJ? t; j& A^ si nafar rd tandb anddkhtand va du nafar ra gar dan zadand " they hanged three (of them) and beheaded two."
first
In the following arithmetical idioms the considered definite and require I;

:
cardinal numbers
may
be
-f
<3A,~jjj
Â: j^j^
^\ ^l^
four
(^
^^
^.a.
jam'-i si rd bd chahdr in
tawr
minavisand
*
"three
-AJ
plus
is
written
thus,
3-1-4
five
";
f;
;l^.
)j& ^j)
:
tajnq-i chahdr rd az
LJ
" panj in tawr

si
j^
4"
x P^Jaijt yâ.
|;
A> ^j*> zarb-i
minus four, thus rd bd chahdr in tawr " three
multiplied by four, thus 3x4": A-^-^^kij; ; l^ U f; OÂ ^flJ taqsim-i hasht rd bd chahdr in tawr cl eight divided by four, thus 8-^4" o^t j,^ Aan.jf U;
:
r
e
...
b
*
t^-i^-
cuXi.a>j,
^.^
* *
j^
amma
dnchi kusur
ast,
du
khums az hasht
eight-ninths
haft
is
tis'
rd chunin mi-navisand
-|
but as for fractions two-fifths from

F
I;
written thus
~| "
;
V
;
+~ &^*-
u*^ j
O.AA j
va
sumn va du suds
;
rd chunin
" and seven-eighths plus two-sixths, thus
J+
t"
-^y;^'-^;^ Ij^jdjtw
by
half, thus f 4-J."
2
du
suls rd dar nisi
in tawr " two-
thirds divided
Note that the

j^ti c,<fjl~>o
figures are written

oJ)|j>
from
left to right as in
English.
<UiJ
^f j va in nishan
dalalat bar
musavat darad.
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

(16)
457
'
The ra
etc.)
is
"greed,"
omitted after generic nouns used generically only when the sentence is very short.
(as
" wine
' ' ;
In dar drad
tama'murcfh u rnahi bi-band

brings birds
+k (Sa'di) "it is greed that the net/' a ra would be necessary in prose. **S jb Ûi ji o~o<> Similarly after nouns used in a vague or general sense, as dast az to* am bdz kashid (Sa'dl) " he withdrew his hand from food, he
** Û^
^^
and
fish
into
(the)
is
here ra could not be inserted stopped eating verb dast kashldan. But in pound
:
' '
dast
really part of a
com-
Jahdn ay barddar na-mdnad

" The world
bi-kas
(Sa'di).
Dil andar jahdn-dfarin band u bas
By
the word
dil
my brother does abide with none, the world's maker let thy heart be won"
"thy heart" would
in prose require ra,
though used in a
general sense.
Compare the following examples ^JÂ. ^^} asp-i hdzir kun (m.c.) "get ready a (any) horse"; &? J*\A I; w*^l asp ra hdzir kun (m.c.) "get ready the horse" (which has been mentioned or discussed): but " ^/ j^(~>. ^ô( a sp hdzir kun (m.c.) get ready (the) horse" (used generally) the \) ra in this last case is omitted even if the speaker own but one
Remark.
:
horse.
verbs such as <jj&!^ CUASU^ suhbat ddshtan being considered one word, the first portion of the compound does not admit of ra.* (18) In classical Persian, \y is frequently omitted after an accusative with
(17)
Compound
a possessive affixed pronoun

<>j>ji>x~j AJ
sometimes
it is
added ^~^jxi^<v
:
|;
cf^fb
-&feJ
cA'#^ lutf-i tab'-ash ra bi-didand va husn-i tadbir-ash bi-pasandidand "they saw the kindness of his nature and the excellence of his " in the administration is both inserted and omitted
(Sa'dl)
;
jjjo^
ij
J^jf
(10).
3u3j
\)
example, I; chun surat-ash ra bi-did
:j)j>* &?*
sirat-ash ra bi-pasandid.
Vide also
Remark.
I;
should be inserted after an accusative 40

(c).
with an affixed possessive pronoun, vide above and

1
Generic nouns may be used definitely, indefinitely, or generically as "the man, a man, or simple man." " she li 2 Binakard bi-baradar baradar began to (m-c.) guftan )fy )^J *? >/ " here the call on her brother (to say oh brother, oh brother) position of the preposition
&&
shows that the compound

bina Jcard
3
regarded as one word baradar (m.c.). baradar bi-guftan-i

is
\j
8 also right to say )*\j> J-î^
^7 ^V
In another edition
ra
is is
inserted a second time after

necessary.
JjV*>
tadblr-ash.
In
modern Persian the additional ^
458
(19)
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

In familiar language the
to
insert
it
mis sometimes
(11)
omitted when
as:
*&t*>
it
would be
correct
rafiq
bdr-i
îuo ^f in sukhan bishunid (Sa'di) "the companion heard what was said" in makes the noun definite without nukta pish-i [the ]
[vide
also
}
Remark],
&h
buzurg-i
I
hami-guftam
was mentioning this point to a certain learned man <i.vxJ ^^ harf-i -ir man na-shumd* " he didn't hear me " (*/ <x>& & y jSj&jSt** ^f JLA " otherwise safar hargiz nami-kardam (m.c.) vagar na, shdyad khaydl-i I might perhaps have never entertained the idea of this tour" in these it would have been and examples correct, grammatically idiomatically, to
' '
:
flfck
^^
m
I;
<J^ jt^
:
*i&
^\ CO 1
(Sa'd!)
"well,
insert the
<*i~j
I;
^"^) j
ra
8
AW&
j**.*>
)) &*>\j$
*j
ô*
*$
^.-M
\)(^G&J*> (J*)J* guruh-i
marduman
did ki har yak bi-gurdza-i zar dar mi'bar nishasta va rakht basta " he saw a band of men, who for a small piece (Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 28, East.) " of gold had taken their places in the ferry boat and loaded up their goods
:
(there
is
an error in the text
either *M
and or *>&# budand must be added
to AX-J basta, or else

(20)
^ ki must be omitted).
is rare in Persian. The following is an u khwabid khiuabtdan-i abadl ra (class.)
The cognate accusative
uH?!^ ^(^jl example: \) " he slept the eternal sleep."

The cognate accusative
from the Arabic.
(21)
is
^^
sometimes used when translating
literally
pronouns when themselves the direct object do not admit of t;, as: J^^ zadam-ash (m.c.) ''I struck him." Neither do they admit of the dative \) ra, as <_+* guf tarn-ash " I said to him."
affixed
( :
The
(e)
The following examples

o**o ^f*
illustrate the rules
f^
tuhi-dast didam, I
6
sukhan-i tu p+^9 ^+\ ^-AAy îu,*
given above saw him poor. 4 hick nami-jahmam '* I don't

:
in the least
understand you."
^>'^.iu;X3
^^
coll.)
t,)^ v--'^ [y
and Afghan
= ^>
bi-kunam(m.c.)
"I wish
to
^ make
turd na*ib-i* khud kardan

l
sôU |y Â jiAx>
mi-khwaham (class. mi-khwahdm turd nd^yib-i khud
you
my
agent."
Also m.c.
The
ra could, of course, be correctly inserted.
2 3
Commoner
to insert ra.
the indefinite
Here ra must be added (though the accusative is indefinite). Note that after there is no izafat. It would be correct to write guruh-l az marduman
without
4
6
ra.
(5).
Vide (d)
Better tura.
Note that
*
*-+$& (pi.
uJy nuvvab
is
used in m.c.) in m.c.
is
^L>
*
nayib (without *
).
In m.c. the
in
such words
generally omitted in pronunciation.
But
in ^-jlJ
or AAjli " misfortune

ciation
:
"
(pi.
*-3\jf*
nava'ib or oUjlj n a f *bat) the

is
is
retained in pronun-
the plural only of this word
used in m.c.
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

ddnishmand-i hazdr rupiyd attar-Ira sipurd a certain wise man entrusted a 1,000 rupees to a perfume seller. "
\z>
1 (
''
(class.)
?/&bi-darydft-i an ravdn kard' (class.) *j* cjfj;^>f oJlj;i>j I; " he sent some one to enquire into the matter." ** ^^ ^ bd khud guft ki sar rd nami tavdnam p\,i *3)\i f^lyc** t) j**
1
m
'
buzurg bi-kunam
o^tiia/ojjj.c
l
"he
&(^
said to himself
I can't
make my head
'
larger.
*^
\)
p**
&**. *r
A) laîm ki habba-yi sim rd bi-sad jdn

of
silver
"the miser who counted a grain "4 lives. hundred a

aziz
mi-ddsht
as dear
as
l*iy>
&
\)
^cjj j
" va ru-yi urd didam

sj>
f*i^ 5 p t^
^^
Axi.r ^â. cAwTi
when he was killed
I sent for light
kusMa shud chirdgh talabidam 5 and saw his face."

'
\<*>
\)
^>j& &(kk^ sultan har yak rd judd kard

13
'
the king put each
person in
&}+>
*' X^^Jt )\f>& j?j \) iS*** jsti^b pddishdh <u^f cu-s^ ;i c^^ " th& shakhs-i rd zir-i dlvdr istdda did ki murgfa-i dar dast girifta mi-namud king saw a certain person standing under the wall who held a fowl in his hand
a separate place."
that he was exhibiting to him (the king)."

ivliu-y J;l*J
<M^y
*j>
dah gusfand ta'druf
firistdd
"he
sent ten sheep as a
present."
.ioxx
t>ii^f
^^
jj^fcx*x>
ml ddnid chiguna gusfand mi-kushand " do

:
you know how sheep are killed?"
but î&>
is
â
8
!;
^h^
is
^^
&#:***
is
do you know mi-ddnid chi-tawr gus/and rd ml-kushand ? " In m.c. the distinction between the two killed ? previous
but
if
how a 8
sheep
not observed,
insdn were substituted for gusfand, it would be incorrect insdn as can be definite only, as it means the species man.' to omit the rd, "I saw some birds," fvja ^*J' ^^ba'zi murgha didam (m.c.), but ^-^
'
the word
u^l
cu-oJ UJjt
latter
x> ba*zimurghjia rd didam kidar injd riist(m (**>j^ b t^7 rd is necessary because of the *?. the example
&f
c.)
in the
&
qdli-yi
t; (jJif
J^
A'^^/O Û Ûi LC>^
H^L!
Ai^t^^^L
Û ^1
ki
khub-i khwdsta bdshid chiz-i
nishdn-i tan mi-diham
An
j'^c
'a&ar also
sells
Persian medicines, sugar, paper, etc.

'
Dava-farmh m.c.
"seller of
2
He
Kas-ior mard-l might be used without a ra. a small head and a large beard was a fool. had whoever that a book He I can the beard." therefore thought to himself "I can't make the head smaller but " a an of unit y)> i- e with * Or habba-l slm ( g rain of silver," and y) <jr t;
(d) (2);
7/afc-*
European medicines." " a certain Vide

read in
one.'
(without
or with
6
\)
-the lamp
grain of silver":
yjJ>* &
*~ jt az
" dearer than-.'* sad Jan <aziz-tar
i.e.
generally, not any special lamp.
6
T
Vide Vide
(d) (6). (d) (7).

:
Indefinite
the ya-yi tarikir (gusfand-l) could not be used here.
460
misl-ash rd
to,
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

imruz hargiz na-dida bdshid (m.c.) "if you want a good show you something the like of which you have probably never
1
carpet I will yet seen."

&jf
taldsh
p*\je*>
<jk& ^L.
^tjj
jj&
^Jli
îU.
hdld
nd*ib-i digar bardy-i Ichud
khwdham kard
2
(class.)
"I'll
now
look out for another agent for

**
myself."
o*>l
*xxjj
*-*>>'
^ &*
o*^
&i>l**'t>
iA***^jtt
V*
" sanduq-i rd kushdda libds-iJcuhnava kasifpushidaast. what did he see but that Ayaz had opened a certain box and (taken out and) put on some old coarse
clothes."
a;_yf
chi d^d ki
Aydz
^-o
ÂJ
'
t;*jJU:
U>*
_j
^^îii j^
^j ^jjjl
"
va madda'd
a/a?/& ra
ptA mi-dvarad
(jj|
(m.c.)
3 Beg dw na/ar mudda'i Qadir Beg brings forward two
Qarfer
persons, plaintiff
iXvSl/oj* f;
and defendant."
âr* digar-1 rd farmd*id (class.) "entrust this work to another, order another person to do this" l^-Mt jt *f (J\A Ji;^ e^' c?ar e27 birun ravam waw ddshtam ki az (m.c.) "I inwardly injd fJL> vt>Jtf#
Lfj&tjf
intended to leave this place " 6 u^r' /a?<? |; *=^-^-fc c>f ^ bd an tapdncha zadi yalc-l rd kushtl " supposing that you used that pistol and
:
(
J^
^ ^j
^^
*-ft^ ^-^ i^Jt^Jj agar ^t &j*& ^^ In pisar-i za'if td'un bi-girad albatta khwdhad murd (m.c.) " if this fragile boy " were to catch plague he would certainly die."
shot one of us
6
(or
them)
"
^t^
^^
ddnistam ki sabu'-ird dida mi-davad (m.c.) lc I guessed that he had seen some wild beast and that was the cause of " (A his precipitation 8 chizhd-i rd ki dvarda v^=" cA^' (*W **)$ **
>)***>
tbJz
\j
^5*^
A^î-^(,i
^ J^
Khwasta bashid *
>
^ &i*\jo*> 9
milchwahid, or *#tj=-J U-Jchwahid.

like."
Dida
n m.c. considered more polite than " bashid, **&^ *J.t> Past Subj., =
of
which
suppose you have never seen the like":
&>
*<\!i
dida Id
"you have never
seen the
Chiz-l e^)*^- "a thing," or \) txH^ chiz-l ra "a certain thing"; both right. In m.c. the Imperfect or the Perfect is often used for the Present.
2
3
Or better nayib-l digar: nayib-i digar ra " the other." The Turks pronounce beg,' but the Persian almost like the English word bag.' The ra of the accusative after the demonstrative pronoun is omitted, because the
'
'
dative has
it
if
bi-dlgar-l
were used the
\)
after
kar should be
inserted; the latter
construction would be nsed in

6
modern
Persian.
Here the object
of dashtam is either the clause that follows or In ra understood.
Or yak-l az mara Jcuahtl. The \) could not be omitted after the pronoun yak-l. 7 Here t.a'iin At any rate the word "plague" is giriftan is a compound verb. in Persian a generic term. If, however, a man fell sick of a fever or of plague in Persia, and it were said " ha brought the fever or the plague (meaning this fever, etc.) with him
6
from Bombay,
8
\)
would be correctly used.
is best inserted since if omitted sabu'-l might be taken as the subject, vide (d) (11). In speaking, the ra might be omitted, the context or intonation preventing ambiguity.
Ij
The
could be omitted, but
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
461
I
budam agklab-ask "

l
1
Tchub
1
bud (m.c.) "the things
had brought were mostly
Jl^x; rnuhal ast ki good hunar-manddn bi-mirand va bi-hunardn ja-yi Ishdn girand (Sa'dl) " it could never be that the skilled should die and the skill- less should take their place *
1
;
j4 o ^
c5 ^
? otji* t^ j **/&*! u)f*i/OjiA A ^.^f
' '
once I had lost
my way 8
dar biydbdn rah gum karda budam (Sa'd!) " in the wilderness J& y e>LxA^ <^JU ^^.^t
$-*
:
hay*at-i u nazar kard, shakhs-1 did siydh-fdm za'if-andam (Sa'dl) "the king looked at his figure and countenance; " he saw a person * black in complexion and poor in physique ^ (JÂacuo ^
:
^jjl^
ovix
ij
Lp^x^k j
Ai;l*
Tchidmat-ash rd minnat ddrand (Sa'dl)

treat
OA.J^ va suhbat-ash rd ghammat shumdrand va '* and they think his conversation a
to themselves":
uA^?j
and serving him

c>bj.>
a favour
e^" ; J^ b c5^^;^
3
^^?
kdrvdn-i rd
dar zamm-i Yundn duzddn burdand

5
(Sa'dl)
"the
robbers had carried off a certain caravan in Greece.
"
dU-/
cr-^ <^; v^- (>&' J^

"the king
j
;>
Â'
malik, dar hdl, kanizak-i khub-ruy
pish-ash firistdd (Sa'dl)
at once sent
7
him a pretty
slave-girl
":
zamm-i adab busa dad

ki dtash-i
(class.)
ÛAâa*
i;
^-^ &&*
(Gul.,
*$j*
har-ki dushman-i
kuchak rd* haqir

Chap.
shumdrad bi-ddn mdnad

VII, St.
1).
andak rd* muhmil guzdrad
^-
^J^
hikdyat-i
shikar
Note that c/uz/m-ra
is
the object of the verb in the relative clause- the ra could

ki.
be omitted and in this case the word anha ra would be understood after
2 5
In modern Persian ja-yi Ishan
ra.
if
Here rah
is
used by Sa'di in a generic sense:
previously mentioned, ra would
be inserted.
*
Here there
is
no ra because the
45- is
for
the indefinite article and does not
signify
6
"a
certain person."
Ij
Here
must be used
as the
signifies
" a certain
clearly
."
the object
;
Here the quently no ra.

6 7
is
indefinite
and
Jcanlzak-l is
there
is
conse-
Busa dadan
cw!.>
*^
compound verb governs the

:
accusative and not the
dative.
V*' U-Jb^j zamm-i In modern Persian zamln ra would be preferred in modern adab Maid, or ***)*. h V^t (i&j zamm-i adab ra buald are both correct the ground or merely Persian writing. Whether the supplicant actually kissed
<H^
touched the ground with his hand and then laid doubtful. The expression is now used figuratively.
8
it
on
his lips or eyes
is,
think,
Here ra
is
the two
noun
}
sdefinite
make necessary in classical and modern Persian, because the epithets " whoever thinks an (his) enemy mean' In to (Remark (d) (3) ).
ASÂ
tj+j*>
^*î
is
har ki dushman ra haqlr shumarad, the ra

i.e.
is
equally necessary
because enemy
to be considered definite,
"his enemy."
462
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

" the story of a thousand " cut down
*
namudan-i shakhs-i humd^-i rd bardy-i ishtihdr-i hazdr rupeya about a person shooting a lammergeyer for an advertised reward
rupees"
*M;
\j^t
2 every third one (tree)'
^^js j$ dudar miydn yak-ird bi-bur " du

:
(m.c.)
p3\& j^
/**
\)>.t>
^*
)t>
td-yi digar rd
:
ham
fcÛ
bi-u
iJ*c
dddam
'amal-i
(m.c.)
"I gave him
the other two as well
"
.yfa
o^â
padishah du taraf ddrad (Sa'df) "the service of a king has two chashm-am jd-i rd* nami-did (m.c.) "I saw t; ^51*. aspects": ***
f+&**
nothing,
my
eyes gazed at
o*j| txi/o,^. ^t^ (jj^ rdhat-i 'djil rd bi-tashvish-i mihnat-i djil munagh" to disturb one's kardan Ichildf-i rdy-i khirad-manddn ast (Sa'dl) (jhas
comfort by anxiety of future wrong, is to act contrary to the opinion expressed by ths wise": ^~^ olsb ; V U v |^ shardb 6 bi-db 'awaz kardan kdr-i 'dqildn nist (m.c.) "to exchange wine for
(the)
o^
vacancy"
(JA*\>O
JU/f o*isx/o
^jû
ij
<J^Lc
o^tj
present
^^ ^^
?
water
is
not the act of a wise person."
Remark.
To the query,
&>.&
\)
%^^
padishah kird did

'^
the answer
ty *$ ki bud the reason ki padishah u rd did? the answer would be darvish-i (without rd) in the first reply there is is that in both replies there is an ellipsis
might be
\)
<^*{j)* darvlsh-i rd; but to the query, <va
*L^.ib s$
an
ellipsis of
did
in the second there is
an
ellipsis of bud.
The Vocative Case.

or yd to the nominative, (g) The Vocative formed by prefixing ay form used in m.c.
is
the
The Indian edition
of extracts
the
" Emperor Jahangir has headed
from the " Tuzuk-i JahangirV or "Memoirs of this extract Hikayat-i shikar kardan-i humay janwar
dar kuh-i Plr-Panjal bi-ishtihar-i in'am-i hazar rupeya : owing to the omission of ra this sentence is quite unintelligible to Persians. In India the word janwar is specially applied by falconers to birds of prey, just as a muleteer in Persia styles mules
" cattle." The ra is mal, while this same word in Panjab villages means necessary here the direct of the Infinitive which is specialized by the clause to distinguish object In hikdyat-i shikar kardan-i buz-l "story of shooting an Ibex,'* the ra following it. is not required as the Ibex is not specialized.
The ra necessary after the pronoun yak-l, vide (d) (2): the ra would also be Yak-l bi-dih " give me one, any one ' but yak-l rd bi-dih required according to (d) (4).
4
'
**
give
5
me
one of them."
td-yi dlgar
But du
Here
Vide
ham dddam "

The
gave him two more.'*

is
*
5
jd-i
ra stands for hlch jd-l rd and

to (d)
(3).
if
\)
therefore definite
" rd
preferable."
rdhat as
Remark
should not be omitted after

'ajil
the
adjective specializes the rdhat;
the adjective
were omitted the
\)
also could be
omitted.
6
Though
;
this is correct, it
would be better
).
to insert rd after shardb to
mark
the
object clearly
vide
Remark
to (d) (11
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
463
The Vocative formed by
suffixing a
is
also used in forming interjections, and in to writings 1 (prose or poetry). Ex.: 0^1
safar-% digar dar pish ast (Gulistan) before me."
confined to the singular: it is modern Persian is restricted
"O
is
J^^ ^
!
^ ^^
t,^^,
Sa'diyd
Sa'di
have one other journey

Â ajlâ *XA|a ^t
b (^* J 6^>
Sometimes the object addressed " Oh who hast i- e

-
(thou)
understood, as: ."

; Uj
; t*T jU
^ ^
*>
ill
^ |^y
)UL (Sa'd!)
Bulbuld muzhda-yi bahdr biydr Khabar-i bad bi-bum bdz guzdr a
" Oh bulbul bring the good news
of Spring,
And
leave
tidings to the owl."
Hand
occurs in poetry as the vocative of
man "
^(
3
1," but
is
rare
and
possibly not correct.
J*j*
f>^
S$ J* ^\A> j~ j)
AXX5
Ay man-am bar sar-i Jchdk-i tu ki khak-am bar sar (Sa*dl) Oh I who am standing on your grave, woe is me " *
4 '
!
^^JU.
thou to
o~ix>
whom my
:
^ja.^ *&\ ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqlr namud person seemed mean."

\)
(Sa'dl)
" oh
Poetically the dative in
is
occasionally used as a sort of
vocative.
Thus Hafiz says
Dil mi-ravad
zi
dast-am sahib- dildn
Khudd
rd
\
Dardd
ki rdz-i
panhdn khwdhad shud dshkdrd

control
:
My
heart
is
leaving
my
oh ye who know about the heart
Alas
help that
!
me
for God's sake.
my
secret love should
become public property.

by the
li[>i*
As stated already, the vocative

If the vocative in
in d cannot be followed
izafdt.
d be qualified by one following adjective, the adjective

vocative,
as
:
takes the alif of the

' '
Shdhd sitdra-manzilatd
' '
!
;lxw
UU
oh king whose dignity is high as the stars Modern Persian letters often begin with dust-i muhtaramd, instead of the correct classical dustd
But darlgha " alas! "and K&udaya " O God! " are still found Another reading is bi-bum-i sham instead of bi-bum baz. Another reading is In man-am.
in m.c.
*
3
Khak
<4
kunam
bar sar-am is a common saying in m.c. ; akhir chi Ithak bar ear-am bioh what shall I do! " In the example, khak-am bar sar might also imply
of
" would that the earth covered me instead

expressions.
6
you"
Persians delight in ambiguous
Ra
is
1"
equivalent to baray-i.
464
NUMBER OF NOUNS, NOUNS OF MULTITUDE AND THEIR CONCORD.

latter is
muhtarama, which
tion,
however also used.

alif to the
The usual
if
classical construc-
however,
is
to
add the
noun, and to every epithet that follows

the epithets precede
it,
the noun,
C^/c t^Co IL*^

;
or to the
noun only
as
but with two or more adjectives, the a of the vocative ILoj,} is in modern Persian sometimes added to the last only, as dust-i muhtaram-i
Jk*x> j fj&c
:
mihrbdna ty^ô ^Lsê
0*^.
common
:
The following
are also
]>J> p/' *j0 an<i

:
The Ablative Case.

(h)
The
ablative
is
formed by the preposition jt
az.
For
its
various uses
vide
90 Prepositions
(h) (1).
119.
Number
of Nouns,
Nouns of Multitude and their Concord.
(a) As in English, nouns of multitude denoting living things are followed the verb in the singular or plural according to the unity or plurality of by the idea in the speaker's mind, thus 1
:
e^l^xiJoa*) |j JÛ lxAl Shahinshah-i 'adil ra ra'iyyat lashkar ast &# 04**^ j&* ^ l> (Sa'dl) "to the just monarch the people is an army" " the crowd extended right ta dam-i qasr jam'iyyat bud (Shah's Diary)
:
Ai^f & y^j *-^*ij ^^=^ Tchalq-i* bi-ta'assub bar u gird dmadand (Sa'di) "a whole people through fellow feeling collected round " *& J* ** *. ku^t guyand chi gham gar hama s 'alam murdand him xiaô +ttc " " **^ v[>^ Jj^sr** they say what care we if all the world die (Sa'di)
up to the palace"
:
ahl-i
still
shahr hanuz khwab budand (Shah's Diary) " the people of the city were
**\ a)\j^ ci^f ^ n taîfa-yi khirqa-pushan l)l#j* c^^^l **^" " this sect clad in shreds and bar misdl-i hay van and (Sa'd!) patches are like
"
asleep*
6
^^
animals
":
*>?>
v^
'Arab guyad (Sa'di)
"the Arabs say 6 ": hama-yi
In English " the committee
sits
" the committee are at variance." daily," but

4,5 of
4
5
Note the plural verb even after a noun with the
unity.
is
izafat,
4
5
In modern Persian hama-yi 'alam. In poetry hama hence Indians always omit it after hama.
not followed by the
Here the singular could not be used.
Here the singular verb could not be used: the subject
is
not *jlis
ta"'ifa
alone
but the whole plural phrase

used generically:
similarly
c^J
in
&*j
&JU>
^'^.
ta ifa-yi Tchlirqa-pushan.
Hay van
eJ[ri*>
*&>)
j^
1)^ para-l
sarbazha
raftand
(m.c.)
or
<yU5) lAjlj^^jf |;b para-l az sarbazha raftand
" some
of the soldiers
went" both
is
the
subject
(^kr*
sarbazha) and the verb should be plural, but para-l sarbaz raft
used
colloquially.
6
Or
bUj**^
^tfjG
'Arab-ha ml-guyand (modern);
Arab
is
an
rabic collective
noun.

l buzurg u kuchak-i shahr rd talabid *>#&> t;^ all the summoned city both great and small."
'
465
*-*>
<J^
&+&
" he
" is The word p&j* mardum people plural, thus: mardum mi2 mdrdumdn is also used. In the m.c. phrase guyand "people say"; ** ^mardum hama dar fikr u khaydl-i j j& }* cA>Uf J (*^<
(6)
.
f
dsdyish-i
khud
ast s
(Vazir of Lankaran),
;
the speaker
at
is
people of his
(c)
own
" The wordc;-*^ dushman "enemy * is treated as a singular, thus dushman gurlkht (not <iii=su^ gurikhtand) the enemy fled"; dushman dah hazdr bud (incorrectly xi^ budand) "the
:
small state as one body
any rate
ast
thinking of the should be and.
' (
enemy were ten thousand."

In
&>d>jf )
d>jJo j*>
jt
ii>^+^ dushmandn az har taraf zur dvardand
(Sa'dl) "enemies pressed him (the king) on all sides," the plural noun is used to signify more than one enemy, i.e. a collection of enemies. In djta ifcym* c^jjAoli. jtjxi e>li~y j ^(yk p*yo ^^ dar in mawsim
lj
havd-yi bdgh
bustdn-i Shirdz khdssiyyat-i makhsus-i ddrad
* '
at this season the
synonyms cAx*yj eb bdgh u bustdn clearly indicate the plural it is therefore unnecessary, but not wrong to say lfli-ojj ) ib bdgji u bustdnhd (or (^^^ basdtin) j^& ^ o.sv**x
gardens of Shiraz are particularly delightful," the
;
^^^
*' the mosques and houses of the city." 6 masjid u khdnahd-yi shahr (m.c.) (d) (I) Generic nouns denoting rational beings are preferably used in the
thus it is better to say ivf Jlîâh ^t^jf ^lîj zanhd-yi Iran khushgil-and " the women of Persia are 6 good-looking," thano~*f Jlij^îî ^j zan-i Irani Zanhd-yi Bangdla khush-gil ast "the woman of Persia is good-looking." " the women of are means Bengal mostly dark," but siydh-jdm-and properly
plural
;
zan-i
Bangdla siydh-fdm
ast
" the whole
of the
women
of
Bengal are dark."
However j>y ^s*tyjbj*
sarbdz-i ziydd-1 bud, xi^j
^^bj Ûjb^ sarbdzhd-yi ziydd-l
Or hama-yi buzurg u kuehalcan-i shahr ra (;_t plural termination added only to second adjective (or noun).
l
o^j
'-
**.
is
Note the
It
better to use both
adjectives in the singular.

*
Similarly 'folk' in English though plural has by
modern usage got a
plural,
'folks.'
3
mardum
is
sometimes singular
thus in the 4th story of the
1st
Book
of Gulistan, Sa'di, speaking of the
dog
of the 'seven sleepers' says,
Pa-yi
nikangirift
u mardum shud & f&j* J cu^5 ^Kxi ^b : m shalch.8 mardum-l Iran ast a.^> o**ot and (&*j C^J^ (if man mardum-i Kirman-am (m.c. and ^|^jf ^/o LJ mardum for ^>JM mard. Indians occasionally use vulg.).
*
6
When the word
" enemies
"
(*>>/*
is
intended, the plural
is
of course used.
Here the singular &>k- khana would be incorrect, as "the house of the city would convey a singular idea in Persian just as it does in English. Note that the plural termination is added to the last noun only.
6
"
Not
cJ>!t
Ir.'
.'
Zan-i Iran
cJJÎ eJJ
would have the appearance
of
meaning
" the wife of
30
466
->^ u$j$ j^y sarbdz-i Iran khub ast are also used and considered correct in modern Persian. It is correct to say *# ^\ l oj;^ bisydr zan dnjd bud (or *^ budand, not so good). It is not, however, obligatory to use the singular. Thus ^j^ V\ ulagh-i Bahrayn, or ^1*^1
budand and
^jjsu uldg&hd-yi Bahrayn "the ass (breed) of Bahrain Island," or "the asses of Bahrain," are both correct and both have the same meaning, though the latter might mean the different breeds of the Island.
(2)
o|
Generic
nouns
unqualified
by adjectives are as a rule used
in
the singular, with a singular verb: thus the Persians frequently use 'amal for cU* use the we plural; they say singular when in English
the
" The rule is to use the singular when sticks," etc. actions," ^j*. chub for the noun is employed in a collective sense, but the plural when separate numIf, however, the noun is qualified by an adjective, it is usual to put ifc in the plural even when it is used collectively. Modern Persians are, however, slovenly in their use of the singular and plural.
"
bers are indicated.
Examples:
Â!^<^
Diary) (or crossed a lot of rivers"
^^^
(-*(&& d}jj| az rudkhdna-yi ziydd-i guzashtim (Shah's " ^^j C5^^ *j) 3' az rudkhdnahd-yi ziydd-i guzashiimf we
;
ala
ejf^t
jl
<^^j o|jl>
Rus
talagrdf-i ziydd-i
az Tahrdn dad (Shah's Diary] " the Russian Telegraphjj

' '
^^
âp-^Ju talagrdf
-chi-yi
Master handed
a lot of telegrams from Tehran : ^b *b \\ az pilla * î?; " we went up the steps, or we went up the step bald rajtim (Shah's Diary)
' '
me
&ji \j*p}
<j&^
vs*i,jj>
5
l
)j&\ <^*\jjj AÂJJ i& A*A *SUL

at-i
dih va qasaba va zird
"on
the edge
angur va darakht-i gilds of the river were everywhere villages and

:
)\&kinar-i rudkhdna hama va-gkayra bud (Shah's Diary
townlets and
6 <vf Ûo^/o trees, etc." I; JU* vineyards and cherry mycj&> *^-eMl &Lj f^ ^x-s j iîtjjilJMT guft in chi hardmzdda mardumdn and ki sag rd kushdda and
o^
va sang rd basta 1 (Sa'dl) " he said what a set of blackguards are these, have let loose their dogs and tied up their stones "
:
who
With the words
signifying
"much," J^~>
biaiyar,
^-^
khayll
and
faravan, the substantive
may
be in the singular.
Or d") cfV^^J rudkhanaha-yi ziyad (but not riid-khana-yi ziyad without ^): all three have practically the same meaning except that the makes the noun slightly more emphatic.
Or
^Jj^k talagrafha, plural. Here Ifl* pillaha could be used.
The
singular *Jb pilla might
mean " one

The plural
step."
8
Kinar-i^ "on
the edge of"; I>U* kinara-yi " on the bank of."

:
UÛr Tcinarha would not signify the banks of one river both banks." tarafayn would have to be used to signify
*
Jji> ji du
taraf or
8 1
Dark sour cooking- cherry l*p alu balu dessert cherry ^jt^ gilas. Persian Note that Ail and is understood after AW basta. In moc7
I
haramzada would follow
its
noun.

khaytt
467
shutur
va
flocks here (the pi.
Jof
rama mjd ast (m.c.) "there are many camels and and would be unidiomatic) 0^1 ;U-^j <*~o Udj| ^ j<*>JJi
:
i
shunlda
am
Injd kisa-bur
binydr
ast
:
(or
and)
(m.c.)
that pick-pockets are
common here"
shuda
3
^ jd\*>\ Û &
anddkhta
^
(or
,
"I
have heard
jl^Û-o
Isuf
dnjd bisydr
jahdz jam'
ships
langar
bud*
"
{m.c.)
many
had collected there and cast
their anchors
"
&*# budand)
;
(here Û-o
bisydr gives the plural idea).

If,
collective
it
is
however, the noun is qualified by an adjective (other than the or cMy fardvdn), adjectives or adverbs (bisydr ;U~j Tchayli^J^ usually in the plural. Thus, it jahaz in" the last example were
fa
qualified
43^
aiktj.it
by the adjective buzurg, the sentence would run ÎA J<^ ; U~j Ujf _Û *,x& *o. ^j aw;a 6%ar jahdzhd-yi buzurg jam' shuda
langar anddkhta budand*; ty l?uf ;U-~j ^lAjl^ jahdzhd-yi bisiydr dnjd bud is better than &# lôf l*}^ ^l-jr^ bisydr jahdzhd dnjd bud ; jU-Jj^ jahdz-i
bisydr
is
also correct.
"
large ships
^j>^ ^-!r^
' J
:
cf^J^
jahdzhd-yi bisydr buzurg

jl^-j
"
very
might be mistaken for jahdzhd-yi bisydr-i buzurg

the latter, however,
is
^)y.
*4y3i
is
"
Û) jl^
many large ships

be preferred to
large ships."
better expressed byJl^^lfc-J

bisydr kashtihd-yi buzurg
for
<j?^>
bisydr jahdzhd-yi buzurg.

*-^))J
^)y
j^**^
^5^^^*^
^Lx-J
to
<^*^
"
bisydr kishti-yi buzurg (vulg.)
many
however, necessary to use the singular for the plural, even when no ambiguity could arise fchus the asses of Bahreyn 6 are fine could be
It is not,
'
'
' 5
rendered by either,
ast,
cu^>l
^^
jU~*J i&ij**
or
xil
^^ ;U-^j &j=*j ÎA
uldgk-i
Bahrayn bisydr khub
ity
ulaghha-yi Bahrayn bisydr Ichub and.

it
would be necessary to use the plural as various breeds of asses would be meant and not one Similarly o~.( ^s* eb î hulu-yi In bdg& khub ast might single breed. be rendered "the peach of this garden is very fine" (signifying peaches)
In referring, however, to "the asses of Persia"
Û
:
and there would be no misconception but neifeher in English nor in Persian would it be correct to say "the tree of this garden is fine,"
unless of course
cu-f
there
(J.JI
was only one species
of
tree
under
discussion;
darakht hd-yi In bdgJt bisydr khub ast (m.c.) ;U*k? Û v ÎfLkji ^*the trees (generally) of this garden are fine." to a word, or to convey (e) The plural is also used to give prominence
the idea of
number
or quantity
j>3
&)&
(;
<jy
;d
\j
A^LJ'
qdfila rd dar
The Afghans say j*

If the plural
life
V^^
it
jib-bur,
which, however, in modern Persian means

refer to the
"a
cheat."
i
were used,
would here
men
in the ship or else give
the idea of
3
to the ships.
l j t^ (m.c.). better budand). bisyar kashti-yi buzurg an/5 bnd (or
-Butjahaz-i bisyar varid-i bandar ahud
*& j**>
d;fj
;^
4
>>
^j Isof J;Jj ,J&

This island
is
;U-J
famed
for a breed of large
white asses.
468
s
NUMBER OF NOUNS,
rah duzd zad
3TOUNS OF MULTITUDE
AND THEIR CONCORD.

1
arz-i
(m.c.)
"the caravan was
but
*J&)
Uj^ duzdhd zadand "robbers attacked it
attacked on the road, " " or the robbers attacked it

:
dbhd bi-riz (m.c.} biydr "bring water," but J-^J l^f ^t ;U? v "throw away all this water (in different vessels) 2 ": , ^^jl kj* c^j;
f db
&
jj ^jj-j
<_c/==v>
c5*'t^^ * (J^* ru-yi daryd az kashtl va gdyiq va kashtihd-yi
bukhdri-yi buzurg pur bud (Shah's
Diary) "the surface of the sea was covered with ships and boats and great steamers.* Yak muddat-i bimdri ddsht oîi (.5; Ug ^ô Jo (m.c.) "he was ill for an age without a break," but vr*|a Ûx* ^J^ muddat-hd bimdri ddsht (m.c.) "he was ill
for ages
on and
off
"
;
<xixxj
l^*suti
ta'ajjubhd mi-kunad
(k).
&&**> $+~*. v^-**
ta'ajjub-i bisydr mi-kunad.

(/)
Vide also
objects which in English do not admit of plurality are used and only in the singular, as gold, silver, wheat, wine, butter, water, etc., in Persian require the plural to signify variety, or diversity, thus:
Nouns denoting
In gandum
is
ast
o^|
fAif (&\ (m.c.)

+=**
"
this is
wheat "
is correct, as
the wheat
&$ gandumhd rd jam* kun (m.c.) \) \*cZ ^\ " collect this wheat " in the latter example the singular f^x? gandum should not be used as the wheat is in scattered heaps. Similarly db rd rikht " he spilt some of the water (from one vessel)," but dbhd rd rikht (i he the waters of various kinds or in various vessels "
:
in one place, but
spilled
dbhd-yi In
du rud-khdna bi-ham jam' mi-shavad ^ +^> *H^ 6 (m.c.) "the waters of these two rivers join ": the wines of France shardbhd-yi Frdnsa ^^îô ^\ u rawghan mi4< he sells butter (clarified) 6 ": tukhm farushad (m.c.) "seed," but f&> tukhmhd "various kinds of nan l^su seeds"; &(i "bread," I^JIJ ndnhd " vide "loaves Sometimes the double plural is used for variety (and (k).
^ ^
' '
' '
^^
quantity), as
l^jj* zurufhd ( Ar.
and
Pers. Pis.) "different kinds of vessels"
i.e.,
by one or perhaps more robbers
the verb
!
is
equal to a passive.
With an
and
adjective the plural should be used, as:

*
In m.c., however, words like sharab, etc. vulgarly used in the plural when definite. 5 Note the plural termination added to the last noun only.
*
A>^ LJ j4 A vT ab, vlr**
C5^>
duzdha-yi Shirazi burdand.

are
incorrectly
Though the
first
two words ^5^^ kashtl and (Jj^ qayiq are in the singular
I
expressing multitude, the last noun
^5*^ Jcashtiha
could not be in the singular
vide
end
of (d) (2).
6
*J'j&
Pas angah U-dustl karha kunad ki hlch duahmnn no-tawanad kard t^>*'*> i^>T o*^ *^ Ai f here )K kar could be used generically instead u^-i (Sa'dl)
^
:
m<
of the plural, but
would not be so
in
forcible:
J|
karha
Uj|^
signifies
"such
great or such
(or
numerous works"
modern
.
Persian *'
OÂX
&\^
chunan karha
)^
c;^
chunan kar) mi-kunad ki

6
Vulg.
\t**j)
vawghariha.
NUMBER OF NOUNS, NOUNS OP MULTITUDE AND THETR CONCORD.

javdhirdt
469
" various kinds of jewels":

(k) .
,U5lxu
ajd*ibdt
"various
wonders.
(g)
' '
Vide
The Persian idiom
requires,
where in English we use the singular, in

like
except in rare instances, the plural all such sentences, as "to act
:
a wise
ki
eJiî,*^ J^. ^Ûx c**y. ^f tf harakat mundsib-i hdl-i kh,iradmanddn na-kardl (Sa'di) " you did not,
etc.,
man,"
etc.:
^^
' ' :
act in this like a wise
u* *^ bi-libds-i darwshdn (or darvishi **\ bi-tarz-i mastdn adj.) (m.c.) J^^ c;U*x> "he dmad came before me like one drunk." The (mod.) pish-i man " not fit for a Christian " would in Persian be rendered English idiom by the
:
man
' '
eJ^-L?;^
"
disguised as a darvish
plural.
Compare with
(o).
An adjective might also be used, as bi-libds-i darwshi. The occurs in poetry or in the rhymed prose of Sa'di, but is contrary singular to usage.
Remark.
(h]
After the word "pair,"
etc., or
47
(g),
and
after cardinal numbers,* the

girifta
the determining words mentioned in noun is the singular: In jujt*
murcfbrd dar yak-mahagl

(Jahangir's Memoirs)
"
this
**
a month old":
j&
i
**L <*&*.)& budand ^^> &ijf &:\ |; ^x pair of birds was caught when they were i dah nafar shulur "ten camels 4 ": (*^f
^^
dah nafar ddam, or 5y

Remark.
is
dah mard
" ten men.' (m.c.)

;|ox> miqddr
'
After
117.
U* mdblagh,
in a verb,
and
^^>
muvdzi, the izdfat
used.
(i)
Vide
The substantive
compounded
of a verb
and substantive,
is
used generically in
the singular,
even though the idea be plural:

burdand
pish-i
^jaU ^xj
Û>y jy \)jt lîy* farrdsh-hd urd kul giriftand, 5 mddar-ash (m.c.) "the f arrashes took him on their shoulders and him off to his mother."
' '
^j
carried
(?)
The
A*A
t
plural
;
is
tjt AiLL
o^(
sometimes used where the dual might be expected: " there were atrdf-i rah hama khdna bud (Shah's Diary)
6
houses on both sides of the road
";
the plural after
hama
('altogether')
of Arabic broken plurals are frequently treated as singular: the Arabic plural
LJ
tajir
but vulgarly U>Up3 tujjarha is used as a plural. is^lij tujjar, du haza " But "the men were two thousand jjj ;|> cMi^ mardum&n
budand.
5
Occasionally but incorrectly AÂJ
oJU
^jj In
juft-i
murgh.
*
I
In modern colloquial yL&
dah shutur.
The man was

Properly
lying senseless on the ground.

;
^ J^
tarafayn-i rah
is
dukan bud
there were
colloquial,
sides of the
is
road";
ot^Jbl
atraf
common
is
modern
but
^>
or
used by the educated only. The plural dufcoftinri would be used if qualified by an adjective, vide (d),
ML fe&^- (or dukanha-yi n the verb remaining
470
cc there would be wrong. (Atraf-i rah khanahd bud l^l^ t; Ji^fc| (m.c.) were different kinds of houses on both sides of the ways "). (k) Collective nouns such as wine, water, etc., and snow, land, butter,
l
etc.,
are used in
to; thus
bottle,
^j
:
tJli.^
the plural when different collections or heaps are referred j^j sharab ra khunuk bi-kun "cool the wine (one
or one wine)," but &~i\ji c5 lt?'r^ sharabha-yi Faransa
"the wines
of
of
France"
ttA/cy
**>
but
csV^j zammM-yi
(t3fc*
u>U/ e^j zamm-i Kir man "the land (or tract) Kirman " the tracts or districts
Kirman,"
;
j&*>
d&^
j&
dar jangal hlzam
jam
in
mi-hard
Kirman" (m.c.) "he was

of
gathering
wood
(collective
and general)
1
the jungle":
^Â
J&e-
;>
mi-kard (m.c.) "he was gathering collectj+*> tions of wood (either different kinds or different heaps)"; vide also (r) ' *^*0 lf*>^ khunha rikht he shed streams of blood ^:>>** f>*J luhum
+^ dar jangal hizamha jam

' '
'
" *&** "they eat the flesh of various animals ^fsuJ ta'ajjubha mi-kunad, vide (e) and (/). In m.c., however, the plural is frequently incorrectly used for the singular, as: o-i *** **&* Â^/O muha-yi sar-am
ml-Tchurand
;
saftd shuda ast, for (y(I)

'
^yo mu-yi sar-am;
vide
(/).
;
In qism
(
kitab r>l# p~*

i
'
this sort of
worm
'fa r
tf/^^-
this sort of book" jur kirm f/;y.ut " but lÛT p~$ ^\ in qism kitabha these kinds of books " (l kirmha these sorts of worms (or insects) 135 vide also
'
^"
'
' '
(i)
Concord.
(m) After ^l^l aqsam and similar plurals signifying various kinds, the singular or plural is used, as: A' c^t^^ ^ t%**' lt ^ \&J f yt anva'-i tutiha va td*us-ha va qarqavulha-yi tilafci ki bisyar ^j J&9 jlu-j qashang bud* (Shah's Diary) "there were various species of parrots and
^$&
peacocks and golden pheasants

is
here the singular could be used but anva'-i jdnvar the plural gives the idea of numbers in each species ( ;yU ^ty
;
' *
incorrect).
(n) In English, a noun taken figuratively may be in the singular when the literal meaning requires the plural: such expressions as "their face," " our life" are common in Scripture. The Persian idiom, however, admits
the singular only, thus:

5l f# # <^ *>
l
"How
can we escape from their hands?

:
"
Jt
^-i chiguna az dast-i ishan riha*i biyabim ? (m.c.) O**A U o UA jan-i ma dast-i shumd-st (m.c.) "our life (lives) is in your hand": ^ &* ^^ U Shah gardan-i hama ra zdd " the Shah beheaded them all." " In such sentences as "We have our mind JLj^
J^.
J
I
I;
fj^
' '
khiyal khud ra taghyir dadim
better to use the singular, i.e. if only one purpose or opinion is meant allow us to go home or to depart to our houses would be correctly
:
_
*
Note the plural
------changed
^*5
Ij
j^
it is
in the Persian idiom, as in the English,

' '
for dual.
Should be bildand: elsewhere the Shah correctly uses the plural in a similar sentence. The plural termination is ordinarily added only to the last noun.
2
471
&teu ;f && bi-guzdr bi-khdna-yi khud bi-ravim, rendered in Persian by pi^ the khud though plural khanahd-yi might be substituted without offence to the ear vide also jib in last example in (v}.
;
(o)
usually in the singular
Contrary to the English idiom, the predicate to a plural subject is thus in the sentence, " These men are devils, the
' J
;
"devils" would in Persian be used generically in the singular. Examples Û* o~^ >li*Su && Â- y *$ lei bar sufra hama dushmandn dust " numdyand (Sa'df) "because at your table, all enemies show like friends
:
:
word
oJ| cJijA*.
and
Jb"0 jj tt)&}J *S>. AJbUs <^jt intd'ifa-yi khirqa-pushdnbarmisdl-ihayvdn 1 <M &*> fîj &+*> tx> ^(&>\ ishdn dushman-i man and (Sa'di) (m.c.)
1
<^^
^jJL^
IA&.
ma hama
banda-yi
(g).
Khudd hastim
(m.c.)
"we
are
all
creatures of
God."
Compare with
In the following, Sa'di has one predicate in the plural and one in the
singular
:
Îj*)^
t&v *' c/**^
'^
vju
^ ^ fj*
^\^\^L
tS
jtti,x>
\^ Û^jf cuxiî
^s$
'
Guftam
'
mazammat-i Ishan
ravel
ma-ddr ki khudavandan-i karam-and

'
'
Guft 'khatagufti ki~ banda-yi diram-and* (Gul.) (the rich) down for they are the lords of bounty.
, '
it
hersbanda is used as a collective noun, but they are the slaves of money would be better to use the plural bandagan, which is the reading of another edition.
;
"
"I said, 'Do not run them He said You are wrong, for
,
In the following sentence from the Gulistan, the singular word darvish might in ordinary prose be plural Sa'dl has used the singular to preserve
:
the rhyme:
txvvyj ^JlxJ
OAXL/O
ji
fj^t^ oJ^/o
Â^
y
(
*iî
ijL>)j&
aUisb Îj^* e> f^ cA>k ^ j ^^ ^)^ jf* agar bi-masal bdrdn na-bdrad va yd tufdn
l
^^
jahdn bar ddrad
bi-i
timdd-i muknat-i khwlsh az mihnaUi darvish na-pursand
Vide
(a).
" two du kas dushman-i mulk u din-and (Gul.) cardinal the persons are enemies to Church and State," the subject du fca*, because of
*
In
*t
cH^
t_^lx> itf+Sf^
<_yf')$
number
du,
is
to be considered a plural
though the plural termination
is
not usad.
U*
In 0*+&^&)J i\i| c;Lu*J^;i^ ejju <J>*?.))!* &>\ ijf^P 3 ^^ muqarraban-i Hazrat-i Haqq jail* va 'ala tavangaran and darvlsh-slrat
^
is
^J
(^
ci>j*fl^
,
^.j&>
va darvishna
and tavingar-himmat
(Gul.), the
first
cJ^&y tawangaran
to be considered a subject
with ^j^ M tjtj)t> darvlsh-slrat as the predicate, and not as the predicate of O Awk *fr > muqarraban; the singular tavangar would be wrong. In i^fAUÂ. and (m.c.) the <*i\ (jwj-*^ Ja^^ vuzara-yi Shah hama khiradmandan-i ba 'aql u hush to correct be } ****j* *** would it but be say would wrong, singular khiraimand ^j| tjSÂ j (J&c(j> hama khiradmand va ba 'aql u hush and.
8
Ki
**
'because,' here gives the sense of
*^
balki.
*
5
In modern Persian tufan-i and jahan ra. In modern Persian the plural would be preferred.
Darvish the singular
is
here
used for the sake of rhyme.
472
be substituted for va az Khuddy la'alq na-tarsand (Sa'dl). Even if <j^. Persians prefer the singular, for euphonic reasons.
The
plural,
hama dusian-im " we

the former
is
however, can be used, as: ma hama dust-im (m.c.), or ma " both are used in modern Persian, but are all friends
:
correct.
(Shah Nama). in or a collective If, however, English (whether subpredicate plural stantive or adjective), be qualified by an epithet, it is frequently plural
in Persian also, as:
*f
Hama bandagdn-im u Khushraw-parast Man u Glv u Gudarz u har kas ki hast

1
In khalq hama kharan-i* bd afsus and ** <3^" " these folk are v*J~*< ^ ^Lr^ asses, laden with conceit." (0. K. 227 Whin.}.
In addressing people, however, as
"You
<î
requisite, as
lÎ^**
j<xj
shumd pidar-sukhta-hd
:
the pronoun would be omitted, as

(p)
c;Uu^!
ay ahmaqdn
blackguards," the plural is (m.c.) ordinarily, however, " oh fools."

:
ye
The
plural
is
used instead of the singular out of respect, as

oasu^j
o~~xJ'U jU&kl
safd-yi
31 oj>jj Îft-c jl\ (j^J pas agar aghyar kudurat-i pazirad iTchtiyar bdql-st (Sa'dl) "then if your valuable time is wasted and you become bored " by strangers, the option still remains with you (to leave the city). 3 In &t>j> ^*f) ÛUa &Uu UJtfi a-iUioUU^ )**$ layiq-i qadr-i padishdhdn na-bdshad iltija bi-khdna-yi dihqdn-i rakik bur dan (Sa'dl) " it is not becoming in a king to take refuge in the dwelling of a common villager," the plural
^jij
J>))<*f )^**\
oJj
vaqt-i 'aztzan az
suhbat-i
ejlAlAiij
padiskdhdnisuaed in accordance with
(g)
by the use of the plural

:
the application of the advice is made general and is not directed so ^ J^xU pointedly at the particular king present before the speaker jt if d,*i cjlia. cA*^ matmul va matlub az dustdn chundn ast ki "I hope
^L<
you-."
In the following, this respectful plural is carried to excess, the writer assuming that he is not worthy to address his superior direct; consequently he addresses the feet of the servants of the threshold,
etc.. etc.;
^b Ûu ^b
â,UiAl& ^î e^rsuJUi ^l^y fcÂJ bi-khdk-i* pd-yi falak-farsd-yi A'lq Hazrat-i aqdas-i shdhinshdhl: JJl^^< ^J^jU* c>UUf c>^*}^ <^-lj ^tiu bi-khdk-i
pd-yi
muldzimdn-l dstdn-i humdyunl rni-rasdnad b

Û-s
bi-khdk-i
ÛeT
j&j*>
'arz
J'liu
pd-yi
javdhir-dsd-yi
mubdrak
mi-shavad.
" was Glv " warlike the
name
of the son of the hero Gudarz.

is
2
3
Khar would
also be correct in prose, but
not so good.
;
king here addresses an <M* 'abid by the plural cJiX-Lr* 'azizan him to leave the wilderness and spend a little time with him in the city.
*
he has invited
Or c5^^* erî' Oy-aaeulc

Humayurii
for
e/^V
(,^t-f
7*^ ^5^ -^^
\sfcj*
qurban-i
pa-yi jawhar-asa-yi bandagan-i A'lq, Hazrat-i aqdas-i humayiinl,

6
Shah
only.
473
On New
:
Year's
Day and on
special
occasions the
Zardushti
Anjuman
telegraphs direct to the Shah addressing him in such terms as the previous the reply is sent direct by the Shah himself. Terms far more involved and extravagant than the foregoing are found in old Persian, and are still in use in India. In modern Persian
,
however, these forms are daily approaching the simplicity of Europe in fact few Persian gentlemen are now able to write these long involved expressions
;
special occasions when they are necessary, a Munshi is employed for the purpose, and the Secretary to the Royal Recipient paraphrases the text
on
by,
" The usual congratulatory address from ." The (q) plural is sometimes used instead of the singular to avoid
.
a pointed allusion
Thus
in the 24th story of the First

1
Book
of
the Gulistan
when
the king imprisons the trusted Khwaja,

yg
another king in writing secretly
to the latter
says
*ij>y
^} ^j
&&MJI&J
^$f)j*
c^ ;*
o^t ^f
jfjJU i$ ki
muluk-i an taraf qadar-i chundn buzurgvdr-i na-ddnistand va H-'izzati kardand Some one informs the master of the Khwaja of the matter; (Sa'di). ujl* (j l^ô^j cr-^ &? \) &&* ^+& gult fulan ra* ki habs bd muluk-i navdhl murdsalat darad. In both these examples the farmuda-l
>;|j>
ai-lyc
^y
plural JfjJU muluk is used, though it is well known that the agent in each case was one king and no more. &&> In m.c., the plural is often used for the singular, as: lt~*l&t L darad (m.c.) J*^* fulan kas bd-Inglisha dusti-yi makhsus yta (jeâitxs
'
'
So-and-so
is
great friends with the English (there being but one Englishman
3
in the place)."
(r)
In a sentence
like the
Persian languages,"
b'lr^ ^y
J
the
learning the Arabic and substantive in Persian would be singular, as:

' '
following
He
is
cr^'j c5V cjk}y u

zabdnha
is
zaban-i
'Arabi va Farsi mi-dmuzad*;

is
the
the
it
plural
Ifibj
not admissible, and there

if
an
ellipsis
of
the plural 1^3 zabdnha were used word c;L3 zabdn before (mS^^> Farsi: would signify the different dialects of those languages vide (k) and (i).
;
are ordinarily followed by a (s) Cardinal numbers, as already stated, such after noun. expressions as "all three, all four, However, singular
etc.",
har
si
not wrong in modern Persian to use the plural, as y >ô A*y* dukh'tar-i u, or^t ^lAyU^ A^y* har si dukhtarhd-yi u "all three of his
it
is
daughters."
The singular noun
is
preferable.
The meaning of the word **-t>^ here is doubtful. In modern Persian, Armenians and Hindus are addressed as *^>^, and the Jews and Parsees as Mulla.
1
u ian ra is the object of the verb in the relative sentence. I; &&* f This substitution of the plural is not an uncommon vulgarism in English men of this town do take "Really," says Harriet to the overbold Harry, the young
*
Note that
'
liberties."
*
"Give us
ra.
a copper"
is
another example.
No
Vide
118 (d) (2) Remark.
474
ji
3b
p.3*.a>
<xb y&jj
eA**-j^
va
bind-yi musdhabat-i
md
har
si tan
bd rukn-i chahdrum, ki tu bdshi, tamhid ydbad chi akdbir gufta and har chand dustdn bishtar bdshand hujum-i bald bar Ishdn kamtar bdshad (Anv. " and the Suh., Chap. III., S. 6.) pedestal of association of us three
will be
'
supported by a fourth
pillar,
viz. thyself: for
the wise have said,
the more numerous friends there
are, the less will
they be exposed to
the assaults of calamity" (East. Trans.). Arabic broken plurals being in Persian often treated as singulars, such U*o> asbdt "the twelve tribes (of Israel)" constructions as aajfja davdzdah
1
are occasionally
met with, where one would expect the singular

is
(sibt)
the
singular construction
the correct one.
Remark.
As the Arabic numerals from 11 to 99 take the accusative

numbered, the plural construction referred to cannot be
singular of the thing
in imitation of the Arabic.

(v)
it is
nouns coupled by an 'and,' are subjects of the same verb, usually necessary to add the plural termination to the last only, as:
If several
vs.-/
JUlî^yi. î
Jlx>
in khar u asphd mdl-i kist (m.c.
and
are these donkeys'2
and horses?
j
js>.
", for lÂ-f ^
U^
^j| in kharhd
o*~j/
Uyf
(jj)
ôi in
?
whose horses are these
"
;
khar va in asp-hd mdl-i
eu-**' Jl/o w.vst ^
would signify "whose is this ass (one) and this horse (one) ? " In,;$U> ^t mddar va khwdhirhd-yi ust (m.c.), the word mddar from the ow*y (_(& j&}j^ )
^^
in
"whose u asphd: " whose ass and kist khar u asp mdl-i kist
incorrect)
context would be considered singular: oJj^j culj j&

jj
zjS*-
\djj~*
^^ )^ ^^V
*&2<&5 ^S+A \)v* 5 *-/^ ^ ;j> ^ j!>ja. ^ c5>^ bi-hukm-i ghurur-i pd-yi \) suturdn-i khud, dar vaqt u bi-vaqt, juy u jurda va dara u tappa-hd.rd bi-bdk u parvd hami-guzashtim (H. B. Trans.) "but my companions rode over
lAAjj
everything with the greatest unconcern, confident in the sure-footedness of 8 their horses" (Haji Baba, Chap. V. ): j*]*tjMifj $f* * $1^$^ ruy-i daryd az jahdz u qdyiq u kashtlhd pur bud = ^&? j &^*j j^^ $ kl
&
ty jj ruy-i daryd az jahdz u qdyiq u kashii pur bud. Note the following ways of forming the plural of <^^J j " the ups or), past u bulandi (or pasti u bulandl-)yi dunyd,
In Arabic the numbers from 3 to 10 govern a broken plural in the oblique case,
This slovenly construction might also

?
mean "whose
n
ass
and whose horses are

kist
the=e
is
"
In, cu-*i^ Jlx?
_^
^|
î\
^ ar
va
n asp mal-l
(m.c.), there
no ambiguity.
8
^*xll?
f^
jif*
*^"^jfi
\J
^)J-*.
Â
^)
fs
better than
<^.^
*?
O^V^
j!
hama-yi buzurg u kuchak-i shahr ra talabid & +& hama-yi buzurg u kuchvkan-i shahr ra
taldbid.

and downs
(2) Uij
475
of this world
l^L-j
"
;
(1)
U^
<Û> îJb^
o~o
past
ÂjJJb j
pasthd u bulandhd
yi dunyd, (3)
u bulandhd-yi dunya Uia i?^**!? j <y^~J pasti u

t
I* bulandihd-yi dunyd, (4) UJj> (^^J pastihq, (5) Ui.5 Îfjîlj j o~~j pastf ^t bulandihd-yi dunya.
c^^j
if
u bulandihd-yi dunya,
Similarly in
modern Persian
izafats,
JJJU3
\)
united together by
as
:
a number of plural adjective-nouns are the plural termination is added to the last only,
ULa. j fj& ^j ^bj &*aJ Û ^'Ûu^ U ^J**. *i->/ ^1 in ad bicharagan bay gurisna-chashm-i luqma~ruba-yi biô> sharm u hayaha ra lamalluq guyim, jib-i shdn rd pur kunim va khayti ham " 'tis thus we (Tr. H. B., Chap. 22) pay the wages of the king's servants a set of rapacious rascals, without shame or conscience and the worst of it
j* i^JULu*.
^^
^
JjA
j ^xif
is,
we must pay them handsomely."

(w] In
modern Persian, the plural

<{
of
A^
""
shutur-bachcha, or ji* aacu
bachcha-shutur
a young camel,"
;
is
l^.j
yU
shutur-bachchahd, or vulgarly
ivS
similarly ^] îj tukhm-i murgh "an egg" modern Persian fo* ^*iJ tukhm murgh, with the plural \j* p*** tukhm-murg&ha. The origin of these barbarous plurals is perhaps to be attributed to the difficulty of qualifying such words, when not com-
UîA *fu bachcha-shulurhd

often in
pounds, by an adjective.
pjf &j
"Hot eggs"
*
:
cannot be correctly rendered by

*>ip
Îf+sJ lukhmhd-yi murgh-i garm

is
t^$
*^
bachcha-gurghd-yi
daranda
yi gurg-i
at least
clear in its
meaning; in
>J;i *3J*
LS^&
bachchahal
daranda the epithet would refer to gurg, while J^ l^jj c5 t?^ " those bachchaha-yi daranda-yi gurg might mean young ones that are
daranda
'
'
(as
opposed
to
those
that
are not
daranda)
[*^j
mard-
bachcha "brave "].

(x)
"We
shamba rd lang mi-kardim

singular noun.
used to halt on Sundays" ruz-i yak(*>*&* JU \) *M^ ) here the Imperfect gives a plural idea to the
;
Substitute the Perfect for the Imperfect, and the noun must be in the plural *JM ijU &A\^ji> j^ ruz-i yak-shambahd rd lang kardim. pitjS Were the singular used in the latter case, it would signify that there was
only one Sunday during the period of march than 14 days).
(i.e.
that the
march
lasted less
(m.c.) "exactly this amount," but (y) Hamin qadr j*> hamin qadrhd (m.c.) "about this amount" ^^. JU ^J *$ ty f**j hamin vaqthd bud ki pdrsdl bi-Tahrdn rasidam (m.c.) "it was about this time last year that I reached Tehran "; if oJ^, &*** hamin vaqt (sing.)
:
Â
were used, the meaning would be 'exactty, just, at this time.'

1
Note no
ixa/at after
ma
bl shartn
u haya
is
one compound adjective

(of
note
jib is
in the singular, vide 119 (n).
" hot seeds" Tukhmha-yi garm +j Îf+aaJ might mean that have a heating effect."
2
" seeds melons), or
476
PRONOUNS.
(z)
an object
of
Sometimes a substantive is repeated in the plural to indicate that 'l-umara* " the Amir is the greatest of its kind \*\j*X\ j**\ amir
tt
Amirs";
:
djS&\
>**,. etc.
In
*fxel
enemy/' the Arabic

Ex.
" Lord of Lords " ejtoli U Shah-i shahan ($(*, u>^ cJl^jl^ *>j)OA Khan-i Tchanan. Shdhanshah alÛ "king of kings," the first word of which is a contraction of u>UU Shahan the plural of shah, is an example
;
-,
singular
and plural are
enemy of enemies, deadly coupled by the Persian izafat.
<'
of izafat-i maqlubi.
For the intensive adjective so formed,
vide
45
(c) (3).
CHAPTER
120.
(a)
XIV.
Pronouns.
spicuity, for contrast, or for emphasis, vide
The Personal Pronouns are not usually expressed except for perThe first personal (g) (h) (i).
is
pronoun
with
common
'
in poetry
î*
me
(1)
as long as
'
am
'
I.'
"
^*
^/oG a&f
^?y
" thou art he who
is
The
1st Person:
The
pb&X LT
1st person singular is used
by a
single individual in speaking, as

->*}
man ml-guyam
(m.c.);
p&t* u^c
banda
'arz
mi-kunam
(m.c.).
Persian Muslims maintain that the 1st personal pronoun man is which to applicable to the Deity only. The Persians seldom use man
Many
their ears
sounds arrogant or egotistical.

for
If necessary
emphasis
to
use
the
1st
person,
etc.
they
say
*^\,
banda, or occasionally
<>/
^^f
ikhlas-kish,
^^ haqir,
The Afghans
and Indians use man frequently. Occasionally in m.c., the 1st personal pronoun plural, even, is used to avoid the use of u-x> man, but care must be
exercised or the pronoun will give the idea of the Royal plural. The Shah, speaking not in a mere individual capacity, but as a representative of a country, adopts the plural ma, as: ^JWUUA côtXa.^^. U ^^.jU&^Jai chun khidmat-i shuma manzur-i nazar-i humayun-i ma-si z
:
kl
ma amr
farmudim.
In private he
is
said to speak like a private
individual. 8
The
1
following
is
a telegram from Mazaffar u -d-Din Shah to the Mutavalll
In writing <XXA* \Joj
8^ banda
'arz
ml-kunad
is
also used.
The Afghans and

'
Indians use the 3rd person sing, after
jjij
banda, even in speaking.

'
:
2 The ic Aclfred Royal plural was not used by the Anglo-Saxon kings (I Alfred). The Anglo-Saxon writer makes himself plural. William the Conqueror was the first English king to adopt the Royal plural. 3 Forms and ceremonies at the Shah's court have been much simplified of late
years.
PROKOUJNS.
477
Bdshl of the shrine of
Imam Razd
:
at Mesh-hed, to
whom
he had sent
apparatus for an
electric light
L o~>[
^^ w^yfc ^ ow>t
Allah ahvdl-i shumd khub-ast.
Iliktrisitd al-dn shab-i
har shab rawshan ast yd khayr mardtib rd mufassal an 1-Mulk I hope you are well. For how many hours nightly does the electric Send detailed light burn, and does it burn nightly or not ?
l 11
Inshd chand sa'at rawshan ast va " Nasir bi-'arz bi-rasdnid
Nas%r u-l-Mulk
particulars."
An
editor in his public character
^ (^ ^y^
" Our pen
is
plural, as
e*:**l=F^
fails to
L, u } \djSj JUj| ; ^( ; describe the action of certain false patriots."
t5^
fj; claim to
f*i
** tôAt^^ ^ U
all
We
have nought to do with those that falsely

'all
be patriots." 'We' ma sometimes stands for
men,' the speaker though single

**A
identifying himself with
men, as: ÎtsJf joU j ^L?
U we
<
are
all
mortal and fallible."

* an assembly, a person will sometimes make himself asplural l>o instead of is suming that he speaks for the rest, but to use generally
In
considered a sign of overweening pride. The plural is occasionally used for the singular in vulgar language. ' I or ' he may include a person's immediate belongings, as
'
Âiîuj/o
;a*^
^rL
^t
tlsj
\j
U&
K)j~>
khayll
(said
ma
zarat mi-Tchwaham (m.c.)
v* man sar-i rah-i 8 shuma ra girifta-am, "I'm in your way, please excuse me
My;
either
by a person whose luggage blocks the way)." " defence me.

of
"My
Û^
himdyat-i man,
may
signify
"the
defence of
me by
another," or
"my
defence of another."
In Persian the ambiguity can be removed by adding a pronoun for the person o*jU^ himdyat-i man bi-shuma, or e>*J U poU^ who is defended, as U&?
:
himyat-i shuma bi-man: mean " the reason
^ ^ ^^
]&*
vf*
sabab-i sadd zadan-i
man
(m.c.)
may
I called
some one
else," or
"the reason some one

defence")
is
else called
"me."
In English "the defence of
me"
(instead
of
"my
not
ambiguous. (2) Second Person.
The Deity is addressed in the 2nd person singular, as: (j*^ j* ty*** " God! thou knowest which of us two is speaking Khuddyd tu dlim-i (m.c.)
l
the truth."
More
civil
than *j&. bi-guyid, or ÂJ>
-*
shark dihld.
tx>
A
8
*
speaker in the Zardushti
Anjuman
will
sometimes use
ma.
Or |*t*i>^ I; U J5|; ^cp tu-yi rah-i shuma ra girifta-am Said by both parties who witness against each other.
(m.c.).
478
PRONOUNS.
mam lawba dih

Ay
tauba-dih
'uzr pazir
f
'uzr-pazir-i
hama kas
" Grant
me
repentance, and accept
my
plea,
J '
!
thou who dost accept the pleas

(0.
of all
K. 276 Whin.).
The second person singular

1 to the Shah, as
:
)\j*
(< .O* qurbdn-at shavam Darvishes and poets
is used in precations even when addressed " umr-at daraz bad " may thy life be long CL^*C -^y may I be thy sacrifice."
( ;
also
address the sovereign in the 2nd person
singular.
Parents of the poor classes address their children, even when grown up,
in the
2nd person
singular.
as
The better classes, however, U shuma* but as a rule 9*

cjl*.
often address their children

tu
;
when grownup,
)<j>
;
and
X)
;*J pidar,
but in writing p&*.
nur-i chashm; )*$

etc., etc.
:
jan-i pidar
(*^
(
**jj*
farzand-i
mukarram
j*.^* 'aziz
\^& ert^jJ ;^ ^'3 ^^ )*$ &^ fin-i pidar tu bihaz an ki dar pustin-i khalq ufti (Sa'dl). Brothers, when young, address each other in the 2nd person singular.* Friends in familiar conversation will often change from the 2nd pers. pi.
^1
(3^
c/^
mz
agar bi-khufti
.to
the sing., especially
when joking
and in
^^y
tu-bimtri.
lover, in poetry
real life, addresses his mistress in the
2nd
person singular. Servants, and dependants or inferiors, are addressed in the 2nd pers. but if the person addressed be an independent person or a person not sing.
;
a dependant
of the speaker, it is
much
better to use the plural, 6 even though
Persian gentlemen
may
neglect this rule.
People more or
less equal,
address each other in the 2nd pers.
pi.,
as
Persians say, cu^f

<L>Ls
t^fc^j
^^
<^t **"=*
jf^
padishah Khuda-yi ru-yi zamln
saya-yi Khuda-st. 2 Parents of the better classes do not habitually address their children by an affectionate diminutive or abbreviation, as this is apt to be copied by servants and to become
ast,
and cus(Aa.
a permanent name. A mother would call her son Hidayat All Khan in full. For the same reason a gentleman would, when speaking of his young relatives to a servant, " the children." say Khawarwn or Aghayan^ and seldom bachchaha
'
Persians often address children by the same terms that the children use to those
who
by
are
*
grown up.
the usual polite forms are used, brothers addressing each other
When grownup,
their titles
6
and using the polite plural. The Shah is said to address his own ministers as
tu,
but foreign ministers as
l*A shuma.
PRONOUNS.
chi mi-guyid ?
:
479
^*.
Jl*
a*5l*,iA*
v ii^
janab-i
'alt
chi
mi-farmayid
As
lation
in English, so too in Persian,

is
intended: " Thou

''
'
thou,'
is
also used
when
special iso-
art a scoundrel" JiLL^* ;*j

A)*
^M.y
fcfcayK
pidar-sukhta-i*',
sing.):
thou thief"
t>H
c*M>
y ^ Ichayll
^t ay duzd* (with verb in 2nd pers. amln-i " thou (and thou alone) art honest."
As already stated the Deity is addressed in the singular.* The use ofy though common amongst the vulgar, is by the educated restricted to the expression of contempt, of affection and familiarity (children and trusted servants), or of reverence. Hence its employment in
addresses to the Deity.
(3) The third Person The 3rd person plural is often used for respect instead of the 3rd person singular, especially when referring to a person present, or when speaking of
:
a person in the presence of his relatives or dependants, as ishan mi-farmayand " he says."
Ûyu/o o^l
As
in
in English, the 3rd person plural of the verb

it
is
is
used indefinitely; but

omitted, as
:
Persian the pronoun not being emphatic,

:
*xi^f
^*
mi-guyand "they say people say." Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun, 6 In Persian (as in English) one should avoid
such sentences, as cu*jf J^x/o^x^ [ ^ ] ^ÂJ J,j a .^4, A ^-^ r^c AJ &*, Sayyid Javdd bi-Mirza Hasan hamisha pul mi-dihad, [u] Tchayll mutamavvil " ast Sayyid Jawad always supplies Mirza Hasan with money, he (Sayyid
:
^^
is very rich" [in vulgar Persian the pronoun y u would probably be inserted even though it is not properly emphatic]. " He " and^t u when retrospective should refer either to the noun immediately preceding (" Rule
Jawad)
of
Proximity"), or to some noun that is markedly more emphatic than 6 intervening nouns [" Rule of Emphasis "].
1
all
In writing, arid in India,
etc. in
speaking, the 3rd pers. plural of the verb
is
used and not the 2nd person plural,
The singular is in m.c. always used in abusing a single person. to Sir Andrew with regard to the challenge, " if thou thou*st says
2
it
Sir Toby Belch him some thrioe
shall
3
not be amiss.
' '
Not Even
^y
in
tu duzd.
is
the 3rd person, the Deity
singular.
To use a
plural
verb after
the
considered <-^* shirk or polytheism. In the Quran, Allah frequently speaks in the 1st person plural. The Zardushtis address the Deity, c^t^>J Yazdan, in the singular. Modern Parsees generally use the Muslim word
name
of
God would by some Muslims be
!** gbuda, for God. ^ This rule Vide (q) (6). applies to the relative. In English it is better to adhere to the rale of proximity, as the rule of emphasis
is
sometimes misleading.
480
PRONOUNS.
Reporting a speech in the 3rd person may cause ambiguity in Persian, as in English. The remedy in both languages may sometimes be found in
the direct narration.
In the English sentence
" to prospective referring to the following clause In Persian the sentence would be inverted, learn to speak correctly." the Infinitive standing as the subject as i>*iyiL** oJ^ ^ÛsL f^ S(^ &&) ^j**Similarly in the sentence harf zadan-i sahih khayU vaqt mi-khwdhad (m.c.).
correctly,
"
" It takes a long time to learn to speak
the pronoun
it is
>
expects to clear a hundred pounds by the transaction, and I am sure " i& he will do it," the it referring to the clause "to clear a hundred pounds
"He
omitted in translation, as ^ftj ^ &(*> (Jj4 *jd **> &U>Ux> ^jf &f o*f fo **cl umidvdr ast ki az in mu'dmala sad lira gir-ash bi-ydyad va y/f **'j^ o*-*^
:
f*;!,}
yaqin ddram ki bi-dast khwdhad dvard
(rn.c.).
Sentences such as "it

*j~>
(m
is
cold ",
"it
ax
dark ", are expressed as in English vs**t shuda) e~l ^fi tank ast (or *^> shud).*
is
;
^^
khayll sard ast (or
Some English impersonal verbs take

meaning
as:
,
in Persian a nominative of cognate

;
(ô &))L bdrdn mi-bdrad "it rains"
barf mi-bdrad a;b
ô^
8 or ^f t5* ^j\ barf mi-ayad "it snows." "It is I "or "it is me" 4 fix man-am (m.c.): "it was I that did it" ftf \) fe 0)1 ** (*^? (^ man budamki an kdrra kardam (m.c.) "it isyou that
:
command here" &J& ^&. l>j| &$ yjJU& shumds-id ki injd hukm mi-kunid " I who command you am the man" **&T p*>&**> ^^7* *^* man ki (m.c.) an mi-dikam kas-am, or ft u&^&'f ^ jU te cA*/ *&' man ki farmdnfarmdn
:
dih-i
shumd-yam an shakhs-am.
Remark
originally
I.
The English possessive pronouns my,

of
his, their, etc.,
though
pronouns, are, in modern English, should and not therefore stand as antecedents to a relative. adjectives only, " it is doubtful whether his ' or " I am his who me bondman, In, bought
genitives
the personal
'
'bondman'
cx^L
iS
\j*>
is
the antecedent of 'who.'
If the
firsfe,
jSf f3U ^/o
c^- f i-^> Remark II. Except by poetical not refer to a noun 6 following
<*jj&. \j*>
:
man ghulam-i dn-am ki mard kharid ; jjMXjlU ^* man guldm-ash hastam chun mard
render in Persian, if the second,

kharid.
license, a pronoun in Persian should
Or
(V*^J
& t^-Ht^f
&)]& J^Jr jjJ***
muddat-i
tul
darad
:
ta Inglisi
yad bi-glram
(m.c.) "it takes a long time for is omitted in translation.

2
3
me
to learn
English"
to
in either case the
pronoun
refer.
it
In such sentences there
is
no noun or clause
^ô jo
Jcar-i
which the
guzasht.
it
can properly
"It
Also
is all
up with me
'
'
o-*i
man
^jâRjJfc
hichkas (m.c.)
in reply to the question o^-oj^ klat or<j*HM6
(m.c.).
These vague replies generally result in the impatient questioner saying,
akliirlcistl, bi-gu (m.c.).
The same
rule holds good in Arabic.
PRONOUNS.
481
In" Twice in his

Once
in her
life
man
wedding dress
thinks his wife looks sweet, once in her winding sheet."

;
the pronoun Ais refers to
U *a wa/A-i kifdf na-ddshta bdshad hlch leas 'arusi nami-kunad (m.c.) till he has sufficient means, wo out " this marries construction, though occasionally used in m.c., is incorrect in
A*.,
;
xi&J
^^ ^ Â ^b Ai|^ oUT "
man.
'
written Persian.
to his love of wine and his habit of going to bed late, the Khan seen before noon eM- 'c*H'ij^^ &d* ^*Vj vlr*? -kj** <Jv v** jl rarely <x cU* az sabab-i i&& mayl-i mufrit bi-shardb va bi-jihat-i ddat^x) jaU j$& j\ 1 Khdn nadir qabl az zuhr dlda ml-shud; in m.c. JUx> ^*x 31 dir khwdbidan, L^Js ;Ax3 as; sabab-i mayl-i mufrit-ash might be and is used but it is incorrect,
"
Owing
was
' '
as asA might refer to a second person and not the subject of the sentence.
"^
$U1
^Lx*)
jj,i
^.^
^Jy
I;
o*>^
^^
When
Khudd
pidar-ash rd biydmurzad
munajjim
niz bi-miydn uftdd (Tr. Haji
Baba, Chap. IV.)
" then
God
bless
him
Astrologer interfered." cedent, the construction is termed

(b)
the
yJ|
<J^>
the pronoun precedes its anteun a ;U-o izmdr qabl -z-zikr.
The first person is more worthy ( o^f "more definite ") than the thus, contrary to the English second, and the second than the third :'
z
idiom
the
speaker
1
mentions
,iilj
himself
first.
&*+*
j*Ljl
j&
pb
^^!
->* j ydd ddram ki dar ayydm-i câ- (^^ti i jî^Jji pishm man va dust-i clmn du maghz-i bdddm dar pust-i* suhbat ddshtim " I recollect that a friend and (Sa'di) I, in former days, etc."
AxxitA oj-sx^j
X)
*i
j-
j*jj>y
'*
(m.c.)
J^
pjjte
î^LJ
* &j~j j ^yo man va pisar-i nd-khudd-yi jahdz ham budlm " î the captain's son and I too were present there ^b U^J^ :; " neither ddrim* na man va na shumd bi-in kdr
\(f
<^tiA.
ta'alluq
(m.c.)
you nor
am
concerned in this business/'
dir
khwabldan "going
to
bed late"; better
dir bi-Jchwab
raflan
next day." sujj*, as the former might signify "getting up late It is usually this rule that determines the person of the verb when different
persons are
3
its
subject
the verb of course being in the plural.

fault
it is
But when confessing a
in English permissible for the speaker to
assume
the
first place.
In modern Persian yak pust. a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers connected by the nearest to it. For the conjunctions or or nor, it should in English agree with that
*
6
When
Persian concord, vide Concord of Verb.
31
482
PRONOUNS.
Remark.
i.e.
The Persian tense

1st pers.,
is
English, pers., persons are in reverse order, i.e. 3rd, 2nd,

(c)
2nd
and 3rd
conjugated in the same order as in In Arabic grammars the pers.

1st.
In modern Persian, the 3rd pers. singular of the affixed pronoun may i>xt *-^j an inanimate noun, as: j(f*- v&)j\ ^^^ of b JiP ( &(j~ ) t_oU^ ^ an mikh-hd az zamtn chahdr vajab buland bud va sarhd" those yash (or sar-i shdn) iiz (m.c.) pegs stood four spans out of the ground and were pointed" *xj> J^ljju-i; rdstiydt-ash In ki (vulg.) " the truth of it
refer to the plural of
(d)
(1)
is
pronoun
If the antecedent to a demonstrative, possessive, or relative not distinctly known, ambiguity results, as " No one as yet had
:
exhibited the structure of the
human
them in dogs " u&b^j t^>

tojf (_>>*&
lf'
;o few Kif
pfi
kidneys, Vesalius having only examined Jt^ & u***'^*** ty J5^J vJ^ô t^ îUof Inch leas td bi-hdl tarkib-i gurda-yi insarii rd
l^^jy
'
makshuf na-karda bud; hatta Vaseliyusham.dn rd faqat dar saghd taftlsh karda. Read kidneys (ij (** 1^ gurda-yi saghd rd) for them (lyf an rd) as the
'
'
sentence stands the seeming antecedent
is
'human kidneys.' ,^M*y <jkj

**&
<x>k
^j 0^,35;
tu
bdyad bdshad va chasJim-at khayll dunyddida-tar ki ma rd rudast 1 bi-zarii (Haji Baba) "your beard must be much whiter and longer than it is, and your eyes more wide-awake, before you can
iÛ A>'y
IxJ^
â
^. IZ++&A.J
dardz-tdr
xiUy y^ l^t jj
rish-i
khayli safid-tar va az
m-hd
the singular rish, which the speaker, thinking of the hairs of the beard, incorrectly treats as a plural. (2) Though the affixed pronouns may sometimes be the source of
deceive
me";
here
the antecedent of
m-hd
is
sative
2
31 (a), (3) ], the position of the accuambiguity as already shown [vide and dative rd will often determine the antecedent, thus
:
" here the garment of it, will not Ziba Khanum want another like it ? Ij rd shows that *&;,> dukhta is the object and ash cannot, therefore, mean "to her": (jijîu Aikji dukhta bakhsh%di-sh would mean "when you have given this sewed thing to her."
;
OÂ. iÂlîo f^jf JjLc^Xj^ ^JLk U>j ^JîuJ t^| AA<kj^ *&ii>j J&A \S\ dqd s magar vaqt~i ki dukhta-ash rd bakhshidi Zibd Khdnum digar misl-i an rd nakhwdhad khwdst*? (m.c.) "but Sir, when you have presented the made-up
In,
i*^^ k
L>
cA^^ **
5
fuhsh-ash rd
mdbi-shinawm?
its
(&f.* b *** p# nim-tana rd dtgdr-l bi-pushad (m.c.) "shall another wear the jacket and we
?
only get the abuse on
account
"
the ash might
mean
her.
Rudast
is
a special throw in wrestling.

fthwast
vs***tj.
Na-khwahad
^<k(îo stronger than
AAf
jiu^ nami-khwahad
**
certainly she will

3
want one."
" Digar here has the meaning of again," and does not refer to the cloth but to
time.
PRONOUNS.
Remark.
It is
483
not necessary in Persian to repeat the possessive pronoun, as "From his birth to his death " az ruz-i tavalludtd ruz-i ; 13 marg-ash, or Ji^ j^G y a z ruz-i tavallud-ash td ruz-i
:
^Jy ^
<j^>
*)))
marg-ash.
The former
(e)
is
the better.
(1)
In English,
in
when
of
*
the demonstrative pronouns 'this' and 'that'
are
used
the
'
sense
'former,' and 'latter,' 'this'

'
and
'these'
correspond with latter,' " The
that
and
'
those
'
with
:
'
former
9
'
:
palaces and lofty domes arose
These for devotion and for pleasures rule holds good in Persian the same Precisely
:
those.'
Sag u darbdn chu ydftand gharib In giribdn-ash girad an daman (Sa'di).

l
"
Dogs and porters when they see a stranger at the door, The latter seize him by the scruff of the neck and the former by
his coat-tails."
vtf J 1
<^
^'
G ta ikhtiydr kardi az
an in
fariq ra (Sa'd!)
''
that you chose the latter class in preference to the former." " in the " " Compare the use of inja here" and anja there following:-
lxuj| ^
Lj
c
^^**
U l:sjf CU^t Îj^j ^jls Ja^ jjJls^X) ÂXsvÂ îULJ <Î*l^ Âî ^c^flJ hamchumn majlis-i va'z* Tculba-yi bazzdzdnast dnjd td (Ûi <yMjl
naqd-i na-dihi bizd'at-i na-sitdni va Injd td irddat-i naydri sa'ddat-i na-bari (Sa dl) "just so the house of worship is like the shop of cloth- sellers,
you pay cash you get no goods, and in the former you bring sincerity you get no lasting reward"; here dnjd and (Injd) tnjd are reversed, not by a slip in writing, but because dnjd refers to an object more remote to the speaker's mind, viz. the shop. u "he" is used for an "the former" in (2) The personal pronoun ^1
for in the latter (anja)
till
till
the following examples
Shakhs-i
hama
all
* shab bar sar-i blmdr ginst
Chun
ruz shud u bi-murd u
Umar
bi-zist
(Sa'dl).
" One wept
night beside a sick person the weeper (the former) died and the sick dawned When day one recovered and lived."
is
Here
require
tc
.5!
used in contradistinction to ;U# blmdr, as of an would

in.
be answered by
Chu
Jasj
poetical for chun.
Must be pronounced
girlban-sh, to scan.
4
8
u"!?^
of worship of majlis-i va'z can refer to the place
any
religion.
In prose
^l*^
bimar-i.
484
(3)
PRONOUNS.
:
This and that as demonstrative pronouns Like it (a) (3), the pronoun this may refer to a preceding or a succeeding noun or clause, as: "I tried to lift him, but this was impossible" **** L*!' w^j 4^ t> J' *' f**ija. khwdstam ki ura bar pa ddram vallkin
' '
(>!
in na-shud
*iS o~-oj
(4)
(rn.c.)
"this
is
*ljf
^ ^^^
is
! ;
my
khdhish-i
man
ambition, to live independent"^! in ast ki dzdd zist kunam (m.c.).
^ <_*>*
Such
"'such people"
a demonstrative adjective when qualifying a noun, as, but omit the noun and it becomes a demonstrative
I will
pronoun, as
" with such people
not trade
with such I will trade."
When, however, the speaker's sentiment is intense, the specification that should follow such (and so) is often omitted, as: "it was such a
lovely dress
"
(that
it
beggars description).
In Persian, the
^ of
'
a certain intonation
sometimes correspond to this use of

:
unity and ' as a such
lx wa db-i sard-1 khurda im demonstrative adjective, as c^'tr vT p' (m.c.) "we've drunk such a cold water (that I can't describe it, or I hate
1
,^
to think of it)."
(/)
Classically,
J^t
sative
is
and in m.c., dnki is "he who," and its dative and accuan rd ki but in modern Persian u ki and ura are also used
:
A:e
khwdb-ash bihtar az biddri-yast
An chundn bad-zindagani murda bih (Sa'di). " He whose sleeping is better than his awakening
Such an
ill-liver
were better dead."

lyf j va
^
muhdsaba
chi
<Sx-.t2R.xj
jf
cu^f
bdk ast (Sa'dl)
5 accounts are clear and straight Even in modern Persian A&f an ki and 4/yf an rd ki are to be preferred
^b VÛA if "what fear " ?
an rd *
ki hisdb
pdk
ast az
has he of the accountant whose
to *^f
ki or *$
\) j\
ura
ki.
In English
they,
also, these
and
those
have greater emphasis than the pronoun
and are better substituted
for it before the relative
should they practise arts of cunning who have nothing to e>^*P *êi^l <ioJ^j ft jijS^. ***^ Lr^ U'^ **U Ishdn ki tars-i shdn bd'is na-ddrad chird bay ad
bi-tazvir kdr
"who." " fear
"
Why
bi-kunand (m.c.): for 'they' read 'those,' and for

ki.
e^t
ishdn
read ^5lif dnhd-l
In
ftf
tftwr
2 3
U^
mardum j*ô^luut t or churiin mardum *^ *^^ t5 >^ ;^^T an gady Zi&as-^ Mw6-5 6wd
J
U^
c/i*
'ar?
fcwnaw
Note the order in Persian.
* Here though \)j\ ura ki could be substituted for tfVf an ra U, it would not be considered good (shirln) Persian. 5 The complicated Persian system of revenue account keeping <Vl>!.i (J5^* siyaq-i dlvanl can only be understood by a ^jlô mustaw/i, and he can twist the account to make it show either a debt or a credit.
&
PRONOUNS.
(g)
485
is
When
the subject of a short clause or sentence
to a subject already mentioned, or to something present, the

it is
a pronoun referring pronoun unless
emphatic
is
person:
^^
<^+j
omitted, the verbal termination sufficiently indicating the bi-man guft " he said to me": o*ft> &+* j\ u bi-man guft
"he
said to
me."
owi *i>iy j\ Aûf anchi u navishta ast " what he has of u is necessary, unless the subject has just been
I
But
in a sentence like
written," the insertion
mentioned, for otherwise o~* &&y *^T anchi navishta " what is written " and not " he has written."
ast
might signify
Remark.
Note the construction and
signification of
*if
anchi in the
^^ jk\A. <xi~A t^J/of

man'
munasib-i
li-
Jk ^
o^l^
)\j&*^
amma
sirat-i
arbab-i
himmat mst
anchi farmudl az zajr u yak-l ra bi-lutj ummidvar
" but as for what gardanidan va baz bi-na-ummidi khasta-khatir kardan (Gul.) you did as regards snubbing him and turning him away, it is not the part of a magnanimous nature to first encourage and then disappoint a person."
(h)
similar rule
question;
"Where
is
hold good with regard to the object. Thus to the " the answer narniSo-and-so ? might be fi|H+J
may
f^
danam, na-didam (or J^/oî na-didam-ash) "I don't know, I haven't seen him." To say {&>&> \) j\ ura na-didam instead of na-didam ash ^^î
would be wrong, as the separate pronouns (unlike the
emphatic.
affixed pronouns) are
Remark.
Where a pronoun
express the meaning, it is see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow and are led to L> consider the cause of it "ffc&t <^ J^^ f^# <y *^ l> LT** C5Â> o3Uk| ki mi-binim bi-khiyal v-*~oa. c xcL> *t ma ikhtilaf-i rangha-yi qaws-i quzah ra
or a pronominal adjective does not clearly better even in Persian to repeat the noun. Thus
"We
mi-uftim
o-Jja.
ki
ba'is-ash
chist.
Better
say
"the
is
cause of that variety"
oîî
If,
i)f c*lj ba'is-i
an
ikhtilaf chist.
(i)
however, the pronominal

j
inserted, as:
created
creator," ^su "I chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c.) myself with my very
(j)
Û- j and He the
^^sô U ma
^ f^
emphatic, makhluqim va u khaliq

subject
it
must be
are the
"we
^^
man khud-am biown eyes saw it."

" Mahmud's
of
Mahmud
lost."
kitab-ash
gum shud *&
^ (Jk^
tj**" (m.c.)
book was
(k)
For this construction, vide (a) (3)* For the position of the relative and the construction
(q) (6)
relative
clauses, vide
and
130.
to only two objects, English 'each other' is correctly applied (I) In is while one another' is applied to more than two, but no such distinction ham digar signify either >* observed in Persian >*S* yak digar and
'
'
one another.'
486
PEONOUNS.
In English
'
each
'
is
used and not
'
'
every
*
when
J
the individuals referred
to are only
two or
'
at the
most few.
'
out persons or things when the number is used for either each or every.'
'
is
Every on the other hand singles more than two. In Persian har
is
'Every' har, though properly singular, may qualify a plural noun that regarded as a unity: ij& **jtf bi-har dah nafar-l "to every ten men"; " " i~~AJ ykâ dar har list qadam-t at every twenty paces ^/cU;^ Â " >j har chahar sa'at-i once every four hours." yak martaba
;
Remark.
4p
But
\j
<j*J
Har kasna may often be substituted for hich kasna j "none returns" is correct; you could not here substitute
:
in
***>
t>^ (.5+^j which

,
jj^
is
'
Uia
^.jjjt
*$
i^f
'
or
o*O
'
g** y*. A you could not substitute
^ ^
:
Indian Persian only.

either
'
(m) In English
and
'
neither
relate to
two things only
for
more than two

verb, or
'
'
any
^ji
and 'none
is
should be used.
In Persian there
jt>
no such distinction
hich az
apply to two only.

(n)
j& har du with a negative har du with a negative verb, can of course
;
For examples,
used alone,
is
vide
is
39
(/) (2).
The word
self,
properly a noun, both in English and

^Jj**** eA~of ;i
Persian, as: ''the love of self

*s**l
predominant"
Ichwishtan-dusti dar insan mustawll'st (or
e~-t
Jsi~ô
hubb-i nafs bar insan musallat ast, or 3)f^ X5 khud ra az hama chiz dust mi-darad).
(o)
o^ô^âll
*+&>
ÛJ y \)
&jL. j*^f
adam
&+#
Hama
**A
"all"
all
"He
gave them
a
a turn an
(m.c.)
"
^^t
*\z
o> tx
bi-hama-yi
Ishan yak
collectively
tuman dad
cA*.*-'
',
properly
-/i
signifies
that he gave them

did
but
^^y
"he
bi-har yak*1 az ishan
yak tuman dad

du,
is
(m.c.)
ol^l j\ ^. J them a each of gave

a&
tuman."
(p]
"Both,"
js j*>
liar
often pleonastic in English as well
in Persian, as:
"you and
I both
agree" ^^f
8
:
va tu har du muttafiq-lm bar
p&s&A
j&
&* man
ki
"Zayd and 'Amr
(both)
met," Zayd
u Amr
(har du) digar ra mulaqat kardand tj j&&+& ( j* j& ) j+z ) AJ) oUil/o "these two hats are (both) alike " *>i f*> (J*J A *$* j* ^f in du kulak (har du) misl-i* ham-and (m.c.). In "they (both) met"
ham
^^
&*
'None' stands for not one' and should, therefore, be followed by the verb in the $ )\tf- etf j' hich yak (az an chahar ta) na-raft, but in m.c. singular.
I
'
^^
^^^
î
na-raftand; also îi^ cJ^Ml

*
jl
yak
az Ishan raftand (vulg. for
raft).
Or ^*j*> har yak-i. 3 Even if the meaning be "you and I both agree with a third person," the is not wanted either in English or Persian. 'both' pronoun * But in A*l /** J& )* j*> \*9&f (^>f In kulah-ha har du misl-i ham-and (m.c.>
the
wo rds
har du
"both "
are necessary to
show that there are only two.
PRONOUNS.
487
f*
()*j*)
han
(har du) bi-ham rasidand, the pronouns 'both'
and
har du are unnecessary. (q) Relative Pronouns

:
Which' in English sometimes has for its (1) antecedent, not a noun, but a clause, as "he lost his pass-port which cost him a lot of trouble." In Persian this sentence can be rendered almost literally by the connective
:
gum
'
; |ytf jt fl ia zkaraî khud ra zahmat bardy-i u shud 1 (m.c.). In, -however, the " The man was said sentence to be innocent, which he was not," the word which cannot be rendered by ki ^)^> j* % o^[ sU&o ,\ tf &&
v
t
ki, as
^
:
jf
ou**,j
V UÎ
AT
kard ki khayli asbdb-i

'
^^
guftand
ki
u bi-gundh
(2)
ast* dar surat-i ki na-bud (m.c.).
In English, 'that' is frequently preferred to 'who,' as: "I that " speak unto thee Û> ^ i>*o J^> y b aU, man ki bd tu harf mi zanam ' * hamdn-am Also that in English is preferred after a as
" the prettiest
superlative,
woman
: f
that I ever
paraphrased as r *j*i ît^ khush-gill na-dida-am (m.c.), or ^>t

gil'tarln-i
saw"; in Û ^j JUu
c|)
Persian this relative must be

13
zanhd-1 ki dida-am
m zan ast (m.c.),

'
^ 7mn
f**!*
^^
fa U-Jidl zan-i
bi-m
khush
^.y
Jt^L
or .^|xi Jtc &
cuvo|
î^L &j
zan-i khush-gil-i ast ki misl na-ddrad.
more restrictive than who.' *' Yesterday I interviewed who came to the Consulate " <*Jl^ JLJ^jl ^ î* AÂ *$ jjj.* all the Hindus ^?mz A; hama-yi Hunud bi-qunsul-khdna dmadand d.li'iU fyt^Jt îôf ftjS ishdn rd muldqdt kardam (m.c.), signifies that all the Hindus came and were " interviewed. But yesterday I interviewed all the Hindus that came to the " that all who came were interviewed, 3 but some Consulate signifies stayed
'
(3)
That
'
is
behind.
In +zj oU^to îxcf ajll. <J~.^j iu A^J^XA <Lo> j^j^ diruz hama-yi Hunud-i ki* bi qunsul-khdna dmadand muldqdt kardam, it is not clear whether only some of the Hindus came and were interviewed, or whether all came and
were interviewed.
in
From
*$(A> &
these remarks
'
it
will
be seen that ki in Persian

'
should primarily be rendered by

&*<*) ,}y
that
a>U^r
AjJaJl-Jf
>,jj*^>
in preference to who.' However, wti^ côjA. ^.ô man khidmat-i jandb-i

(m.c.)
'
Sa'td^-s-tfaltana ki hdkim-i
Kirmdn bud rasldam

of
" I went to the Sa'id"-
s-Sultana,
who was Governor

'
Kerman,"
*
it is
obvious that ki cannot be
rendered by
I
that
'
:
it is
therefore =
who.'
If
^j bud were used

$>$&
&jj
instead of iX& shud, the &f ki would most probably be taken
to refer to
a
8
tazkara.
;
Not
bud
but indirect narration
ju**|
^^ buda ast.
x>f
This sentence can be rendered clearly by

dlruz har Hindu-l ra ki bi-qunsal
<5JUk JLj^jl AJ
iS
or
ki bi-qunsal-
+b
e*Ufiix)
khana amad mulaqat kardam,

an Hunud-ra
ft/
vÛllU *i<Wf AJbL
jLJy
*j
>
I;
dlruz hama-yi j^jjk vjf
Ichana
amadand mulaqat kardam (m.c.): \) ra could be omitted in both the previous must be added to the second example in (3). examples, but the relative
Or
jîd,
<UA hama-yi Hunud
ra.
488
PRONOUNS.
" There were very few passengers who escaped without serious injury. Times 8th Jan., 1868. [This might be resolved into and all escaped,' etc. That would exactly reverse the meaning almost all the passengers were
' '
:
seriously injured.']"
miisdfirin
in Persian
Hodgson.
l
In ***> lÛ
&*>**o
*" xi^y &*j*l~<* ff

is
kam
budand
;
ki sadma-i
bi-dnhd na-rasid,
the ambiguity
preserved
My. p> *~i>* ^J A/O^ tf ^*jb~* musdfirin-i ki sadma bi-anha na-rasid kam budand is also a little ambiguous, but would primarily be taken to mean **<*& ^; **>**> ^ i^/&** jl az musdfirin khayli kam bi-sadma rihd shudand, or *&>) ;ôx>AU^ (^j^'U/ojf cr**" kamJ az musafirin bi-saldmal
^ ^^
bi
dar raftand.
'
(4)
What
'
and' that which.'
In the sentence, "The host provides what fare he pleases," 'what' is both a demonstrative adjective and a relative pronoun, and must be rendered in Persian by har with the relative ki, as mizbdn har khurdk-i ki
:
mi-khwdhad hdzir mi-kunad ****

'
j*\s* JA'^SU/C tf c/t;>^_>fr ÔjA/c.
The relative what' with its compounds ( whatsoever,' etc.), both The interrogative what in English and in Persian, refers only to things. to be but when so applied refers to neuter also applied persons, may though " the of or as or What are you ? " character the person persons, quality tijJ^jk AA> l* shuma chi hastid (m.c.) ( = what sort of person are you ? shuma chi-kara hastid (m.c.) f( what is your profession ? " but H iwA ty^ *^ " what have you to do with this ? or
(5)
' '
:
^
is
' '
'
Whatever
'
sometimes merely emphatic as

,
"no condition whatever
'
'
l*;}^ j**>
*^y'
^**1
er* *^J
4
.
^rit
bi-hich vajh
1
min al-vujuh khabar na-daram^Y
pj^j^
(6)
a $la khabar na-ddram.
Relatives, whether in English or whether in Persian, should be so
The following sentence is, therefore, "He is unworthy of the confiequally objectionable dence of a fellow-mortal that disregards the laws of his Maker," ;Ux*t &V jt *^ oÂ.i (jLJ) u (J&atta- ^^ j>jjT ig+* Lapu layiq-i i tibar-i insan nisi ki hukm-i
placed as to prevent any ambiguity.*
in
both languages:
\)
" He that disregards the Khaliq-ash rd bi-jd ndmi-dvarad (m.c.). Corrected: " *&f laws of his Maker, is unworthy of the confidence of a fellow-mortal
^-*V
&^\
y*fcl
&$
*tf
cs*'
^^
tj
c^^ an
ki hukm-i Khdliq rd bi-jd nami-
insan nist (m.c.). Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of another noun. Avoid such sentences as Muhammad pisar-i Ghuldm 'All ki in kitdb rd bi-man dad " the son of Ghulam
i tibdr-i
3
:
drad layiq-i
Muhammad,
'All
of
'
who gave me
who.'
this
book
,"
unless
Ghulam
'All
be the antecedent
Asia ILo m.c. for

Vide also
(a) (3),
&*
aalan
Remark
II.
Not
'it,' vide (a|(3).
PRONOUNS.
In,
489
" David the father of " Solomon, who slew Goliath, and " David, the father of Solomon who built the temple l ", the position of the commas in English indicates the meaning. In Persian this distinction cannot be made. In e-AT l; c^lU *' ÛA!*, ;*j aû the *S may refer either to Dd*ud or
to Sulaymdn. Even in English the writer should not be at the mercy of commas. For further examples of error of Concord, resulting from confusion as to
136 (c) (2). the logical subject, 4 vide the is sometimes in familiar In relative (7) English, language omitted. "he a man I is relative the 'whom' is omitted in In, greatly respect,"
**! ^âii^ English, but the connective ki cannot be omitted in Persian: f;f<V JkcÂswo &? u shakhs-V-st ki muhtaram-ash mi-ddram (m.c.).
y
in
'
(8)
Hodgson
says,
" an awkward and not infrequent error consists

:
abrupt transition from a relative clause to one of direct affirmation, as have read of a man who was very rich, but he was very miserly."
Persian
also,
In
this
error occurs
^Xxi.
Uf
Jj+i*
^ cLiu mard-i ra shunidam

(m.c. or vulg.). In modern
^^
tf (*>*
irt^/*
ki khayli
mutamavvil
ammd u
is
khayli bakhtt bud
Persian,
the principal subject
sometimes erroneously
:
treated as the object of the verb in the relative clause, as
vJ* JtVl
42
** L^^/
&
tjz
.sijbj
mard-i ra ki imruz chub zadand duzd bud, vide

(g)
(e),
137
and
119
footnote.
:
are further instances of errors in the use of the relative " All these and every princes are tributary to the Chinese Emperor second year repair to Pekin, whither they carry as tribute, furs and gold-
The following
dust which their subjects collect from the sands of their rivers x;^ J !
' '
L/' o- ^**
1
8 hama-yi In umard muti'-i Khaqan-i Ghin-and, va har yak sal dar miydn 4 bi-Pikin mi-ravand, va bardy-i khardj bi-hamrdh-i khud Tchaz va rizaha-yi tild mi-barand ki ra dyd-yi ishdn az righd-yi rud-khdna-hd-yi khud-i shdn jam
1
mi-kunand
'gold dust' is the furs cannot Persian antecedent of which both in the English and in the whither they be gathered from the sands of rivers. Correct as follows
(m.c.).
'
In this sentence 'furs

'
,
'
as well as
'
<.$* carry as tribute furs, and the gold-dust that' U bd mi-barand bi-hamrdh-i khud khuz riza-ha-yi IAJJJ
tild-i
ki.
"
Solomon, the son of David who slew Goliath."

of logical subject, vide
" Solomon, the son of David,
who
built the temple."

2
S
For confusion
" Errors
in Rhetoric."
Classically the
Emperor
of
China
is
but in m.c. kasa-yi faghfur styled Faghfur,

ives collectively; the plural, however,^ g
means " a bowl of the best china." * The singular *)j; rlza could be used
idea of different collections.
490
'*
ADJECTIVES.
Luckily the monks had recently given away a couple of dogs, which " were returned to them, or the breed would have been lost
\\
(JLJ
^j; &J)j
c;
1
iXu*
%&'&
^*J ^lijU
'
M &>^
JJÂiu j^*^
>-& *
^j*
** bi-husn-i ittifdg ruhban

ki bi-ishdn pets
chand-i qabl yak juft
sagbi-kas-i bakhshida
mi-raft.
budand
ddda shud varna in nasl az miydn
Here
the principal assertion is incorrectly placed in the relative clause. Corrected Luckily a couple of dogs which the monks had recently given
'
:
bi-kas-i
away, were returned to them, etc.' bi-husn-i bakhshida budand pas ddda shud ."
ittifdq
yak
juft saq ki
ruhban
CHAPTER
121.
(a)
XV.
Adjectives.
Diminution of quality cannot as in English be expressed by preand least to the adjective. Resort must be made to paraphrase, " as: j>jli oJjajl jiy p> )\ u kamtar az u dawlat ddrad (m.c.) " he is less rich " he is less cu~t df^d 3' j*+? J^kl*^ shujd'at-ash kamtar az digardn ast (m.c.) brave than the others." " few " or " little " (b) In English the indefinite article before changes the meaning from negative to positive, as: "there were few persons " there were a few " needs little and
fixing less
:
present," *' he needs a
persons present
"he
aid,"
little
aid."
first
The
distinction in Persian can be preserved
translating the
two
kumak dddan bi-u kamtar Idzim ast, and ^^ yak kam-i kumak mi-khwahad. The negative use of kam and kamtar is also illustrated by the following examples: t^v-^x ^l> &S p$ kam kun tama'-i jahdn ki bdshi khursand (Omar-i Khayyam) " crave not of worldly sweets to take your fill," (Whinfield Trans.): o^^^ ^^J ^ AJl*)^^ ** *> of an bih ki dar in zamdna kam 3 gin dust "choose not your friends from this rude multitude,"
lûf dnjd kam-i bu-dand\ chand the second two by -** and dnjd nafar budand;
sentences by A^JJ
by
^^
^^
*.i>
(0.
K. Rub. 77 Whin.).
Compare the m.c. phrases ^j** l; 31 (&#$> j**& j\ u bi-kam-tar chiz-i az rah mi-ravad " he goes wrong for the least thing * " ^jl^f Ij jK ^jl in kar rd kamtar bi-kun (m.c.) " don't act like this," and o& \^y^j^ kamtar fazuU bi;
2
*
In m.c. often incorrectly used as a singular: In m.c. cuft^ juft is often slovenly used
'
pi. of
Â^
rahtb.
like
the English
word
'
'
couple
for
two
3
properly signifies a pair, male and female. Kam here means "not" as may be seen from the whole context,
;
it
it
does not
mean
*
'*
less."
Note the use

jjjj
means
of the comparative for the superlative
and
vide
(e).
Vulg. this also
*!}
)] j*+> gfyj j\
u bi-hlch chiz az rah nami-ravad.
ADJECTIVES.
491
kun " talk less rot, don't talk rot," (more cutting than the direct ô (Jj^* fazull ma-kun "don't meddle, etc."): o^'lj j>+ &j> .-Jib <*Jiyia* chanddn ki talab kard kamtar ydft (class.) "the more he searched the less he found."
1
Andak
(c)
also gives the idea of negation, vide
71
(?').
In English, adjectives implying unity or plurality agree with their nouns in number, as " that sort of person," " those sorts of persons." *
:
In Persian, these expressions are correctly rendered by

in jur
ftf )y+
e^?
1
&i)
ddam and
l^.*if
;^ ^t
in jur dddmha,
or better /*i/
)^
:
in jur-
mdrdum.
In comparisons, the noun in Persian should be repeated, as <^* y *i^V .y ^*f jt asp-i man az asp-i tu bihtar ast "my horse is better than yours." Colloquially it is sometimes omitted if no ambiguity arise from the
(d)
t
siM
omission, as: v^î yL&xJ
ji
^/o
Jf
"I am
umr-i
man
az
shumd
bishtar ast (m.c.y

first
older than
you."
the word asp
" horse" and "thou." example the comparison might lie between In the m.c. phrase 0^1 ^f 3^> î In baz-i an ast, the word baz
a corruption of jt AJ bih even educated people.
az.
yt
were omitted in the
Baz-i an ast
is,
is merely however, used in speaking by
comparative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison should never include the former. Thus it is correct to say " Iron is more useful than all the other metals ou~fy ^jJu>^,> c^Ki> *+a>)i
the
:
When
' '
^f
dhan az hama-yi filizzdt<-i diyar mufid-tar an uncommon mistake in English and
ast.
But
it is
incorrect,
in Persian, to
say"
filizzdt
though not than all the

mufid-tar ast
metals" o*t
(m.c.).
y cjJU
ej>l>
&*.* )}
^f
dhan az hama-yi
" improper to say Solomon was wiser than any king" y>> y c;UxL was ijyGt^ ^l^^b Sulaymdn azhar pddishdh-i ddnd-tar bud, because Solomon is form a king and he could not be wiser than himself. The correct " 3 **^"Solomon was wiser than any other king y Ufa ^,3 cjl* ^ <** 3' o
It
is
Sulaymdn az hama-yi pddishdhdn-i-digar When the superlative (e) The opposite is the case with superlatives. the degree is employed the latter term of comparison should not exclude " The former. Thus it is incorrect both in English and Persian to say
.
:
elephant
is
the largest of
all
other* animals
Modern olj
glr-ash
tj>
~+& y**xj
"
is
;<
iJ
Â
har qadr bishtar tfOab kard kamtar yaft
(or
*
amad
(m.c.).
'*
Those sorb
of persons
common
of
English vulgarism.
Or "Solomon was the wisest
the
kings"
f li
Sulayman daria-tarln-i padishahan bud; * But o~f oUl^j^ &+&
vide
/^
VyO^
(e).
buzurgtaraz hama-yi hayvanat-i digar
ast is correct
vide
(d).
492
fit
ADJECTIVES.
buzurg-tarm-i hama-yi hayvdnat-i digar ast
(m.c.).
The word " other,"

eîr>^J
digar, should be erased.
"
The
vice of covetousness of
^j,c
all
others
is
the
worst"
^-=^
^*
%+*> jl
ayb-i
Mrs
bad-tarin-i 'uyub-i digar ast (m.c.) [but

is
' '
^j?
].
az hama-yi 'uyub-i digar bad-tar ast

is
correct (m.c.)
Covet-
ousness hirs
ness
is
not one of the other vices.
Say
of all the vices
covetous-
the worst" ^*w

l
v^
%+* t*[/
^^ v^
'ayb-i hirs bad -tarin-i
hama-
yi 'uyub
(/)
ast.
Though grammatically speaking the superlative is followed by the (Sa'dl) "the best of plural, as: <*&f ^11^ ^^j bihin-i darvishan an ki darvishes is he who," still it may sometimes qualify a noun in the ordinary i^trV $ u bihtarm manner, as erirH? 1*5*7*^ & mard-i bihtarm (m.c.) or cu*l
:
mard
ast (m.c.).
If,
however, the superlative

the izafat, as:
is
Persians insert
best (luckiest) of time," or
^9j &ltf
Arabic and precedes the noun, some " ^^j ***( ;> dar as'ad-i zaman-i in the " in a time the dar bihtarm
;*
vaqt-l
most fortunate."
(g)
"This pen
az
hama
qalamhd
is the best of all" o**l **AJ| ^15 ^' * w qalam bihtar ast (m.c.), or cu^l _yy 1^15 &*jt tn gaZam az hama-yi ^X5 ^t bihtar ast (m.c.) ; the former is the more emphatic and simpler
y^
expression
both are in
common
:
use.
Double comparatives and superlatives are occasionally used in Persian even good writers, as y J^'l afzal-tar j* *-*~J\ ansab-tar ^ê &** by p\*\ a' alam-tarin-i hama-yi mardum (m.c.) "the wisest of all."
;
;
^^
(h]
Some
adjectives such as
strictly
^^^>
sahih ''correct"
of
,
J-^
Tcamil
"per-
fect,
complete,"
speaking do not admit
comparison, either in
English or in Persian.
pur orjl*x: mamluv "full" Û^ khdli or tuhi "empty"; rast o>[; "true"; i^ durugh "false"; ojlfi nihdyat " extreme " or cut; rast " straight." (subs.) ÂaJLô mustaqim "More complete" is, however, in common use in English and " most
:
Other examples are
-^
complete"
is
not
uncommon
in old ballads.
&?j-&*^ kamil-tarin, and the expression " this tar ast is much more correct," is
owt
y1^1^ kamil-tar and y 4^^^ ^^ ^ m l^hayll sahih*

Sa'dl uses
in
common
modern
Persian.
" The words 5^/0 murabba', AT., and ** square," char-gusha, Pers. have no degrees of comparison. However ^S gird or ** mudavvar "round" has in Persian a comparative and superlative.
"Zayd
of
all
others was
the most culpable"

*
muqassir-tarin-i hama-yi digar bud (m.c.): say

tar az
j
<UA ty j^^ K) Zayd Zayd was culpable above all others"

(m.c.).
j&
\^
iama muqassirbud
ADJECTIVES.
(")
493
When
a numeral and a qualifying epithet both refer to the same

: l
noun, the order in Persian is (1) numeral, (2) noun, (3) adjective, as U oUJ&y j& du navishtajdt-i dkhinn-i shuma "your two last letters ^jJikl*- J^l JL jji ;a dar dah sdl-i avval-i saltanat-ash "in the first ten & " du ism-i avvali ra qalam bi-zan ^ <^l ^\ years of his reign " strike out the first two names." (m.c.)
^^T
' '
^^
A
of
similar rule holds good with superlatives, as:

(tfj>+^ *j* 3*
Kerman" cA^y
Lc\
du mard-i
dlim-tarin-i
"the two wisest men Kirmdn (or better
jz du a'lam^l-'uldmd-i Kirmdn).
Remark.
fours and
(<jr!y
It,
it is
however, the articles specified are arranged by threes or decided to specify the first three or the second four
'
'
'
^
(j)
*"* si ta-yi
awali and
^^
^G
chahdr td-yi duvvuml)
it is
in
English preferable to put the adjective
first.
To avoid
repetition,
is
inconsistent qualities are sometimes

2 number, but
joined
to the
same noun, which

;
in English in the plural
in Persian
the
singular
thus,
for
"
oU*
j 'alam-i haydt va
mamdt
things animate and inanimate," oL^ ^JU is better than c,U* j cuUa. ^Jb dlam-i
Û
3 (This is really haydt va dlam-i mamdt, but the latter is more emphatic. " naw va rd kuhna o&a* oUa+)| biydr Jv \j a^jy ^(S signifies Qdll-yi bring
:
the
new
qdlihd-yi
and the old (one) carpets"; but jU? (; &'\^ j y cfl^jJ^ naw va kuhna rd biydr signifies bring more than one of each [vide
(one)
(r).]
i,
also
119
it is
of the adjective, Remark. not clear to what two objects "Between" refers: " Between such a such a before who can steer clear ? (repeat Scylla and Charybdis
' ' '
In the following, owing to the non-repetition
'
*> (Ôtr^J *J^J>jy eH^^- ^- j az miydn-i chunin Charbydis '), &)&& ^j*x rud-khdna va lajun-zdr-i ki mi-tavdnad bi-guzarad. [Say î^- j chunin rud-khdna va chunin lajun-zdr-i, etc.]
'
(k)
In " a well-dressed
zan-i khush libds, or
^W ^^
man and woman" oU) u*^d[3J *->* mard u &)j y* mard u zan-l khush libas-i, the adjective
" a well-dressed
libds-i
both in English and Persian qualifies two nouns. But in man and a woman" j<j*^ <Â c?*/ mard-i khush
va zan-t 9
du navishta-yi
3
Ar. br. plurals are often treated as singulars. It would, however, be better to say In modern Pers. akhirl preferred to alchirln. akhiri-yi shuma.
The Old and the New Testaments &** J *** *t* ^hd-i jadld va 'atiq. The Persians have a great dislike to the close repetition of the same word an ambiguity they delight in ambiguity and study sound rather than sense, therefore,
;
that in English would be a fault,
is in
Persian often a beauty.
494
or
ur>3 ^
ADJECTIVES.
u*^
<J*^- <**ty wwrd-i khush libds bd zan-i, the attribute
is
restricted
to one substantive.
men and boys" is ambiguous, for it may mean (1) twenty men and twenty boys, or (2) men and boys, in all " or (3} twenty men with some boys." twenty," In Persian, however, *J j ty*j& ^~~# bist nafar mard u bachcha could have the signification of No. (2) only. No. (1) would be expressed by j& ^~~*?
In English the expression "twenty
*j*
bist bist
cu~ jo
(I)
nafar
nafar mard va bist nafar pisar, and No. mard bd chand pisar.
sets of adjectives,
(3)
by
When
in English
two adjectives, or
connected by
'and,' qualify the same noun in the singular, it is better, if two nouns are intended, to repeat the noun after each adjective or set of adjectives,
-& &* man yak "I ate a small addle egg" jo;>^ <Jd thus: /* -& or *-&*jf zj* tukhm-i murgh-i kuchak-i laq-i khurdam (m.c.) p**3 but kuchak va a^ tukhm-i khurdam man murgh-i lag y C*D*- (^ J
^^
,
f^
if
two eggs were intended,
one
fresh
and the
other
addle,
it
;
would
be better in English to repeat the noun in order to avoid ambiguity and in " I ate a Persian the article, if not the substantives, must be repeated, as " Jo fresh egg and an addled egg (i.e. two eggs) jJ ^Cjj $1 yc va tdza man yak tukhm-i murgji-i s.*-! yak-i laq khurdam: JM I; j
:
^^
pJ
asp-i
e<
'Arabi-yi kahar rd biydr can
horse ";
but ;l# hjf J
^j*
" only mean bring the bay Arab v ^* asp-i 'Arabi vd kahar rd biydr would mean
8
'
^^
bring the Arab and the bay (two) horses."

JaJUx> jiÛ
o^lj
rdhat-i pdyddr-i mustagill "real
and everlasting happi-
ness"
In
is
preferable to
JÎ~*j
y^
^^1;
rdhat-i
pdyddr mustaqill, though
both are correct.

.^x+i cA~ ) AJIJLo^d ^ AJâjjJ O^SLX. mahabbat-i barddardna va dustdna i: the affection of brothers and the affection of friends nami-shavad) (yaksdn the the not conjunction indicates that there is an ellipsis of same)," (is mahabbat after it. If two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, they
(
should be coupled to each other by an izdfat; as in the above example, " asp-i 'Arabi-yi kahar rd biydr bring the bay Arab horse."
(m) Sometimes one or
more substantives with a preposition take the
^^-^ cujl )* aJ^ :>;yf ^^^ >~j* )\ I; c^l JUa. j yak-i rd az muluk-i 'Arab kanizak-i chini dvarda budan dar ghayat-i husn u jamdl (Sa'di) " a Chinese slave- girl, possessed of great beauty, was
place of
:
an adjective, as
^^
:
^*
brought and given to an Arab king."

(n)
Some
adjectives are followed
by the
genitive, as
o^jebUI
qdbil~i
"capable of cultivation (of land)"; _*>*aj ^J &_, khasta-yi tir-i " " wounded taqdir (class.) by the arrows of fate jfi &*>** mutavajjih-i
zird'at
;
It
is
much
better to connect these adjectives by
the izafat and not
by the
copula.
ADVERBS.
;
495
" " shdhr "going towards the city wounded by him" ^ j^*> majruh-i u J*c J(x^ muhdl-i 'aql; khwdhdn-i" desirous haris-i" covetous
j,!
;
of"
of";
tdlib-i" desirer
of."
and Arabic
1
It will be noticed that these adjectives are chiefly Persian
participles, active
and
passive.
122 Adverbs.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The following quotation from the Gulistan, therefore, contains a grammatical error it is
(a)
;
probably a misreading
>
^^
(Sa'di).
aaj
Bi-chashm-i khwish didam dar biydbdn Ki-mard-i dhista * bi-guzasht az shitdbdn
Compare the English errors "thine often infirmities"; "the then " " the seldom use of it." Prime Minister
;
(6)
An
In Persian, all adjectives can be used as adverbs * adverb qualifying an attribute to a noun is ordinarily placed between
:
the noun and

'ajib-i'st (m.c.)
its
attribute,
is
as
ju^l
c^*^*
^*^ j**
e^l in amr-i Ichayli
a very strange matter" or *-*&?& ^L. ow*j^c| ^jf " in amr-Vst In m.c., however, the adverb is often misplaced Tchayli ajib. and this causes ambiguity, as the before noun, *# ^)j* î-^ lif " there was a dnjd khayli kashti-yi buzurg bud (m.c.) very large ship there " (vulg.)" but correctly =" there were many large ships there î^ '^f
"this
(
^^
:
cAv? c?^ dnjd kashti-yi Tchayli buzurg-i bud is clear. (Phrases, etc. signifyIn <Wf ^jiîa. ing state or condition are termed hal JLa.. Zayd Ichanddn
dmad, the word ct^^ Ichanddn is termed JU. kdl and <x>j Zayd, zu'l-hdl). that adverbs and adverbial (c) As in English, care should be taken
adjectives are so placed that they affect what they are intended to affect. This rule is oftenest violated in the use of " only," "not only," " not
<f more," "both" and not." " In the sentence these books
will
grown-up
persons also
"
not merely interest children, but

^}
l
Jw
!;
&
(&j* *&>
*^
x>
)js~~*
t>
In Urdu also, such adjectives are often followed by the g-nitive, inflected or
uninflected.
* 8
The
Another and better reading is U ahista sabaq burd az. is used figure of syntax by which one part of speech
Also occasionally in English as
for another is called
Enallage.
high." In difficult cases to decide whether an adverb or an adjective is required in English, the rule is to consider whether is proper, if the latter quality or manner has to be expressed if the former an adjective " *' stand firm " " maintain ; an adverb. Ex. " I sat silent " ; " I sat silently musing
*
"he
flies
your cause firmly."
496
ADVERBS.
na
'
masrur mi-sdzad balki mardum-i bdliph ra niz (m.c.), no obscurity either in the English or the Persian, the collocathe words not merely,' do not refer to the verb tion is faulty in both " these books will interest but to children.' interest not Reconstructed,
faqat In kitdbhd atfdl rd
is
though there
'
'
'
merely children but grown-up persons

I)
^J
j*^
ndz
!
in kitdbhd
(m.c.).
na faqat
^/C^ÂJ }^ jUUs| kft* l^li? rd masrur mi-sdzad balki mardum-i atfdl
"
*<Jb ^jU.
biligh ra
In " 'Umar was not only the destroyer of the Persian nation, but of its " &&, ty &\jj\ oJLo x^r ^1U kv &J^+c ejbj \*& v fyL language and religion haldk na Umar _>^ o ^l;Jt faqat kunanda-yi millat-i Iran bud balki
l
v*^
khardb kunanda-yi zabdn va mazhab-i Irdniydn 2 mz, the English can be ' corrected by merely transposing the words not only and placing them ' the destroyer the Persian sentence however must be recast after j+c
'
'
'
'
j ^bj ^j &j& cJ'^, Jaw \j\ji\ ^*kc 'Umar millat-i Iran rd i^ na-kard balki zabdn va mazhab rd nlz az miydn burd (m.c.). haldk faqat " i " Because the parrot used to say this phrase only to all comers \^
&ji
Ûxj^tjjo
k_AA&/o
^. ) cuiô \j &ti <j j#\. rd tanhd didam would accordHusayn j*<3^^ (^ " " or " I I either intonation to the saw (I alone) signify only ing Husayn " but {*** |; e^-^ (^ kii faqat (or l^ tanhd) man Hiisayn saw Husayn only rd didam, and f&t> 1^3 \y (^-^^.xs man Husayn rd tanhd (not faqat) didam, or
)
0^x3
ijS j$
t;
^w
*** t5-M>
[better
8
^^
In m.c.
(^-^
;
t^3 ^.ô
man
(j-j^ f*.j>
\j
ti^ju-^
i^
man Husayn
rd didam va bas
(m.c.) could
each of them
have but one meaning.
The
following, in the absence of
commas,
is
not at
first
sight clear
(Trans. H.B., Chap.
XX)
ay
o;y
<J&(
&J
" the lower part of his dress was particularly improper" should be inserted after the na, which has to be read in connection with the
o;^yL*
*Z UJ^jj
^"^ ^ u^ u;i>U A comma (H.B.).
words preceding
Remark. " of
it.
Another blunder in the syntax
of adverbs, is the misplace-
" Compare, It is true I boarded in the house of Mr. Cherry the headmaster, but I scarcely ever saw him out of school, and I never remember to have heard his voice except
ment
ever, never, scarcely ever, etc."
Hodgson.
when
in anger,"
A*'
f;jT
^b
<3,xx
W-ÔP
ojijj..a.t ;
tjb.\&*
o^ ^ Ûu man
g** j f<^^ **;**> Jf ^jli. \^\ I5j<sj nudratan urd khdrij az madrasa didam
va hich vaqt bi-khdtir nami dvaram ki sadd-yash rd juz vaqt-i ghazab shunida
When "
not only " precedes

(Abbott).
'*
but also," see that each
is
followed by the
sama
part of speech
*
8
In slovenly modern Persian, cJÎ lahan might be substituted for u^l^l Iraniyan. The Afghans would probably say lfi> &*> man-i tanha, if lî* tanha referred to the
classical
pronoun. * This
idiom
is
common
in
Afghan
colloquial.
CONJUNCTIONS.
baskam.
'
497
:
In the English read I do not remember ever,' and delete when' in the Persian, insert the words oJj hick vaql after *$ ki vide also 123 g+*
;
(b) (5)
(d)
Remark.
Adverbs are occasionally substituted for nouns, both
'
:
in English
and
15
Persian, as
Till
now
'
ta al-dn hich
(e)
maliyyat
they have paid no taxes na-ddda and.

'
"
M\ i&\i
olJU
_** ^5l
One adverb
is
in English
spake and acted

kdr kard (m.c.) In one. ;K
wisely,"" but
serve for two or more verbs, as &&*(* j u 'aqilana *jf >K j *) <J>j*>
may
"
:
He
harf zad va
ambiguous, as the adverb may qualify both verbs or only A * Xllc y u 'dqildna ham >j <J^ f harf zad va ham kar kard,
;
the adverb qualifies both verbs and in cwj *-/*4 *jffy eJ'jt ***j &j* ;^ djXslc y u 'dqildna kar kard va ba'd az an bind kard bi-harf zadan, the adverb qualifies
the
first
is
verb only
also
if
;(
kard
ambiguous, but zad there can be no ambiguity. harf

(/)
^ o^ aJiUU u in $ o/a- aiiUb^

_.(
aqildna harf zad va kar
ham
^ jK y u
kdr kard va 'dqildna
negatives in the same clause are generally equivalent to an and can be elegantly employed to express a positive assertion affirmative, The captain was not unacquainted with the port " ^*i ^JL L>;^ jf |>Û as
, c *
:
Two
nd-khudd az bandar nd-balad na-bud (m.c.). (g) An adverb qualifying an Infinitive used as a verbal noun, may be A*>^ ^li.U j| az bdkhtan-i joined to it by the izdfat, as: x UjÛfy
^^
du,
daf'a khayli awqdt-ash talkh

(h)
An
shud " he was put out at losing two games." adverb qualifying an Infinitive may sometimes be regarded as
:
part of the verb and be preceded by a preposition, as ^*& **K (&\ &*>&*) &)& 8 rasdmdan-i mkdghaz kutdh-i ma-kun (m.c.) "don't be careless e^xj dar zud
in delivering this letter."
Subjunctive following a verb of prohibition requires a negative * " I forin Persi an as ^y laajf a*' p&jf ô man' kardam ki dnjd nd-ravad b urd az raftan bi-dnjd man> bade him to go there = lap-ilj )\ $ \) ji
(i)
, :
' '
j*j>y
^;
kardam.
123.
Conjunctions.
as
(a) In English, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated* " but and if that evil servant say in his heart, etc. Matt, xxxiv. 48.
Also in English "
till
then " (Pers. o^jJj V ta an

:
vaqt).
is
Maliyyat e>UfU prop, "revenue" donkeys and sheep paid by wanderers;

1
3
(jr/* JjJ pul-i sari
a poll tax on men,
)\+
j* sar-shumar a tax on villagers.
*
5
Or j*&jj But &Jj*
zud-tar.
IsoT^J^ guftam anja
bi-ravad
**
commanded him
to
go there."
In m.c. of ten (but incorrectly) M**U jj*j raftan-i bi-anja.
32
I
498
In Persian, however,
l*>lj
CONJUNCTIONS.
j vagar,
&& 3 vallkan
',
U>(j
va
ammd,
)
va yd,
are com fa-ammd (in writing for U| ammd "but" j va chun, monly used by even good writers. conjunctions are composed of two corresponding words. (b) Some
Examples
(1)
of corresponding conjunctions:
Both
and:
va
"
He
both laughed and cried
"
iJL
^^
&j>
<*iA
^>^\
clear
ham khanda kard

(2) Jilj j
1
ham
girya.
yet, still, nevertheless:
"
Though, although
*
Though deep yet

still
"
(J) eu-voi^ *^/t agarchi
gawd
ast vail bdz zuldl ast.

it is
"Though
jb
a thousand rivers flow in the sea,

&j
never full"
rud-khdna
(jj&
Ji-ti
AiU^jy
A ;i>
*^/t agarchi hazdr
ddkhil-i daryd ml-shavad bdz
pur naml-gardad.
Remark.
may, when
prefixed to nouns or pronouns are prepositions, " " Before as my illness joining sentences, become conjunctions,
Words that
Gj!
JJL.AJ
aCif Jt (_iJ
"before I was* pish az nd-khushl-yi man (m.c.) bi-shavam* an ki mutavallid az (m.c.). pish
:
born"
Many
(3)
conjunctions are also adverbs. Whether or: "Whether they are killed or
aiiy ^x? jji^
oi>y& cjlki! (b) jjy^

(or yd)
Ishdn tafdvat
him, or I
"
ty&J
I, it matters naught" khwdh man kushta bi-shavam khwdh p&> na-ddrad: "it makes no difference whether they killed
f^
M^(J Alls'
^t
e)^
** j
&* *^
c^t
waw
va chi Ishdn urd
kushta bdshand farq na-ddrad. or: c> l ~Jf j( ^ 0^(6 (4) Either
insdn (m.c.)
"no fear had

nor:
he of
z f^j| jj^ !u na tarsaz Khudd ddshtna az either God or man": "either go or stay"
^jj*M y (5) Neither
bi-raw yd bi-mdn; vide
(5).
^^ na bi-ta'jll God nor man " <jjji=k*

"
Neither act nor promise hastily && <J+* JUsv^ *J 'amal bi-kun va na va'da (m.c.): "he feared neither
Jf
"
"
wj
(3^3' & o^l^
o^
*r^ ^* c ^ tor5 na-ddsht na az
khdliq va na az makhluq.
Remark.
'
neither
nor.'
Especial care must be bestowed upon 'either or* and These are correlatives either ' expecting 'or,' and neither
'
'
'
nor/ and they must occupy corresponding positions,

'
i.e.
'
either
'
must not
'
neither' a preposition, nor 'nor a proprecede a verb nor 'or' a noun, noun. Though there may be no ambiguity in such sentences, as I have not
'
heard either from John or Charles,' they produce the same ill-balanced effect as would a pair of awkwardly hung pictures." Hodgson.
i
8
Also pronounced lakln. Note that the Aorist and not the Preterite
It
is
used.
does not matter whether l*^>
Khuda
or
u^**""M
insan be put
first.
CONJUNCTIONS.
499
Compare:
without
"
" in these times one can neither speak of Church or State oaaa^ t*J|^/o oJjj> jf AJJ vsJUjt <_-*& tjUj (^t^ dar in zamdn
na
kas-l az millat va
English should should be oJjj
be"
jl
na az dawlat mi-tavanad suhbat bi-kunad (m.c.). The speak of neither Church nor State": the Persian c^JU *J^ y AJ na az millat va na az dawlat. Vide also
' '
Remark
' '
to
122
(c).
am
(
neither an ascetic in theory or practice
(it
*
should be
'
I
*
am
not
an ascetic either in theory or in practice'). (1) Ulc AJ man na amalan murtaz-am va na ilman and (2) J+e
l
,
*Ac )& &>
man
XM^
riyazat-kash nistam
.
.
na dar
^.j*
Carnal
*
na dar
an
*
'
Urn are both correct

(
but
(3)
(jctij*
UU
,'.*
U
;
&+c
man
..
amal
ya
ilm an
murtaz nistam
an though correct is not good (4) f (J&j* Ulc A} ^ $+c A) ^/c ma n na 'amal an murtaz-am va na 'ilm though correct is faulty in collocation, vide (1).
f
(c)
Some English
as,
:
conjunctions are used as connectives in correspondence

:
with adverbs or adjectives " He so As

(1)
is
as amiable as his
brother"
' e
c^t u misl-i baradar-ash mihrban ast, or cuof j*& y ow As he excels in virtue, aw gac^r-* A;i baradar-ash mihrban ast u ham ast (m.c.). " <xiCk/o so he rises in estimation ijAxxj ^y\ Jô]j^\ j ^Jy ouUi*^ Af ^joftil^ haman qadr-i ki dar fazilal taraqql mi-kunad bar ihtiram-ash afzuda mi-shavad. " as:'* No riches make one so happy as a clean conscience (2) So
j>jU
ra
J J^^ ^5^ masrur namt-sazad (m.c.).
^
(3)
jiy-^
fj
il~JI
tA^
*A
^* c ^ dawlat-1 misl-i pak-dill insan
"Speak
so
as to
be
understood"
c>^
^$fj
** (&* ^-i*t' ^j^- bi-tawr-l harf bi-zan ki
So
that (expressing
' '
understand him
IX>AXJ o^^. ^*ÂAW g*& harf mi-zanad ki hlch kas naml-fahmad.
^
?z
consequence)
&f
fahmlda " He
Ai-Af
bi-shavl.
speaks so low that none can
^^ j
^tir
tawr-i ahista
(4)
Not only
AxJb
but, but also:
"He
is
not only deaf but

/bar
(also)
;
blind"
better
*A )f
vjut
y
ta^
:
ka?
*j
<w jt
w na
/aâi[
asZ
6a^*
âm but
^ ;y *^y
(5)
Such as l
$\*.
j^xi
(^fe^J
j( faqat kar balki kur ham hast. '' There never was such a famine as the present famine JAX oJ^sÂ hich vaqt misl-i hdla qaht-i na-buda: "A man
na
'
'
such
as
such a thief as he
kas-l na-dida ast.
(6)
am" ^^f "

cu*t
that
(?*
*j<io
d^
misl-i
man
adam-l.
"There never was

va^< chunan
^S
' '
^'^ Ûa. oJj ÂA Mc^
duzd^
are
Such
"Such
is
the emptiness of
always impatient of the present
human enjoyment that we o&JU^ j* **+* ^> *$ cu*f >xs ^j
'
Such when qualifying a noun

Jlix5(
'
is
a demonstrative adjective, as
'such people':
amsal-i
of
shuma
ashWlfia (m.c.)
colloquial).
Note omission
t;
(modern
"people such as you." The ra should, however, be inserted.
500
lazzat-i
CONJUNCTIONS.
dunya an qadr bi-maza
dlgar hastim (m.c.). because of the preceding j^&T.) (7) More, sooner, etc. than:
hamisha dar khaydl-ilazzat-i (Here *sul>^ chunanchi could not be substituted for tf
ast ki
ma
"
" They have more than heart could wish
WjsJj y J^y j>^.j ;j> dar bihisht bish az dil-khwdh bi-insan mi" dihand (m.c.). " The Greeks were braver than the Persians yj>yd& ^G^j CJAI *><& cJtr!t cU' ohl-i Yundn dilir-tar az ahl-i Iran budand (m.c.).
^XA*^
^(~Jlj
(8)
Pas,
hama chashmhd
Al? *soUa. "
p. 99)
it
bar
man
3|j
dukhta,
tafsil-i
qaziyya rd chunanchi
i&*>
vdqi'
shuda na, balki chunanchi gufta shuda bud, guftam
f&&
^
(d)
<x
aL
sj
<><
*jlia.
\)
Ax*o5 Jâfiii
l^*^ *** \j^ &^j (Tr. H. B.,
Chap.
XXXII,
then, while
all
fixed their eyes

it
matter, not as
actually happened, but as

' '
One conjunction may serve for U JL\ agar ma biravim va ura bi-bmim *j [if] see him \^\ 3 pty Compare: "The Shah, the Prime Minister, the Foreign Minister and the War Minister were there <^^ tjf *Ji\^ j ^)^ )S^-}J (& )*"> *^ Shah, Sadr-i
go and
on me, I related the had been related." two or more verbs, as: "If we
} '
^
' '
A'azam, ships and men and money and stores

va sarbaz va pul va zaJchlra
p>.)\t>
Vazir-i Umur-i-Kharija va Vazir-i

^.j;!^
a Jang anja budand
'
.
We
ma
have
8^^
^ JyJ
jl>^ j
îîol/c
kashti
danm
kashti
(m.c.),
but better ^;b

sarbaz
3^-r* (*tj*
^^ ^
f&
sî
{*>)]&
J^j
ma
danm,
as
danm,
pul
darim, zakhira
ham darim
(e)
(m.c.).
The conjunction 8
U td " until,
long as,
as far
as" may give
to a little ambiguity as it may either be followed by the negative na, or not. Thus "stay till I return" can be rendered either by l*
rise
*X
if
it requires a negative does not require a negative. Td vaqt-l> ki &j&^ is not followed by a negative. In the English sentence " In England people do not 133 (a)], there is but one negative: marry till they can afford it" [vide
'
^ shuma sabr kuriid ta man bar gardam, or *f*Jr jl e^* ta bar na-gardam 5 shuma na-ravid. 6 If ta means until
'
by
'
^y
U-^
f$j&
y*.
^
;
as long as
'
it
in the Persian
dar *^) 13 Â ejlLj&i Inglistdn hlch kas ta vajh-i kifai na-ddshta bashad zan nami-girad (mod.) there are two; ta in this example means as long as (they have not got )
AiAfj-J
' '
^^^
^b
olK
Misrelated participle.
Necessary to insert the conjunctions, otherwise
*^l^ )j*\ j?j
j Vazir-i Umur-i
Kharija might be taken to be in apposition to

3
And
f^'
J**
Sadr-i A'azam.
Preposition.
used.
4
6
The present tense could not be
^"^ J^^
^**
(*^7^
' *
3
.
ta bar
na-gardam shuw.a sabr kunld though correct would

' '
not be used.
can be rendered by either stay in the verandah till I return jab lak main na a*un barande men baithe raho, or turn barande men baithe raho yahan
In Hindustani
tak ki
main a 9 un
vide Phillott's Hindustani
Manual, Lesson
38.
CONJUNCTIONS.
501
The usual construction with

the following examples & ^*
|^
:
U td
is
that both clauses should be affirma-
tive or both negative, but that this
is
not a necessity,
will
be seen from
*i~^ khasta shudand ta urd ddna sdkhtand = 13 \%\ urd ddna na-sdkhtand dram na-giri/tand = (> au^Xi ^tyf dram na-giriftand td urd ddna sdkhtand " they were wearied
td
by the time they made him wise."

p*)fso ji& nishast (usual) "till I say
c^~>
o^
j$j*
AJ
U $5 bi-sarkdr 'arz na-kunam na-lchwdham
say, I will not sit down." w4Ja*ijf U a tn, matlab rd bi-man na-guyid j>y p*\j> d+jjk\)] *j3>& (j4J \) " till you tell me about this I will continue to In tawr 'amal khwdham kard
my
act thus
(usual)
;
id
td man bar na-gardam bar man na-gardam mjd bash (less usual), or f^y â maw 65^ bar-gardam (usual) = lijf y /jU> ^13 tw^'a man na-ydyam az mjd na-ravl (or ma raw}.
:
"
f^&^ &*
Jt
^}
l:?tijf
3 az
1
mW
na-ravi
u*lj lJkJi
(.}*& td
In the following sentence from Sa'di
^xj>il andishtd ki agar bar mold uftad fitna &*j>^\ na-shavad (Sa'dl) the negative is in some editions omitted, but the sense " he feared that is slightly altered; with the negative the sentence signifies:
&\s
is!*!
&>
AS
if
without the the matter become public, I hope there won't be trouble "he matter that should the become it thought signifies: public, negative it may cause mischief."
; '
"
(/)
Seldom
if
ever' and
if
'
seldom or never.'
"He
agar
^.JJA
seldom
ever
ham bi-ydyad U ^f ô o^^xi
Jehayli
9
\
comes" may be rendered ^ *>!# p* ^\ Team (m.c.) and "he seldom or never comes" by
J^
I could help" (g) and similar expressions can be rendered in Persian by j-^fi p' ty &+* tl td mumkin bud kam dddam p$& ty &+* J+> *^* harchi kamtar mumkin bud bi-u dddam j-^f^y*^ ^LJty *Â harchi tavdnistam kamtar dddam. had (h) "I had no sooner addressed him than he knew me "or "I
;
u bi-nudrat mi-dyad yd hich!1 The universal English blunder " I gave no more than
scarcely addressed
hanuz
bi-u
harf
" him when he knew me 3 = o^lx na-zada budam ki mara shindkht

house when the roof fell"
tyo
&f
pt>+>
t&y ^j^-^3 jp**

.
(m.c.):
l^ftf
"I had
l
scarcely
set foot outside the
oj
*****
Note that the verb must be
Na-ravl ^j>y more polite than the imperative jj* ma-raw (or m.c. jj* no-raw). in the affirmative after e>;A\J bi-nudrat, and in the
negative after
^>A
hich.
Therefore in X{T
g**>
^.
O)^J )\
bi-nudrat
ya hich namiIn m.c.,
ayad
5
the
negative verb ought to be understood after

this latter sentence is used
o;^J
bi-nudrat.
however,
though
incorrect.
&*<*">
Hal-l ki
to
man
in sukhan bi-guftam
p*&
is
^1
^^= *>
^^ (GuKstan) "
as soon
spoke
him."
Hal-i ki A&Jla,
almost obsolete.
502
PREPOSITIONS.
bi-mahz-i in
ki pa birun guzdshtam saqf-i utaq pdyin +&\t& (or bi-mujarrad-i ). &}j L; 15 ta pa birun guzashtam The .() conjunctions *>f jf <j*J pasazan-ki, ora&i jl ^j ba d az dn-ki A~ sdbiq bar In ki, <*&ut jf JLxji qabl az mki, or ''after that "; *&^J " before that," are usually in Persian followed by A&jfjt pj S ^ as w&f. the Present Subjunctive, even when referring to past time. That this
amad
mki
or
û
Present Subjunctive 126 (c).
may
give rise to ambiguity
is
shown by the examples
in
modern Persians have an objection to the repetition of the (j) As same word in a sentence, &$ is often omitted where in classical Persian it would probably be inserted. Thus in, " He was such a fool that he
didn't
know
1
,
that the sky was
(is)
above his head
' '
(tS)
o~J(^x*J *'
(J+^f
;*&f
~^ J* cs^
sar-iu'st
writing.
c>U*f an qadr ahmaq bud ki nami-danist (ki) asman bala-yi the second ki would be omitted in speaking though inserted in
124.
(a)
Prepositions.
preposition in English can sometimes in Persian be expressed by the izafat, vide 121 (o), " Tempted by the Devil" u azmuda-yi Shaytan
bud = u az Shaytan azmuda shuda bud* (b) Preposition repeated and not repeated. " In such a In the
phrases a difficulty or in such a dilemma So too thing, the latter two.
3
English
difficulty or
:
dilemma " and
*'
in such
'
'
differ
Ij
^^^
the former signifies only one J^l e^^ ;^ dar chunm ishkal ya
L;
sakhtl-i
refers to
one thing only, but îiuw î^.;^
^^t
(1
î^j^ dar chunm
ishkal-iya dar chunm sakhti-i refers to two. It would, however, be better to express the first thought by ^xiiô îaj J^î <^xia.^,} dar chunm ishkal ya'nl
sakhli-i.
Though phrases
the preposition, as
*
;
:
like
'*
in joy or sorrow
" and
states
<(
in wealth or
poverty"
are quite clear as they stand, it keeps the
two
more
" in joy or in sorrow

in poverty
"
k
distinct to repeat
;^
"in wealth or gham Though this repetition

still
"
j& ^
pe ;> j &e
to
^3^
dar shddi va dar
dar ghana ya dar faqr.
of the preposition
is
be preferred in English,
in
and though the repetition in Persian keeps the two states more distinct,
the Persian ear
objects
to
repetition
(even
the
previous sen-
tences),
The the sake of emphasis " " I see no difference between the dwellers in cities or in phrase villages
except in
certain special
cases
for
It
would be unidiomatic to say bud instead of
aat.
Here ^j jf^x^f azmuda bud would not be correct as it might be mistaken transitive verb. In the first case B.iyjf azmuda is obviously a past participle.
'
for a
Note the
^ of unity
is
added to the second noun

is
only.
In m.c. /* ) (^$&
)b dar shadl va ijham
used.
PREPOSITIONS.
/ar^-t
503
jljj
md-bayn-i ahl-i shahr va dihdt

:
grammatically incorrect in English* andunidiomaticin Persian insert ahl-i before dihdt.

(m.c.), is
Note the ambiguity
in
td inki
bi-namakzdr-i bi-db va dbdddrii-yi 'Iraq
*J *&>! G rasidim f >***>) &\j* vf <y ;'j (Tr. H.B., Chap. V) "till we reached the uninhabited salt desert of Iraq" (insert bi before ^laljf dbdddm, otherwise the & bi of jl^-^ namak-zdr may be understood before it).
^l^j
'
-^
(c)
Besides,'
tumans a month"
'
" His pay including allowances is a hundred s mdh-i sad tumdn mavdjib-i u bi-inzimdm-i jira va aUq
'
including
mt-bdshad &&'*? u>U>i **

Inclusive of
'
ÂU JxU^
i^ |-U>^Jb y VÎÂJ (m.c.).

in, as
:
az signify e^' ^ *J^ f-la ^^ -^JL) C*;? (Bi-jvzjwtaa&)j& bi-ghayr xi<>f "exclusive of, except," ^| )] guzashta as In (m.c.) "leaving this
3
can also be expressed by 'aldva bar
yU
v,Uj^) Û>
^^
aside)."
(d)
The environment to which among

'
'
refers should
be plural, but the
environment to which 'amidst'

friends"
refers
may
be singular, as:
barf);
c>'i
x3
"Among
tl
his
snow " <J>jj Ûxs miydn~i barf (not 4^ (^.^ md-bayn-i darkness" o*.Lfe Ûxj miydn-i zulmat (orjji dar, or ^.fi
In
is
^^ md-bayn-i
if
(or
ô miydn-i)
c^lfi*;
rufaqdyash; "amidst the
amidst the
miydn-i tdnki}.
' '
Persian,
used though also applicable to plural

' '
'amidst' refers to singular environment c>U/o miydn only divide between two (>j*
' ' ;
^j fj^flii
among
(e)
" distribute &>>>(*> mdbayn-i du td) taqsim bikun miydn-i du td (or md thousands {J f i~& (Aj\y> Û/o miydn-i hazdrhd (or U;[>A
;
&
*
o^
^^
bayn-i hazdrhd) taqsim bi-kun*

'
Betwixt,' or
'
between
'
is
parties,
but
among' or 'amidst
'
used with reference to two things or two to a greater number.

'
following are examples of a misuse of the preposition between to a confusion of thought in none of them is it clear to what two owing between The English passages are from well-known authors refers. objects
:
The
*
'
'
and the Persian translations have passed muster with educated Persians. * "Between each plane tree 8 are planted box trees " )&* <jr t^;* ^X )^!
l
yak dar miydn-i daralchthd-yi chindr darakht-i shimshdd
oUj>
only.
(Ja
j va
ahl-i dihat.
Note that the plural termination

cities
is
added to the second
noun
*
8
Corrected " Between the dwellers in

Jlra, the bread ration or the
and the dwellers
in villages."
given in its stead to a private servant in camp, nominally a kran a day: lucky the servant that gets it. 'Attq, forage
money allowance
and kah (chopped straw). wa bayn, be noticed that though Ûxj miyan can take the place of the latter cannot always take the place of Ûx miyan the former refers to singular or
consisting of barley
* It will
(Û
plural environment
6
Taken from Hodgson's " Errors Insert " and the next."
the latter to plural only. in the use of English."
504
nishanda-and. 1
PREPOSITIONS.
"It was published

of publication
between each period

^
"
in successive parts, with long intervals <^^>j &*ti 3
^(^ j\+jy*. v llf ^f
ma bayn-i har &jijj*j* (^ " where between she bud: stitch could look juzv* every up and see what was î J &*. ÛU?^ <& y^j~* a*iu Â ^jL* vs**Jfjju* Uof j going on in the street
In kitdb juzv juzv chap shud va fdsila-yi ziydd-i
' '
^y
va dnjd mi-tavdnist md-bayn-i har bakhiya sar bald Jcunad va tamdshd-yi tu-yi kucha bi-kunad (m.c.) " between the junction of the Tigris and the Euphra:
a considerable space is left dry ">lj j>^?3 J ^jPj *Jô JtAJ! Jls<.x> ^*jU o*f * md bayn-i mahall-i ittisal-i Dajla 3 va Furdt khushki-yi ziydd-ivdqi,
tes
^"^
shuda
ast.
*
Vide also last example
121
(*').
f^*
(/)
With,'
UTJlr^
81^ liamrdh
A cj^ *L>-*
or b 6a, originally signified
'
association with
'
:
^^
(i.e.
'
ma n
"I was up
at
with) cock crow."
hamrdh-i bdng-i khurus bar-khdstam (m.c.) " "I b fought with him j|
'
ia u jang kardam
may
on
be used either in a hostile sense for

his side
'
:
^ J~
in a friendly sense
p&)
l;j}
vîi3 b
against him,' or bd tufang urd zadam "I shot
him."
'With'
' '
(b bd),
sometimes
is
'
signifies
in spite
of
ÛU
'
with
all his
wealth he
an unhappy
man
"
0*0!
notwithstanding, as I bd Jiamajlj ji^J %+*

:
yi pul-ash bdz ndshdd ast (m.c.).

'
(g)
On sometimes
'
signifies
I left
him
'
'
fi>;
(J>
tf,
)}
o^^
" on his immediately after, as saying this, In az nazdash e^ e^^ bi-guftan-i harf raftam
:
(m.c.).
Remark.
practically so
:
Td
in
" as
soon as,"
î>;
uty Jt
(*^
i;
not strictly an equivalent though O;^. ^j) 13 ta in harf rd guftam az nazdash

is
raftam (m.c.) "as soon as I said this, I that the two actions were simultaneous.
(h)
left
him ":
0'
td
properly signifies
Az
)\
'from'
?
signifies portion, as:
dukhtar chi dan

of sons
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
" what sons and daughters have you (what have you
^***'j*>*j j~$y
az pisar va
and daughters ? " ): ^f^ a^. ^y* J^ jl az mal-i savdrl chi ddn ? " what riding animals (horses, mules, or donkeys, not camels) have
The
dictionaries are seldom to be relied

Is
on
for accurate information
on botany
and
zoology.
*
&+
shimshad the box tree
colloquial but incorrect: also ^>^ J* JA (i>#^ m bayn-i har dujusvvfould " between both the signify parts" and would, therefore, mean that no more than two parts were published. Write ma-baynri juzvha.
Modern
Also Dijla.
'
"Between
the Tigris and Euphrates at their junction
"
*\.^&
^#^
r'
^l/ J
bayn-i Dijla va Furat qarlh-i mdfyall-i.
* Ouliila iu-yi sar-ash
zadam
X>iJ <jk;<**
^^
tJjtf
"I
shot
him
in the
head," but
i^P
butt of the
t-Â^ tufang iu-yi sar-ash zadam
"I
struck
him on
the head with the
rifle."
USE OF THE TENSES.
505
you
*i j! ;tkju JayJar az ancfo' c?ar jt fTu <^^ ^bb ;U. p&*. chashm-i char-payan kardi bi-chashm-i u kashid "the farrier dropped into his eyes some of the medicine he was accustomed to use for animals."
:
^x
"
'Toward* or 'towards' may be used for both place and time, as were We travelling towards Tehran" pi$fy*^&* &[?& J>A? U ma bi-iaraf-i Tahran safar mi-kardim (m.c.) "towards morning" o,.b taraf-i
(i)
:
subh (m.c.).
_
AORIST.
is
ê
CHAPTER
125.
XVI.
Use of the Tenses.
The use of the tenses in classical Persian differs somewhat from that of modern Persian. The Aorist is used both in the Indicative and Subjunctive moods and
expresses indefinite time. (a) The Aorist in Classical Persian
(1)
used
With or without the prefix & as a Present Indefinite. Examples oJb (& AiAA c/f )& pA jX* 6ijj$ guyand malik, ham* dar an hafta shifa yaft
1
:
(Sa'di)
"
they say
the king recovered that very week."
Sayyad na har bar
shikar-1 bi-barad
Uftad ki yak-1 ruz palang-ash bi-darad (Sa'di)
Not every day does the sportsman kill his game; It may happen 8 (or it happens) that one day the leopard rends him."
Vaqt-i zarurat chu
na-manad guriz
Dast bi-girad
*'In necessity,
sar-i sliamsTur-i tiz (Sa'di)
when flight is impossible, hand The perforce lays hold of the sword."
Ouft tarsam ki bind shavad ^ft Uy tf ' " lest he (should) recover his sight fi|*i
:
^ ^
oi^
l;jf
(Sa'dl)
&*
"he said, I fear ura na-danam * man guft

'
(Sa'dl)
" he said,
is
'
I don't
know
him.'
'
(2) It
sometimes, with or without
*J,
used as an Indefinite Future

ty
^
'
ya'ni turd
Pres. Indef.
"
they say
"
:
Pros. Def. " they are saying."
As the sentence stands ham could refer either to malik or to dar ay, hafta. In In &&& Û* j* dar haman hafta speaking, the accent would show to which it belonged.
2
there can be no ambiguity.

3
*
The Aorists
be
')
of Îi5t uftadan
and ^ty budan

*
(uftad
and bashad
it
may happen ',
it
may
*
are used as adverbs in the sense of
perhaps.'
;
In modern Persian
naml-shinasam
i)*
daniatan could not be used.
506
USE OF THE TENSES.

ki
khwdhand pursid
"
that
will
is
'amal-at chist va na-guyand ki pidar-at kist

a
(Sa'dl)
you
Judgment day) what your deeds were, not be asked * who your father was
you
will
be asked
(at the
' '
Gul hamin panj ruz u shash bashad Vtn gulistan hamisha khush B bashad
(Sa'dl)
this
"The
of
rose
season
will
last
' '
:
but
-
mine will blossom always *l,*(j _^f ptf <yU Jkf cujU oJi? guft agar jarmafi man ura khdmush kunam. Padishah
1
few days, but oV* ^ U>f L>X

'
Gulistan 4
^^^
^^
guff
ghdyat-i lutf bashad (Sa'dl)
"he
said,
If
you order me,
I will silence
him.'
f*jj
halat
jîfAAfj
The king said, 'It will be a great kindness on your part'" oJ ^^ e>Jdia. A*U 1^0 t[s<> ^ cJU. î j.txot_,fi guft agar anjam-i in bar murad-i man bashad chandm diram zahidan ra bi-diham b (Sa'di)
"he
said, If the business terminates as I wish it to, I will give so

6
many
dirams to the ascetics."
^jj jt
Ay
bas ki na-bashim u jahan khwahad bud

9
Nay nam z ma u nay nishan khwahad bud Az pish na-budim u nabud hich khalal Az in pas na-bdshim va haman khwahad bud
The word
will last long after
Khayyam's fame
:
Has passed away, yea, and his very name: Aforetime we were not, and none did heed When we are dead and gone, 'twill be the same." (0. K. 150 Whin.).
Guyand mard ki, U khud na-dihad
'
Izad-at tawba dihdd!
var bi-dihad
man na-kunam
'
!
"They say, May Allah grant thee penitence He grants it not, and did he, I'd rebel."
(0.
(3) It is
leas
K. 329 Whin.).
used as a Pres. Subj., or Conditional: ^jf l^ A^ AiiyLi " na-tavdnad ki bi-ja dvarad (Sa'dl) 7 "none is able to perform it.
In modern Persian t>*-oj îAt^.^3
\\
az tu
khwahand
pursid.
Note the regular Future and the Aorist in the same sentence, apparently with precisely the same meaning. 8 Khash old for Js&ush. * Gulistan of course means Rose Garden.' 5 Mod. Pers. ml-diham. ^f^ /*A^-^- fehwaham dad, or *>
2
'
6
T
Zahid
tiAjj
a religious person
who has renounced
the good things of the world.

in
The Subjunctive after ^Luujjy tavanistan, though the ordinary construction modern Persian, is not vêry common in the classical language.
USB OF THE TENSES.
507
*>" i) (>*/ tarsidam ki az bim-i gazand-i fw 31 man kunand kh.wish qasd-i haldk-i (Sa'dl) "I feared lest they (the ministers) through fear of their own life might (or should) determine on my
destruction
<^^ cuc;U G i^yt bi-farmud td musdra at kunand (Sa'dl) " he " ordered them to wrestle (i.e. so that they should wrestle) JU-jj-c ^\ ^=*. j*\
6
' :
"
Khuda-yi*
chi milk-i
'azz a va jail
man
astisdr-i
mard pisar-i dihad * juz In khirqa darvishdn kunam s (Sa'dl) cA^

:
ki pushida
am har
chandan mubalagha dar vahm tasavvur kunad ki

arzdq
(
vasf-i
zahr-i faqa ra tarydq
ishan kardl va sukhanha-yi parishan gufti and va yd kalid-i khazlna-yi
Sa'dl
(the rich) that one
''such amplitude have you employed in praising them would suppose that they are the antidote for hunger's
of the
poison tj eu<^
or else
s\)'A'
the key
treasury
of God's
bounty":
b;t
"were
bar fishdnad dast ra (Sa'dl) the Qazi even to sit with us he would wave his arms in time to the
4
j> îxij
^^
qdzi ar bd
ma nishmad
music."
OjJ^ jlj;LL(
j)
()\j*-J
^f(^ v>^b c^^^Jjjb
$ jf
Gar turd dar

' '
bihisht
bdshad jay
Digardn duzakh ikhtiydr kunand (Sa'dl) Should your lot be to go to Paradise

All others
would at once choose Hell."

\
6 *i^ cti^ p&> Gujtam chundn khufta-and ki guî murda-and ^fi ^ " I said they are in such a deep sleep that you would suppose **\ *t>j*> (Sa'dl) they were dead."
Tu
gu*i
to,
qiydmat
zisht~ru*i
Bar u khaim-ast u bar Yusuf nikuî (Sa'd!) Thou wouldst suppose that, till the world's end, ugliness
'
'
Has reached
its
height in
him
as beauty has in
Joseph
the past tense would have been used here had the author wished to the idea that convey they wrestled then and there on the spot. 2 Note Aorist the Present could not be substituted in this condition Izafat incorrect.
1
Kardand
^^
In Mod. Pers. khwaham kard ^f Modern Persians wave their arms

majlia-i
p*^^
or
ml-kunam
are
also
jt
j*in
or their handkerchiefs in time to music or dancing
in a
shurb,
or
majlis-i
tarab.
They
expert
making a loud
1
snapping
think,
noise
with
their
t,
fingers
(taling
zadan).
Contrary to
the dictionaries,
îlAi^j cô^ j a8
bar fishandan refers to this
motion
of the
arms, and does not
mean "to dance."

*
No
Persian
whom
f
the writer has consulted can explain
,i
ejiXiU.^j dast bar fishandan.
Note this meaning of gu l and compare^ gu \' say, suppose, although." Elsewhere Sa'di usee the 2nd pers. sing, of what may be the Past Habitual (identical in ** this person with the Preterite) or the Preterite, in the same sense as i^j*-
^/
508
(i.e.
USE OF THE TENSES.

that no one will ever be as ugly as he
is,
just as
none can be as
beautiful as Joseph).
(6)
(1)
In modern Persian the Aorist
is
rarely used as a Present except

:
Jf; *' **> Examples in m.c. of this rare use are (**) " it is said that Zal the father guyand ki Zal pidar-i Rustam (Prof. S. T.) oJia ; ,*-; ^t <*-lj cjU. ^/^-o & *$\ j** Nasr Ullah of Rustam" " Nasr Ullah Khan ra Karwi in rasm bashad Khan ki pisar-i guzasht (m.c.}
in telling stories.
^
:
Khan who
is
the son of
l<
Karim Khan
established this custom
"
&*9jf 1^*5-
chunm guyand (m.c.) so they say." The Aorist is, however, used as a Pres. Subj., in place of the Present " U Ts there any one of you who knows (to know) Turkish ? English, as
* c
:
in
jl
&>!&>
is
c/j3
uiA~,A
(JfM
.<
az sJiuma kas-1 hast ki Turkibi-danad?" (m.c.)

>Jt
" There
none who knows

in m.c.
(2)
it
*'
o~~jj
'
<_c~
kas-i nist ki bi-danad (m.c.).
In neither
of these examples should dJ|d.x* mi-danad be substituted, though it sometimes

is
It is
used as an Indefinite Future as

guft chi
* guyam (Sa'dT, also m.c.) "he said 'what shall I ^f " ** chi kunam ? (m.c.) " what can I do, what should I do ? " say ? " ka r ra bi-kunam ? (m.c.) " shall I do this ? )K &$ Âô ^/oU ^ô " I'm s ** man zamin mt-shavam ki u guarantee J^J j pul bi-dihad (m.c.) for him to give (the money) " jjl# &' i**& *<^) wa'da mt-kunamki bi-yayam
^
:
f
oif
'
" I promise to come,"
but
^^
Â(^
ham amad "I promise

Mtfu
In
fiuffi
that I will
^^* >^ wa come" ^j *j

*
:
da mi-kunam ki Tchwajjt^.%
!;
^^
^*J>
bar khak-ash rikhta (Sa'di) " you would have said that bits of enamel had fallen on the ground *' (the leaves are compared to
ki Jchurda-yi
;
mma
bits of enamel).
>
t^
Bavur na-dashtam
Bawg-i murgh-i
ki tura
chunm kunad madhush
(Sa'di)
the Preterite (not the Past Habitual) is used for the supposition " I did not believe, I would not have supposed that." Tn modern Persian the Imperfect would be used instead of ^'^ gu 9 i or ^'^ guftU
in
the above-quoted examples, as

is,
&$
c^* trH^? *'*

1
ham-chunm
is
mi-gufti ki.
Gufl
i^f&X
1
however, used on occasions.

dastfir so
The word^5-O
common
is
in India for
" custom "
used only locally in

locally
m.c, in this sense.
Dastur ;j-i^^
a high priest of the Zardushtis, and also
means an enema: shuma

2
6 U-^ (m.c.) is a vulgar joke ra dastur mi-kunlm f**^' )j*~& ]) addressed to a Zardushti priest. The Arabs use the word for " permission."
Such questions indicate doubt

is
or perplexity
and the use
of the Aorist in such
sentences
*
obvious.
But
did Âj4^ J,J
*$
dad
(m.c.), * Vide
"
(*A^
he
e^^ c^
ma zamin rm-shavam
ki
u pul khwahad
I guarantee that
will certainly pay.'*
(b) (4).
USE OF THE TENSES.

-jjo
&A3*.
509
zin va dahana-yi khud rd hamrdh bi-baram yd az " shall I (should I) take my saddle and bi-giram (m.c.) chdpdr-khdna ndyib-i " bridle or (can I) get them from the owner of the post-horses ?
;L>U.
^li
Jt
(j
'
The Present
participle in e/f
dn with the Present Tense
of eJ-^
shudan
also expresses the Future, vide (o). Present Subjunctive,'2 (3) It is used as a
principally in final clauses
introduced by t ki, 13 td, &ZU td-ki, 13 *>" ki td\ and also where a doubt is expressed in subordinate clauses, expressing an object, order, advice, hope, duty, desire, distinction, fear, permission, doubt, etc.
ki bi-bdzdr bi-ravi (m.c.)
:
^y
:
;|jL>
AJ a&ijj vaqt-i
"when you happen
to go to the
bazar"
LSJj*
)^
**
*^m>
vaqt-i ki bi-bdzdr mi-ravi (m.c.)

is
" when " you go to the bazar
(but
(said to
a person
who
AAA^J c^âj mi-ddni khwdhar-at rd ki
about to go or generally goes ) tf \) vsyfc[ji. ÎAIÔ bi-Khdn bi-dihim (m.c.) *' you know that
* '
when
(or if) we (happen to give) your sister in marriage to the Khan "; when we give, as we are going to give " $\A mi-dihim would mean ibrat-i hama-yi ^SkJ JU <u& e^c tf /*ij ^MJJ** hdld divdn-i bi-kunam ki " now I will 'dlarn bi-shavad (m.c.) a that will be a warning judgment give " to the whole world. In writing the Definite Future could be substituted
Ao>jxjjx>
: *
for each of the previous Aorists,
and
come " Ûj U^ f;!^Vf umrmdvdrhope you am shumd bi-ydyld (m.c.) " I hoped you would (might) come " (^jtj-^t ^jJUi l*> ummidvdr budam shumd bi-ydyid.
Aorist could be used.
in speaking one Definite

will
Future and one
"
It can frequently be used instead of the Present Tense without practically
any
alteration in the sense, as
*'
:
able to
"
The magpie
(
steals
and hides whatever

^j
td bi-tavdnad
it is
>>OM>
td
cJlfij *ifjixx>
G ^ J^x-o^^j^
J^|/
it
or )
;
zaffh ( or kardjak) duzdl
mi kunad va
mi-kunad
(4) It
mi-tavdnad panhdn mi-kunad(m..c.}

^JtÂjU (m.c.)
or
panhdn
i<&\^.>
" whatever
may
be able to."
:
sometimes takes the place
of the Infinitive in English, as
"I had
" no book to read p&\*J Û^ kitdb-i na-ddshtam ki bi-khwdnam fJI>so " I had no tools to cut book to read, that I might read) (m.c.) (I had no
:
" with
J^j
AJ
/*jj
*$
Zji> (^yo (j^^J
" I had no string

Saj*o-'o
t;
(or thread)
c*^^' asbdb-i pish-iman na-budki bi-buram (m.c.) " with which to strengthen the snares <j-x3 &
6
j*|^
t$ ÂJ
^ nazd-i'
man nakh
:
na-bud ki
dam
ra mazbut bi-kunam
(m.c.).
(5)
It
is
used optatively as
Shagird-chapar J-^
C hapar-chl is
^^\8
the
man who
the postboy with the horses, while the;^ chapar or na'ib-chapar is the carries the post, and the
J^ ^^
:
master of the
2
chapar-khana. In a subjunctive sentence the verb

aiUfc.jbl^.
is
subject to a conjunction
vide
126 Subjunc-
tive
Mood.
3
" I had not." Compare Hindustani mere pas man na-bud nakh na dashtam ki-~. Better (*&**> I had not (there was not near mo)." na-tha
Nazd-i
&#<>*&
510
USE OF THE TENSES.

e
may your have eaten) blind me, if I have misrepresented the facts." used for the Imperative as ti (6) It is sometimes (J& \jo.* <JjJ ~& td vail pul na-glri, qatra-i db bi-kas-i na-dihi (Tr. H.B. Chap. IX) Â*J C5 " " but till you receive payment don't give a drop of water to any one
'
namak-at kur-am kunad agar khildf
arz karda bdsham
"
(m.c.)
salt (that I
^^
It also supplies the missing Persons of the Imperative
Mood,
as
^,
biravlm
t:
let
us go."
used for the Preterite Indicative in English.
(7) It is in certain cases
Vide
126
(c).
is
Remark I. It will be seen that the Aorist (Present Subjunctive) used in subordinate clauses expressing an " object, consequence, order,
advice, hope, fear, duty, desire, inclination, effort, permission, necessity," and often in conditions. Vide also Subordinate Clauses and examples
Tenses Appendix. In sentences expressing <c purpose, resolution or wish, etc.," the Infinitive can usually be substituted for a subordinate clause in
of the
,
Remark 1 1.
the Subjunctive, thus:
fia ^^
*<&> qasd-i raftan
ddshtam or py.
'
^M^
khwastam bi-ravam.
tavdnad bud " to be down weighed by trifles is ty &\jttsLc ft &*$ }j*j* ^m>^ (class.) to be like an old woman"; were ast substituted for a# <^*fy tawdnad bud The writer however implies that even some ^k*^ it would show certainty.
Remark
III.
Bi~juz*iyyat sar faru dvardan kdr-i
ajafiz
'ajatiz
(c)
would not submit to such a thing.

In
classical
Persian
the
Present
Tense
&*>
is
is
chiefly
used for the
Definite (or Continuous) Present, 8 as:

ki chi
^^>c
*
tf
#j* <*& malik pursid

?'
mi-guyad (Sa'di)
" the king asked,
what
he saying
"
Na-dida-l ki chi sakhtl hami-rasad bi-kas-i
Ki az dahdn-'sh* bi-dar mi-kunand danddn-i ? (Sa'di). " Hast thou not seen what pain a person suffers
While a single tooth
1
is
being extracted from his jaw

of the Past Subjunctive.
"
?
Karda basham
fb t^
is
an example
Vide
126.
a
3
'Aja'iz, pi. of 'ajuz.
In the Gulistan this rule
Suhayli, the Present Tense

*
^
is generally, if not always, observed; but in the Anvar-i usually used for both Presents, except in the verses.
Dahan-sh (poetical
license).
Persian dentist (who has but one pattern and one pair of forceps for every kind of extraction) first lays the patient flat on the floor and then sits on his chest. Operator and operated-on then roll on the floor for a few minutes in an agonised embrace. As a Persian rarely submits to having a tooth extracted unless
he
is
Some modern
in violent pain his sufferings during dentists have adopted
an extraction are severe.
"European methods," and
place the patient
with his back to a wall. The tooth is then secured and the patient dragged round the room. In Sa'di's time the methods were perhaps more primitive.
USE OF THE TENSES.

It
is
511
Persian rarely used as a Future [vide (d) (2) for the modern use of the Present for the Future], an instance of such usage
in
classical
& ^ tf ***/* -^'3 being ^^~J o^^L^' *-***[** ^b+i** j ^vyi OA*OJJ ^-J^XAX a*jj zdhid farmud ki man si ruq'a rni-namsam ; tu bi-dast-i amin-% u mu'tamad-i ' sdhib u l-ikhlds bi-sipar " the pious man replied, I will write three letters and
:
l
'
do thou deliver them into the hand of a select officer, and a confidential oif (Gul.,Chap. Ill, St. 14). and faithful person:' " fA^*/>Uj ^ ojo (d) In modern Persian the Present Tense is used
(1)
As a Present,
"
definite
he is now navlsad (m.c.) " he writes {m.c.) every day."

(2)
or indefinite, as: o~~y >^ jf u hdld mlA u har ruz mi-navtaad writing" ^^.^ )#j i\
:
^
*!
In m.c. and in
modern writing
it is
Chashm; bi-shumd hall ml-kunam

will
p&* Û3
used instead of the Future, as Ul> (m.c.) ''certainly, I

:
pZ**.
show you
:
(instruct
you)": f^* JrjJ/*-*

(m.c.)
*^\
*U**I
J5>xf
JL,
sdl-i
dyanda
inshd*
Allah* bi-Tabriz mi-ravam
"next year
:
I will go to Tabriz
D. V."
(9)
man
(^j.j &&,\js ^-AJ OÂJ^ agar u bi-nawkarl pish-i shumd biydyad kdr-i khub-i *st(or ml-bdshad or khwdhad bud) m.c. "it 'would be a good thing if he came to you as a servant " o~^t <kjv& t^y farddshamba ast (m.c.) " tomorrow Ll# A*A hama-ruza in will be a Saturday vÛy ^ j*>
(&
nami-ravam, bi-man cM? man naml-ravam (m.c.) Mi^g**w " *' ^ won't go, I won't go ^1^? U ^jiu isfj**. $ j>\ *^ o*
1
.
or^b
or
'
'
ot
^^
^^
mdya-yi dard-i sar va awqdt talkhl*

of
*st
(m.c.) "this will be a daily source
worry and annoyance." It may also be used like the English Future in issuing commands, and is in such case more polite than the direct Imperative, as: Ui^> )& \j )j+$ ^tj Taymur rd dar har jd-yi <*w> ^M^ lacujj jj;^f *4^X& ^*J |A>O 8j>/
^^^
ÂJ
^(^
b 6 dunyd bdshad surdgh karda paydd namuda mt-girld dast basta mi-dvarid " track Taimur to whatever injd (m.c.) spot in the globe he may have and find track seize him and him, gone, bring him here bound." This Future is more polite than the Imperative.
Remark. The Aorist have " or " I will have
of
" &&\z> ddshtan in modern Persian means

83, p. 287], as
:
[vide
^ty îu
f^
v ltf ^f J\
Note
2
to the repetition of the
to the
3
*
6
The Present here is for the Immediate Future, an idiom common also in Hindustani. would be added <^ of unity. In modern Persian this second word only. Insha 9 Allah " if God pleases, D.V." corresponds to the English "I hope to." " Compare the English I'm going now; I'm going home next year."
The Present,
In
to indicate certainty.
classical Persian the
Imperative would be used.

dastraah
Here
not **-*
\)
J&t>
ra basta "having
bound
his
hands" but
the intonation compound adj. dast-basia to agree with \\ ura understood: in speaking, two constructions. between these distinguishes
512
USE OF THK TENSES.

,j*
agar in kitab ra bi-kharam bardy-i
man
it
fa*-
ida-i
na-ddrad (or na-khwdhad ddsht) (m.c.)
"if
buy
this
book
will
be of no use to me."
sometimes used in m.c. in a Potential sense as ^ oôjS ^tj> ^^3 zanhd-i ddrad Kir man ki >jjj c^" BÂ* o^ 3' b p^* **)j rd az miydna-yi safida mi-zanand (Profess. Story Teller) zarda-yi tukhm
(3)
is
The Present
8
also
A3
of women (so tricky) that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of its white." (4) In quoting an author living or dead, either the Present or the Perfect " Tensecan be used, as Shaykh Sa'di says "( OM) *ii or) *>j*'Q ^z*-*
'
" Kirman has a class
f*j
va Shaykh Sa'di mi-guyad (or gufta ast) (m.c.), but the latter might mean "he has spoken " whereas the Present would refer to his writings. (5) In dramatic narration, the narrator will sometimes transfer himself
to the time of his narration, and speak of past events as present, and conIn modern writing sequently employ the Present instead of the Past
this Historical Present
is
common.
Examples
j&>
\j
\**>
f*j.t>
\)
j ^<j
o~oJ &*> j~*$

nist' (class.)
1
fty ru-yi urd didam va

I
Khudd
-
rd shukr
kardam
tS
<xxx'
ki pisar-i
man
"
saw
his face (by the light of the
God that he was not my
son"2
"
lamp) and returned thanks to

<^J^
xx5L>
<i^T
ki
>;'**
^c
^^ AJSJ
^J^ j>
&' vaqt-i ki mi-ravad
bar gasht* (m.c.) the business that
&} c^~jj 31^ was no longer there"
dn-bud ki " when he be made in he s"aw that there was no to went, gain 3 was the reason he returned." Raftam did am jahdz nisi* " when I arrived I saw that the +&) (m.c.) ship had gone,
fdîda-i bardy-i-u na-ddrad,
;
mi binad
it would be equally correct to say <^-J jahdz nabud or ty a&j^Cî jahdz rafta bud, the tense used depending on the dramatic
3^
sense of the speaker.

It is
however inconsistent to change the time from present to past, or

of tense in the following
:
vice versa,
Note the incorrect change

<5^|jjBux>
&$
f^
cuiu
^L
31
Haji Baba, Chap. XI). saw an ourang outang coming towards him," it is better to say ^jf ^*> y Ojt ^^liuwo &' 4Xj> did ki nasnds-i taraf-i u* mi-dyad **& did nasnds-i taraf-i u mi-dmad (m.c.), L5*^' ^j* c5(m.c.), than
(Tr.
In,
"He
though the latter

*if (j*>J
is
also correct.
^j^
^(i^ ^4
A/
(i,uj
Indians and Afghans write and say <yo &*. chi mi-binad ki yak nasnds-i taraf-i u mi-dyad.
chi
Saddyash bi-gusham dshnd dmad;
didam pidar-am Karbaldî Hasan
Note
2
8
i^s of unity with pi. and its signification. This however may be considered an example of direct narration,
Note that
Better i-^Xô^j OAâaJT j| az an jihat bar- ml- gar dad. this is not the direct narration.
USE OF THE TENSES.

ast ss~}
' '
513
er-^c^/
r;
<x>
r x>^
:
**.
**1 lUf
^Xj
Jtyj^
it is
(Tr.
his voice
seemed familiar
is
what do I
see but that
my
H.B., Chap. V.) father Karbalai
Hasan." (6) The Present

as
:
sometimes used
wast a thief
in Persian for the Past in English,
" I did not

duzd-i (m.c.).
know thou
"
<îp
*> it
j*i~J|j^
If
the Past (duzd bud-i) were used,
naml-ddnistam ki would signify " I did not
that you were the thief (of that article then)." that are at all times equally true or (7) Propositions equally false should generally be expressed by the Present, whether in English or
in
know
Persian,
'
as:
"He
was such a
fool
that he didn't
know
l
" (not was') above his head ow*y ^ u chunin ahmaq bud kinami-ddnist dsmdn
%
the sky
'
is
^b Ûwf o~of^ *f
'
bdld-yi sar-i u-st
(m.c)
tf&jljPj w* o*^ vs*-fj* C/* )^ 5 f*if pidar-i man u tu Adam, va mddar-i man Havvd ast? pas man u tu barddar-lm (class.) '* the father of you and of me was Adam and our mother was Eve therefore we are brothers.'
'
:
(8)
The Present
is
in Persian is used for the Perfect
action that
both past and present, as:
"I have been

)
1
am)
in this place
"
in English, for an ten years (and still
Â l?d.J|^
:
A>
^xx> or
o~f
-*1
JU
dah
sal ast (or ml-
^f shavad) kidarmjd hastam (m.c.) ^-* c^y^j ^ *> t5^ khayli vaqt (t l have been for a long time (and still am) ast ki bimar-i bistarl hastam
confined to
my
bed."
The Progressive Perfect may be expressed by the Present and the

Conjunctive (Past) Participle as
to learn
ast ki
:
"I have
jjJ*T
Persian"
(*jyf
^ ^^
:
been striving
0*^.3 *$ os^f
for several years

îa.
JU
chand sal
zahmat kashida Fdrsl mi-amuzam
(m.c.).
Remark
Both
in
classical
and
in
modem
Persian, the Present
is
dramatically used for the Future, as an dah dinar mali ust cu-jt JU
'
Guft harki yajta bashad bi-ydrad ki az ** &\y *$ jfi
^^^*
it
'
'
*&
him
(class.)
bring
"he said, whoever may happen it to me and ten dinars of that will be
8
to have found
(the purse), let
his reward.'
Remark II. A Continuative Present can be formed by the Present vide' (o). Participle and the verbs, &*j* budan and &*~ shudan,
(e)
(1)
The
classical Definite
Future
4
is
,
formed by the Aorist
of
khwastan with the apocopated Infinitive
as:
Note the omission
of the second ki (before

'
asman)
to avoid repetition.
i8
2
3
Bud would
signify that
Adam was my
father once, but
not now.'
Direct narration.
The unapocopated 33
Infinitive occurs in old Pers.
Vide
79
(6).
514
USE OF THE TENSES.
Gar tu dar khdna sayd khwdhi Z)as w pd-yat chu 'ankabut buvad
]
' '
(Sa'dl).
If
you hunt only in your house, Your legs are weak and useless as those
(class.)
of spiders."
Chi khwdhi hard

*x>f **f^.
jt
*T
f;'a
man
yaqln ddram
&*>&
^ ^^ ^
ki
"what
will
you
do ? "
âj
."I
^yc
u khwahad dmad
(m.c.)
am
fULa ^* man gamin-am ki u pul bi8 dihad (m.c.) "I am security for him to pay the money"; the Future here would mean I am certain he will pay it **|^ y s$ fj </ " I think or am of amad u khwahad ki mt-baram opinion (m.c. only) guman that he will come," but AJ^J &f pj* uf*\ifa& guman mi-baram ki bi-yayad " I think he JU*^| ihtimal mlmay come." So too (m.c. and correct) ravad "there is a probability," expresses a doubt in itself and is therefore
certain he will
come," but
'
J^y
*^
'
^^
followed, not
tive,
by the Future
*J
Indicative, but
by the Present
*?
or Past Subjunc-
as: a^J
will
fi
&>
&jj**
JU^t
ihtimal mi-ravad ki yakh

*i-j
bibandad
(m.c.)
"it
ki
probably freeze"*: <xb
^j
^^
JUxa.f ihtimal
mi-ravad
yakh basta bashad (m.c.) "it has probably frozen." This Definite Future (and not the Future- Present Tense) used in speaking by Indians and Afghans.
is
regularly
The Future sometimes

rustling in the jungle one
indicates certainty.
:
For instance, on hearing a

ty.
" but y^J <*jb " this must be (m.c.) (certainly will be) some animal, L&*W> t*M " be be to or must this bashad (m.c.) (doubtful) some jdnvar-i bdyad ought
might say
Jdnvar-l khwahad bud
<*k[yk
<^;y^
animal
"
insdn na-khwdhad bud (mod.) " therefore
i^|j.s6
^Lj(
ÛJ ^t
sS o.*t j&Ub
(J
^
is
it
pas zdhir ast ki in nishdn-i evident that this can't
be the foot- print of a
man";
be,"
while
"
AJfjii
na-tavdnad bud would
mean
it is
impossible for it to
(2)
This Future
vide
sentences,
place
is
frequently used in classical Persian in conditional 12S (<T but in such clauses in modern Persian its
is
;
(/)
taken by the Aorist, i.e. the Present Subjunctive. In modern Persian the Definite Future is not much used
except in certain districts:
when used
:
it
sense than the Future-Present
*^ ^ ^ ^^
in speaking has a stronger and more definite * aff ar t> O*i

\
Note the Future here
in a conditional sense,
where the Aorist
(Pres. Sub.)
would be
used in modern Persian, written or spoken. * But * chi kardan t^tj^Hi*

to do
77.
3 i.e.
?
"
O^
mi-jchwahi
(class.)
"what do you wish
This construction
is still
used in speaking in India and in Afghanistan, vide

I
do not say he
will
pay the money,

direct
am security for
his
dad
.MA
*A|^
II.
would be the
narration
and not idomatic.
paying it Vide
khwahad
131
(/),
Remark
*
Ihtimal-i yakh bastan darad
*'
it is
probably freezing."
USE OF THE TENSES.
515
am ham
though
bi-mirad in kdr ra
father were to die
my
khwdham kard " o~*<tf

:
(m.c.)
"
j\
I
(1
will
do
this
even
îo j&\
kdr na-khwdham guzasht (m.c.) agar dunyd rd tufdn bi-girad man az sar-i "even though the Deluge were to come I will not give up accomplishing
this."
yo
^L Û^t ^ Ui d J\
sdlhd ast ki mi-sitdnam va IjJLs " for many years I have collected girift (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) and will continue to collect (this sum)," the Definite Future is necessary in the second verb.
In, j fJU**
(^/o
OAy f*!^
&f
e^|
khwdham
Preterite or Definite Past is used in narration and usually to the same tense in English. As it is used in narrating events corresponds that closely follow each other, it will sometimes take the place of the English
(g)
The
Perfect
and sometimes
of the Pluperfect; vide

AJ
(I).
In classical Persian, a
is
sometimes euphonically prefixed, without
however affecting the sense, as: p**\k *$ &j e*~/o ^lia. *$ ^^ f**i*jt c^ c*jj JUvo y chun bi-ra$idam bu-yi gul-am chundn mast kard ki ddman-am az
dast bi-raft
(Sa'di)
" when
I
reached there, the scent of the

control over myself."
roses
so
intoxicated
rne that
lost
This pleonastic
** is
very
common
In, (*x^J
in poetry.
oJif guft bdkhsliidam agarchi maslahat na" didam* (Sa'di) I have forgiven him though I do not approve," the two verbs in the Preterite signify an action just past and done with, the time of which is therefore known bakhshida-am f|jjJUu would mean that
:
o^Lax) *^ff +*2*su
have pardoned him before you asked me.'

In, *=BV^
Ji-SlA. j* UjjX)
t^y^ a/
C5
?
is
guftl ki khurda-yi
mind bar khdk-ash
rikhta*
the second person of the old Past Habitual tense and not of the Preterite. Vide p. 507, footnote 5.
(Sa di), the verb oJif guftl
5
In,
f<^ *jy
<^t
gi) j
p~-&
j\
(3-^-5
(!>te
ijb**^ yjf *&
*&
(*^**
ma'lum shud
ki dvdz-i nd-khush
(Sa'di)
4
"I
see that I
it
ddram va khalq az nafas-am dar ranj-and, tawba kardam have a disagreeable voice, I repent me," <^shud is in
refers
the Preterite as
to
a past event that closely follows another
past event, viz.

just
this
^<ui|^ moment learnt
^Haxs muttali' garddnidi,

' ;
and
it
also signifies
/0
have
while
if
the Present
Sj^
^*
ma'lum ml-shavad
were used the signification would be *it is now appearing to the Perfect ou^f o^> o*** ma'ium shuda ast would signify
me
' '
that
'
:
it-
has become
tty
known
to people (before this)
that":
also
the Preterite
pt>j>
tawba
'
Bett r than
^^^
a
3
Maslahat naml-bmam Aat understood.

*
ml-kunam which might also be used. ^J (^ cusJLaxj would be equally

'st
correct.
Guft,
:
chi
mubarak khwab-l
shud ki
'avaz-i
ki
dldl
inki
.'
mara bar
ayb-i khwlsh mut.tali,
gardanidl
tna'lilm
naJchuah daram
516
USE OF THE TENSES.

of
'
kardam has the dramatic force

I heard.
1
repented on the spot as soon as
is
The Preterite is used to express an action just completed, provided there " have no continuance of the action, as: Dava Jchwurdl ^^^^ Ija? you taken the medicine (now)?": al-an khwurdam py^ vy)li "I have just
swallowed it."
The
Aorist
(S&S*
Preterite
is
also
sometimes used for the Present Subjunctive or

signify a foregone conclusion, as: burdl ; agar khufti murdi (Sa'di)* "if agar rafti
in
conditional
sentences,
to
(^&^^
(e)
ts&j* \Jty jtl
you move
128
on, you are safe; if you sleep, and (/), Conditional Clauses.
you are a dead man."
Vide
It is also
sometimes used as an uncertain Future instead of the Present

8
Subjunctive, as: *i~*>V *i**H*
shuma fahmidid
it
bi-navisld
' '
j*> har chtz ki u guft va whatever he says and you understand write
j!
,
^j
***&
** j**-
here the Pres. Subjunctive could be substituted, AJ^J jt *O**- ^*> U& har chiz ki u bi-guyad va shuma bi-fahmid. j -XMÎJ After verbs of ordering and the like, the Preterite in classical, not in
to
;
me"
modern, Persian shows that the order was forthwith executed, as:
*>t>\
&j*j* ^-^c
o**Jj OA*!.
f;
.iLUf
li
malik farmud
order,
to
b
ta ustad
ra khil'at va ni'mat* dadand

of
(Sa'di)
"the king gave the

va ni'mat bi-dihand
(e).
and then and there a robe
honour
l>
and rewards 4 were given

ta khil'at
the master- wres tier
"
:
&>><*>
JU*AJ
j ojda.
would merely show that the order was
issued.
Vide
125
In, pidj> cu/olUj ^!A j pisf Uj j Ûi* j OA.J *>" ftîxi vj>f j*> ijU chara-1 juz an na didim ki rakht u silah va jama riha kardlm va jdn bi-salamat burdim 6 (Sa'di) " we saw nothing for it but to give up our goods 7 and our
AU
arms and our clothes in order to save our lives." For an example of the Preterite supplying the place
Infinite, vide (m) (9), footnote (3).
of
an English
Vide also
(k).
When
1
8
a servant
is
being bastinadoed, he uses the Preterite tense, as: tawba
guh khwurdam, ghalat kardam

Also m.c.
p^
-k^
f&)j^
&>
f&j$
&..
In the absence of an adverb of time, these Preterites might refer to Past time. In'am fUif might be a small sum but *-^*+*i ni'mat means " benefits " generally,
and has a wider sense. 5 The Preterite shows that the king saw the order carried out. The Aorist merely shows that the order was issued for the benefits to bo bestowed then or at some future time an order that in Persia would be but imperfectly carried out, if at all. In mod. Per. however this ambiguous Aorist is always used. 6 In mod Pers. riha kunim and barim. 1 Ralcht is not clear it means either clothes or baggage.
.
USE OF THE TENSES. For the a in Uif guftd

l
517
vide p. 13
(8).
:
Preterite always refers to a definite point of time Vide Examples at end of this section. indefinite time.
The
the Perfect to an
In m.c., the Preterite, like the Imperfect [vide (h) ], is often used for the Present * cr^ jt? ^*) ** /** J )^ ^ p* )^j$*> -^^ jl t/ >^*j jt
:
1
&a?/ad pFsft as va#

3
turn az matlab khabar-dar

bi-dihl ki vazir
kunam
ta bazar
ham
ki
rajti
bi-har Teas rasldi shuhrat
bi-man chunin va chunan
karda ast (Vazir- i Lankaran) "then I must make you acquainted with the matter before-hand, lest when you go to the bazaar and meet somebody, you spread about that the Vazir has confided to you such
khidmat-t
ruju'
d**j&6 &* man digar misl-i tu pisar" I no baradar-i ham na-lchwastam (Vazir-i Lankuran) longer want a nephew like you" harf-l dashtam bi-guyam-at (m.c.) "I have o^j^ p&\* to to daram ki bio-*..^> ^ pti <^*f*> harf-l you": say something *' to to I am have I say something you." going guyam-at (h) The Imperfect denotes (1) The frequency or duration of an action and frequently takes the place
and such service
' ' :
^|y=o ^.A cc^L^-^v
^^
of the Preterite in English, as
" ;>iU ^f gave back the echo again and again an cu*ol ^;jj ^^&> xikyo bi-nazar namij&v ^t ^t*^^ jl <^V janvar j*îAX) amad Ukin az sada-yi u ma'lum mi-shud ki khayli buzurg ast (m.c.) " that animal continued to keep out of sight, but from its cry I thought (kept
ml-amad
" the (m.c.)
hills
^^
!**>
3'
&&
bar bar az
:
kuh sada
^^
on thinking) that
CA^*<JÔ U/i ijâ.
(m.c.)
" while I
<y
" *$ AT î*j must be a very large beast {*>* f^f 4 i ml-sukht shuma ki dldam mi-amadam ki chiragh vaqt-i " *-&*> was returning I saw that your lamp was burning \j
it
:
:
u munag&ghas shud b -chara 6 nami-danistand (Sa'di) "the king's enjoyment was disturbed (by the blubbering of the slave) but no remedy could be found"; here the Imperfect <>*wit<xi^ naml-danistand signifies that the people kept on thinking
^xwi|dJ^ ^la.
âAvo jt
'j
cA^ malik
ra 'aysh az
Bi-gufta
man gil-i na-chlz budam Va Ukin muddat-l ba gul nishastam

126
(g)
(Sa'di).
Vide also Subjunctive Mood for use of Preterite for the Present.
^
8
and Conditional Clauses
128
(e)
Remark,
Here
i^sij*
bi-ravl
is
would signify "if you go"; but

sure to go.
*
^'j
/0 raftl or C5Jlrt
m*
rav *
signify that the person

4
^
Or 53^^
ml-suzad
is still
burning."
The Imperfect ty (j* ml

;
bud, or
ty bud (but not *&

*tjf
^J j*
^
har
ml shud) could have
been used
but *&**> u^**-'
J\
cT^ *&*
'ayah az u munayhghaa ml- shud would be correct. 6 In modern Persian chara-l would be preferred.
518
of a
USE OF THE TENSES.
IMS ^ remedy but couldn't discover one. f^j^l up*^* L) " I studied Persian on and off for a year," but JU <Jo l> Farsi mi-amukhtam ta sal Farsi amukhtam " I studied Persian continuously for yak ^.kLjxjf {J^^9
a year."
In the sentence
mi-guftand
(m.c.)
(&*'.]&*+*
JJU&AX> &^. ^.wJt^
^ ^J
tikin
man
na-danistam chi
"I
Imperfect
didn't understand what they were saying," the nami-danistam could be substituted and would be more
'
dramatic, signifying that all the time they were speaking I failed to understand them.' The Imperfect therefore also signifies that an action is a " it was habit, as my p&j$* >\ &*}& jj) j* liar ruz didan-i u mi-raftam (m.c.)
l
:
habit to visit
him every day.

:
' '
" The Preterite is used in (2) Doctor Rosen says narrating events which Whenever the narration is interrupted by follow close on one another.
a description or a simultaneous action, the Imperfect
is
used as in the
\&+o bi-shahr rasldlm bazar following example: & ^jj;^ ^tjb p>**) jfa raftim, shakhs-i sada kard 'we reached the town, we went to the market,
a somebody shouted.'
^sj
But in the
following sentence ^-aiw*
p*j j)fc f- ****!> jfo

*
&**
(tx^
bi-shahr rasldim, bazar rajtim, shakhs-i sada mi-kard
we reached
the town, we went to the market, some one was shouting,' the third action took place either simultaneously with or before the second one."
", in narration, can often be ren(3) The English phrase "I began to dered by the Imperfect, as "I went to the city and began to look (i.e. while I was looking) at the shops, when suddenly I heard the sound of firing^ *J p&j
:
ajiyL
pj&
y>> <_c!^
ulfli
8
&f
dukanhd
ml-kardam
ki-
<^LiU3 j raftam bi-shahr va tamaslia-yi nagah sada-yi tup bi-gush-am khwurd (me.): the
f*fy \^fo
reason for the Imperfect in this sentence is explained at the end of (2). A similar use of the Imperfect is illustrated by c*~& ^j^Zj*
fcr*
j;
bj$
^lA J&&
^^
&te
)
&$
murcjh
bar shakh-i mi-nishast* ki ghaflat an kas-l
"the bird was going to alight when suddenly some one " " Ai~*^J nishasta bud was sitting " would be expressed by fired a gun; " was mi-nishast has either the previous seated," and the Imperfect o**i
tufang khall kard (m.c
^
;
signification, or the habitual signification
" used to
sit
"
the context gives
the exact signification.

(4)
The Imperfect Passive
also
sometimes gives a Potential sense, as
Dldan
for bi-dldan.
<5j>
*
S
Sada kard
(>^ could
also
mean
"called us."
bi-tamasha kardan-i dukanha would
'
Ui bina kardam IfJfo (Dbjf IwUxj f&jf to the gun.' I I heard as look, began just
*
AS"
mean
Also
fj}ty
<^^J ^)
\j
14* mi-raft
bi-nishlnad
(m.c.)
"wanted
to settle."
p**j
&*
when
"
v^
man
raftam kitab ra bar
daram
ki
this
might be said of a person
sitting still
" I was just going to lift the book who did not rise from his seat.
USE OF THE TENSES.

bi-yak dast charkh
519
dddan va bi-yak dast asbdb tlz kardan khayll mushkil bud balki Inch kdr sakhta nami-shud (m.c.) " to turn the wheel with one hand and sharpen the tools with the other was by no means easy, in fact no work
could be
' '
done": kar-l az u sakhta mi-shavad (m.c.) ^* AJukUî jf was he capable of doing any work ? (5) The Imperfect is in m.c. often used instead of the Present. Though
'
:
^K
this use is generally
considered vulgar,
it is
this
construction. 1
Thus
AJJ^J
^joîu/o
^^
khwasfid 1 biravid (m.c.) "what shop was it is considered a more polite (fasih} form than,
sometimes more polite to use ^x, bi-kuddm dukan miyou were wishing to visit?"
<UA^.i4A> p\& bi-kuddm " what 2 " *A* shop do' you want to go to ? " what did you expect to tj&i (Ju-fjiu/o chi mi-khwdsti bi-shavad (m.c.) &*. chi but mi-khwdhi bi-shavad (m.c.) "what do *j&> Âfîuxx) happen?" " A dispensing chemist might say to a customer who you wish to happen ? had come to him before with the prescription, *** o*t ism-at chi bud ?
a^
^^
dukan mi-khwdhid biravid
(m.c.)
(6) Lastly, the Imperfect is used to denote conditions and not real actions, vide (i) and Conditional and Optative Clauses.
^
kim
l>
(&1
^ f*M j^
tj.-
hdl hamchi shuda ast ki nlm-tana-yi panjdh
shast-tumdnl baray-i zan-i tu sawqdt bi-firistad, ya'ni
rabavar mi-kardam*
(Vazir-i
man an qddr ahmaq-am "and now it comes to pass Lankaran)
that she sends a jacket worth some 50 or 60 tumans as a present to your wife! That is to say. am I such a fool that I should believe this? (should
have believed
this
)."
In modern Persian, the place of the Imperfect is sometimes taken the Continuative Perfect; the difference being that the latter tense by signifies that the speaker was not present on the occasion mentioned or has no
personal knowledge of the facts, whereas the Imperfect leaves these points doubtful. Vide (t).
The Past Potential* or Habitual Tense (obsolete in m.c.) differs from the Imperfect and was possibly merely another form of it.
(i)
little
It is
Even
is
Persian
well-educated Persians frequently use this construction. The best colloquial not undersimple and not too correct. One of the reasons that Persians do
stand Indians that speak Persian, is that the lattar speak too correctly and employ even. An compound adjectives and words that Persians do not use in ordinary writing clause to a short use will Persian where a use one will Indian (correct) word, frequently that word. express
2 S
The time might also refer to yesterday. Or better fiXi bi-kunam: also i/ f*t^ khwaham
This tense in
its
kard.
127.
is
This sentence
is
prac-
tically conditional with the

*
Vide Apodosis understood. simple form without the prefixes
still
used in conditional
it
sentences
by both Indians and
Afghans
in
speaking.
Modern Persians use
in
writing only.
520
USE OF THE TENSES.

l
formed by adding ts remains unchanged.
to every person except the 2nd Person Sing, which
Like the Imperfect,

case the prefix
(1)
*J is
it
can in classical Persian take a pleonastic

or
AJ.
Sometimes the prefix
â
is
in classical Persian added,
and
in this
always omitted. In classical Persian, it can take the place of the Imperfect to signify habitual action, as e)|/&!>> j ^*j^ \) ^-JUe ^5'V'LA e^^jj^ (*>** t$
:
^^
&^
jJaj Lff&]&
f)
zalim-i ra hikayat
kunand
ki hlzam-i darvishan Tcharidi* bi-hayf, va
% s lavangaran ra dadl bi-tarh (Sa'di) "it is told of a certain tyrant that he used forcibly to buy wood for fuel from the poor, and sell it to the rich at a
good profit"
kardandi
11
âii&o AJliasR/o (^Jaj j ^j*>^ S*H) V*J vagthd zamzama-l* va bayt-i muhaqqiqana bi-quftandl'1 (Sa'di) "at times they were " 5 humming a little and reciting mystical verses jb j c^y Û~o &y ^1 " a certain one ^î-^Cij yak-l tawba-yi* bisyar kardi* va baz bi-shikasti* (Sa'di)
: :
used to repent oft but ever fall again." (2) It has also a potential sense, as:
jlj _>**
I^ A
**)*> **
jdvdnl bi-badraqa hamrah-i ma shud sipar-baz u charkh-andaz u silah-shur va bish-zur ki dah mard-i tavana kaman-i ura bi-zih
h^
na-kardandi'1 va zuravaran
{<
(Sa'di)
zamin pusht-iura bar zamln na-yavardandi there went with us as an escort a youth, skilled in the use of
i
15
ru-yi
the shield and bow, a fine man-at-arms and an athlete."

(3) In classical (and in Indian and Afghan) Persian this tense is also used in a certain class of conditional and optative sentences as well as in
predicative sentences, vide Conditional and Optative clauses
127 and
128.
Remark I. In certain conditional sentences this tense can be interchanged with the Imperfect, either the same tense being used in the protasis and apodosis, or one tense in one, and the other in the other.
Remark
II.
In
modern Persian, the Pluperfect and the Imperfect
usually take the place of this tense in Predicative and Conditional sentences.
In old Persian (and
still
in
India
is called
and Afghanistan)
it
is
in
pronunciation
1
^ 2/-2/i majhuL This (_$ istimrarl " the ya of continued action."

*
3
/>0
by grammarians the
(j)fj^***J CS ^ yo-yi
Bi-tarh dadan
In old Persian J>fr^ <^\t ya-yi majhul i.e. kharlde, dade, is an idiom still used in Persia, but is rare.
;
etc.
*
6
Zamzam
(*jfj is
lit.
the
'
name
of a well at
Mekka supposed
away
from
to be
Hagar's
well.
Tawba *J^
turning the
heart
sin'
signifies
renouncing
sin.
6 The Imperfect tense could be substituted for the Past Habitual and would be correct either in classical or in modern Persian.
1
in this sentence,
Note the
last
j only
is
pronounced
va.
USE OF THE TENSES.

(j)
521
and Past Subjunctive or Presumptive Past. two are identical in form, as ^f ofy j| Aj* $ ^Hr J lx) <^ ta tarydq az 'Iraq dvarda shavad mdr-gazlda murda **j* bdshad (Sa'di) "before 2 the antidote can be procured from Iraq the " person bitten by the snake will have died J? u **) ij *&.$ x^b ta chubdn bi-rasad gurg gusfand rd khwurda bdshad " the time (class.) by " the shepherd arrives the wolf will have eaten the lai ^ Îj^t sheep
Perfect,
The Future
In
classical Persian these
^ ^^
,
dar nazar-i a'ydn u buzurgdn-i Hazrat-i Khudavandl fa-kayj azz nasruh" ki...ast agar dar siyaq-i sukhan diliri kunam shukhl karda basham " how much the more then were I to display boldness in (Sa'di) pursuing in the of the speech presence distinguished nobles, etc., etc., shall I have
(
been guilty of presumption."
Td mard sukhan
'
8 na-gufta bdshad
Ayb u hunar-ash
nihufta bdshad (Sa'di).
" As long as a
man may not have spoken His good and bad points are hidden."
AJ
^ guyand ki kas dar sardy mst va bi-haqiqat rdst gufta bdshand (Sa'di) " and they (the doorkeepers) say that there is no one in the house, and they may in fact
j CU-AJ
^^ j^ ^
&$ di
have spoken the truth 4 "
îiif |; ^^ w^L p\ UJjjxiJ o~f u/ijf *$ ^^L ^li Aiiy OA^^ |;j| ^^^r a^ sdhib-dil-i rd guftand bidin khubl ki dftdb ast noshunida-im ki kas-i urn dust girifta bdshad* (Sa*di) "it was remarked to a
;
^^
certain
wise
man
that 'in spite of the excellence of the sun
we have
never yet heard that any one has looked (should have looked) on him as a friend.'" Vide % 126 (k).
(2)
' *
**j &*&* 1 (; &*s jJiJvSy kdghaz bi-Landan bi-rasad bdyad u 55^ f< ta*lif-i khud rd tamdm karda bdshad (me.) by the time this letter reaches
bdyad
<xt>
In modern Persian this tense *Alj J^y must "or **L> shay ad " " perhaps ,' as
(
is
:
' '
'
usually preceded
by
^
&
*M <^J
*fiL>l
id inki
In
In modern Persian o**t
iJ^-^
murda
ast
"is dead, will be dead" can be used
instead of the Future Perfect, to signify certainty. 2 Perhaps a more accurate translation of ta in this kind of sentence time that." In m.c. it also means " as soon as."
is
"by
the
Na guyad ^J>& or na gu/ta ast ^+*\ AiA&, alteration in the meaning. * i.e. the rich owners inside count as ' nobody.'
3
6
could be substituted with
little
In mod. Pers. o**(

13
Ai^
or
^^
Ax(,} o.**^ dust dashta bashad or

ta inki.
girifta ast.
6 7
Or simply ta, instead Or *~rt* ml-rasad.
of
*&jf ^
USE OF THE TENSES.
London he
will
completed (3) There
his
book "
is
probably
have completed writing
his book,
must havo
[vide (5)].
another method of expressing the Future Perfect, i.e. by the Past Participle of the verb with the Definite Future, as &*& **\t *^ f ^ I; a>^ v^j' ^*r? td In kdghz bi-Landan bi-rasad u kitdb-i
:
W ^^
khud
Persian (In modern (Afghan). or o**f or khwahad kard karda tamam tamam ast ibjf j-U3 tjf AAtjA. |*U3 could be used. Possibly it may be a translation of the Urdu tense kiyd
rd
tamam
karda
khwahad
bud
hogd "will have done.")

It will appear from the foregoing remarks that 2 bdyad karda bdshad properly signifies "he must have done ": " 8 he may have done ", while karda khwahad shdyad karda bdshad " he will 4 " have done. (Afghan)
Remark.
bud
in kitdb rd
;
13 Compare (1) îC ^1*3 \j V UT ^t oJj (ay fardd td in vaqt bdyad " tamam bi-kunam (m.c.) I must finish this book by this time tomorrow (2) & i*1j^ or Â/O p\+> ij v lif î tsJ>x.M 13 fî fardd ta m vaqt In kitdb rd tamam mt-kunam or khipdham kard (m.c.) '* by this time to-morrow
^
"
I will finish (or will
have finished)
td in vaqt
this
book
5
(3)
^W
^ >jUcu5^
&>)
13
|ay
^tb
ui^r pU!J
^ fardd
(m.c.)
"by
this
shdyad time to-morrow, I may have finished this book."

:
in kitdb rd
tamam
karda bdsham
(4)
The following are m.c. idioms
*\? da., (o,*.! or) ix&b

ast), chi
(I
kunam
AA.
(m.c.)
i;^"what he
)
e**f *tyy^
khwurda
ast,
khwurda bdshad
(or
?
has eaten, he has eaten, what can I do
can't help it)."
^ ^|y
ow*| or
^b
)
chi tavdn kard ? (m.c.)

u&JLSûrtyLMj
(
*>/ - OAÎ jf^X A;arrfa ast karda bdshad " what he's done, he's done what can one do
;
(or
'
'
^*-' or
?
*(*
JJXJA
o~|
ÂJ;^
darida
ast,
darida bdshad (or

kill
mi-tavdn kusht-ash
(but xlj
>.j;5
"what
XJji
" it
he's torn, he's torn; one can't
him
for
o^!
darida ast darida bdshad "if it's torn, it's torn,

Persian, be formed in
let it
be)."
The Presumptive Past Tense may, in modern two ways as illustrated by the following examples
(5)
:
v= * 9 '^
l>
L&O*
*^
^
"he
*AT^
yasli rd
ydft (m.c.)
gundh-i karda bud ki sazdmust have committed some fault to be punished

C5 A
***^ albaita
This Transitive tense might also
in
some
cases be Intransitive, the participle
being considered an adjective. * Presumptive Past.

8 *
^
Presumptive Indefinite Past. Future Perfect.

In modern Persian
<V^
shay ad could not be omitted.

for
Yahtamil
modern Persian be substituted
A.^
shayad
USB OF THE TENSBS.

for
523
^* i^ karda buda ast might be used and albatta vulgarly o~t ->-i is but this incorrect: omitted, *'j ^t &*) j& dar vaqt-i ki In *$j* / "he have must shud u murda bud been when that happened." dead vaqi
it"
iS ,xlj
is^
Â\]S yunah-t bayad karda basttad ki
This has the same
meaning
as the first example.

r>
Vide also
vi~| %^y jjb
jj^x>
(2).
Remark.
1
vaqi
1
shud =
:
2,
^^ jf
for,
fi ^\ *
of
Z[j
jj^/o
y u murda buda
a*t ki in kar
vaqi shad
but
*k
,
be dead by now be substituted.

(1)
"
i*j*
*&
<z~\ tojj *>/
y ^ $ Mid ^j
u
u bayad murda bashad
ki in kar
' *
bayad murda bashad he must u hafa murda buda ast could not
The Continuative Past Subjunctive is in Indian Persian formed by prefixing ml to the Perfect Subjunctive. The following examples are from the Iqbdt-Nama-yi Jahangiri, Ed.
l
Bibliotheca Indica, of the Bengal Asiatic Society
cAu^ ^
** *
*
(
(k)
The
Perfect Tense:
Preterite Tense [vide (g)\ have already
(1)
The remarks on the
shown
and " I
that
sometimes supplies the place of the Perfect in English. The Perfect Tense in English expresses an action just finished
it
it is
incorrect to apply it to an action finished in a past time; therefore have seen him yesterday 2 " is incorrect.
If
however no time be
specified, the use of the Perfect tense is correct,
because "though the action is passed, the doer credits himself with its accomplishment down to the present it is therefore correct to say I have ' seen him 3 whether the meeting occurred to-day or a year ago.'
'
:
' '
Since
'
when a temporal Conjunction
refers
to
time
distinctly
past and should therefore in English be followed by the Preterite: it is incorrect to say " I have not seen him since I have been here (or since I have " since I came here." * " come
here)
;
say
for following examples illustrate the use of the Persian Preterite the English Perfect: " and I have cited 6 this apologue that it may be understood, that in travel the most complete exaltation is attained and
The
This tense
is
not used in Persia.
a
8
Say I saw him yesterday." In Persian also the Preterite. him In Pers. also the Perfect Tense (#' ura dida-i "have you seen
i^
' '
Az vaqt-i ki Inja amadam ura nardldam f*!*> Ij^l f**( **iH> j (seeing that) indicating a eequel or consequence can rightly be followed by the Perfect. ^ The Preterite in Persian (for the English Perfect) is here used in accordance with
*
1
^^l
'Since'
the rule quoted
m (g), para.
3.
524
that
(East. Trans.)
USB OF THE TENSES.
" -
yU
j^ *r
^>
pl*/c
1
13
va
wasaZ
bi-jihat
an Irdd
kardam
id
ma lum
(
shavad
ki
And when the disdar safar taraqqiydt-i tamdm ast (Anwar-i Suhayll). course of Dabishlim was ended the other Vazir advanced and said, 'That
explanation
"
which His Imperial Majesty, the Shadow of God, has been pleased to say of travel and its advantages (East. Trans.)
'
in
sukhan-i Dabishlim bi-itmdm rasid Vazir-i dlgar

pish dmad.
.
.
.va guft 'dnchi Hazmt-i tihdhanshdhi
zill" 'lldh
dar baydn-i safar
va favd*id-i an farmudand
you (when I called) ? As one of the uses

but that
its
"
;
(Anvar-i Suhayll). Kujd where have you been kujd buda-l

' '
budi. (m.c.)
" where were time

is
'
all this
of the Perfect in Persian
is
to indicate that an act
past,
effect still continues, the Perfect often takes
the place of the

j>
sar
English Preterite, thus: ff >/ ^j>y J^ *$ ml-rizad ki chird 'arusl karda am (m.c.)
^**
îs
' ' ;
^^ khdk
bar
"he
on his head (and saying) alas why did I ever marry is used because the effect of the action continues.
AJ<>3
scattering dust here the Perfect-
(m.c.) mjd dmada am ft ll. I have not seen him, since I came here " or 8x*f j j\ (ft î-A o*x4U az ruz-i ki mjd haslam (or dmada am) saldmat am "I enjoy good p] health since I came here " have just j^dt^t ^** hold urd diddm (m.c.) "I {{ seen him" he has just died," but o-t JL&j* ilU. hdld murd (m.c.) o*-*t ô ?/aA; sal ast murda ast shuda fawt ast) "he has been dead a year." (or
f^t ft
u^x>f
Ujjf az ruz-i ki
Similarly urd na-dida am

)
*^j
}l
* '
Another use
Preterite^
of the Perfect
is
to indicate a time (indefinite) anterior to the

<j*^p
thus:
c*|
ast
j^
^j**
mu'tabar-i
' '
place
in B.
'Abbas was once an important (m.c.) ^j buda ast signifies that the city is one of the has beens/ before the speaker's time, whereas bud would signify that the speaker was
;
buda
^ "Bandar-i
^
Bandar-i
Abbas
'
shahr-i
here
Note the following miscellaneplace. ous examples: c>~;x.** &** muddat-i madld-l 'st ki bar ft " here the tu 'ashiq shuda am "I have been in love with you a long time
it
Abbas when
^ J^y y ^
p]
***
was an important
Perfect shows the continuance of the state
hastam could be substituted and
would be more forcible, bd jdn-i khud bdzl karda am

to
_^>\
^.\
-*yc
&f
jj^r ^jlj
^^
&{*. b
ki murtakib-i in
amr shuda am
"
have run
risk
my
life
in
;
doing this
' '
;
here the Perfect shows that the risk existed and
still
continues the Preterite would indicate that the risk had been run and was over; the Present pX*> mi- kunam would signify "I am running a risk " and would be followed now, by another Present. In classical Persian however the Preterite is often used in such a case, thus i>j bud could be classically substituted for OH .*# buda ast in the first
In m.c. Irad generally means " objection (to an arrangement)."
USE OF THE TENSES.

example.
ast.
1
525
Also dj/o^' JA+JUJ Payghambar farmud (class.) for cu| **y*j farmuda The Perfect however clearly indicates that the writer was not present. The Perfect can indicate an action recently finished if the time is in-
definite,
but
if
the time
is
'
definite the Preterite should be used, thus:

I
V^
(&*>
have just arrived," but ft a^j ilU, kdla rasldafAx*; am would signify that the arrival though recent, was perhaps an hour ago,
hdld rasldam
man
perhaps yesterday: p*> hdji," but ft s*^ Û-
"
^^ ^
hala hdjl
shudam
(m.c.)
"I am now a
become a
hala hdjl shuda
am "I have
recently
hdjl
(perhaps two years ago).

In the example above
Present
or
Remark.
here."
the
Perfect
is
"I enjoy good health since I came used in Persian to signify the con:
tinuance of the effects of the past act. If however the words )|la. l> td hold, or c^t 13 td aknun, etc., be inserted, the Preterite Tense should be used, as
^t ^-/o
e^*2U,
\)
y>
ejjtf
13
j**/of
loj| A*i5j
jl
azvaqt-lki Injd dmadam td kunun

is
Wind rd saldmat ml-hlnam

speaking.
(2)
(m.c.).
This rule
however sometimes broken
in
The
,
contracted
third person singular is sometimes, in old the final * being discarded, as vs*JLy
:
and
lj
in
modern Persian,
^v
&f c**f
0^3
guftam
khatt-l zisht-ast ki bi-db zar navisht-ast

'
(Sa'di)
"
^^
^
a
I replied it (is like)
bad writing
in letters of gold.'
Karm
<{
lutf-i Khuddvandagdr Ounah banda kardast u u sharmsdr
bin u
(Sa'di)
Behold the bounty and kindness of the Lord That his creatures sin and He feels the shame."
is
This contraction occurs in m.c.

(3)
The
ast of the third
person singular
often omitted
altogether,
as
aJU-^
j*
&
mashaqqat va
'arid*-
bar
okx> 3 ib ^ cuxsô y A^ST dnchi az mihnat va bald va man guzashta " as for the travail and affliction which
have passed over me." isj*** j^ j^^ "Shushtar was formerly a nourishing town" Shushtar shahr-i mu tabar-l buda (m.c.); (were bud here used in modern Persian instead of o~,t ^J buda ast it would signify that the writer or
speaker saw what he is describing). In the other persons, the substantive verb can be omitted only in such house was that I did, sentences, as: "The reason for my coming to your
and
' '
still
do, love your sister-in-law
^ \^ u* * W of U
:
2
8
t( It is the Prophet himself who saysPaycfhambar ast ml- far may ad is used. Haji, Pers. for Ar. frajjiyy, or colloq. hajjl in Arabic writing al-hajj only for the sake of often written is though form In modern Persian poetry the full
scansion the
4
8 is
omitted.
O}4>si
taken away,
i.e.
understood."
5 26
^tÂ/o
.
USE OF THE TENSES.

<u-f,i
o*j,i
tj
|*^
L-J_y e|3 jihat-i
dmadan-i
d n bud ki
(Vazir-i
man
khwdhir-zan-i tu Nisd
;
Khdnum
man bi-khdna-yi shumd rd dust ddshta l va ml-ddram
Lankaran)
in this sentence (*;!***
ml-ddram indicates that ddshta
aJUla
is
the 1st person."
mentioned once, the substantive verb can, however, be understood for the remaining cases in any person, as ft *#J ^ aâ ^ &&j rafta va dlda va shunlda am, where am is understood after each verb.
If
:
For the Continuative Perfect Tense vide
(t).
Compare the emphatic statements

^&|j.=so
"I do
not and will not," as:
^*
j fj
W4J
p
:
jJ-**>
oJlj
&
man
hlch vaqt tasllm naml-shavam va na-
khwdhan? shud (m.c.)
pl^^j
:
AJ&f<xi
eu*.^ f;jtJÂ e/
&t*.jb
man hargiz urd dust na-
ddshta va naml-ddram (m.c.)
foj*
&&>& CU~A
&f
^^
is,
'
^.^ uU* A+&
^j AAiji. bud (m.c.)

always
will,
ma hama mdyil
bi-ln khaydl-lm ki harchi hast
hamlsha buda va khwdhad

always has, and
have, do, shall
,
"we
' '
are
all
apt to imagine that what
will be.
[In English an ellipsis after the auxiliaries

is
" may, and can
correct only
if,
where the
ellipsis
occurs, the principle
verb can be inserted without change, i.e. in the same form in which In the last example be (expressed) it occurs in one clause of the sentence.
cannot be inserted after has
therefore been should be inserted after has.
In Persian however such an ellipsis is not incorrect.] is used in nearly the same manner as in (I) The Pluperfect English. It indicates a time anterior to the Preterite.
In classical and in modern Persian
instead of the old Past Habitual,
Sentences.
'
it is
used in conditional sentences

:
or of the Imperfect
'
:
vide Conditional
It
is
also used in
modern Persian
after kdshkl
vide
'
Optative clauses.
i^^lg j>tlaLs| j j>jj *i&;j hargiz az dawr-i zamdn na-ndllda budam varuy az a gardish-i dsmdn dar-ham na-kashlda magar vaqt-l-ki pdyam barahna bud va
JLifjJ
ndllda pdy-pushl na-ddshtam (Gul. Chap. Ill, Story 19), j*^j used to budam is express time anterior to /*xi,i ddshtam. As stated in (g), the Preterite is used in narrating events that closely Thus in the following sentence, the Persian Preterites follow each other.
istitd at-i
^M
English Pluperfects: "When I had rested a " little and regained my breath I got up c>^ a>^ (^j* (j**> > (**-* *^f lj /of chun qadr-l dsuda shudam va nafas sar-i jd-yi khud dmad pd P&& shudam; here, if the two first Persian verbs were put in the Plupertakes the place of
the
^^
fect, it
would signify that

etc.'
'I
had
rested, a couple of hours or so ago, or
yesterday,
Am is understood.
Budam
is
understood after kashida.
USE OF THE TENSES
f>;_>7

Pluperfect
:
illustrate
a use of the Preterite, Perfect, and
Supposing a master were to order his servant to bring a <_5^;^ shikar-chi and were then to go out for an hour or two, and on his return ask The reply might be his servant if the shikar-chl had arrived. "he has amad <>^f come." (just) (i)
:
(ii)
(iii)
>*T amada, or vi^f amada ast he came and is still &j* ôf amadabud 'he did come (but has gone away
'
t^
here.'
]
again).'
Vide also (m)
(9).
Remark.
The rarer form

clauses.
of the Conditional Pluperfect u***?
*$f karda
budami
is
used as a substitute for the
Pluperfect,
only
in Conditional
and Optative
(m)
or
(1)
The Past Participle*
is
used conjunctively and serves to throw two

as:
cÂf
more short sentences into one, 3
bar-i zaban-i ta' annul daraz
derision
"
:
^b) karda haml-guft (Sa'di) "so he began to say in

jf;a
-
^* *^
*x|,>
CÂJ
^b
*<&
o*)A
&&jf <j*>x>^
&*f\j
wWf
&
|j
l^CJfc"
kaliska-ha ra
nigdh ddshta dmadand payin-; khamush kardand, durust shud (Shah's Diary) "the train was stopped; they got down and extinguished the fire, and all
was put right" ^f ^xj f; Uf j^Jô magar Taymur iaUu,ii Agha ra zamin-ash zada pish-i madar-ash nafiristada-i (Vazir-i Lankaran) " but haven't you thrown Taimur Agha to the ground* (in wrestling) and sent " him (in a state of insensibility) to his mother? ^+* ^f ( A*' )
:
:
^dU ^j ^
* pas rava'st (ki) akhir-i 'umr (dar) 4 baghal-i la Khanam bachcha na-dlda bi-miraml (Vazir-i Lankaran) "then is it " right I should die without having seen a child in Shu'la Khanum's arms ?
j
(
j&
'
îb
sufal
**.
Jf^^Jf p*J\) ***
J>)
o.*^
guftmikhzada
rtipiya ra giriftam, az
mark
chiyaftam? "he replied, I got the rupees as a reward for hitting the (with an arrow); but I have got nothing as yet by my begging": " we started before 5/J5& na-zada rah uftadim (m.c.) ^>J v^'f fiûi *lj
sunrise
' '
:
<WT
mam
vil
na-
^^ karda
just like
UIÂ
j>)^j Jj
^t
^*r-6'
*^Wt^ *-^
me
^J
'-r*
V**
'
a ^^
bi-har jd-l ki mi-raj cam manind-ibuz-i parvarda hamrah-i
man mi-amad*
everywhere,
"it (the wild goat) refused to leave
but followed
me
a tame goat."
consider the final
a
Some grammarians
of the participle in instances like
the above to be a copulative Conjunction. 6

1
*
3
The Conjunctive
Vide also
(n).
In Urdu, the Pluperfect here would have this same signification. Participle is also common in Hindi and Urdu.
In the original, ki and dar are omitted.
*
6
Not mi-raft CÂXJ; b u t e^*x> y .-..ib 'aqdb-i u mi-raft would be right. In modern Pers. writing, this participial construction is preferred to coupling
'
finite
verbs together by 3
and
'
528
USE OF THE TENSES.

Occasionally a redundant j (J^J a*-**^ Lfl^ j*. ** *t* t>
is
found after the participle, as
A*
l
*&
i&fty)*
&&
dvarda-and ki buzina-i
darud<(
gar-i rd didki bar chub-i nishasta
vami-burid (Anv. Sub. Chap. I, St. 5) they have related that a monkey saw a carpenter sitting upon a piece of timber, which he was cutting, and ". (East. Trans.); (either elide the va or
insert
bud after nishasta).
<Hi|*?
b^**^
j&
o-jUr^
0^30
tj
^^
&j|
bi-'ivaz-i
inkikhudrdtaht-ihimdyat-i-Amir-i
Bukhara bi-danid bay ad Tchud rd taht-i himdyat-i Dust Muhammad Khan. Hukmrdn-i Afghanistan ddnista va ism-i Amir Dust Muhammad Khan ra dar Abd u r-Rahmdn Khan, Amir of (Mem. khutba-yi khud ddkhil numafid.
'
Afghanistan, Fasl-i awal, p. 12). iKj f<3Aj *A.J-A Jl*^ shighal j>j5^MO j BAJAp mi-ravad (m.c.) in this example if duzdida In cation might be, " goes secretly." should grammatically be omitted. " is This Perfect
;
'
harchi paydd bi-kunad duzdida va
mi-ravad were written, the
signifi.
these examples the redundant va
'
Participle
having
not
much used
in speaking.
Remark
I.
The va can
:
of course
be correctly used to couple two or more

tbj*
participles together, as
hisdr
2
*jf oJiljU
u**!^ ***&* ) k~^ o*ax>^
Âolyo
\^
Ua=w
rd muhdsara karda va mashaqqat-i bisydr kashida,
ma^yus, bdz-gasht
kard.
(Mod.)
Remark
II.
It
may
be noticed that this participle can govern an

c cA? *3j*
accusative case, as:
buz rd ydd karda bi-dn went to the place." Vide also
e^ ^ makdn
î
1; J-?
raftam 142 (a)
n bachcha-yi *** ^ a '^ az %^ " I then recollected the kid and
(2).
Remark III." This very idiomatic use of the Past Participle will present no difficulty to the reader if he will translate all these (subordinate) Past Participles much as he would an Ablative Absolute in Latin, i.e.
''having done so-and-so (and) having made this (and) having completed that deed, he acted (principal verb) thus."
rendering into idiomatic English, the sentences must, of course be broken up." Introduc. Vazir of Lankaran* by Haggard and Le Strange.
'
"When
(2)
This participle can take the place of an adverb
3
:
û
JL^X^J
o^yo
man
&f **if
marhamat farmuda baydn kumd
ki
*
(m.c.)
"kindly explain to
'
me
": t^gfe***
A^J Mjf
cU^ (^
O '
cXo*
e,^ ^
bar
Tchiftat-i
aql-i
it
haml kardand va nihufta mi-khandidand (Sa'di) "they imputed weakness of my understanding and began to laugh secretly guzashtaaz in (m.c.) "besides this, in addition to this."
' '
:
to the
2
8
In modern Persian the form **ijj luzlna is preferred. In classical Persian baz gasht without kard would be used.
'
'
Devotedly
and
'
lovingly' are examples of adverbial participles in English.
USE OF THE TENSES.

(3) It
529
s_y
O;^-AJ bi-surat-i
can take the place of a substantive
'
:
murda
in
(m.c) "like a corpse":

dawlat-i
o*w
*jÂ*
^JrôJ^fUt SoJU^b bdqi-mdnda-yi ayydm-i

(m.c.)
saldtm-i Safaviyya ast
" these (buildings) have

:
been
existence since the days of theSafavi dynasty" f*i^ \) &**$ guzashta " rd khwdham navisht (m.c.) I will write what happened, i.e. the particulars "
oî
I;
)\ t5
^y
kardahd-yi u (m.c.) "his deeds":

'
didam
(m.c.)
saw
A*,
this writing (or letter)."
joj,* a
ily
<^j|
in navishtard
ptf
a&Â îi U .Ba nafs hamisha dar nabard-am, chi kunam ? Va'z karda-yi Tchwishtan bi-dard-am, chi kunam ?
f :>;*
!
ey&î
i/J3
i' AA.
ftj*>)t>
"Against
I think
on
my lusts I ever war, in vain, my ill deeds with shame and
pain (0. K. Whin. Trans. Rub. 322).

;
"
Farmuda-yi nd-karda siyah-ruy-am kard Farydd zi karda-hd-yi nd-farmuda s (0. K. Whin. Rub. 418).
^4z fam-i
/awa chu jur'a-i nushidl
Az bud u na-budagdn* bi-kulli rastt (0. K.) And, when you drink of His entrancing cup,
You
hasten your escape from quick and dead.
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 429).
can take the place of a clause: t>?+J }e \j khddim dida va shunida rd 'arz namud (m.c.) "the servant related what he
(4)
It
" pondering on ancient times

life"
6
:
had seen and heard": &'&X J>| îJ tukhm-i avval-kdshta "the first-sown seed, the seed that was first sown." (5) It can take the place of an adjective: f^yo *li fl>( JUU i.Ji JL> " one yak shab ta^junmul-i ayyvm-i guzashta mi-kardam (Sa'di) night I was
:
f^ysuxx) ^ju>U
^^ *J&
^^
^ va bar umr-i
talafkarda* ta*-assuf mi-khwurdam (Sa'di)
"and was
regretting
my
wasted
>A^T drdmida (Afghan)
"
quieted, quiet."
Compare the
Ar. Past Part, malbus
(j*V"
(dressed), pi.
ejUÔ*
malbusat, used
in m.c. to signify "dress, dresses."

*
8
But (*i
AJ&jj
I;
^Jf In ra navishta didam (m.c.)
"I saw
this written."
Sins of omission
(^-*
and commission.
Note the unusual use
of fc^jrû
nd-farmudd
for
Siy^j*
*
5 6
nahl farmuda.
For <^J buda and o^-^^ na-budagan.
Or
JW"^ shuda.
1
In mod. Pers. fcî^f armlda from cJ-H^J' armldan
is
preferred.
34
530
USE OF THE TENSES.
Td
sJiab-i bay ad u khush mahtdb-1 bd tu hikdyat kunam az har bdb-i
Couplet.
I
need the quiet night time and the pleasant morn That to thee I may the story of all my sorrows tell.
as well,
(Eastwick's Trans.).
can be used as a passive participle: Aiiy eJ'j'**/ in latlfa bar tdq-i ayvdn-i Faridun navishta bud (Sa'di) 2 of Faridun" this pleasantry was written over the arch of the palace
(6)
It
pa-yi
(7)
man
basta ast (m.c.)
"my
foot
is
tied."
Sometimes
:
this participle supplies the place of the present participle
in English, as
sj*
Shirdz
stages
girifta td
to
Tehran commencing from Shiraz "
^ y Wj JjLJ^ mandzil-i rah az p* ?*> ^j* ^^-^ **;/ bi-Tahrdn arz khupaham, kard (m.c.) "I will tell you the
' :
y^
cu-t
AXJ^ khwdblda
is
ast
" he
is
sleeping, asleep": cu-t
&~^
nishasta ast
:
"he
sitting,
seated":
out ^lwot Istdda ast " he is standing" t^-* vj);*- ^*c ^ j* du sd'atbi-ghurub mdnda (m.c.) s< two hours (remaining) to sunset." Vide (10).
(8)
Sometimes
this participle
can be substituted for the Present Parti-
Davida ciple with but a slight shade of difference in meaning, thus: dmad *<>T **V^ ( bi-dawdmad ^f^*v ) (m.c.) " having run he came, he came
running," but ^^ c>^ o>^^ dawdn davdn dmad implies that the running was continuous: "he ran the whole way."
(9) The Past Participle frequently indicates a state, and in this case is It sometimes supplies the place of the often in apposition to the object. Pluperfect: aUj| (b jt p*** l;jt ura didam az bdm uftdda (m.c ) "I saw him fallen (i.e. after he had fallen) from the roof" has the same signification as
(
ol or
)
:
Jte&t (L>
iy'jL>'<
:
jt
AJA j
)\
urd didam ki az
:
(m.c
<î **>
kd>avdn rd* rdfta did (Sa
di)
bdm uftdda bud (or ast) 8 "he saw that the caravan
*i*.^k
had departed"
<j*f.k^
^ AJUI^L^J
^^jî^
iJ**i* e/0' ^*?
<G^
az an didam-ash zan-khwdsta va jarzanddn bar
In the dictionary one meaning of

suits the context
which better
doors.
In mod. Pers.
&j*\
**
** lafifa is "mysterious meaning." than the modern meaning of & latlfa. ayvan is a veranda or a room with pillars and without
*^
But
roof"
4
:
= ow-.f &) c^K &
az bam uftad "I saw him fall from the {*** \))\ ura didam in this sentence the Preterite takes the place of an English Infinitive.
(\*
j>\
^t
XJ* did ki
karavan rafta
ast.
USE OF THE TENSES.

khasta va bikh-i
I
531
nashat-ash burtda va gul-i hivas-ash pazhmurda (Sa'di) him when he had taken a wife and had grown-up chiHren saw "afterwards *' &U and his joy had departed and his ambition declined ": $ *J^llj .3Lo >^f o;Uj <*/ j&~> *i->^f shabangah ki duzddn baz amadand " at night when the safar-karda va gharat-avarda silah bi~ kushadand (Sa'di)
^^
thieves returned (in a state of) having travelled
and having brought plunder
with them, they unbuckled their arms."

(10)
The Past
;
passive sense, thus
Participle of certain transitive verbs is also used in a " he has written " or cu*i <uj.i navishla ast may signify
"it
is
written": similarly the perfect participles
ali^jjf avikhta,
*i^;
rlkhta,
>*?y kubida,
* v*&
kushta randa, shunida, *iaf gufta, rvja dida,
Wj
Mf
Compare No. (7). is usually, in classical Pers., formed (11) The negative of the participles &* Umar-i Khayyam uses is na Pers. b modern In na with preferred.
etc.
'
.
both.
"Was
But
for the scansion,
Na-karda gurtah dar yahan kist ? Bi-gu ever man born that never went astray
uf
"
(O.K.).
d^
na-karda gunah could be used.
Ay
11
nlk na-karda u badiha karda

ill,
thou who hast done
and
ill
alone."

Vide also example in
(n)
(3).
Hodgson
"
says,
of
Participles are often a valuable

clauses, with
means
of condensa-
tion,
as instead
two
two
is
finite
verbs, one finite clause
and
is
participle will suffice,
when
there
common
"
subject
;
also,
" Too
'
great care cannot be exercised to leave no doubt as to what a participle really placed in apposition to, if one would avoid the error known as the mis'
related participle.'
This author then
known English
writers,
cities as errors examples from wellwhere the sentences sometimes contain no word to
1
which the participle can possibly refer, or where the participle refers to a Possessive Pronoun only, or where the true relation of the participle is obscured
by faulty collocation. The error in, " Sir Charles Wetherell addressed the House
(of
Lords)
In Urdu and Hindi,

"
instances of the
misrelated participle' are rare.

*'
few
phrases similar to
the above, as, aksar karke (vulg. Hindu.)
generally ":
selekar
(Hindu.)
commencing
from"
etc.
az anja girifta (Pers.), are used absolutely like
concerning, notwithstanding,'
etc.,
in English.
532
three hours
;
USE OF THE TENSES.
when being
oXUxj
^fjj)}
fatigued
is
by
his exertions, their lordships ad-
journed to the following
day,"
*>
*&j &)&
;k>>
Jl
repeated in: ^Jj <_& cutL. p*j 13 *U &sm^ ^fji Shah id riim-sa'at nutq kard va pas
blrun
raftand
(m.c.)
az an khasta-shuda
vuzard-yi
*
mamlakat az darbdr
"the Shah made a speech

Vazirs left the darbar."
lasting half an hour; then being fatigued the
In
c^f>
UÂJ ^/e
tej! j(*
)t> e>j
zan dar bdz karda mard blrun
raft (m.c.)
" the
woman having opened the

be
of
'misrelated'
there
is
door the man went out," though the participle may no ambiguity whatever. Further if the view
final x of the participle is equiva5 to the lent conjunction 'and, the sentence may also be grammatically correct according to the laws of Persian grammar.
some grammarians be correct that the
The misrelated
na-shuda,
oJjj&^y f^ A^rA o-^j ^3

plra-zan-i
*
participle is a construction common in modern Persian. ^j ,xJ J*!\A l:?uf )& jy* hanuz dar dnjd jd-gir
bi-shiddat-i
harchi tamdmtar dar bl-kuft
(Tr.
H.
B.
I, Chap. II), and knocked violently at the door.' In u~f &\&& j o-k&l 83 îl^ oUa r, (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXXIV, p. 288), the parti" ciple (misrelated) being" is understood. Also as there is nothing to show whether there is an izafat after (^^ sukhan or not, it would be better, to
:
f
scarcely having settled
down
there, an old
woman came f&f &&*(&? j
JMJ
Û
avoid a possible misreading, to put
g*
j*^-o
mardum-i dih
;
first.
To a
speaker:
oît
8^
reader, the following
is
hardly intelligible
l
to
a listener, the
ambiguity might be removed by the gesture and the intonation of the ^>A .5+**tv* c.f'H)/ li -*y ;^ *û ^t *^f &M &% &J+*A*
^^j
-f;3
&
f^)
3^J
*^
*V' *^^ tf^xtyo
(*^-o
e'aL^j ^ o^.^j (H. B.

lala,
Chap.
ow*t
XV,
8^
p. 128); here ^*i namuda refers to the na-karda ast to the son.
the addressee, and
Though
this
construction
is
common
in m.c.,
and considered correct
by many Persians, it is better avoided. For other kinds of participal obscurity
vide
142
(/).
is not much used. (o) Participle in e/T stated, the past participle sometimes takes its place.
The Present
an
As already
Whenever the present participle is used, it makes the action continuous: ?**J p*J$ (***!> eJ>>;# cA* ^j)j<e ^^V bi-hukm-i zarurat sukhan guftam va tafarruj kundn birun rafttm (Sa'di) " I was forced to open my lips and we left (the garden) rejoicing as we went."
^^
Their Lordships or Sir Charles ? it was the Shah who was fatigued and not the ministers. If the word vuzara. were placed before the participle ktiaata shuda it would be clear that the vazirs were tired.
1
Here
USE OF THE TENSES.
533
***$ *$
Ma-gu anduh-i khwlsh bd dushmandn Ki Id hawl guyand shddl kundn. (Sa'di)

1
"Tell not your secret
grief to
your enemies
% /*^ V) Zibd Khanum-~(lund
{
For they
Lr5-
will
express their horror rejoicing all the while."
or*
*ij***
*r**j*j ***;
& *'
{
^^
'
lund kundn rafta

muttering,
P>**\)
zir-i lab
mi guyad)
^
"
says under her breath) tjA-i (J*Z jij* j'/î az pahlu-yi abadariiha ba kamal-i ihtirdz
:
Man chird " Ziba Khanum (going off " Why should I J'-+?b ^la^f c^^tv^
"we
travelled
murur
kundn shabhd ml-rdndlm

as long as
(Tr.
H. B.)
with
much
precaution
we were
day,
ubisydr Tchwdhdn-i an bud Jci (m.c.) very desirous to ": &l*,j> ^Le magar tarsdnbudtl (m.c.) " were you in a state of fearing (when you saw him) but t_*-i*y j& magar
(H. B.):
*\
^ cT ijU^^lx%.j
in the inhabited parts of the country, lying
by during the
"he was
tarsidi
^y
"did you
fear (at the
moment you saw him)
"
Continuative tenses can be
an auxiliary verb, as:

I
tXxI-A
think
"
formed from the Present Participle and Ûy^C* magar tarsdn hasttd "you are fearing
^j-*>y ^/o
ml-tarsld
present. &f
jju.fjwjj*
he
p^& *^ ml-khwdslam ki became weeping": o*~l &(jj

:
lxjl tf
^^
^ ^^ Ichwdhdn-i an budam
^^
griydn shud
ast
might
refer to the
future
lei
as well as
the
injd bi-ydyam
girydn
"he began to weep, "he is a instate of
tears" (present only); but ***
might be future
,yo
&b/
girya ml-kunad, or girydn mi-shavad (future only).
&>
^^^
mi-giryad
b*.^ d+\
J
l
31
>
An
'
lahza
H az ajal ganzdn gardam

l
Chun barg zi shdkh-i umr rlzdn gardam Alam bi-nashdt-i dil bi-ghirbdl kuriim 8
Zi'dn pish ki khdk-i khdk-btzdn gardam.
(O.K.)
receives,
When Khayyam
And
quittance at Death's
life,
hand
sheds his outworn
as trees their leaves,
Full gladly will be
sift this
world away,
Ere dustmen
sift his
ashes in their sieves."
La hawla wa
i.e.
la
quwwaV-
ilia bi-'llah
" there
is
God,'*
*
3
there
is
no striving against Fate.

Vazlr-i Lankuran.
is
This exclamation
no power nor strength except in is used on any sudden
emergency.
Stage directions
:
This change of persons
called
et&Jt
iltifat.
Possibly there
is
a misprint for
kunam.
534
USE OF THE TENSES.

Remark.
'
Nearly allied to this Continuous Participle are the Verbal

:
Adjectives end ng in a, as; li'>> &*$* M*HiB5n-i tavdnd (Sa'di) "powerful " "a &iir-t noarms Hjlj L>^ ^y-fc tuti-yi guya (m.c.) talking parrot bind (m.c.) "a blind man": khatt-i khwana (m.c.) "legible writing":
'
l
1*1.3
.^j/c
mard-i dana:
fji
" a (Jk^ gush-i shinava (m.c.) hearing ear."
(p)
Noun
of
Agency
in
anda*
is
occasionally used
as an adjective as well as a
(Sa'di
noun
of agency, as:
;
nakhun-i daranda
and
m.c.)
" claws that rend
rending claws ".
Avval-i Urd/i-Bihisht-mah-i
Jalali
Bulbul guyanda bar manabir-i quzban. ( Sa'di.) " In the Jalali year, the Urdibihisht the of month of of beginning When the bulbuls were singing on the pulpits of the branches ."
(2)
CU~A<. ^cli j
tf
w&
jfî-jy
navisanda danad ki dar

is in
nama
:
chlst (Sa'di
and m.c.) " the writer knows what

t>
the letter he wrote "
^pA^yi'j'
SdJ^
)&
ravanda-1 az kinar-i majlis guzar kard (Sa'di)
"a
wayfarer passed
by the assembly": cuitx* Îr^ ^tjtjj Ji^;d (jjr*-* fsiii^ khwahanda-t " an African 4 maghribt dar saff-i bazzazan-i Halab mi-guft (Sa'di) beggar
was saying in the company
5.3
of
some
(
cloth merchants in
' '
Aleppo
u!3
AT
"
Open the door!
Entrance who procurest,
And
guide the way,
Thou
of guides the surest
Directors, born of
men,
shall not direct
me,
!
" Their counsel comes to naught, but thou endurest (Whin. Trans. Rub. 449).
(q)
Noun
of
Agency
is
rarely used.
It is
some-
times used as a mere adjective, as: sîîo &J* mard-i bakhshanda (m.c.) <e a " khayll balchshanda (m.c.) very generous": generous man," and *xiu
^^
&>*>
jyU.
c/f
an jdnavar-i daranda-i^ st
(m.c.)
" that
is
a beast of prey."
An example
An
:
:
of Persian ***
ta'kid or ailxc mubalagha, not tautology or
hashtt-i qdblh,
2
gri,
" " bakhshaya da, bakh^hayandagl (class.) liberality bakhshandagi from : jumbidan darmandagi. (m.c.) jumândagl 8 Urdibihiaht-mah "month of Urdibihisht"; but Ur'Hbihfcht alone would stand The Zardushtis always add the word mah to the old names for 3rd day of the month.
as
l
Abstract noun can often be formed from the noun of agency by adding
;
'balch.8ha 'idan,
of the month.
*
Maghrib Barbary or Morocco: Mauritania.
USE OF THE TENSES.
535
Even
in
modern Persian
it is
occasionally used as a
noun
of agency,
o*~^ klst kubanda-yi dar? (Prof. S. T.) "who is it that knocks at the door ?": ^ o,^ tî^y â.^^ an shakhs navtsanda-yi khub-1 's " " he is a oi i*>f asl writer an
as: )* a*x>r
(m.c.)
jt
good
^^ ^
jdnavar gazanda
(m.c.)
o>
i&&' kushanda-yi " " sdzanda

(m.c.)
ust
;
singer
(me.) = o^y JLJ15 qatil-i ust (m.c.): ^)U " 8Â?j raqsanda (m.c.) ^;i^J navdzanda "player
;
"dancer":
(2)
c^\^c
>ij(yL
khwananda ml-ddnad
lei
(H.B.) "thereadei
can easily guess that
".
is
The following
an Afghan idiom
}
Ôwiyô
^ s*^ .Jlwiaj A&jl^^j

^;
bar jahdz-t ki bi-ddn taraf ravanda bud savdr shudam " I embarked in a ship that was on the point of sailing for that country." In modern Persian *^ A;i bi-ddn tardf ravdn bud, or uj'o iJ^tJiAj o^ji rfar
o^tV
(J^ >>.-o j* dar sadad-i raftan-i bi-ddn taraf bud, or .>j would be used. bud îjL>; raftam The Future Noun of or (r) Participle Possibility, formed by adding the
sharaf-i raftan bi-dan taraf bud, or
J;feJ|j)j
^M
c?^ ya-y* Uyaqat to the Infinitive,

:
is
illustrated
by the following
examples
''Christ
Hazrat-i Masth da,r 'alam amadanl bud (m.o.) had to (or was to) come into the world" ^^>/ oJty*^ jyA&jKj! az kar-i shudam nami-tavdn gurikht (m.c.) "it is impossible to escape what " <** is destined, what has to happen ^Û ^_êr0ê^ ^? u**" mahz-i
:
& t/^f f^ ^ f^ ^j***

m
tark-i
vatan dar
jazira
mandani shudam
:
(m.c.)
"by
leaving
my home
have
had to remain in this island" <î">j- aukhtam (m.c.) "fit to be burned," or " for burning" o^r^ khwurdani " what has to be eaten" khwurdariiha* "eatables": (*l ^>) ^^ ma n raftam am (me.) U^Jiî, " " I have to s ^-HJJ t5 r* <-^ e;^ j*^- ** wa khayr in gul murdam mst go now
:
)<3
" not (m.c.)
at
all, this flower will not die (said of
AÂ Jiar healthy)": ,i^ " what has to happen, will happen." (s) The Infinitive is used as a noun, as: raftan-i
J
o*J^
a pot that doesn't look chi shudam' st mi-shavad* (m.c.)
man
khub
riist
V-^" .U
az raftanhd yi
shumd bi-hammam
"I'm
tired of
'djiz shudam fU^. AJ l>^ these everlasting goings to the bath":
daru gh-guftanha " tellings of lies"; eJ-^/li cue Us! ita'at na-kardan (in m.c. As a verbal noun it may govern the gen. na-kardan) "disobedience."
genitive, as:
j!
u& ^J
baray-i kushtan-i
u "for the
:
killing
him."
It
can also govern the accusative in such constructions, as

l
Corresponds to the Hindustani idiom jane-wala. Participle can be used in the plural. ^ wi*danlat ya malldanl (m.c.)? #V}^ h*
Note that the Future
In dava
Ichur-
^^^
is
An
But
unusual expression,
if
correct
cJ^ *V:$
4
or
^^ ^^^
khuahk ahudan
or
pazhmwda ahudan
*
*l>
used for plants, but cWj' murdan of trees.
\^
**-j* harchi bada bad (m.c.)
happen what may."
536
USE OF THE TENSES.
\)
" Majnun's ^*! muldqdt kardan-i Majnun Layil rd (Heading of a Chapter) " jo *Uf o, rd Laili kushtan Verbal ^Û ^Li/ fuldn f^ .(vide Nouns): meeting
nist
gundh
cu^j
B'J
uiU î^/ kushtan-i fuldn gundh

is
riist.
(2)
In
classical Persian, the negative of the Infinitive is usually
formed
with nd but in modern Persian na

(3)
preferred.
The
Infinitive of a Transitive
Verb
is
often used in an intransitive
<^J&j |^| they banded him over for their killing him)." (t) Just as the Perfect Tense signifies that the speaker was not present [vide (k) ], so the Continuative Perfect gives the same notion, but with the idea
*xi,i!d
sense, as:
(lit.
wra
bi- kushtan
dddand "he was handed over to be
killed
of continuance.
This Continuative Perfect
is
rarely
if
ever used in classical
Persian,
its
is
13
Perfect
a^jj/o
place being supplied by the Imperfect. rare even in modern Persian. Examples
The Continuative
:
td hdl
mi-karda
ejJU
JU.
and " they have been doing
this
up
till
now "
tit J* toj^>
aî'l (j^!/^ e^~ji>ia. ^Jj
c^f 8.^k ^Jy

;
ast vail chand-i'st bi-lcharab\ uftdda
]ulan shahr dah sal ast taraqqi mi-karda here o^t ^,ô _^3 taraqqi mz-karda ast
(
has been rising, was rising" not be so forcible.
11
*j+* mi-kard could be substituted but would

j<j)lL*jf
In the sentence
o**oi
tj
&j^ /* j
^xb ^ JJÂX>
jtj^yT (.5^
jJtâo.juo
^f^ji
âx~*o
*$
XtXl^
\^\
l
/w
wm
dida-l ki
dar masjid tstdda Qur*dn
mi-khwdnda vasar-i khud rd pdyin ml-dvarda va buland mi-karda ast* "have you seen him standing in the mosque while he was reading the Qoran, etc., etc.?"
similar
The Continuative Perfect of the Subjunctive is used in a manner as the same tense in the Indicative, but expresses a tf t; Ifif *$ tyt JUS^t doubt, as ^j o-| Aii^x* ; ÛUJU- tf f\ >J^ xil Ai^f jjf uj^j <JiaJ| -*afcij) shunida am ki Musalmdndn rd ml-kushta ast ^/o
Remark.
:
f
valiihtimdl ddrad ki dnhd rd ki wdjib^l-qatlbudd-and mi-kushta bdshad
"I
have heard that he has been

been
killing those that are
is
killing
Muslims but
modern Persian, but

(u)
(v)
worthy of death." common in Abu'l FazZand in the Humdyun-Ndma.
probable that he has This tense is not used in

it is
The Continuative Pluperfect is not used in Persian. The Imperative is in m.c. sometimes used in a precative
;
sense, as:
|*k Khudd 'umr-at bi-dih (vulg. for dihad) "God grant thee a e^*. " in classical Persian, the Optative form *^ dihdd would probably long life * be used in this instance.
AJ
Note omission
<X>I^>
ij
of ra, the
verb being a compound

'
o^t^
cfjJ
Qur*an khwandan
the
but
**'
effjJ
Qur*an ra Tchwanda id
Have you read

p. 87.
Qoran?"
(i.e.
he whole
2
of
it).
Example from
St. Claire Tisdall's
Grammar,
USE OF THE TENSES.
537
However, the 2nd Pers. Impera.

tively as
:
is
even
in classical Persian
used preca-
Yd Rabb!
tu
mard tawba dih u
'uzr pazir
Ay
!
tawba-dih u 'uzr-pazir-i
hama
kas
"Grant me repentance, and accept my plea, " Thou who dost accept the pleas of all (0. K. 278 Whin.)
!
The Continuative Imperative formed by

used in m.c.
1
prefixing
ml or harm
:
is
not
it is
common
only in poetry
Oar
Also negatively
rahat-i javidan
tama mi-dan
(
Ml-ranj hamisha u ma-ranjan kas rd.

LfJ1 ^^'
J^V^4^
is
C5* (Qa*anl).
The negative
of the Imperative
classically
formed by prefixing
AJ is
<*-<>,
but
in m.c. the less forcible
In rd guftd bash
In rd Icarda bdsh, an Afghan idiom
1
<J&* Ali?
and consequently more polite " continue

tj
preferred.
<j*lj
:
saying this," (Jk **f \> i&\ ALJiJ, nishasta bash, etc!, is an Indian and perhaps
^f
it is
not good Persian.
Instead, the m.c. Continuative Particle hay

is
is
prefixed, as
(^^ t5*, hay
bi-Jcan.
of
For the same reason the Pres. Fut. the Imperative ^j^ ml-ramd " you
2
:
often used in transmitting orders, instead
will
go
"
for &}.jj* bi-ravid
"go."
CHAPTER
126(a)
XVII.
Subjunctive Mood.
The Persians use the Subjunctive more frequently than the English
use
it.
The verb in the subjunctive sentence is under the subjection of a Conjunction, which in m.c. is frequently understood. Uncertainty is generally
supposed.
:
Conjunctions introducing the Subjunctive are &> fj& giram-ki, t U^JL* sallamnd ki "granted": A&Jt j J^k/o mashrut bar in-ki, idoj&> bi-sharfa " " " 1 " ki "provided if agar Uy farzan ^j* farz kun supposing"
: ,
*[,&.
khwah * " whether

a&jf
I*)},*
'
';
a&jf^
juz mki,
A&J|
^Lo magar mki

agarchi, J^y*
:
'
unless",*
and
etc.
bidun-i inki, etc.,
" " "though ", and ^.^^Îd-vujud-i ki, etc. although " however much; notwithstanding": $ ta, and tf ki " &o<*|jia. chandan-ki " " ere" that *Cfjt cf^* pish az an ki J&xUj ^Jutj' JLw â6Z az mki before *S ki mabdda fiUx ki etc. clauses "when"; "lest", vaqt-t Subjunctive *X are also introduced by the relatives whoever 8 j& har-ki, A^fyfc har-an " whatever 4 " and *$ ki, etc. and AA. yfc har-chi or *suf y> har-an chi oJj yk
;
; ;
"except"; *^/l
harchand, ;^y> har qadr,
'
'
âr vagi ki (mod.) " whenever." From the above remarks it will be seen that the Subjunctive Mood is generally employed to express a condition, desire, intention, doubt, or end,
&&jS
SU
0-4*3
fcjj***-
^b
&)$
&
t* Mji^j o^*>^
JU j| ^vt
A^
4>ilj
bashad
ki
taraft az mal-i
ma
"
dast bi-ddrand ki darigb bashad ki chandin ni'mat zati'

(it
gardad (Sa'di) perhaps our property to us, for

be lost *y
may be
that) they will give back a portion of
it
f
"
would be a pity that so much wealth should
[in m.c.
*'
crr-A
^^ *$ f^j ^^^ o**a
JL
^^
jt
*$ *>\~
J'-^'J >.^- **HS!'
shayad ki az
ba^z-l mal-i
ma dast bar darand zira ki jd-yi afsus
ast ki in
hama
chiz
pdy-mdl shavad].
In m.c. also hargah, chunanchi, har angah, and agar chunanchi " if." Khwah hayvan bashad ya insan, kushta khwahad shud (m.c.) " whether
it
it
be
man
or beast,
S
shall be killed."
&&\}S*.
&
bi-qodr-i
the thief,
^^t ^3^ *^ har ki duzd oat chub-i y^s vsJlkXit ^J )<&> j\ " yak angusht daraz jchwahad s'tud (class.) (He said) the stick of whoever is will grow one finger's breadth in length * here ast is used because one
'
:
v^
of those present
*
was the
thief
bashad would throw a doubt on the matter.

(m.c.)
to
b
do "
(i^J (*tj*
;
*+J* karchi bi-guyam bi-kun

&t
" do whatever
I tell I
you at any time

telling
but (^J ^.^f^
^j^ harchi ml-guyam bi-kun
"do what
am now
you
o do."
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Remark.
It
539
should be observed that

direct
in all its significations, except

is
when introducing
Subjunctive
fjf
:
and indirect narration,

mi-guyad
ki
usually followed
(indirect), or
<x>f
^ ^^
**
nami-ayad
by the
*ii&*
mi-guyad ki nami-dyam (direct)

(b)
"he says he won't come."

is
1 English in the Infinitive, in modern Persian it is usually in the Present Subjunctive, even when " C( I wish to go the principal verb is in a past tense, as p^> ( *
When
the
second of
two verbs
in
^5^*
"who
iy
mi-khwaham
fM>'#
\+*
(H
2
)
bi-ravam
"I
seized
him
to
bring
him before you"

:
gave you
^ u LT-t /***/ b?' leave to enter my
giriftam
td
pish-i
shuma biyavaram
AJ
&> &\&
harem"
^f
j& eô j-^
c/jUa &
mi-a>i might turd ki ijdzat dad ki bi-haram-i man dar a*i\ (here ^'f be used, but with the signification 'since you are coming'):
fJ!->^
p*3j>
jjJo
&A.
namiddnam
dance," p**^* don't know in what manner I
but
chi
&*.
tawr bi-raqsam
"I
don't
know how
to
îi^J naml-danam chi tawr mi-raqsam "I am dancing"; vide 123 (6) (4):
".
:
(m.c.)
" whoever wishes to
In
"k
classical
Persian the Infinitive was also used, as

<J*0
er--?
8
-+*
eJH^y^ cr^'i
nsh-i darun-ash khardshidan

it
(^y maslahat na-didam az in bish va namak pdshidan (Sa'di) " I did not consider
further or rub salt on it"
:
advisable to probe his

>&>!
wound
i\j
{b)i
*t ojtf ÛaJ
j^xfiS
oâ.
<xjy
Luqmdn
:
guft ki
hikmat bd ishdn gu/tan (Sa'di) " Luqman replied that waste the words of wisdom on them " ÛxSu 31 AJ
&f c)^)^-
darigh bdshad kalima-yi it would be a pity to
^^ &*. *' &sj>
tj<\ oJ
fl'w/^ andisha kardan ki chi guyam bih az pashimdni khwurdan îis Ija. ki chira guftam (Sa'di) "he* replied it is better to think before-hand what to say than to regret afterwards for having spoken." 6
^-j &f & )ô ^.j a^^ sukhan bar in muqarrar shud ki yak-i rd bi-tajassus-i ishdn bar gumdshtand (Sa'di) "it was decided to despatch some one to spy on them (the robbers) ", the
In, ^*il*
.j
Remark.
^l&jf ^JM^SU AJ
|^
Preterite
used instead of the Present Subjunctive to show that the order was carried into effect. Vide page 514.
is
'
are instances of the Present Subjunctive used instead " I did this before I arrived in Kerman " of the Past Indicative in English
(c)
:
The folio wing
a
8
Expressing command, desire, object, consequence, etc. In m.c., these Conjunctions would probably be omitted.
In modern Persian ki In modern Pers

*$
bi-kharasham.
cA-*^Lj
^^
&Z
o*~>f
^(jf
y^j
^j^x>
AA.
Ai
^J^xw
**'
f*
',^ ff u ft biyandlsham ki chi bi-guyam bihtar az an ast ki pathlman bi-shavam ki

6
chira guftam.
Note the
direct narration in Persian.
540
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
az
bi-
Kirman
bi-rasam
in
cv
Tear
rd kardam; "this happened before I was born" f> <x>y a&f j\ <Jty pish az an ki tavallud shavam in vagi' shud: "I feared lest he &tj
* f^y^/o mi-tarsidam ki mard nafrin kunad ^j aA&t j &&*& f)ja* ijejjxJi ^.j* u^J *~ j* ;l*4rf'e)f *&T j! (J^ * (rn.c.) ""k *-*** *xjf ^>A- ) &^j) )\ (*^ c^'Ay lf&('ji cy'-^r2 vT j va pish az dnki an u bi-chdra bi-rasad nass-i sarih-i al-haris mahrum latifa-i bar angikhta bud va
might curse
;
me
' '
^ i^&
ij*
*t
*'
hirman bar atash-i sawdd-yi khdm-i u rikhta va sabab-ash dnki t: and before that helpless one coulp (Anv. Suh. Chap. I. Introd. St. 3) 8 arrive there, ill fortunes had poured the water of disappointment on the fire
za'f-i tali' ab-i
of its crude
" wish and the reason was as follows
p.
" two or three hours before I saw you the Sardar ordered me to " there were few who did not or would not throw bath" to the money go &$ j : was "there the A'^J scarcely a man (to Story-teller)" ^3!^J J r " <^<* *$ but " there was who would not give me money JtJ (^ ay ^<^
311)
:
.) p) pl>*. M alLoy^yjy.
fy tf
^ y j^x,_(Tr.
^
(East. Trans.)
o*cL* *
H. B. Chap. XXXVIII,
scarcely a
man
that did not give

*
me money "
,MM J^J ^*J *^

'
^ ^^f p'
"few
remained behind in the city who did not come" ( *io^LJ or) *x;^ *& *>&\* after that ,' etc., the modern After such expressions as before that/ Present Persians prefer to use the Subjunctive. This tense may, and does,
.
give rise to ambiguity. In the sentence, "This happened before I was born" the Present Subjunctive causes no ambiguity as it is evident that the
speaker has been born but in <y>J &> *^T (J^J c^*^'"* C*"* ^*/ A>'J *&^ J' LT-^ f> pish az dnki vdrid-i Kirman shavam mdni'-i pish dmada bi-Tazd raftam,
;
the Present Subjunctive leaves
it
doubtful whether the speaker reached
Kirman
or not; he
may have
3'
reached Kirman or he
may
not.
But
in,
f*Jd \)j {***>)
^1
*îf
cr-^ pish az dnki dnjd rasidam urd

'
didam
it is
clear
from the Preterite that I did reach
there/
" (d) After ^îly tavdnistan the verbs (^^.^ bdyistan and
introduced by ki [vide
used, as:
to be able
"
or its equivalent 4 shudan,

either the
and
e^J^
],
shdyistan,
Subjunctive
Remark
:
to (a)
or the shortened Infinitive can be
>jUi fj AJ^ na-bdyad in kdr rd bi-kuni, or j^' in kdr rd na-bdyad kard*) j&> !; ^1 (yty^J, or &jf \) ^1 c>tA+i nami-tavdn *' in rd kard* or nami-tavdni inrd bi-kuni : fyiw f; &J&&J, or ^.^ \y \&\ tj&W
<^*
f;j^
e*!'
nami-shavadin rd kharid
?,
or nami-shavadkiin rd bi-kharam
*^&*-> *f;
*&, or
reach
*
From the Subjunctive here, it is not known whether Kerman with rasidam there would be no doubt.
:
the speaker did or did not
Or Or
*J
du'a-yibad. arrived."
^l^
*
6 6
&}* (ô mi-shavad, and ^^ tni-shud, and ^* s/iwd. This latter might also mean " we (or one) must not do this." This might mean " we, they, or you can't do this."
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
raA bi-yuftim or
:
541
must
<*T
start
"
(*A# *A
&%ad m& w/^ "we ought to start, we " jjli shayad bi-ydyad perhaps he may come"
1
;
JulA> shayad mi-dyad (m.c.) "perhaps he will come"): tj ~J6 In kdr rd na-shdyad kard, or ; ; fc ^| *T <x,UJ ,y turd na-shdyad ki In kdr rd bi-kuni "it is not suitable for you to do this."
^
;
The Future 2 Indicative sometimes takes the place of the Future 3 " Subjunctive; "I would go through fire and water for you \> &jL. y ^j (fjf*l tf* or ^'*Jf f* y* u^l? vf ^ bardy-i tu khud rd dardb u dtash khwd(e)
f
ham anddkht
see
(or
mi-anddzam)
but
in,
" Did you think
I
is
(
would not come to

introduced by ki
)
you to-day?", the Persian subordinate clause and must be in the Present Subjunctive or Aorist; ^/o
^jUi
jjjycf
?
Af
***j*
y Jl*^
tu
y
l
ÂJJJ
:
bi-lchaydl-i
tu
mi-rasid
(ki)
man
bi-dldan-i
imruz
naydyam
^f
cr*
biydyld
(Xii^xj
(^
man gumdn kardam ki shumd diruz mi-dyid &f +$ oUf *^ ^ e ^ certain you would come yesterday," orx>U "I JA^-^ "I thought possibly you might come yesterday": e)U^ ^j î
(m.c.)
U^> A^
(or
cxiL^
owi cuiu** j^f^k khwdhad
^TI
zaAr chundn sakht ast ki
shumd rd ml-kushad
kusht)
you and will kill you", but AViXxx) &j you a^. l^f î^j to see what they are doing" (Present only) **** pl~*>j*# jjjl^^ ^t o>ftf b Ax>f LA\} guftay khuddwand biddr hastam chiguna duzddn khwdhand dmad (class, and m.c.) "he said 'O master, I'm awake; how can the thieves come ? " (*3^f ^*|^ or) A^V 3y' )\ ^ **j> ^^s^V gfi* hich bi-khaydlam na-rasid kiu imruz bi-ydyad, or khwdhad dmad (m.c.) " I never thought he would come
' '
:
"this poison is strong enough 4 to kill **& bi-kushad "is so strong that it might kill raftam bi-blnam dnhd chi ml-kunand I went
' '
'
to-day"; here the Pres. Subj. leaves it doubtful whether he did or did not come the Future gives the idea that he did come.
;
Note the
in
Pres. Subj. after
**U
shayad, which expresses a doubt.
The
Definite
Future
'*
modern Persian would be contrary to idiom. " and " are the " suitable ^*
;
In colloquial, *S jl& shayista shayad only parts of this verb used. perhaps In classical Persian the Future Indicative is frequently used in conditional
sentences where in modern Pers an the Present Subjunctive is used Vide 128. 3 In their enchantnot is would would a as "he often English, regard past tense, '* nlents but it is often hypothetical without any regular respect to time. After verbs ;
:
of wishing it denotes
a future event as " I wish
it
would rain
"^^J
u*'^
kash birbarad
(not Future).
tional
In conditional clauses, it denotes hypothetical hearken to reason " ; "if his wife would have permitted him."
desire, as: "if
he would
It also expresses condi-
my
son."
*
and ardent desire, as " Would to God I had died It h is numerous other significations.
:
for thee,
oh Absalom,
my
son,
But C^-ÂAM;
you." Or Xx.jf
af
j^j
oivs &(**.
y^j
killed
5
^>-^>iîô mi-tavaniat bi-kushad
chunan sakht bud " was so strong that it
Jci
shuma
ra ml-Jcusht or
.night have, could
have
m l-ayand (m.c.),
or ml-tavanand bi-yayand <A l#
^^^
("i.e.)-
542
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
In classical Persian, the Future Indicative is frequently used where modern Persian requires the Present Subjunctive, as f*M >&j*\* ttfj* ma har du khwdhlm amad an rd vrJj? *t* f*> f/Jf **T guftand ki hargdh
:
l
^ *&
take
khwdhim
it
ginft
(class.)
,
"whenever we both
here
Ax>f
of
us return
we
will
(the
" deposit) ba?k

we
shall
:
we
return as
do
'
;
preferred did turd ydd

ring on
tj$
^ fA
y**
& ty *!* f*'^ [/ j&

(class.)
Tchwdhim amad gives the force* when fi in modern Persian ^'^ bi-ydylm would be
A ty*-
*^ A
in
hargdh yddgdr-i turd khwdham

I shall see
khwdham kard
" whenever
my
"
finger) I will recollect
f*>^ )^ *JA f *'^ f^? Mj* hargdh bi-chashm-i khud khwdham did " whenever (if) I see it with my own eyes I will bdvar khwdham kard (class.)
believe
you";
your keepsake (the mod. Pers. pi*> lubi-biham:
^jj
AJ
here there is no apparent necessity for the Future and biblnam would probably be better in classical as it is in modern
it
;
Persian.
(/)
The Perfect Subjunctive

be
is
:
used to express doubt where the Present
would obviously not

pish az
correct
*U
jWoJ*T
?
&f
OAXWO
j&iiij(
m In qadr mihnat ki kashlda bdshad

:
~*s>>^ tl *$ kashlda ast would be useJ) ^-> **&j*i J^jj* qabul nami-kunam ki Shu'la Khdnum sdhib-i In amr buda bdshad (m.c.) " I will not believe that Shu'la Khanum can have done this"; o~*f ^j buda ast
(class.),
(but in m.c.
^^
^^
"has done this"

*'
oîlj
*&> y^
^ &Lc>) vasla va rufu
it
has not,
^
s
hope, been patched and darned ? namak-i tu kur-am kunad agar khlldf
I
"
na-shuda bdshad'1 (m.c.)

.
^^ ollk^fi îr^y y ,JUJ

{
may your
salt blind
me,
if I
arz karda bdsham* (m.c.) have misrepresented the facts*": *?><$
iu gulula bi man na-khurda bdshadl (m.c.) " I hope that I may not " have been hit, I haven't been hit, have I ? ^~~# c^lr )* <^r* ** *V. 3 ^JJib aiA^ ^-w.f; oJL&4Eu ) va guyand ki kas dar sardy nlst va bi-haqlqdt rdst gufta bdshand* (Sa'di) " and they (the coarse ruffians at the door) say there is no one at home and in fact they may have spoken the truth in so saying '
:
'
'
Û. j^k ^*AJ jfyk hargiz bi-'umr-i khud churiin hamla na-dida bdshand (class.) "I don't suppose 6 they had ever in their lives seen such a furious onslaught."
<*\lj
BJJ*;
&Ua.
the Past Indicative is in m.c. often used for (<7) (1) As already stated, 125 (g) last example. the Present Indicative: vide
In m.c. hargah means "if"; and har vaqt
is
used for "whenever."

should
I
Agar
jchi'.af
'arz
kunam
p& uj* o^^lt
misrepresent matters''
(immediate future).
8
Pres. Subj. expressing wish, desire.
In
mod. Pers. either

;
<*^ A*^ ^L
shayad gufta bashand, or
***& v^ftxaay
birhaqlqat gujta and.

6
If ^| 8iX)v5 dlda and (without the doubt and the sentance would then
X>^ ehayad) were used it would do away with mean " they never saw."
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
This
is
543
also in m.c. the case with the Subjunctive, as
'arz
rm-kunam
ki
agarqdliyi khub-i khwdsta bdshid

hargiz na-dlda bdshid
3
chiz-i nishdn-i
tan
mi diham*
ki misl-ash ra
*U
(m.c.) "let me say that if you want (wanted, were wanting) a really good carpet, I will show you something the like of which AJ o*-| .x I don't suppose you have ever seen" o-y ^r+J ;t-i.*j ^&.
:
*^>>
Jjs
A-Î^-J
\)
^v
^ ^'j
<-M^
bi-man navisht ki bi-mushdr un ilayh
hukm shuda ast bi-Kdbul rafta hisdb-i kh,ud ra parddkhta ma'zul buda bdshad (Memoirs Amir Abd"r-Rahman, Vol. I, p. 123); in mod. Pers. bi-shavad
:
umidvar-am ki vujud-i mubdrak at js^j cuÛx) .^.j ^fj-xj^c| ft l hope you may* have been well"; bi-saldmatbuda bdshad (mod. letter)
^-ib
*j^*X*j
aS'
here ^lj bdshad alone, or

(2)
^~t
asJ,
would
also be correct.
is
In the following, the Preterite Indicative
used for the Aorist:

(for *j>^ bi-dyad
5
)
*y t5* LS^** fi ^=?^. OAÎ^X) )& o^cf j AÂ harchi kam dar muraja'at bi-mjd kdr-sdzi mi-shavad (Vazir-i
is
dmad
Lankaran)
"whatever
(may
be) short in the
money
is
(/).
now
give you, will be settled
when you
return here"; this sentence

tence.
practically equivalent to a conditional sen-
Vide
128
(e)
and
" to have, (h) As the Aorist or Pres. Subj. of (^Jib ddshtan signifies the Past. Subj. of this verb is usually used instead of the Present; ow*t &}*>)* *lj aJUb Ji* tZijt^j* hw chlz-l ki mayl ddshta bdshld (or ^jlo
"
ddnd do want) mawjud

ready there."
(i)
ast (m.c.)
"whatever you may happen to want
is
The Past Habitual, the Imperfect

!>* j'
Indicative, take
<**)$)$
Indicative, and the Pluperfect the place of certain tenses in the Subjunctive Mood ** *) f c^lrf ) va avdz-i bar dvard ki murgh azhavd dar dvardi
:
(Sa'di)"and he sang with a voice that might have brought 6 down the very birds to listen to him" in modern Persian ^/f mi-avard would be used here for the Past Habitual. 7 Vide also 127 (c) jl), Remark.
:
(;)
Present
libds-i
In the following Afghan m.c. sentences, the Imperfects should be Subjunctives f j>yV<> J^ ]yf ** *& jL* ^ va dtgar khushk na-bud ki an ra badal ml-kardam (Afghan in modern Pers.
:
J^ ^d
;
'ivaz
bi-kunam)
fj^f
^ ^j**. ^
j'^/l agar
Or ^-J^^^ bi-khwahid
Note Future Indicative.
'
if
you want."
:
na3 The Past Subj. here indicates doubt, I don't suppose' *jl **>**jfj* hargiz the like of which I'm sure you aida Id could be used, but the doubt would vanish, " have never seen."
* i.e.
6
have been
all
along and
still are.
o.l
*
"
The The Past Habitual
*^y* harchi Team ast would mean that the protasis or if-clause is understood.
money
is
not
sufficient.
is
not used in m.c.
544
jahdz
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
ham gharq nami-shud chiz-i no-bud ki mi-dvardam (Afghan: modern Persian fj>y# bi-ydvaram).
(k)
Note the following examples

\))\
v.*U*f
&$
<_ûA.
^^ jj^^
l
\j
^^ ^^.(^
ixU
&.&jt *z~j$
^^Z
&$
^j(
s^jXij
cuf
sdhib'dil-i
rd pursidand bi-din
;
khubl ki dftdb ast na-shunida im ki kas-i urd dust ginfta bdshad the Subj. here expresses the doubt. Compare eu-^$ \j t$ ** *>\ Uf ^*O.SL 3îb AJ^J dyd shunida id ki shakhs-i an khdnum rd dust bdshad girifta
^^ ^
"have you ever heard that any one has ever made love to that lady ? (I think no one has ever has)," but **~\ **/ girifla ast would mean " have i.e. the latter tense you heard that So-and-so has taken her as a mistress
' '
:
would
X*ÂJ
fj
refer to the present

U-jf
(-d
&>
AJJ
was beyond his sagacity to understand this " if A****** mi-fahmid were used, it would signify surprise that he was understanding or did understand
*'it
;
time rather than to the past. l^j ;> ex*|y ;*&. in qodr firdsat dar u kujd bud ki in imd^rd bi-fahmad
t
it.
For the Continuative Perfect Remark.

(1)
of
the Subjunctive,
vide
125
(t),
(ra)
Note the
:
signification of the Subjunctive in the
the following
es-;.^
<JW
second example of
*^ J^
*t ; J
^M
qadr bi-paz ki mi-tavdni bi-
cook only such a quantity as you are able to consume (now)," but t5jj>^ t^'^V &* J*v ^ )&&*}! in qadar bi-paz ki bi-tavdni bi-khwuri *'cook only such a quantity as you may be able to consume at any time."
khwuri
'*
In modern Persian dust dashta bashad.
CHAPTER
127.
XVIII.
COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

Conditional, Coordinate, and Optative Clauses.
When a sentence is expanded by explanatory clauses it is called a Complex sentence, and the explanatory clauses are called subordinate clauses.
Adverbial clauses include Conditional, Optative, Concessional, Temporal, Local, and Modal clauses. In other words adverbial clauses place conditions
on the action
of the principal clause,
and
limit it as to time, place,
manner
1 object or cause.
Other Subordinate clauses are, Relative and Predicative clauses, vide

130 and
131.
first
Adverbial clauses will be treated
Conditional (Adverbial) clause limits the action or state of the (a) principal clause, and is introduced by^âgar 'if ', or some particle of kindred 2 The conditional or subordinate clause generally stands first, and meaning.
is
therefore called the protasis
3oj&
and
is
followed
(
by the
).
principal
clause or consequent proposition called the apodosis
*]>^ or wf>x
Remark.
The Apodosis
of
a command as
I'll
^.^
is
bi-guyam in ty *>;&
called
LXJ
biyd bi-guyam turn
"come
here and
tell
the Apodosis of an oath as in
"by God
won't come, "
^T
you,"
8
-
&*>
j4 t*^ bi-Khuda man nami-ayam
v'>^> while
is
called
p~3 vL**-
(6) There are three classes of conditions, viz. (1) impossible, or those that might have been and were not realized or that cannot be realized or that are mere suppositions and (2) possible, or those which may be (or may
;
have been) realized;

In
conditions in which the apodosis or if-clause is understood; these latter belong partly to (1) and partly to (2).
(3)
(c)
classical
Persian, as
also
in the
Afghan and Indian spoken
language, the tense most in use for the first class of conditions is the Past Habitual, obsolete in the m.c. of Persia. This tense is interchangeable with the
2
8
" Vide " The Syntax and Idiom of Hindustani by Kempson. Expressed or understood. In m.c. the Conjunctions are frequently omitted.
The
Conditional
to
particles ()j
Ojj=**
are,
agar,
gar,)\ ar, cJj^- chun,

c),?^
f*. ohu,
and according
Indian grammarians the temporal conjunctions

agarchi,
chun,
4xljj
vaqti ki, etc., etc., as well as the concessional AJ*^'
and **y> harki, *^>k harchi,

.
^'j*
har kas, Uyfc harja
^^j* harchand, etc., and l^Â har kuja

:
ty
^T^-*
vaqtrl ki
mi ayam tura khwaham
t.aldbld,
and
^b t5^
Aj
vaqt-l ki bagh-i jc&ub-i dari blrun
ma-raw, are according to them Conditional
sentences.
35
546
Imperfect
CONDITIONAL, COORDINATE, AND OPTATIVE CLAUSES.

Indicative,
1
the
same tense being used

the
in the
protasis
:
and
the other in apodosis, or one in one, and

'
other.
Examples
ayn-i haqlqat ast ki agar dar silk-i suhbat-i an baddn tarbiyat yafti'*' yak-i az inshdn shudi (Sa'di) "it is quite true that had he remained in the constant
society of those evil
<j-JJ^^J
men, he would have become one

\
of
them
(Sa'di)
dar
Û. jf ^ty ^XAf *jf dmad bi-sadmat-i ki agar kuh

roots, a
A^xixJ^-e AJ **of
i
)Z> o~*> pisar dhanm budi az jay bar kandi
"the
of
boy entered up from its
(the arena) like a mast elephant, with a shock sufficient to tear
mountain
it
of
iron"
its
"
(lit.
if it
had been a mountain
iron, he would have torn
up from
place)."
Gar na-budi umrmd-i rahat u ranj Pd-yi darmsh bar falak budi Var Vazir az Khuda
bi-tarsidi
8
Ham-churian k'az malik,
malak
budi
(Sa'di).
Were there no daily anxiety (for food and clothing), The darvish's rank would be 4 high as the sky.
If
the Vazir were to fear *

fears the king,
t***)
God
1
As he
t^
3'
he would* be an angel.
(/* ^ c^
J^V*
^*^
-^
Jl-fl*'
Ij
Ujl
agar shuma rd
had you insaj budi va mara qaria'at, rasm-i svfal az jahdn bar khdsti (Sa'di) 8 of would custom from the the I and content, begging disappear justice
"
world".
i.5^^ 3^ toj* Ah ! agar murda bdz gardidi *

Bi-miydn-i qabtla u-payvand
*l*xJ
e;U^
J>\
(Sa'di;.
" Ah
if
the dead were to return,
To
his friends
and connections."
iq-i
qadr-i
(Sa'di)
(6).
man
1
dnastl
ki bd zdgb-\ bar divdr-i bdgh-i

126
(i)
khirdmdn hami-raftami
is
Vide example in
wh?re the protasis

in India
understood, and also

this final
125 (h)
In
8
*
classical Persian,
and
and Afghanistan,
is
majhul
(e).
Example
of
^5^ u^?^
tajnla-i Mkattj.
Note the time. Though future, the first condition is one impossible of fulfilment ; while later, the same tense is used to express past time, for conditions that might have been, but were n t or could not be, fulfilled. 6 From an obsolete verb, "to be": aste = ast in ancient Pers. Later aste is used only for the Past Habitual. In mod. Pers., no-bud, or na-ml-bud, or na-bashad would
be used in prose.

*'
547
rather were
it fitting
garden wall in company with a parrot).
dignity that I should be strutting proudly on a ' ' 1 with a fellow magpie (said by a magpie imprisoned
my
Sud-i darya riik budi gar na-budl bim-i mawj Suhbat-i gul khush b&di % gar nisti tashwsh-i khar
(Sa'di).
"The
be great were there not profit the terror of the deep. Pleasant would be companionship with the rose were it not 8
for the thorn."
from a sea voyage would
Agar Layla va Majnun zinda gashti*

Hadis-i 'ishq az
m da tar navishti*
f
(Sa'di).
Were
come to life Majnun would learn love's methods from this book They
Laila and
to
of
mine."
dam na-yuftadt balJci sayyad Tchud dam " na-nihadi (Sa'di) were it not for the pressure of hunger, no bird would fall into the snare, what's more no bird-catcher would ever set a snare."
jawr-i shikam na-budi hick murgh-i dar
Gar az
'ahd-i khurdit
yad amadi
Ki
Ki
If
bi-chara budl dar aghusli-i
man
jafd
6
Na-kardi dar in ruz bar

tu shir-mard-i
man
u man plra
zan
thou hadst remembered thy childhood's days When thou wert a helpless babe in these arms,
Thou wouldst not have been rough with me now
When
1
thou art a strapping fellow and I an old woman.
Zagh
is
give to birds or flowers.

is
the English magpie, but Persians are not very exact iri the names they Elsewhere in the same story the zagh is called a ghurab which
" raven." properly a

^ 8
Zagh
is
sometimes used intead of zaghcha
the chough."
Budl, poetical for budl. Note the Past Habit. for mere supposition referring to no special time.
,
though future, is expressed by the Past Also note the singular verbs, Laila and Majnun being by a poetical license In speaking, Laylq. is gener125 (h) (6). Also va for u. treated as one idea; vide also
*
Note that
this impossible supposition
Habitual.
ally Layli.
&
Note
Properly Tchurdiyyat read jchurdti for scansion. stand for the izafat this feminine pira, or does the
;
Persians
always
say plr-i mard,
plr-i zan, etc.
548
CONDITIONAL, COORDINATE, AND OPTATIVE CLAUSESRemark.
Sometimes the Protasis
is
understood, as:
UA/^ .~jtah.^Mj
^'ri* o*^'_>?
l
v u ^f^ v **"
1
u^
>j
|w'*'
'^f*
yuK-i
Q.Z
ishan ra ki
rd jalva-gari dmukhti va az tdb-i 'izdr kirishma-yi jamdl-ash arusdn-i bihisht ash dftdb-i jahdn-tdb bar dtash-i ghayrat bi-sukhti, chashm-i mast-ash (Anv.
and one of them (the damsels) the winning glance of whose beautv might have taught blandishment to the brides of Paradise (if )and at the glow of whose cheeks, the sun, which warms the world, was '* consumed 1 with the fire of jealousy whose languishing eye (East. Trans.).
Suh. Chap.
1, St. 8)
;
"
Vide also example in 126 (i). an Imperfect Indicative (2) In the following examples,
the Past Habitual without any change in meaning
:
is
substituted for
^Jt* Jr^
!X;^
tfijS'isW
-J*t*
u*^ o^yc^ff agar
murdja'at kardami
pidar mard qabul mi-kard "if I had returned it would " for better have been me, because my father would have received me back OJM T jii >>* L*M /** T^f j &y*p a) .& j*'-* ^&>S j& dar kashti hich badban jOy&x na-bud va agar ham mi-bud* dar an vaqt chi mi-kardam? "there was no sail in the boat, and even if there had been what could I have done with
bihtar budi* chirdki
;
f/tnf
it?
f*^*^ nami-kardam
:
"
\)
(m.c.)
ft e^' (*#>* cs* ^ " if I were

1
o*
I
^' agar
man
jd-yi tu
budam in kdr rd
:
you
would
not do this
"
8 ^* yy (*^* agar bd ishdn haldk mi-shudam bihtar mi-bud (m.c.) "had I " &*>* (^j oJ 9 <$ jt\ perished with them, it would have been better for me
:
<J&&
&\JL>\
i^^ jb agar an vaqt zamin dahan bdz mi-kard bi-khushi-yi ^XÂ/o }J> j*l*3 tamdm faru mi-raftam (Prof. S. T.) "had the earth only opened I would
^5^3*0
b u^J^^' O r) Wj^J>**- *( &# gladly have been swallowed up in it zy jile.) agar darin bdgjt si chiz-i digar bud (or mi-bud) bi-nazir bud (m.c.)
:
"
"if this garden had only contained three things more,
it
would have been
bi-qadr-i
mdya-yi khud zindagi mi-kardim in tuhi-dasti hargiz dast nami-ddd
(Prof. S. T.).
the previous examples it will be seen that the Imperfect Indicative (or the obsolete Past Habit.) can in conditions or supposii
Remark
L From
Or
In
might be consumed
classical Persian,
'
the Past Habit.

use.
ml-budam are
in
common
budami, and the Imperfect (*5^ (s* In modern Persian however the Past Indicative fty
^^
Sometimes however place of both these tenses. ^^J ^* ml-budam is still used for euphony, in conditional sentences. 8 Note that a supposition, almost with a future signification, can be expressed in the Imperfect Indicative. This might also mean " If I had been Persian
budam usually takes the
" the context would not have done this (qarlna or matlab) gives the time; either Past or Future time is indicated.
;
by
you,

tions refer
to
549
a time either past or future
l
;
as
' :
'
If
had wrestled
f*
(or
with him yesterday I would have thrown him" f^*> ^xfiX^t lijgj&'jA vV6) I; jl flj/flw diruz ba u kushti mi-giriftam ura zamm mi-zadam
(m.c.): fJ>v sh*an-i man

t>)
eri^
riist
l (V*^ cf*^ ^'-^' ^' J vs~-oJ <j.x> Ûi jjjSf layiq-i va-illd agar farda ba-u kushtl bi-giram ura bi-zarmn mt-zanam
';
-?'
f^Lr**
khwaham
zad) has the
f*^
i^*>?
t; 3!
î|^*i narni-danam agar bi-danam guftan" I don't know, but were I to know (as I may or ash mushlcil ast (not bud) " but JCk/o ^xiif I tell couldn't nami-danam not) may
ml-zadam: o~l
Jx*
f**^
va
*JZ5
agar
jar da,
same meaning as V> j $ b \bj* ba u kushti mi-girijtam ura bi-zamin

\
^^
^xiif
î,^j ^f|
^
f
p~j\^*jt\ ÎA>>
' '
agar rm-danistam guf tan-ash mushkil bud (not ^*l but even if I knew (as I certainly don't) I couldn't x tell
^j^j^xo
pty.*>
jjiijjxsj
ast)
dont know
"
:
e>
&$ f\& vl^
^Sj^/o ^X^,'
I Ji
;^+xi
lj
^'U
javab
dadam
layiq-i sh*an-i
man
nlst va ilia dar
JSlstij ,^Jf )& J/l ^ 0-JJ in panjah-salagl ba Timur
Aqa
kushti ml-giriftam *
zamm-ash ml-zadam mi-dldid
(Vaz!r-i
Lankaran)
"I
not fitting to my position, otherwise in spite of my fifty years, I would wrestle with Timur Aqa and throw him; you would see for
replied *it is
' " I was* yourself (lit. wrestling and was throwing, etc."). In modern Persian, the Imperfect Indicative is the tense most in use in
:
conditions,
though occasionally
;
its
place
is
supplied by
the
Pluperfect
Indicative as in English
vide (d) below.

classical
Remark
//.
For the
for the Pres. Subj. in a condition, vide
(and modern Afghan) use of the Imperfect 126 (j).
(d) In modern, and occasionally in classical Persian, the Pluperfect can >*< J? c/f take the place of the Imperfect in the protasis, as I; s man mi-didid budam dar chida ra an *j<xj^jjx> ô jjUf utaq-i gul fty agar " if I had would seen have would flower that (or (m.c.) see) you plucked
:
^
:
it
in
my room
' '
,ilw(
^ 1^
&iJli
J rt
^ ^^
)]
a.i/(!<XJ|
taraf
iqdam karda budim az an

The context
taraf fitna bar
$ f\ agaraz ir mala ml-uftad "had we or

<Jjbv\
decides the time, as
v-^jUg^
CÂXS
^buo
<UJ
xjl^t
Lcf
Uc|
agha, agar andaza-yi nlm-tana ma'lum ml-shud bisyar khub bud (Vazir-i Lank.) " here the context " but, Sir, if the size of the coat were known it would be better ;
j*
amma
had been known, it would have been better " o*t v_>^ (^*- *j&j f^-^ <3l^t j$ agar andaza ma'Jum bi-shavad Miayll khub ast would imply it was not possible to obtain the size of the garment but ^w>|tH^^'f f*\*+*
sh&ws that the meaning
is
not "
if it
&j* tACi^x) (Jixlftf
naml-danam; agar mi-daniatam guftan-ash mushkil bud
(m.c.)
"I don't
know, and
o**3t
c*>v/i.x3
if
I did I couldn*t tell,"
ij\.\.$$
^J(AJ
can equally well be expressed in m.c. by jf\ p>\**+> nami-danam agar bi-danam guftan-ash mushkil *ast (m.c.).
:
* The Imperfect Indicative is used in preference to the Present Subjunctive to indicate a supposition that is not likely to be fulfilled the Vazir's position forbids such an unseemly action as wrestling.
Or
"Hf*8
mi-chldam.
550
our part taken any action, the conspiracy would have been public " PÂ ^x) îs. ^J^j %^ C5*~f fAlj agar inhd bd-ham dshti karda budand khushnud mi-shudam (mod.) "if they had been reconciled (to each other)
cûU j^ c/f^ft jf ) ^$oy ***** ^\ agar an ruz 'dqibat-i in bi-dida budi va az kfrun rikhtan ijtindb karda budl dar in vaqt in vdqi'a ruy na-namudi (Anv. ** Sub., Chap. X, Story 2) if on that day thou hadst seen the conclusion of this affair, and had'st shunned to spill blood, this event would not now have ocI
should have been glad"

***'? e^'
*-&>^\
^^j e^
^
c^r** <*)
^5 (&\ )* C5*>?
8l>
curred, and such an adventure
would never have taken place "
(East. Tr.).
(e) Similar constructions in Optative Clauses (which are but a form of Conditional Clauses) occur after the optative word o*( kdsh, kdshk* " or &&kdshaki, and c5i>? ** chi budi, etc., "I wish that, would to Heaven r
^ZM
followed in classical and modern written Persian by the Past Habitual, and in modern colloquial by the Imperfect and Aorist ->'"*' ***** >* ** > V*"*** ****** J~ J* fA * fe3
i.e.
it
is
*<s^
^^
Kdsh k'dn ruz
ki dar pd-yi tu shud khdr-i ajal

!
Dast-i giti bi-zadi t\gh-i haldk-am bar sar
(Sa'df).
"Oh, would
that, the
Fortune's hand had 8
8 day death's thorn pierced thy foot struck me with the sword of destruction."
** & bd rafiqdn dhista mi-guft, c,hi budi ki man an darakht rd bi-ddnistami ki kujd ast td du'd kardami ki pidar-am bi-mirad (Sa'dl), "(The son said) Oh, would that I knew* where that tree is,
[
up a prayer for my father to die": C5 4*~i'd t^&ifc "would that I knew": &*>1 j^^ ^^ kdsh diruz mi-dmad (mod.) " would that he had come yesterday"; **f (^ \&j t>i kdsh fardd mi-dmad "would that he had come to-morrow (instead of
so that I might offer
kdshki ddnistami
<Jk kdsh fardd bi-ydyad " would that it would happen that he should arrive to-morrow": kdsh in javdn barddar-i shumd bud b
to -day)," but ^jl#
\*j
(^ (m.c.)
tamiz-i 6
ki
1
&*A
cuot
bi-tu
js^y
Ua* ^L
i^
&f C5-H*-*
(irt
u*^"
Khudd
'aid
karda ast dar
hama kas
This prefix *J would not be used in modern Persian.

m.c. iy zada bicd. J>3 Note that the time is past.
'
!
The meaning
is
'
would that
had died when thou

'
didst die
*
^ *& f&-> p-^J bi-kunam ki bi-mlrad would be Murdl the construction. pidar-am ordinary î*(Past Habitual) could be substituted for 3tftH bl-mlrad in the sentence above whether the two last verbs are both put in the Past Habitual or both in the Pres. Subj., makes no difference in the meaning.
Note that the meaning
is
*
would that
I were
knowing now
ta du'-a,
Kaah bud ty <J&

**
bl shad (m.c.) 6 For tamyiz.
" " would that he were (but he is not) would that he might turn out to be (as he may)."
(m.c.)
*b u*K
kash
551
bud
(m.c.)
"would that
all
possessed
that discretion which
God has
given to you."
Kdshki parsal in rd guftami ki urd kushtandi (old) ^Js$ l> e*N J^V <**~^ would that I had said this last year so that they might âil^T \) ,i t
'
him (by now)": if the Pres. Subj. xi.i> bi-kushand were here substituted for the Past Cond kushtandi, the time would be indefinite and
have
killed
might refer either to past, present, or future

Remark.
the
killing.
it will
From
the above-mentioned remarks,
be seen that both
Optative and Past Optative same tense.
can
in
Persian be represented by the
(/) In modern Persian, however, the Optative and Past Optative can both be represented by the Aorist or the Imperfect, and the Past Optative by the kdsh murakhkhasi ddda Pluperfect also, as: ( * ^* or) *?*.> JiM^ ^^yo
'
^4
"would that leave were granted" ^C* ,t (jM u rd famida bud (or mi-fahmid but not bi-fah+ if* or hukm kdsh ij >jj^. " would that he had understood the order " m.c. mad) y e>*^ 3! ^û Jifc " az man az da'vat budi kash would that
bi-shavad (or mi-shud*) m.c.,
(
^^j
t**~jj
pish
purslda
had asked me before issuing the invitation": fu>

mutavallid na-shuda
I
^>
,
budam
(or
f*
*Jj**
naml-shudam)
m.c.,
you c$&K kdshki "would that
had never been born."

This Aorist construction
is
also admissible in classical Persian as
Kdshki qimat-i anfds bi-ddnandi khalq, Td dam-i chand ki mdnand, ghammat shimurand.
(Tayyibdt-i Sa'di)
"
Would that people knew the value of life That these few moments they have to live, they might not
" Until
I
'
waste.
say
would that God would

in place of that
Sacrifice
(g)
me
youth
"^(
Conditional
:
clauses
By inverting the order and substituting ki for agar, 8 may occasionally be changed into predicative clauses, as
nice
it
"How
would have been,
if
leave had been allowed
I In Urdu kash is followed by any one of the three Optative tenses as kaah mare "would that he would strike him" hash marta "would that he had struck him" kash marta hota " would that he had been striking him " kash mara hota " would that he had struck him" (remote time).
:
Imperfect for either past or future time.

Vide
Mi-shui xuj>o
Vide
(g).
m ay
refer to Past or
Future time, but ajA' bi-shavad to Future time only

S
131 Predicative Clauses.
552
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (CONTINUED).

*$
murkhkhasi ddda * ( <* ^ or ) mi-shud (m.c.), or i>t>\t> a. ^~*) vj> <^^j jf\ a^ chi khub ast agar (or ki) murakhkhasi dada bi-shavad [ Fut. vide *<*. (/) ] <^.j or ) j$\ chi khub budl agar (or ki) murkhkhasi dada <JT<XW ( shudi* (Future or Past) o~| *^ -S^C/M &/m& ast agar ^^\ o^f baharalan shuru' shuda ast (better shuda bashad) "how nice if spring have
l
^ or
ty chi khub mi-bud (or bud) ki
&^
^^
:
^^
^^
commenced"
(h)
*f&> bi-shavad
is
would
signify
"were
to
commence
just now.*'
The apodosis
**
e^
fi*f
occasionally placed in bagh bi-nazir mi-bud agar dar
first: j>\
^^
si
& ^*
ib
î
[vide
(c) (2)].
^ J*>\
an
chiz-i
&l* j*v
JL\
^^
digar bud
cu.i j.fÂ ^1*^
^ ^j
in tuhi-dasti hargiz dast nami-dad agar bi-qadr-i
maya-yi khud zindagi mi-
kardlm; [vide
(c) (2)].
128.
(a)
Conditional Clauses (continued).
We now come
to the second class of conditions, viz. those that

realized.
may
be
(or
may have been)

is
The tense most commonly used

of this nature,
in the conditional clause of conditions

;
the Present Subjunctive 8 (Aorist) introduced by^l agar but the Indicative Mood can usually take the place of the Subjunctive Mood 8
if
there
is little
or no doubt in the supposition.

:
Examples
masalan agar darvish jur*at numayad haml bar tahavvurkunand* va agar sakhavat varzad iwajnam nihand* va agar dar hilm kushad an ra ajz va bi-'izzati shumarand* (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. Ill, " thus for example, if a poor man show boldness, they ascribe it to Story V) rashness; and if he choose to be liberal, they call it extravagance and if he fEast. Trans.) try to be mild, they account it weakness and want of spirit"
l
e~j> îUxJ^j txixio lx> tjjt ^>(S gazi ar ba ma nishmadbar fishanad dast ra (Sa di) \j "were the Qaz! even to join our party he would wave his arms in time
e
Or
agar.
Classically i^ty. budl
used.
This sentence has the same meaning as

(m.c.).
t^^J/c
and ô- shudi would probably have been M kash murakhMiasl &j* JJ^ 8ib ^^^-j
shudi
dada shuda bud

ft
Mi-shud
could be substituted for <^&
but
>&? bi-shavad could
not be used after the previous tense c$J>? budl. S If the Aorist is used in a conditional sentence
tion
it generally supposes that the condiin a future possibly be fulfilled, whereas if the Imperfect Indicative is used vide Remark I condition it generally supposes a condition that will not be fulfilled
may
(c) (2)
+
127 and footnote
2, p. 548.
The
'
Aorists
'
in the apodosis
appear to be the old Present Tense.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(continued).
553
to the
dancing"
l
:
&>]& cui-o
&fo>j# jk\A. u-'^-t^
fk*y Jla. &jr*j> j>\ agarbar

minnat ddrad*
(Sa'd!)
surat-i hdl-i tu muUatti' gardad pds-i Mmtir-i 'azlzdn*
your condition he would gladly assist " *> rd bi-jihat-i man bi&}*+* ^5^ ^'^ &M you t?v? b &$jf\ cigar kum khayll mamnun khwaham shud* (m.c.) "if you do this for me I shall
of
:
"should he become informed
^^
be
much
obliged to
i)i>>/cf <J
you"
JSAJ^
cU>L>[
c^j feai
6
J\ &f o~| &LWJJ
(^
<JU*
^f
î*;f
o~jj y^j
Ja
j>y
Aristu
ababil dida shavad dalll-i
ra navishta ast ki agar faqat yak dmadan-i bahdr nist (m.c.) " Aristotle made the
masal
proverb that one swallow does not make a Summer": i)J ^J t<>jo \) ^li^^fi iULy Â:^^ U ag'ar A;â& ra pay da bi-kunam nazd-i shuma khwaham firistad
(m.c.)
"should
I find the
book,
I will
send
it
to
you
"
)j;
*Jlx
oty UA ^f
:r<-^x> ^^^^ *? Lr'" ^6 jy ^Sj~>* *j^* 0*3^ ^t A^ shabana-ruz-i mara bi-binld mutahayyir Tchwaliid shud ki
^ ^'^
a ^ ar shuma awqat-i shakhs chiguna bi-
sar ml-barad
(m.c.) "if you were to see the manner I pass my daily would be **f J. astonished how I live" o -jr jl.L) life, you j rd az miyan-i rishva-sitani ^*ty^ ^rr c*j* cigar az dast-am baray ad
6
: l
^^ *A
^* ^
1
mardum
mawquf khwaham kard

if
(m.c.)
"the prevention
of bribery shall
be
contrived
can help it."
take the place of (b) As already stated, the Indicative Mood can the Subjunctive when there is little or no doubt, as: o^t _>L>-c eJU.^f <j& cUs ^xs 0*^*30 AJ agar jdn-at 'aziz ast bi-nasihal-i man 'amal bi-Jcun
(m.c.)
"if thy
+s\
life
is
dear to
thee take
jô
my
advice"
jl
\)
Â^man
$\
o,At
&$ o*i?
p*'^
ki
^^J
is
(^
agar haqiqat rd
az
mi-
pursid*
khwaham
guft
u ahmaq
10
ast (m.c.)
"if
for the truth I should say he
a fool
'
"
:
iJ^-jJO
^ f^ ^'^
you are asking me

iJUf^jfl " if you
^.i)^
agrar
ghazab-ndk mstid
chird bi-ln taghayyur harf mi-zanld

?
are not angry,
why speak
so angrily
l Music and dancing are generally held to be forbidden. The writer says that the music at his parties was so delightful that even the Qazi, the judge and administrator of the law, would fall a victim to its temptation.
2 3
'Azizan
oiV^,
pi
used for respect, " you and other dear ones like you.'*
Darad
t>)\&
appears to be the Aorist used for the Future: old.

}* i^ (m.c.).
(class.).
*
6
Or mi-shavam Or misal J
(m.c.)
If the
l
Direct narration.
The
3
indirect
fr*
"
j"^.
**}^ tX
man
chiguna bi-sar mi-
baram
7
would words
also be correct.
j**^ e^** jt az miyan-i mardum were omitted, the sentence will try to give up habit of taking bribes."
might
be taken to
8
y
mean "/
my
Ast as every one's
Or " And
H^
dear to him. " were *^ bipursid you to ask."

life is
you evidently are angry."
554
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(continued).
The Present and not the Aorist tense

yf
of
j^^f^ khwdstan
is
usual after
agar,
when a dependent verb
follows, as:
.5^ >i&! jj.* oj>/;A î* (JjJe j p)te ^lia. khidmat kunad va tawq-i minnat-t dar gardan-i man afkanad tavaqqu' chunan ddram (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. 14, Conclusion of Book) "and if the king
JXo^| ^ xir va agar malik mi-khwdhad ki mard

\j<
ovo^
&' ^lys*.**
wishes to do
me
service,
my wish is that
bi-rawd
"
:
and to put the chain

&jU
of obligation
round
my
neck,
A^J ^bl^.
1
^^
&j\ AJAI j2kxx> jf.

f
agar mi-khwdhtd zud

travel quickly
bdyad chapdrl
bi-ravid
it is
you must travel post

cally, to say &*jj &
"
(m.c.)
';if
you want to
8
here
quite correct, grammatically and idiomati-
there
is
A*AI^.J jS\* agar bi-khwdhid (H) properly a slight shade of difference in meaning.
(*O
zud bi-ravld, but
In conditional sentences the past is, in m.c., often used &>{* * for the present, as <JJ/f ye jt ^.^ ^Jâ. f\ agar chlz-l digar khwasta bashid* az dih mi-arand (m.cJ "should you want any thing
Remark.
&w^
besides these,
(c)
it
will
be brought from the^village (near)."

127
(g)
The
alternative construction mentioned in

as
:
can also be used

&f
in this class of unrealized conditions, chi khub ast* ki murakhkhasi
*?&>
ib
^^j*
"how
o
if
VÂ.
&*.
ddda bi-shavad (m.c.)
nice
leave be
granted." (d) In Classical and in Indian Persian, the Future Indicative is often used instead of the Present Subjunctive (Aorist), as: \&fa' jf* jSi if tjAjii ty ^&*1
er*t^ ahan-gar rd farmud ki agar baz j~ fjM}&> fjj j& khwdM sakht 7 sar-i tu du chunin jawshan khwaham kard (Indian) " the king said to the smith, if you make again (for any one else) such a good ' coat of mail I'll split your head in two " vide also 125 (e) (1) and (2).
oÛ ^\^
'
mm
*
^ Â[^
sahar
Similarly in a temporal clause
JUaL Jix5f ;a
ki shawq-t ghfilib
JUa. 9 AA^J f*At^ ysuJ| p+~J ;f cJ^lx) ^\ hargdh khwahad shud akhbdr-i sa'ddat-asar-i malik az nastmu -slj
U JU^
eÛ* ÛV
*A|^
Û
^J>j
^ i^j^
khwaham pursid va jamdl-i bd kamdl-i Shah dar d*ina-yi khaydl khwaham did (Anvar-i Suhyli, Chap. 8, Story) " and hereafter whenever desire prevails, I will inquire of the morning-breeze happy tidings of the king, and will
behold in the mirror of imagination, the perfect beauty of his majesty
"
Adv. from cliapar
generally written )ty-*bi-ravid.
*
8
Or incorrectly &jj* &jj ***> ^. *^<t^ jf| agar khwasta bashid zud The ki is omitted colloquially.
4 Bi-kh'pahid BO polite.
6
ÂA|^=EU though really correct would not in m.c. be considered quite
(or ml-shud), m.c.,

6
7
Or Miivahad bud with agar instead has the same meaning.

In mod. Pers.
of *$ ki.
Kash murakhkhasl dada bi-shavad

and ra
after tu.
^ff)^
^ A)j
&^
chunan
zirah-l bi-sazi,
Also bi-sazl (class, and mod.).
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(East. Trans.): ***> **\j*> &)*> &kf>
rasid (Indian)
bi-rasad.
9]
(continued).
555
u^
chun u
(as
bi-vatan-i
;
khud khwahad
m.c.
"when he
reaches his
home
he
will do)
" but in
a*y
Sometimes the speaker assumes that the condition is realized and puts the verbs in the protasis and apodosis in the Preterite or the first in the In m.c., howPreterite, and the second in the Future or even Present.
(e)
;
ever,
this refinement
of
meaning
^5-iyo (îfia* j>\
^z>j
^) JS\
''if
The example generally neglected. burdi murdi ; agar rafti agar khufti (Sa'di and
is
m.c.) has already been cited in
jang tarsidi bakhti (m.c.)

<xj,i
you
<^*x*,y *-&*;> $\ agar " fear in battle, you'll lose j is*)J*> c?^^'
(g)
:
125
<^tj
dor
<^*i}&. o^./o (j-^y CÂSUOÎ agar zadi Ichwurdi va agar mahabbat kardi mahabbat khwahi did (m.c. saying) "if you do ill, you'll receive ill; if " you are kind to people, you'll receive kindness (i.e. kindness wins kindness)
:
Hj>/# er* c&tf agar pul bi-shuma dad pish-i man biydvarid J^ "if he the (m.c.) gives you money (which I think he will do), bring it tome": ÂC (j^j or ) (** jt\ agar hukm shud (or bi-shavad) mi-ravam ÂJU OÂ? (m.c.) "if I'm ordered to go, I'll go" j c5^ J -^/!
afa
*****
\
J*^>
v^-jJil>i3 <jlj+
} agar imsal baray -i u blkhatar guzasht ba'daha'umr-ash tulani'st (m.c.) "if he escapes danger this year, he will have a long life" (astrono1 :
b aÛxj v^JU *j ^^dx) ^tf , <xiUi f* ^** agar ghuraba* ra gazid asar-i saTcht-l mi-numayad va gdh-% munjarr bi-halak
mi-shavad (m.c.)
:
mer's prediction)
^ ^
j* y
y j\
Û
^ uftkli) A'
cu^jj
^+0
oJlj jjeil^ î^.vj
ty *} agar gav az sar-panja-yi shir Tchalas yaft mumkin nist lei bi-talattuf va tamalluq-i u az rah ravad (Anv. Suh., Chap. 1, Story 26) "and hereafter if the
ox should escape from the claws of the lion, it is not possible that he should be moved by his courtesies or kind speeches " ovcUf^ ^^^^ jt\
:
JU
na-kardam muqassir-am 5 (m.c.) "if you order then I shall be guilty A*^ ^1 f\ *$ f~^\* &**! * ^ C& *A\}. |j ki ,y>of ddnistam in ^l^Ja yaqin jl^ agar dap a tufdn amad jahdz " I felt sure that if a storm came ra khwahad shikast now, it would (m.c.) " break up the ship : or ) &f agar faryad zadi turn (
Âflxj
pî agar farmudid me and I disobey,
va
ita'at
' '
p*M
^ y ^y
;
&?.j*Jt\
mi-kusham
(/)
kushtam) (m.c.). similar construction

(or
is
admissible
are often identical with conditional clauses
temporal clauses, which but the Future (or Imperative)

in
Or
Ar.
>>
therefore luckier
*
AAfjA khwahad bud. and more polite.

of
Ast assumes that he has escaped the danger, and

aa a
singular;
is
pi.
vs/^
gharlb
"stranger** here used
vulgar.
The
*k
malla or
is
hence
AO gana is said to be a sort of poisonous bug that bites strangers only, and nicknamed _>? v<j* gharib-gaz. Here the Present tense is more forcible than the Future ty (*'>* Tchwaham bud. Or ,yl>k tu/an-i.
556
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES.
must be used in the apodosis. 1

money, bring
it
it
to
me " can be rendered " when he

Ij
Thus the example in
(e)
"If he gives you the
tome" <^^Lo (j^jîaUkj J^ *H^ vaqt~iki % pulrdbi-shumddddpisJi-i man biydvarid 3 (m.c.): "I cannot talk Persian when (or if) there is a third
person present" ^>? J/^
vaqt-i
gives you the money bring
^)^
ki
(or agar)
:
sheikhs- i
zanam
(m.c.)
kunam
*tf o^lti (&U* (j-* *&-&>j vaqt-i ki man shunidam itd'at mi" " when I âb $$**> get the order from you, I'll carry it out (m.o.)
3
:
*>^ j**** (/'or ) &&*h fi'y^** salis-i hdzir bdshad 4 nami-tavdnam Far si harf bi-
^^ u*^
turd didam 5 turd ydd khwdham kard. |-<xi |y hargdh yddgdr-i j>y *&\)& ,sb ty (g) A conditional clause may be converted into a relative clause, vide
&
130
(d).
Remark.
* '
Possibly the fact that

in m.c. restricted to the
temporal
clauses
'f
have
often
the
signification of conditional clauses, is the reason that
whenever "
j* hargdh
(class.)
is
meaning
' l
if."
129.
Concessional Glauses.
in
(a) The Concessional Clause is a form of the conditional illustrated 127 and 128. The difference is that the protasis, instead of being
' '
" introduced by if although "^fi agar, etc., is introduced by *^.^l agarchi 6 or one of its synonyms â^l agafchand (class, and obs.), *i*y* harchand or
A'
j)j *\*.j&
"
harchand ki (mod.),
1
^Â harcfii (however much),
*'
or
gu or gu-ki t
va-law
(m.c.); AJJ>JA.J b bd
vujud-i ki, *<Jf b bd dnki,
^!
f<^
ma'hdzd,
8
'
standing";
fij
girim)
(b)
b &a tws/-f or *^-e^l 6a vs/-J ^'"notwithaif J'a- ^ va hdldnki "whereas, albeit," and fo$ glram (or admitted, granted.'
^t
^^
bframki,
'
The Apodosis
or principal clause can be introduced
by the Correla-
tive
Conjunctions jb bdz, correlatives can be omitted.

-^*2 J>i is
&l
ammd, &**
llkan
and
vaU. 9
These
sometimes incorrectly used for jb 6^2 after ASo^jU 6a vujud-i
ki,
but this
1
is
modern and
is
vulgar.
time, as: j*^

2 8
not used in the apodosis, the whole sentence will refer to past lr* C5^5 ^b^ &*<* chun faryad zadl tura zadam (m.c.) "since (or when) you screamed, I beat you.
'
If the
Future
'
'
Chun
Or
in writing.
*?jp(i?
ex
& **** ^^ b J^
incorre'ct.
*&ft
va?<
fc*
pwZ
ira
bi-shuma bi-dihad nazd-i
man
bi-yavarld (m.c.).
*
Shud would be
Or *J*
fMj^
Tchwaham did
(class.)
{&.*
dldam or p*&
*?
bi-blnam
(class,
and
m.c.).
6
<*^ j*\ agarchand occurs frequently

Ar.
in the
Shah Nama.
7
8
"and
if."
p*-
Also in m.c.
Also by ta
ham
}* giriftam. in India, and Afghanistan
of tau bhi. apparently a translation
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES.
Remark.
of
It is not necessary for the apodosis to
557
be introduced by one b <*&f a^j b ,J^M
ast
]
these
correlatives:
*~J
^y
*j;'3f
jjJ^&lMjJ mush bd-vujud-i
OH
&ili.
^ ^^
bd
dnki
mardum ham-khdna
I, St. 6)
bi-vdsita-yi Izd
dzdr-i kiaz u mi-rasad
(Anv. Suh., Chap.
"
though
a rat be a partner in the
same abode with men, yet by reason
of the
annoyance and injury which result from it ." " no matter how " or (c) The English phrase
"however", is rendered har har etc. with the hdlat, Aorist, followed or not qadr, oJU.Â by j*-^*
:
by &^j& agarchi
"No
benefit
matter
in
what circumstances a man

&j>
is
placed, he will derive
from knowledge"
or) insdn
:
(ay mi-tavanad kard}

sible that
M>*
<ylj oJl^ ÛJt |&tjJUjj dar har hdlat bdshad az 'Urn fd*ida hdsilkhwdhad kard (or *'no matter how many cases are on the file, it is impos-
AAI^. J^>1^
^^
i&l&U j&5 .A they should not be decided on the appointed date Af Jâ>j har o->;3 ÛJ (1fô.^\j tAj;j> qadr muqaddamat dar* pish ;âx %jÛ j
' '
bashad
though it be an four will farsakh be visible to distant, object may you by means of the telescope, as though it were close at hand AftiyL^fei) e* ^^**.^* trt^ Ja-yo
:
mumkin
nisi ki
dar tankh-i muqarrara faysal na-ydbad 6

' '
"
dur-bm* har )t^ a^ft chundn bi-nazar khwahad dmad ki guyd dar pahlu-yi shumd ast agarchi bi-fdsila-yi chahdr farsakh- ham dur bashad: "where a man's condition remains the same for years, no matter how good and pleasant that condition
i^b;^^ Â
chiz
&j
^l^lij
o-aW <^^J^J ;^ lj^ ^ bi-tavassut-i
may
be, he cannot help
becoming tired
of it at last
' '
^ JU ^
l^
j^
salhd-yi sal
1 yak hdlat bi-mdnad va-law an hdlat harchi khub va
pasandlda bdshad insan khwdhi na-khwdhi az an malul mi-shavad, or better

sdlhd-yi sal bd insan bi-manad har chand hdlat-i
khub-1 bdshad
bdz la-bud az
an malul mi-shavad: "however easy a thing is, it always seems difficult to a beginner" jk* c5*k" j^> 3^ ^^ o *f ;<>^> j* (j$
l
tijf
" I
^c Hr-t har qadr dsdn bdshad bdz bi-nazar-i mubtadi mushkil mi-dyad : shall not sell it now, no matter how much you offer" )*$ y> f**)j* us** *^
hold naml-farusham har qadr bi-dihi.
ast
*
because the rat does dwell with man.

in Persian.
^^ bdshad could be wrong.
Note collocation Note the
The subject
for
emphasis precedes the Concessional
Conjunction.
8
collocation.
(J"*$ ;* does
*
6
Dar pish
Or
not mean " under trial."
^J ck^t*
iaysal na-shavad>
In m.c. {&))* ^ ba durbin.
Or agarchi
558
(b)
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
:
The following are further examples of concessional clauses Though monkeys may not have the gift of speech, yet they must 1 have some means of communicating their thoughts to each other" *jLlj *xi a &j. cA*^s (^K* uk) *k c^ ^ # *)* *tV** )* *<*/\ agarchi dar
"
{&
maymunhd
quvva-yi takallum nisi likin bdyad zabdn-i hdl-i

' J
:
dar miydn-i khud
ddshta bdshand
you have no affection for

1
me
left, albeit I
i|
am
so devoted
o*xuo lj ojf>* er* *&f J ^ j ^=-rf ^JU> to you" jy $ wrg 6a f^*^* Â wan hich mahabbat bdqi na-mdnda ast va hdldnki man fidd-yat mi-shavam " though the debtor kept excusing himself on the ground that the bond was
Û
^
"
forged, yet
when pressed he could not deny
his
own
l
signature
^t
ja'H-st
shaMis-i maqruz* har chandbi-takrdr

vail
uzr mi-dvard ki in tamassuk

:
dkhir
no-char shuda
na-tavdnist
"though you do not know me, I know you 4 tu mard naml-shinds-i ^.Ijî ^to v>^ ty ^^ agarchi
shindsam:
clothes, I
imzd-yashi rd inkdr bi-kunad well" Â) C5*Jx kx+i [^y

llkin b
*^/
man
turd khub mi-
"notwithstanding that you have disguised yourself in a man's voice that you are a woman" i; î. *i*t+j ^ ** **" c= ^'^3' ^' ft*|)f Aiia/e^rV^ ^^ vujud-i kikhud rd dar (J* f^** <y3
know from your
drdsta-i ammd az sadd-yat ma'lum mi-shavad ki zan-i: that men's natures are different, yet this is no reason why there "granted " a*, should not be concord in a family o~t -ftixivo Û^t g)U.b * ^t
libds-i
marddna 6
^J
c^ftyo î^la. ) &> o^t s.-ô ptrom A;i tabdyi -i insdn mukhtalif ast in chi sabab ast ki dar khdnddn-i muvdfaqat na-bdshad?; "though the story
f
*\M
is
long, (Jî or
it
is
interesting"
3'j
or
or)
vulgarly nt2) dil-chasp

is
"*
OMI 7 >_*-.sJj \b& go o*| J^fc vi*j%^. ^f Aa-^t agarchi an hikdyat tavil ast ma'hdzd (or bdz or vali, or " 5^: you are addicted to drinking, albeit the practice
'
contrary to Islam" ^5!^ ^*i c/f ACS/ta.j <NJ^X ^/o bardy-i shardb khivurdan mi-mirid va hdl an ki an amr khildf-i shari'al ast.
*=*-
^^^
130.
o^
^d^ ^^
Relative Clauses.
(a)
(1)
Another form
of subordinate clause is the Relative Clause.
Relative clauses are introduced by the pronouns "who, which, what, that, whoever, whatever," etc., and by the pronominal adjectives of quajity
and quantity.
1
JU obj
It
zaban-i
is
tial is
opposed to Jtf Ûj
zabartri gal.
It
is difficult
to translate
the former.
*
%
the mute language expressed by one's appearance and condition.
Or
Or
sfiakhs-i
madyun.
In m.c.
tikrar.
*
6
AJrA
harchand, or AT
îA harchand ki.

*>'^ marJana,
*p*
(m.c.) of
Or Uj
amma or
jb baz.
the plural
Or instead Or shirin
of the adjective
;
noun e^-iy* mardan.

stories.
^^x^
but mufld
books only, not
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
559
A
way.
compound
relative sentence can generally be stated in
more than one
Something regarding the collocation of relative clauses has already been 120 (q) (6). said in the Syntax of Pronouns clause in Persian often relative the of The (2) position nearly corresthe in its of to the principal English. Sometimes, subject position ponds
clause
is
introduced
first for
the sake of clearness, closely followed by
its
relative clause; the principal subject is then left to stand alone without a
a final finite verb is introduced to out that this construction is analogous Kempson points his to the old English "Mr. Pepy's, diary."* Vide also 138 Order of
verb, while a
secondary subject to
l
close the sentence.
Words
(3)
(n) (18) to (21).
In modern frequently, and in classical Persian
less
seldom, two verbs
(that of the subordinate
and that
together at the end of a
even by good writers. 8
^jf Uy
wilt set
to tranquillize
**<*a=^ *k"j* *}* **?.& ki duzdida bud, tarsid
who
(Anvdr. tiuh., East Trans., Chap. VII, St. 1) o*zi.j tj a+* ^ja. chun hama ra rukhsat kard shakhs-i " when he had dismissed them all, the person (class.) had committed the theft, began to feel afraid." Vide also (6).
:
my my heart."
cA^^t v^r* *' $***^ ) ^*J> &*# \j*f\ " if thou mind at ease, and give me a solemn promise sufficient
of the principal clause) frequently come sentence; this construction is not considered bad,
may be a demonstrative pronoun, an indefinite a proper noun, or a personal pronoun. If the pronoun, a common noun, antecedent is a proper noun or a personal pronoun, it is by Indian grammarians
(4)
4
3i
t
The antecedent
to *'
termed
is
o^y
mawsuf that which

on*
is
;
'
is
qualified,' or j~~&*
'
commented
or simply e;U> bayan
mufassar that which the explanation.' In this case the
connective *S ki
termed c>^ o'
mufassir" commenting
" on
* & or Â/O mubayyin " explaining (the antecedent),"
kaf-i bayan,
and the
relative clause
j~&*
" the or oJu> sifat qualification." In other cases, the antecedent

J~e^c oK
J>/^ mawsul; the connective, kaf-i kaf-i sila\ and the relative clause itself *JL* sila. A sentence containing a relative clause referring to such an antecedent is termed *J^py<s Ai->.
is
called
mawsul or *X*
oK
The pronoun
which
1
of the relative clause is called
^f;
raji*
or
*$(e
'a id
'
that
refers to (the antecedent).'
Syntax and Idioms of Hindustani." " Compare also Christ his sake" and in modern Persian * ahud " Muhammad, his book was lost." Muhammad kitab-ash
^
"
gum,
In mod. Per. write dad for kard and
shakjLs-i duzd.
&
Such a common noun may
of restrictive relative clauses be preceded
by a demon-
strative
pronoun
or else followed by the demonstrative
^.
560
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
general
term for antecedent
is
f&z*
muqaddam "placed before."

in the
Har kujd and

ism~i mawsul.
(5)f
jd-i ki, *^-jj5l^
and I^Â, are included
term
J^c^
f*!
Examples
"
How miserably
passes the time of
women
a>J&-*
l ;
that do not
eui<.*
know how
chi
to
read and write"
*J;t^ &\j~ *$
<^3
v^Ljjt
â*.
qadr sakht
navishtan
or mi-guzaradawqdt-i zandn-i ki savdd na-ddrand o.su &Jtx>.+j cfo' gadr bardy-i zanan-i ki
ôJt^x:
(&} e>^l^ *t#fy ^^r**^

khwdndan
*ijt<ioî
va
nami-ddnand sakht mi-guzarad; or t>Jy*yo
cx^'A *MV.J )*** chi nami-ddnand sakht zanhd-i ki khwdndan mi-guzdrand. "It is very qadr unkind to forget the past claims of aged servants that can no longer work
cui*.**
' '
bi-vafdî-st
huquq-i nawkardn-i sal-lchwurda rd fardmush kardan

]
ki az
1-
kdr
uftdda and; or
CA-OJÎ^J
J ^!/^ Jk o^/ L$r* j* 'y -^ O* nawkardn-i sdl-khwurdai* ki az kdr uftdda-and huquq-i Ishdn rd who is fardmush kardan khayli lii-vaf&l-st. "Let that one of you precede AXA-A^ UU^ &\* *i^b ^*kf take j\ to &*) <J*y precedence" qualified
1
^ ^'w
li
;'^3 A?
^^
cr*i
aJib az miyan-i
shumd-hd har shakhs-i
ki liydqat-i pish raftan ddshta
bdshad pish bi-ravad.*
"
Instantly report to
^
me any
&&# & j
3
unusual proceeding
on his part that you may observe"
j\ \j*
\tf
J-^
^^
&j*\ 3*
an mard az an amr-i ki khildf-i ma'mul az u bi-bmidjawr *#\*j? jila* c/f har " "What anyone is in want of, shall be given him muttali' garddnid. cxi *XA|^L jj^b a^lj (J^^ ^^ bi-har kas harchi hdjat-ash bdshad ddda khwdhad " " Whatever shud. <>/ J^ a^y*. (*^people thought they thought wrong kte ai^L) mardum* harchi Tchaydl karda bdshand g&alat khaydl oJt j>/ J'jj^ " What kind of a man is he who eats no flesh ? " karda-and (m.c.). ;^* &*.
^^
^
îî
o-^^
A' wiAîUJ! aw- c^' /wr insdn-i-st kigusht nami-1churad?
f>
(^)t^ ,^w
riamt-Mwrad = does not eat; certain); the Present Tense here indicates a the Aorist would indicate a reference to some one that does not eat meat
;
an chi jur insdn I st ki gusht nadoubt, as ^y ^ *^^/ *' OW*OJLJI ;^ &*. c< khurad what sort of man is he (may he be) that eats no meat," (i.e. "is there " " Are such a man? "). your mother and sisters in the same house as yourself?
'
In
this sentence, the position of the relative clause corresponds to its position in
the English sentence. 2 Note the demonstrative
(preceding
&$")
affixed to the qualifying adjective.
Also note that

8
c>U5[j>
nawkaran the
logical subject
has no verb, vide
(a)(2).
Note the two verbs together at the end, vide (a) (3). Note the collocation, subject first and then the relative *a.^>
harchi.
Also the two
verbs could either be both in the Preterite, or both in the Perfect, with but slight change
in signification.
5
Collocation close to the English
or
d>_jiu oJ*j *
(s
^^>\ )^ *^ c/f
5w
jur insan-l bashad ki giieht na-khurad.
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
j^to
561
madar
khipahirha-yat dar
hamln khana-i
ki tu hasli hastand*
"I
practise the profession of marauding,
which has come down to

1
me from my
father
"
($+* <J~-> <>*j

#
^~J
**"
L^J*';
&*%
fl C5-*
-?
ast dar
able
ki
"
oT ;<* **f *^ ",! plsha-yi rahzanl Jci nasl ba'd an baqi-am (m.c.). " What you tell me of the weight of
<
an
nasl in
bi-man rasida
inconceiv-
air, is
o*~jf
Û*
is
oM:L
tdLcjSU'c
U
,
A^xit^ju*
<*j
tyt
c>3j
vazn-i hava bi-mizdn-i

of poor folk,
shumd rra-farmayid
>#â
khilaf-i qiyds ast.
"The women
in the
fields
whom
not maintained
work
like
men
' '
&*
amongst j
mardum-i
faqlr ki dar dnha qanun-i ru giriftan nist zan u khwahirha-yi shdn misUi mardan dar kishtzdr kdr mi-kunand. 3 *' The wages which are due to
will
any one
bar
Teas
be given"
*iî^^ 8^fA cu*.t

'
^^ v^f^ ^ dnchi
&
mavajib-i
ast
ddda khwahad shud.

tÂftf
The
price
you named was
o*[ j<i^^ was some
yl
^ûxj
e/f
a?i
qimat-i ki tu gufti hi-huda ast.
absurd " The
' J
girl
e)T
six years old

^*A
in
short just the age of our
Fatima"
Â
&+U*
(^-.
ddsht khulasa*
bi-
ajuj A^V'a. OA<if,i JL, fj^ an dukhtar qarib-i shash sal ^jj'y ainih ham-sinn-i Fdtima-yi ma.
and principal verbs (b) In (a) (3) it was stated that the subordinate sometimes come together at the end of the sentence. In a long sentence, however, with more than one relative or subordinate clause, as many as three
verbs are found at the end of a sentence, even in good
modern
:
authors. 5
The following example,
far simpler
than many,
will suffice
"In order to get rid, for a while, of the importunities and jealousy of his first wife, and also to acquire the good opinion of his father-in-law (who,
although noted for clipping money, and passing it for lawful, affected to be " a saint), he undertook a pilgrimage to the tomb of Husain at Kerbelah
Hafi Bdbd
l
of Isfahan) *>&
jl* Jjf
&)s y*
c^ ***
^^
**
to the general rule

first
Note that ^Lo madar here remains singular in signification, though according the plural termination added to the last of two nouns makes the
as well.
(a) (3).
noun plural
2
verbs at the end of a sentence, vide locative case dar an is avoided after ki. In
Two
^^
Urdu
'
it
Note that the repetition would be inserted.
of the
Note the collocation
faqlr.
Note that
in
UjA{^ j
mardum-i no verb to ^xaj 'Mr. Pepy's, his diary ^ô z5n u MLwahirha, the plural termination is added to the
;
e>3
second noun only, though both are plural;
lî)
zanha would also be correct.
In India
S^j -|^ riwaj-iparda would be

It
used, instead of
:
^M/
j)
c^^
qanunri ru giriftan.
would
also be correct to turn this
Xur
^^
*
5
^^ ^ ^yU
l^Jf ;
&* j*&
f*j*
(S^J^b^J <^3
faqlr ki dar
)\)
*^&> )*
giriftan
anha qanun-i ru
L&* ^-*i-> zan u l&wahirha-yi mardum-i (*j\dj* kar mi-kunand. nist, misl-i mardan dar kiahtzar
An
Indian would probably here say

is
bas instead of ^^5Lk khulasa.
The 'suspense*
36
of course excessive.
The sentence that
follows has puzzled
even Persians at the
first
reading.
562
PREDICATIVE (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES.
an as, bi-ddn khayal ki aqall
chand sabdh-i az dard-i

[
sar-i zan-i
awal
fdrigh shavad, va dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i tdza-i ki bd inki dar buridan-i kindr-i dirham u dinar va ravdî-yi naqd-i nd-sara bi-jd-yi sara muzdyaqa nami-kard,
dar sunan-i shar' vadddb-i din da'vq-i payadan ddsht, taqaddus-i bi-farushad, 'dzim-i Karbald shud.
In the above quoted example the principal verb Â ^jy j*)U dzim-i Karbald shud might be inserted bet ween ^-J pas and JU^ eJt^J bi-ddn khayal;
'
the subordinate verb taqaddus-i bi-farushad *jj&> ^xtt might then be construed with dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i tdza &jlj o>3 )*$ &* j^, while the first relative
ki following these
words would have for
its
verb
o^b
C5;
^v
l
payaddri ddsht
.
.
and the concessional clause
^^
^flgUa-*,,....*^!
first
^ bd
mki
its
muzdyaqa
nami-kard might be inserted between the

(c)
relative
and
verb.
sentence, the relative clause being omitted, thus:

tion
statement can sometimes be more simply translated into a simple "He suffered a retribuin
which was
:
accordance with his

j>yx
J>
deserts,
expressed by
^*j
JU*f otf^+j
^.^.li/o
;^bj bi-tawr-i
can be more simply mundsib bi-mukdfdt-i
a'mdl-i khud rastd^ than by JU*I &(&+) mundsib bud bi-mukdfdt-i a'mdl-i Tchud rasid.
(d)
^; ^^
i-AÛ*
*^J=
tawr-l ki
relative clause
thus,
ast
OA*O!^>'(
a e>i)Ua. jjs* ,j)t
may often be ^| &**&<
converted into a conditional clause
shakhs-i ki in jur khaydldt ddrad kdfir
holds these opinions is an infidel, " if a person holds ." agar shakhs-i in jur
"a
person
who
"
may
be rendered
In long sentences this conditional equivalent
is
sometimes
useful.
131.
(a)
Predicative (Subordinate) Clauses.
Predicative Clauses are those which form part of the predicate and without which it would not be complete. These clauses are generally linked to the principal verb by the connective ki **.
In classical Persian,
completes the predicate,
(6)
is
the statement, or question, or order, etc., that 8 generally in the form of direct narration.
In modern Persian the indirect narration is frequently used where the would be used in the classical language. The use of the indirect narration appears to be increasing in modern Persian.
direct narration
1
Note demonstrative
a
s
Or
(before A?
affixed to the qualifying adjective.
|j
j~*.
JUp u*'^
padash-i 'amal-i Jchud ra did.
Oriental languages prefer the direct narration.

is
In Hindustani, which
it is
is
more
dramatic than Persian, the direct narration

Persian even.
used
much more than
in classical

"
563
either in
He
is
not the
man
he says he
:
is
" can
in
modern Persian be
direct or indirect narration, as

(1)
riist,
OA~.JJ
jvAiui &&>
o~c|
(^
Jsjj&x/o
>
j u
&> j\
ki
mi-guyad
ki
man
fuldn shakhs-am
ast, riis.
or (2)
o~jJ
uaA &&
*ij'
mi-guyad faldn shakhs
In modern Persian owb Lsujt &*> (J& t man injd bash? would at once be taken to
till
j ^& ^ bi-u gufti id bar-gashtan-it

mean "did you
tell
him
to wait
my
return
*'
"
but
if
^ bdshad were used instead of bash, the
meaning
would be
your return."
Even
in classical Persian the indirect narration is preferred in cases like
the following:
gurba-yi hamsaya rd dil bar nala u zdrl-yi u bi-sukht va muqarrar kard ki in nawbat bl u bar sar-i da* vat hazir na-shavad 1 (Anv. Suh., Chap.
I, Intro., St.
3).
"the heart
of
the neighbour-cat melted at his lamenta-
tions,
and he resolved that he would not attend the feast without him."
2
;
In English, the indirect narration is preferred tion of a clause is avoided either by using the infinitive as
Remark.
or the addito go
home,"
or by using a participle as,
"
thought
of going to
him Yezd."
tell
' '
Native grammarians term the reported speech, whether in the 1st or in the 3rd person, &)jsuo maqula; even in the sentence bi-gu asp biydrad "tell
him to bring a horse

(c)
' '
the second clause
is
a &)j& maqula.
etc.,
After verbs of
preferred,
3 commanding and forbidding
the indirect narra-
tion is
though the
*$
direct,
as
well
as the indirect, narrations
are employed, both in the classical
and in the modern language:

\)
cr^
bi-ru-yi
t)
L/
tsjtfj)
*?j*
*&=*
t^Û pddishdh jalldd rd farmud ki ru
man urd
bi-kush (class., direct)

* *
to
put him to death in his
musdra'at kunand
-
(Sa'di) (indirect)
"the king ordered the executioner presence"*: &&? oujjL*^ G t>yjto bi- farmud id them to wrestle "
** &J& cT^l* c^jy v^j* jt (^h &)j# (J>^> )* p*jva ham nik namud ki dar dar-i khdna blrun az sifdrish vaqt-i raftan ruy bi-vdpas birun raw td (Trans. Hdji Bdbd) (direct) she (my mother) further directed me
tf
j)
he (the king) ordered
' '
my face towards the door, by way of propitiating a happy return from a journey undertaken under such inauspicious circumto *leave the house with
1
The
direct narration
f*j-o
would
also be right, in
which casey
tu
would be substituted
for jf u,
*
and
na-shavam for
j^.-iJ
na-shavad.
The employment
of the dramatic instead of the narrative style will frequently, of
necessity, alter the tenses as well as the persons. 8 For negative after verb of prohibition, vide
* If
122
(i).
,xl6 bi-kushad were used instead
of
^ô
bi-kush, the
" the meaning would be
king ordered him to be beheaded in
my
(the speaker's) presence.'*
564
stances"
direct)
(d)
:

&*
^*U>
_***!
^jyycsj
bi-mihtar bi-gu asp hazir
kunad
(m.c., in-
"
tell
the
groom
to bring the horse.
"
:
The
following examples illustrate the Direct Narration

3'
(1)
(^ 9=^
*^ *"f Jd &llj ^S*J jls*A.

tJU>c
b j +)j^
^*
&t
oJlj^J C^~-^ (_y^J^
a^j
,'
j^j
|xj*fljl
^jf
sayyah-i gisuvan bar taft ki
va ba qafila-yi Plijaz* bi-shahr dar

pish-i
amad
ki *Az
Hajj
va
qasida-i
malik burd
'
ki,
twisted his ringlets (saying) I am city with the caravan of Hi jaz (saying), 'I am on the return journey from and carried a qasida to the king (saying) that I comthe Pilgrimage
'
;
gufta-am' (Sa'd!) "a traveller a descendant of 'Ali and entered the
'Man
'
'
posed
3
it.'
"
sent word that he would come to-morrow" Id;*' Âld^^jl u Khwahad vide (e) (1). payghamddd ki farda khwaham amad s p*]j*> amad ^>T ÂJ^, indirect, would also be right, but might refer to some third
(2)
"
He
**f
'
person.
Remark.
The
direct
narration often Vide also
occurs in
(c).
subordinate
clauses
expressing purpose or resolution.

(3)
glad that you or), khush-hal-am ki sliuma
"I am
nave
come"
*'
*-!
amada
id (or amadid).
" (4) "I regret that I came f**f t^ chira amadam (or amada am) ? * f\t**1
(5)
f;^^^
<x
cr_r~
?
f
afsus mi-khuram ki
"I
fear that he will
come
to
day
"
jj>yc[ jt
taU* *r
^^^x*
^xj
man
mi-tarsam ki mabada B u imruz bi-yayad. clause vide also 133 (6) (2).
' '
(For example
of a negatively final
(6)
tu kist-i
asked me who / was y ***j$ (^ jl az man pursid ki LS*~ " who are = you ? ") or p*~*t *$ **jjpursid ki klstam (or coll. (also
' ' ;
He
&
ki
am)
' '
(7)
Ask
Tell
if
any one
is
there
' '
^~~& lûf C5 *5'

AJliu
(e) (2).
tf
6 ^ÂJ bi-purs ki kas-i anja
hast?
* '
(8)
him
to go
home
'
'
^.
Vide
&Z jt> jb bi-u bi-gu ki bi-khana
bi-raw
1
,
or better *jj> bi-ravad.
Or
Or
less
common
.^L^. hazir kun.
i 3
Hijaz
jlsv.*.
the province of which
Makkah
is
the capital.
^jf ^5x3 This could also be expressed by
mi-ay am.
(Ûx^j
(a).
or )
^ j^+* ^^-.^ ^
as amadan-i
6
khud afsus mi-khuram Or omit I,}'**} mabada; vide
(or
paslnman am).
ki.
133
6
1
.At/a
bf (but not
is
.>f
aâr) could be substituted for &$
The
indirect narration
would nearly always be used
in
such a sentence, though
the direct narration
correct.

'
''
565
(9) xli
My
jy
custom
'adat-i
is
to read the
ast ki
man an
oi;
paper daily jj) Â har ruz ruz-nama'2 bi-khwanam.
'
'
(10)
?
"I thought
going to Tehran to-morrow"

;
fjy
a*"
**f
khayal-am dmad lei farda bi-ravam bi-Tahran
or
e^t^ j
khaydl bi-man guft ki bi-raw bi-Tahran.

(11)
^T
(.5*
advancing from the opposite direction u^> or-b ^LLvj ^j A*' maw didam ki yak nasnds-i taraf-i
gorilla
5
"I saw a
man
mi-dyad.
(12)
" Husain
tells
you
to
speak in his language
"
U>
;
^bjj *$
or
*>** &*
c^
<J;^
bi-zabdn-i
Husayn mi-guyad u harf bi-zani.
ki bi-zaban-i
ma
harf bi-zan
^>
o^
j\
self in
fikr
A person soliloquizing may, in ^Veci narration, address himthe 1st or 2nd pers. according to the attitude he assumes towards ** himself (vide, 4 & 10). Further examples f*V&ij&(&k bi-in " what wilt "
Remark.
:
^ ^^
I fell into this thought (that) uftadam ki chi khwahi kard\\t>. " or 2 &$ thou (i.e. I) do ? ^^(Jji^j ^l bi*in fikr uftadam ki chi kunam p&*. " He wondered what he would do " &> &i\ J e^b bi-mkhiyal (direct). pJ& These or chi khwahi kard? ki chi kunam, uftdd (direct). &jS ^*>f^ indirect as if treated two sentences might have different interpretations,
;
.
1
narration.
(e)
The following
"
are
modern
colloquial examples of the Indirect Narra-
tion
(1)
He
sent
word that he would come to-morrow

mi-ay am] ; ^T home" yj aHj A/ JL
"
*jUj
paygham dad
(2)
ki farda bi-ydyad [or
by
^ Ûx
vide (d) (2).

*
"Tell him to go
bi-u bi-gu ki bi-khana
bi-ravad.
The
"
direct narration though correct

(d) (8).
would not be used in m.c. in
such a sentence, vide

(3)
He
said that
*al%
he was expecting you
"
j^*
*'
**f
A b J^
'
li
^~* U
jandb-i
ra yad karda guft ki muntazir-i
shumd
'st;
[or
muntazir-i ishan hastam
w*
^l&j) ^Jali^
''].
The
If
indirect narration
is
would nearly always be used
in such a sentence,
though
the direct narration

2
also correct.
]j
ra were inserted after A*jU
ruz-nama,
paper taken in daily.

increased force.
s
Mi-Jchwanam
would mean the particular newscould be used, but with a slightly

it
fifjiuxj
Mi-amad A*f ^xj might be

rendered by,
ayjf
substituted.
This sentence in India would be drama-
tically
i-taraf-i
man
ml-ayad
^ ^> ÎLJ ^ ""what do

I "see,
*'
î
^^
chi
ml-blnam ki
is
nasnas-i,
but that" a
gorilla
advancing towards
566
(4)
"Ask the 'farrash' if his master is awake yet " ^z farrash bi-purs ki dghdyash bl-dar ast* jl*# tA^T " Ask the " witness if he
1
a>
?
<j*;J
f
*
<jk\j
(5)
speaks
English
^J^l
*'
^jj
jA.
az shdhid bi-purs ki angrizi harf mi-zanad. s four agreed
(6)
" among themselves to hunt in company A^ *J3/" bdham 'ahd kardand ki biydyand &&jfi*& (5&b &* )^J A j
" The
^^
yak dtgar shikar kunand* " He ordered me not to leave this place" fcj &jj# l^wt (7) farmud ki az in ja birun na-ravam* (class.).
bi-ittifdq-i
(8)
va har chahar tan
3'
**
*yj
"I came
6
to ask
l
Hj~ <* )\**xj*\

bi-pursam shumd
(9)
^ fj*
Haydar whether you would go out riding to-day" arc amaâ budam az Haydar *1 jAi^-jf f&ji ^T t^'*
(Vaz!r-i
tell
tmn22 5avar mi-shavid.

will
Lankaran).
the
"That very moment he

intended" p***-^
sa'at
go and
Khan
that you have
cast eyes on his
&^jd haman
(10)
&&%* j*** a)^- *JJJÂ c^Lo |U* mi-ravad bi-Khan Ichdbar mi-kunad ki iu bi-ndmzad-i u
a) f'-Vj^
&
chashm dukhia-i. 1
" I have told Nisa
to
Khanam
to sit in the hall,

jf\
and should the Vazir
appear,
come and
j^j
îfjA^ |;U
^jUj
tell
us at once"
csixAw udUa
|yo ^jj^ bi-Nisa
Khanum
nishmad
(/)
9 agar vazir paydd shud,* bi-ydyad, zud From the above remarks it will be seen that the same sentence can
^JlÛi gufta-am tu-yi daldn bi~ ma rd khabar kunad.

f\
^y
Aiftf
AJ
frequently be rendered either by the direct or the indirect narration in other words the same sentence may have two different significations. Though the
;
following examples illustrate this ambiguity, it is apparent rather than real.
it
will
be found in practice that

prevent
The context, and

misunderstanding.
in speaking the intonation or stress, effectually
*$ ki, or
Ijf
aya, or ^T *>
H at/a;
but not^/l aâr.

agha-yi
2 8
Or Or
direct narration, vjusf ji&
ml-zanl.
This could also be expressed in direct narration by
$&* jt&*&i (j\(i j ^5f

aylm va
bi-itti/aq-i
Â
e
(^J
65
ham
'ahd
j&- j* ^ ** ^*J* H* (**^ kardand ki ma har chahar tan ml~

{
yak dlgar shikar ml-kuntm;
or^^^^r*
ki bi-yayld
lx>
***
tf-*+t>jf
*f
Âlj
p*^ U* y&j&**&
^
o^^
baham ahd kardand

'vide'
ma
har chahar nafar
bi-ittifaq-i
yak dlgar shikar mi-kumm.
Or
direct
j/ ma-raw;
(c).
Note that
It
this is indirect narration.
The
direct narration
j&
)\j<*> j)j*>\ j*)j
ki vazir
1
imruz savar ml-shavand could be used but would not be so good.
would
also be correct to
say,
^~l
AJ&jd p&*>
I^-J^
UA
^3 pl*J )}+*>
A^ ki Taymur
bi-namzad-i
8
9
shuma chashm dukhjta ast (direct). Payda shud &* (^ more dramatic than j&?
its
paydd bi-shavad.
it
From
position zud might refer to either the verb preceding
or following
it.
567
Examples
(1)
"He
below.
says
my
father
:
is
dead"
~-
cu*|
*ô
/*j*J
?JJ?Q
is
)\
u mi-guy ad
Vide
pidar-am murda
(2)
(ii)
ast (indirect
if
direct
he says his father

cu^t s&j*
jf^-*
dead.)
"
(2)
He
says his father

l
is
dead "
:
(i)
opJ
j^J
pidar-ash
pidar-i
(3)
murda man murda
ast
(indirect)
(ii)
*=**!
u-
*&**
U
j<x
*jj** j u mi-guyad }\ u mi-guyad

A* y^j>/o
ast (direct).
is
"He
says your father
dead," cut
ttj<
mi-guyad
ki pidar-i
shuma murda
ast (indirect).
The
indirect narration
would ordinarily be used as
in the
above mentioned
examples.
The Persian
narration.
of No.
it
Were
is
my
father
dead
"
to be so interpreted, it
(lit.
would never be interpreted by the direct would signify in English, " He says He says thus 'your father is dead'). The direct
(3)
narration for No. 3 would be,
o^>
I
^/o
*tj)j **&* mi-guyad
pidar-i
Zayd
murda
ast.
(4)
"He
asked
me who
was"
^^
was "
,
*&
***jt
u*
jl
)\
u az man
'
pursid ki klstam (indirect).

' '
He
asked
me who
(
"
?
he. (the speaker)

j\
i.e.
"he
said to
;
me who am
^.x' *r *xx^
L
^y
u az man pursld ki klstam
(direct)
vide also (d) (6).
Remark
narration does not exist in Persian.
More than one grammarian has stated that the oblique It is however often used.
:
A
o.i*jj
!.*
Persian servant delivering a message from his master usually says o,îu jjj<*>\ o**! ^*"c ^jj^jjx j <>jJLijjj/c *3U> Ipf acfha salam
ml-rasanand va mi-guyand mumkin ast imruz bi-khidmat-i shuma bi-rasand ? In Kerman, the writer has never heard the direct narration used in (m.c.).
such a message.
Remark
ki
II.
tense in certain subordinate clauses, thus
Possibly the two constructions account for the difference in tf va'da ml-kunam
:
^bi-yayam may ^xf ÂI^ *r va'da mi-kunam ki khwaham dmad

I
be indirect narration "
^J^J
*
py* 8^
promise to
come," while
^^
***?
promise this that
I will certainly : na-rasid ki u biyayad'2 "I did not (indirect), but *<*$ iiAfâ. 9 &$ dmad * u khwdhad ki na-rasid bi-khaydl-am ^x^y
-
come M
am
may be direct narration I *?(# y &f ^x^J ^k^ bi-khaya" think he would come
"
^jLkwj
(direct): /*r!^y &***>
jjj*>\
^^
**fj*
;
bi-dldan-i tu
at
na-ydyam ? (indirect) nami-dyam (or khawham dmad
oJUiu bi-khaydlat mi-rasid man imruz ... oJUiu bi-khaydl' Wf A \j^ or )

f
^T
?)
(direct).
This might also refer to some third person. The construction with the Present Subjunctive (the Aorist) is preferable in modern Persian. When the Future Indicative is used instead of the Present Subjunctive it is more forcible than the latter.
1
568
(g)
The following examples illustrate other Predicative Clauses: " iy>i*of U a? c^t (1) "I am fortunate in your arrival ^/o oÛu* jf ^t in az sa'ddat-i man ast ki shumd dmadid. " " It is o-~jj u <+* Wj ^)\ j\ & (2) impossible he escaped by this road
l
jj,^ jfjj
(3)
mumkin
nisi ki
u az in rah
d^
firdr
karda bdshad*
that they
"How
did you
know without counting

ejlAM
<**j*~JI&
were sixty?"
or) <y>^ j&
oa
t
;>b
^^
fc^*-^ na-?himurda chi tawr

J '
ddnistid ki ishdn shast nafar

' '
(4)
What
.?
budand (or hastand, according to idea). did I see on reaching there but that the straw was on
pitf C5
:
fire
c*~j| &SJJS ^jijf al
AA.
a^ÂAO)
l^jf an^'a rasida chi mi-binam ki kah atash
girifta ast
(Afghan)
(as this construction is

it is
uncommon
in
modern Persian
and not always

aij/
^f
(5)
better to say *l *" /*^J^ **. *^***j chi ki rasida didam kah atash girifta (m.c.). aw^'a " He a mirror his into hand and said now look at yourself and put
intelligible,
'
me, and
CU-A
see
if
there
bf
is
any difference
aj^
at all
between us
f;
' '
oJ
ibta .u^'f jl
Jfl^.
U Ûx ^jy
^.^jj
^ *&
o^
u
(:
yc
<J>jJoj (jA* *j
ec^
"
d>;^^c
bi-dast-i
a*ina ddda guft hala surat-i
va bi-bin dyd farq-i miydn-i ma '* An idea came into my head to go to Yezd (6) bi-khaydl-am rasid ki bi-Yazd bi-ravam.
(7)
khud-at rd bi-bin va taraf-i hast ?

|*j^j
man &
s nigdh kun
4>J
*$
^^ ^^.
"I do
A^.
not
\)
know what answer

*'
to give to the manager's letter"
f-jîj
*->Jja.
Je& AP
p*[j$*
hayrdn-am ki kagbaz-i ndzir rd chi javdb
bi-navisam.*
(8)
" I saw
it
stated in a newspaper that there would be an eclipse of
the sun on the 3rd of this

(
month"
l*
^t
&$* )*
kusuf
**
?*?.*
<XM JAfî. ^5tj o>-*^ or) c^j^f
tÂf^ ^tiif dar rw2?iama- navishta
*>A^ fa&jjjjfr 6 didam ki dar
tdrikh-i
(9)
^.ifcb
siyyum-i in
'*
mdh
dftdb
khwahad
girift (or
vdqi' khivdhad shud}.
It
is
to be regretted that I gave

&$ jd-yi-afsus ast ki chird
&)\A\ ^b
]j*.
him permission " c^l \jy^ ^s^ bi-u ijdzat dddam (direct nar.),
(10) People began to be afraid that the police would hear the noise Uj and burst into the house" j> j^JJi } (cjc &* tÛ/c t &&**ajV f<y aili. (_U^b mardum bind mabddd kardand bi-tarsidan ki 4X>^M gazma ghdwahd
i
"
^^
rd shunida bi-zur ddkhil-i khdna shavand.
Ki "in that."
Subjunctive to express doubt
nist.
:
karda ast
O"*>t
J5A^
would be incorrect
after
mumkin
S
your own
4
*J mean "look at vamara bi-bm [/*J cjâ^ cij^^5 would and at mine." Or better ki hi javab-i kaghaz-i nazir ra bi-navtsam (^ ^Jo
surat-i kjiud-at
reflection
Navishta
Al&y
for
a printed as well as a lithographed newspaper.

eclipse of
But oy-a. khusuf "
moon."

(11)
569
"I saw
it
stated in the
Adab
2 that a meeting of the Anjuman'
would be held at two o'clock on Saturday " j^

(<x
;j>
tiAtyL, or5>? ttotjA.

'
&+^\
^l^*Ji or)
o.w
kt
(ji^j
;
(
ruz-nama-yi
Adab' navishta didam
dar ruz-i shamba sd
at~i
du
in iqad-i
l
darpishast (or in'iqad-i Anjuman khwahad bud, or khwahad shud). " He boasted that he would checkmate him without his queen" (12) x v&U AJuif^^j f^ câ. (.*>Jif e? J -*^ jt w ?a/ zad ki man Farzin-i khud ra ^XA/O
Anjuman
bar dashta mat ml-kunam.

(13)
"I
s
have a strong suspicion that he too was concerned with you
in this
highway robbery
"
M>J* )\i
<^~&
l+
^j
JM^
e^j^
A^
-^-
*-*JU
ast.
mU^
^~f guman-i
(14)
ghalib ast ki u dar in rah-zanl ba
shuma
dast-yar
buda
"You
"
*$ b->* $*f *l&j* &ij*> Jcardid ki bi-zamanat ura khalas kardid.
security
u^
did a very imprudent thing in setting
^+* ^
c5^
him free without UJ shuma khayli jur*at
did a great service to the Government in putting down the rebels at the very first" e\&l ^-*^> ji *$ ^j^Âl> v^xyâ^j cu^î. c^^
(15)
"
You
^
j\
i>j^J cuÛ.
(j
^|o--ix)
shuma
khayli khidmat* bi-hukumat zahir kardid ki az
haman
ibtida
mufsiddn ra
told
sakit
namudid.
(16)
"He
my
\&j
son he was coming to

A?
my
house to-morrow
gufta
6
"
^jjî
p~jX
o;>j ^**L.
Aiif
u bi-farzand-am
ki farda khidmat-i
pidar-at mi-rasam.
(17)
"I
entreat
you
A^
to overlook this
my
first
offence"
7
^-* u +&
dar guzarid.
*D*f jt>
(18)
(i)
(Jji î-^ftJ
^j!
multamis Jiastam ki az
:
m taqsir-i avval-am
^Vjt
Compare the following

could
j>3
"I
not guess from his countenance that he would deceive
me"
*>*<> U
^[^
JJ>j
J/
8
ihtimal nami-rajt ki gul bi-zanad
az qiydfa-yi u g Here the (or khwahadzad, or mi-zanad).

*r
o^*i
JUJL^t
jl
Published in Meshed (Mash-had).
Anjuman
^4-svJf
lit.
"committee."
The Zardushtls
ordinarily have a weekly

is
meeting called the Anjuman at which religious and commercial business and culprits are sentenced to bastinado or fine for small offences. There
in
transacted,
is
an Anjuman
or without izafat. In m.c. generally giman. " Service to the Government " could also be well rendered by dawlatÂfj-ioî khwahl, which corresponds to the Indian expression Âfja.^L Miayr-Jchwahi.
*
5 6
7
Bombay. 3 With
Farzand For
&*jj9
means
child,
male or female, young or
old.
o-t
+\
<Ujtf guft ast.
Or
^jJj) avvalin-am.
naml tavanistam qiyas bi-kunam ki mara gill lch.wahad zad ^t f^c &f shows that he did afterwards deceive.
In Hindustani either deta hoga or devega.
570
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
it
TEMPORAL, LOCAL AND MODAL CLAUSES.

;
Aorist leaves
doubtful whether he has or has not cheated
but the Future
signifies that he has cheated. AÎJ ttj (ii) Jj$ |yo &f v^J,x*J JUi^t
jt
&^
his
(as
jt
ki
mam
(iii)
gul zada bdshad (m.c.)
"from
countenance
az qiydfa-yl u ihtimdlnami-raft it did not appear
probable that he would have deceived

<sjJs*>
me
he has done)."
it
J^
ty
*$
^*-v,Jj*i
mard
gul mi-zad (m.c.)
that he was deceiving
"from me."
JUJÎ jf his countenance
ji <bUjf
az qiydfa-yi-u ihtimdl nami-raft ki
did not appear probable
132.
Subordinate Clauses
(continued).
Adverbial (Temporal, Local, and Modal) Clauses.

(a)
Those adverbial clauses dealing with time, place and manner

dealt with.
will
now be
i.e.
Their construction nearly resembles that of relative clauses, vide 130, " the adverbial clause with <*^ vaqt-i ki 1 " when a&iaj Â har vaqt-i ki
;
;
"whenever"
(i
AÛ.
jd-i ki
"where"
*^fr"3' az taraf-i ki direction that," etc., usually stands first, being followed by the principal clause with or without the correlatives mentioned in (d)*
;
wherever
"
" as, in the *&jjk.> bi-tawr-iki
A^t^y. manner that "
har jd-i ki, or

;
I^Â har kujd
"from the
("adverbial clause") does not in Persian mean a subordinate adverbial clause as in English, but merely a clause that con-
Remark.
*Jj*^
*-^
tains
an adverb
of place.
*' ki
take the place of A^ftJ^j vaqt-l ki " when," or AJjfWjjt az vaqt-l ki "since," usually when the adverbial clause is not
(b)
The
particle
may
initial;
&&* man ki shuma ra didam bi-u guftam= (^ maw vaqt-i ki shuma ra didam bi-u guftam "When îif jl> ÂJ^ I)U^ AÂxJj " he went, another came cr^ **? ^; ** $ u ^ raft ba'd digar-i dmad
p&f'j^ f*t*
\j
ba'd az anki raft digar-i amad. (m.c. only) 8 Ta U, with the verb preferably in the affirmative, (c) 123 (e). vide
(d) The correlatives are ^>j Û* haman haman taur, o^-fe i^ *^ hamdn taraf, etc. " Somehow or other " is rendered (e) by
1
means
'until';
vaqt,
^
(
' '
cjU^
hamdn
ja t
)5
*^
^^.S
tj
,)
bi-har tawr-i (or bi-har qism-i) ki bud, etc.
"As
before
by (J>, or Jj-?M
Or c^^. chun,
A^volÎiAj^
dar hangam-l
The normal shape and order
" when." " Where the bee of the clauses are those of the line
ki,
&Ju:*. Jiln-l ki
sucks, there suck I."
In Hindustani, when jdbtak signifies " until or yahant ak ki, it is correctly followed by the verb in the negative, but when it means " whilst " by the affirmative verb vide Hindustani Manual," L. 38 (6).
3
' '
'
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
TEMPORAL, LOCAL, AND MODAL CLAUSES.
571
Still
Loj J&c, or JÂJ kamd-fi, 's-sabiq, or misl-i pish, or misl-i plshtar.

(as before),"
' '
"
by
cJ *^-*-*
'
'
hamchunan.
(/)
Before that
and
' '
after that
ki, A&f}|
(g)
J^fqablaz dnki; and by
are rendered by A&Tjf (J^j pish az dn*Cfy u*-*tf\\ Mba'd az an ki, pasaz an ki.
I recollect the
' '
Examples
^/o jUii.f
(1)
(
" I cannot help laughing when
matter"
1
c/f
ACj&j y*
fS\s*.
ôr) ^y^y
jft^J^
ly
^f^^
/*^^^*!
liar
vaqt-l*
ki
an amr
ydd-am mi-dyad mard khanda mi-girad

(2)
/*^
^^
(3)
(or bi-ikhtydr mi-khandam). " "I &*/of lsvx: **&? jt enjoy good health since I came here fi o*>cil^ (j 2 vaqt-1 ki injd dmada-am kh-ud^ rd saldmat mi-binam. " Sit in the verandah till I return /w^j <^> 15 <j^^v o!^>' j^> dar ayvdn
' *
bi-nishm td
bi-ydyam\ or ^ÂJ ^^!t j^ ^jl^ ayvdn bi-nishm (rare). Vide 123 (e).
(4)
man
^^
t>
â
wan na-ydyam
dar
jp
*' is a long time since (that) my father died" st ki marhum shuda. vdlid-am muddat-i fj^j* " " (5) Every one will have leave to go wherever he pleases
"It
ovit uajLj* kas har-jd bi-khwdhad bi-ravad murakhkhas ast. zjj* J.AI^SU har
(6)
"He
went
a^;
off* in the direction
he came
from" ^L
o^
*^ cu^j
(7)
o^J=
taraf-l ki
all
dmad bi-hamdn
taraf raft ki raft.*
"Sweep out
\)
these carriages before the train starts" *&Tjt
5 (^ *^ or) (fCJ( î dÂ î^j CU^JA. (_c^^ y>*5^ az awH gran haraka bi-kunad hama-yiin kdliskahd (or dabbahd rd) jdrub kun. " " The iCi^t Jsu (8) only plan I could think of was to go myself pj Q *i*y îiiw ÂA 5.^2 inki khud-am bi-ravam hich bi-'aql-am na-rasid. <: Both of us are all but caught" ^j&>)\tijL tf o^t îjfjtj* ^ ma (9) har du, qarib ast ki giriftdr bi-shavim.
î)^-
^^
(10)
"When
you yourself
see
them eating you
will
admit that I
am
cu*! .-AacuD
ki chi J^j A? vaqt-i ki khud-i shumd ishdn rd didid (or bi-Hlnid] 1 tawr mi-khurand, qdbul mi-kuriid ki qawl-i man sahih ast.
jaufrar-i
agar dar
Tcfeilab
uftad
chunan l&asis
ÛacvÂ
2
5
(Gul., Bk.
8, 55).
hamchunan nafls ast va ghubar gar bi-falak rasad ham bazham, for In mod. Pers.jjis ^jUd) haman t,awr or ÂjU
Aam
As"
chunan.
Misl-i pish
^^
'
(Jtl*
could not be used here.
Or
ki. lfyb ârsroA,
Not
exsj
.*iy*>f
amarfam.
ra/
^ 0.3;
ki raft (m.c.)
' '
he went right off,"

carriage or cart.
i.e.
without hesitating or
looking back. 6 From the Hindi

6 7
^j^
garl any
jfl agar
Note the Persian Pres. Subj., for the English Past Pot. Note dramatic ast. East gufta am .*| <uf o.**|> could " if " could be substituted for ki.
also be used
and also
&*3j
vaqt-l
572 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

(11)
TEMPORAL, LOCAL, AND MODAL CLAUSES.

left
" Yo.u have no resource

ti.jj\'
but to take service

chdra-l
'
o^-oJ
j&& fjW
2
sivd-yi
mid nawkan kumd

voice
digar nist.
';
(12)
"Sit where
ki
my
may
be heard"
^y^
fJ|^<
*& u-iAv
jd-l bi-nishin
sadd-yam ra bi-shinavi.
just as
it is
(13)
;^ljj
(j.*3
"Wherever you find any curiosity bring it to me (^j a~.j^ & tyT ît &>&! jAa. ^ Uo jA Jiar kujd ki
bi-jinsih bard-yi
I
"
6
chiz-i antika-i
dial
an ra
<f
man
bi-ydvar.
(14)
saw what was

<y
in his
mind
before he could
make any complaint"

shikayat
fk'kja
fj
<jwj&**
j.w
v*j^
a<J|j!
jj^J
^5^
as
awH
kunad
ma
ft
zamir-ash* ra daryaftam.
(15)
"His
ol*
vti}jj.t
fj\j*i
eyes were no sooner closed than he was in another world" chashm bastan haman va bi-'avalim-i digar b j vi)U* (Ji~>
J**A.
raj tan
haman.
"
(16)
He
could not have gone five or six steps
when he heard a man's

1
voice close
by
"
^^ ^^ *>& ^
*>j* LS\*<*>
***i
an
^ ty ^y^J^ f^' u^
and
^^v
panj shash qadam btshlar na-rafta bud ki daf'at

shuriid.
(h)
sadd-yi mard-1 nazdik-i khud
As
in conditional
and causal clauses
[vide
128(d)
133(e)],
the Future Indicative can in classical Persian often take the place of the Aorist or the Present, as
;
Ij 55^ ojf^ ^x^j ^jj fj iy i^ ^;-hA' chun va hukm-i Afandagar HaqqSubhdnuh ta'dlq bi-nafaz khwahadrasamd* bimU-i basirat-i ra va lira khira garddnad td rdh-i khaldsi az ghaflat dida-yi bindydn an hukm bjr ishdn pushida shavad (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, S. 18) " and when the Creator, the Most High God may He be sanctified causes His decree to
?
^-^
e/fj! ^-oSLL
u
issue,
He
the anointing needle of negligence, so that the mandate becomes hidden to them, for ."
clouds and darkens the eye of the vision of the clear-sighted with way of escape from that
2
s
Or Ov*aJ /crj,i 1;^ chara-yi digar-i nist (vulg.). Note that ^'la. ja-i and As" ki are separated.
Antique (Eur.), used in Persian for any good thing or rare thing, however new. carpet would be called &&Jo| antika. Tuh/a is any choice article
A newly woven good

*
^
that has not yet become
common.
Ma
fl
zamir
.***>
^J^,
Ar -> " that which

it
(is)
in
mind."
If the
singular
JU
'atom were used,
would imply death or departure from
(his
world.
6
In
modern Persian
lioU^jjc
" mi-rasanad, Present Tense (when) he does,"' or
bi-rasanai (when) he raa^-do."
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
133.
FINAL,
AND CAUSAL CLAUSES.

(continued).
573
Subordinate Clauses
Adverbial (Final and Causal) Clauses.

(a)
Those adverbial clauses dealing with the end or reason,

will
i.e.,
Final
and Causal clauses,
now be
dealt with.
Final clauses are constructed like Predicative Clauses [vide 131 (a)], being linked to the principal clause by a final conjunction &f ki, & ta, or *$ &
ta ki, or & tf ki ta.
Clauses negatively final and introduced in English by the conjunction 'lest,' are introduced in Persian by the phrases fÛ* mabada, or
jj^SofAi.
Khuda na-karda
or else
by
*$ ki
'
that
'
with the verb in the negative.
Examples of these conjunctions have been given. Under Huruf-i'lllat and Kalimat-i Illat native grammarians include both the final and the causal conjunctions they are
l
, ;
:
)&*)
fcHt jf
--AAVS ^jtjt
*xjf
y&&)
ji
:
yjtjjUj
-j+
(b)
Examples
of Final Clauses
(1)
"8 * U l journey in their company *>JL^ v^j/ !/* f^j~ ptf yU c> Al! L>+t? J# <j* 8 rufaqa-yam mara targ]nb kardand ta 2 man niz bi-hamrah-i ishan safar kunam.
1 1
"My
companions held out inducements to the end that
might
(2)
"Keep your hand
here lest the child should awake and feel fright-
" ened
A.J \&l#* )\b& (A^Â, \j cuisw^ dast-at ra hamin ja hi. ^.^yo uî-î^j mabada bachcha bidar shuda bi-tarsad. guzar Here î f^ Khuda na-karda could be substituted for l^'vo mabada. If however *' î were substituted for fÛ* mabada the sentence would have
,
to
be reconstructed
tj
13
oJUo
lj
^îi
<sij
^*i jf^*J
A^XJ
A>"
;fjJo
IUXA
*
f^
oLc^
tX-^Jo
^.ôji^j
atf
a^su
^t
JJo l3n.JA*Jiâ5â^
m hammja bi-guzar ki bachcha bidar

bi-guzar ta bachcha ki
bi-dar mi-
na-shavad va na~tarsad, or dast-at ra
hammja
shavad na-tarsad.
[The sentence &*j& jjxijt^j aan.j A> jli^j ^î-*^ ^ VÂ^^ dast-at ra hammja bi-guzdr ki bachcha bidar shuda' na-tarsad would mean "place your hand here
so that the child
(3)
may wake up
"
but
if
may
'*
not be frightened."]
. .
"I
should not wonder
he has deceived you, in order to get some*

utfjt
thing for himself
c>^
^ &^'
*^ AiA^' U
Ij
';!
*'
Kardand
Or
for
^^ here
clause
implies that
'
agreed to go with them.'
Ml-kardand <xi^x/c
\vould leave the matter doubtful.

*
S
AS'U ta ki, or
G A^
Art
a, or
As"
ki alone.
This
final
13
can be converted into a predicative clause by substituting

:
A^
Uj
ki
U
*
A/ 3J /a and employing the direct narration, as ki hamrah-i ma biya. mara kardand rufaqa-yam taryhlb (Â Ki &? "when."
574
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
FINAL AND CAUSAL CLAUSES.
man
tdaz in miydn yak
U ix&b chi
'
ta'ajjub narni
'aftd-i
kunam
ki
u shumd rd
or
farifta
bdshad
chiz-i
Ichud-ash bi-shavad; or
;
ajab ki turd farifta bdshad td
alo^ ty &Z ^suc <**. /( OA*O ^^c 'ajab nisi,
agar
"
(4)
Writeme word
of his departure, in order that I
preparations for his
^b
jsjAi
j\
JI^ÂJ az
reception" <Jjf<i.i>^ xx~>jjij \j jj&j^. Ûlôf jt dnjd tdrikh-i harakat-ash rd bi-navisid td man dar taddruk-i
' '
may
set
on foot
pishvdz-i
1 u bdsham (m.c.). " Grease his (5) palm a little lest he put a spoke in our wheel *i**jji .tjku * <Ji^ U &Ut**j ) G &* td dar mu'dmala~yi \^\ pish az vaqt urd bi-bm
md
(
muTchil na-shavad (m.c.).
"
(6)
He shook
)
^~^y j$ ^
'*
the pot to find out what it was filled with" ^ J*>A ^~*5- câ *t && ^^kxj afa dig rd takdn ddd td ma'lum kunad
3
ki dar an chist (or pur az chist

(7)
).
Chastisement ought to be inflicted, to the intent that people & $& see it and take warning" ô^ ^j ^.^ (*i/ ^ fj$ az In sabab tamblh kardan lazim ast id* mardum dida 'ibrat girand.
may
drt^
^^
o^
V^
final clauses, Causal Clauses generally precede the principal the clause (after manner of temporal, local and modal clauses). They are introduced by the causal conjunctions 'since,' because,' &j*. chun or *>^ chunki. A&jlacoijl az dnjd-i ki, A*J jf az baski, 5 A. chi, &$ oâaxji jt
(c)
'
Unlike
az in jihat in ki, etc.
ki, etc.,
^(^f^jUj bind bar an
ki, *$ \y*-
chirdki,
afij|
^^bubi-'ittat-i
The
correlatives are cuysJuf
jf
az in jihat, v^*
*>
^3
:
az ^ n sabab, etc.
Causal clauses
(d)
may
verb
also follow the principal clause.

9
JJU^.)'?
Examples
of Causal Clauses (*JU*x>

is
(1)
"As
this
with the past tenses 8 ^f ^*i <J*l* ou/olU chunki in

aldmat-i fd'il nami-dyad.
"
Û
intransitive, the sign of the agent is not used ^^***> )* ***** ^jji o^| fj$ J*i ^t *Ci>^.
fi'l
lazim ast az in
(6).
sabab dar sig&ahd-yi mdzi

so to
Vide also No.

' '
"
(2)
You had
better post a sentry here -too, for this ravine
is,
speak, the postern of this place
*
lj
Or JUfll^f istigbal. Or i># *J lj>jt ( c^5j

^sm-i sâ6 ra
fo'-tt
J! jj5*>J joJsA az vaqt
6-^w
"
tell
dam-i u ra him the countersign."
bi-bln.
Also
\j
-*^
Vulgarly pur-i
chist.
*
^
Or
For
s$ ki.
classical
6
7
The &
and
is
and m.c. meanings of &~ojf azbas ki vide' elsewhere. frequently separated from o^sof jf as an jihat.
The term
all
JjJLi>
J^
" a causal Aar/-i to' Z^ particle," includes
such particles as
the final particles.
Urdu grammar.
In India
^xsjV
lazimi
is
" intransitive." generally used for
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
ô
(jjt
FINAL AND CAUSAL CLAUSES.
575
AilA bihtar in ast ki injd niz pdsbdn-i vd ddrid

l
chunki in rud-kkdna guy a madkhal-i makhfi-yi in mahall ast. " I cross-examined him, because they say he was one of the deceased (3)
man's intimates "
jl
^ c*^
(4)
<jaiu
*
*r* c^
*>j& joy
a
mcm
a2
w sabdb
;ar/i
*-** ^\ jt f*fy* mi-kardam ki * mardum mi-guyand

3
**
^^
in sTiakhs yak-i az rufaqd-yi mard-i mutavaffq

<(
bud.
Do
not
take
his
<^Jt jf
part,
for
Ij^f
his criminality is unquestionable ".
o*tÂax> f&" cu^ jihal ki u Id kalam muqassir

A*'
$y
^^
c^jUaw himayat-i urd na-kunid az in
ast.
was found against me in the informers' ^* <x^ LS^jM (&*&*** *>b^\ j* *&j*statements, I was not summoned" ^JJaJ \j* cuxjCa. a^j chunki dar izharat-i mukhbirin irad-i bar zidd-i man
(5)
"Inasmuch
as nothing
^^
yaft
na-shud hukumat mar a na-talabid.

(6)
" As this verb

5
'
is
transitive the sign of the agent
is
used " J*>

4
l
^| c.>^
^y* tf^ J^*^**
ckk* c>x5^p o^.t âwlxs cAtlw

*
m ^'? muta'addi-st
aldmat-i fd'il
isti'mal mi-shavad.
<c
Vide' No.
' '
f
(1).
(7)
As he learned English
X|U
in his childhood, he
must be more
Inglisi ra
or less pro^Lf ^^
ficient in
the language
x^b
Ax^
(8)
ast lihaza
jTe^x> dar ayyam-i tufuliyyat zabdn-i mahdrat-i kam yd bish-i bay ad ddshta bdshad.
^^jj
lj
ow,f Ai^f ^L ^ t5-J^Jt ^b}
oJyik
Â.
cMn
ydd
girifta
" As you are fond of obliging me, I

in
this
feel sure
(help)
*j?
matter"
you
will
not grudge
fj
me
j*>\
^^
tf o~*f {ÂJ, *>j;tô .>>.>
^(îo
(9)
AfljUax?
az bas ki b khdtir-am rd 'aziz mi-ddrid yaqin ast

fault, for reconciliation
j**>
ô^ &~J jl kidar in amr

impossible
niz
muzdyaqa na-khwdhid kard.
"You
it
without
"
ought to confess your

cu~oo ^4-xj
is
e;^ ^3$
^\
i$
\j
y&
j\j*\
^^-^J *$ *&
mumkin
Indicative
:
bdyad ki
nist.
(e)
bi-taqsir-i
khud
iqrdr kuni zird-ki bi-ghayr-i iqrdr dshti kardan
As
in conditional
classical
and
temporal clauses, the
Future
sometimes in
Persian takes the place of the Present Tense, as
t;
j^ cMw
dqibat-i
kdr rakht-i
az
is generally used for the throat, as: ^[y*> tX>b ^f*-*> jt " ad kjiwand makjjjaj bay pronounce the Arabic guttural letters well out of the
In
' '
rn.c.
rj^<* makhraj
throat.
1
az in sabab is separated from ki. jt Generally applied to a Christian or a Jew. Marhum fjjxvo for a Muslim. 4 Note the or fj^J lihaza is omitted: it could of correlative o^sajt Jt az injihat course be inserted.
8
6 6
Note that w^x-o
Chunki more modern than az 6as

it
',
ki
&j'$ A**J jl
' '
Instead of the pronoun without confession ' '

.
it
would be better
in English also to repeat the
noun
576
zindagi
bi-gkarqdb-i fand
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
khwdhad uftdd mi-jchipdham
ki
har-chand zudtar
khud rd az maziq-i
ta' alluqdt-i
dunyd
bi-fazd-yi rdhat-dbdd-i 'uqbq rasdnam:
" and since in the end the goods of life must (Anv. Suh., Chap. IV, St. 11) fall in the whirlpool of annihilation, I desire with all possible speed to to the expanse transport myself from the narrow strait of worldly things
of the blissful regions of Eternity."
(/)
(East, trans.).
the causal clause precedes the principal, the conjunction may ~ be omitted, as: fj?; t5*^ ^/T -? O^ !** haw* garm ast birun nami-ravam
If
k
'
*&**
(*
*! fj [>*
birun nami ravam chunki havd garm cf*' *A*^ chunki havd garm ast birun nami ravam.
&J&
ast
134
(a)
Co-ordinate Clauses.
"Another form
is
of the
Compound Sentence
is
that in which a simple
sentence
extended by the annexure of co-ordinate clauses.
These differ from
subordinate clauses in being accessory, or even antithetic to the leading sentence, rather than explanatory of its parts. They may indeed be connected with
it by conjunctions augmentatively appropriate to the meaning but are constructively independent, and this too though they convey, they
may have common

(2)
terms.
"Co-ordinate Clauses
Adjunctive,
(3)
be conveniently classed as Alternative, (4) Adversative.
may
(1)
Appositive,
appositive or collateral relation is that in which no intermediary Kempson. conjunction unites the clauses ."
(b}
"The
The
jj
b o**}
following are a few m.c. examples of Appositive Clauses Ixi&Uif j| ^ o-*ol ctw? *A. jf jyty &S JU~o|*x* j\t, jb
ÂAJ
;tif jf
az dsdr-i pd mi-ddnist ki rdh-raw az chi qabil ast va az kujd bi-kujd mi-ravad ; " from the foot-tracks he was able to bdr-ddr ast yd bl-bdr (Tr. H. B. Chap. V)
discern whatever
had
travelled that way,
and whence
and also whether laden or unladen.

ravad, but the omission of the " Say Sir to others and
' '
[ Va or ya'ni is understood after fyyo rniCopulative makes the sentence more dramatic].
*
"
travelling
and whither;
Sir
'
will
:
be said to you
"
jJ**j
0*0; a j.& os^js
durust bi-gu durust bt-shinaw

*i
(m.c.)
"I gave you
this order, did I

:
not?
"
^!i>w \j&*j9 ^t farmdn rd bi-tu dad budam-na ? "I have never heard " of the man, to say nothing of never having seen him tj* e/T p~l ;liT *M;IA^J fj c)*^ j*l sîo p* I; ism-i an mard rd ham na-shumda am didan rd bi~
(*d^
the
name
guzarid kindr* (m.c.)
" well
<yxi
have enjoyed a sight of you

liif
please
God
I shall
soon hear you speak
"
AI^ cjîu \^îj^
^-lU
b bdr-i
A complex
^r
Or
^))>
sentence
may
also be so extended.
'
Hindustani Jl kaho
jl kahlffo.
i^
^ri)*
o}.^ 'izzat *izzat mi-avarad (m.c.).
classically
chi ja-yi didan.
577
S. T.):
dUar muyassar shud guftar niz agar Khudd bi-khwdhad khwdham slmnid (Prof. "the earth moves round the sun, I allow. Why 'allow'? rather it
so
-&$>* Ûif^ k>* tff f^ Giram 'chird? Balki chundn bi-gu ki giram dunyd dawr-i a/tab mi-gar dad an haqiqat mi-gardad (m c.): "I looked for him in all directions not a trace of him could be found" ^'Ui y jt <^'f pj&S ljf Uuuf y ^Sr 'aqab-i u
*
does
move" t^**
lia*^ *$
^('^ *Oj
Say
Â
mjd
dnjd gashtam ; hich asar-l az u na-ydflam (m.c. ) at the service of my friends" (3*~& Û^l fÛ
[ :
* '
why should
t^.
I object
am
man
Ichddim-i ahbdb hastam:
"it
is
easy for some
<j|y^t i'tiraz chira? people to lie, difficult for

(
C5"^ baray-i ba z-i darugh " some are mushkil ba'z-l asan devoted to philoso(m.c.) ast, baray-i gu/tan " o*a. for a mathematics others have greater liking phy, ^j^j
others" cU&xj
^^
^fy
OA*|
Ûf
<^.XA?
^.i
c^S
Û
^^
l
f>>
t/^k^ t3-^
j^ <^*J
yuuftak jyk
-îrfc'
cr* 6a'?-* baray-i 'ilm-i
digar shawq-i riyazi
ddrand:
became
"
hikmai* mi-mirand, ba z-i "the higher I ascended the lighter the air
fi>^>o ^j*
(
*&*<>
;ÛA
ufp^ j^j^'y*
)
(^y*:
4.5
"the morel
cherished you the lazier
îWf ^ Xj^Jj
{c)
cUxJ y^jjj
you became" ^&UA ). ( ;
jojjjg or
f^^
^-^
!/;**
^?
The Adjunctive Conjunctions

(*->*ia*
(<-ftk
grammarians are
Clauses
(1)
j va, ^y^ pas, o**-^ sipas, yi>

:
oj>^) enumerated by native ham. Adjunctive riiz, and
^
,
dUa.)
In these the principal connective
is
s 'and', va
which
may denote
'
simultaneity of action, or antithesis. " What is is one
Examples
:
right
i\j
/^J*-j ow-jt^Ûja
&*o
thing and what one- wishes is another rdh'i salah dUgar ast va khwahish-i dil digar
felt
'
(m.c.)
jjUd.
" nausea
(of cholera)
was no sooner
than Fate 4 overtook
him"
yi
**){*> halat-i qayy haman budva rasidan-iqazae^^*-*^' what comparison is there between the Raja Bhoj and 5 \t j i^/jjl* shahkujava gada kujd ? : " such a big Ganga, the oilman ?" " amr-l business as this, and you not to know of it! "^xiujy^ <-A-^? e>^ c^r 70
*j& ^lâi
oj^^Mi)
>>*
mubram* haman:
t(
'
bi-m buzurgi va tu bl-tihabar " c^'o f; c;^;>* you abuse others

!
"
" look at your own insignificance before

*J
*^^ ^ u* &
'j
*sij^ khud-at rd nigdh kun
#
3
Or an taraf va In t&raf nigah Icardam. Or faylastifiyya Gr. or falsafa Ar. form. When a number of clauses are connected by j
,
as:
o
AJJ&P
AJU-x.
;
ât/d amac? va niahast va 6a'd

*
aan
rait,
the sentence
is
called
Many Muslims hold that Fate is, in some respects, absolute and unchangeable in others that it admits of alteration; and almost all of them act, in many of the affairs of in In the former case, it is called el-kada el-mohkam life, as if this were their belief. the latter, el-kada el-mubram (which term, without the explanation, might be regarded as exactly synonymous with the former)." Lane's Arabian Nights. and ajal-i Compare ajal-i mahtum (beyond which period a man cannot possibly live), the before death that occur previous period). mu'allaq (accidental may 6 Kahan Raja Bhoj aur Jcahan Ganga tell, a common Hindustani proverb.
'
:
"
'
37
578
[
va dushnam
of theft
"
!
" my son and capable bi-buzurgan dadan ra (or add ma-dih) " this va duzd/if:" amount of labour man c5>3o (^ r~v pisar-i
:
in qadr zahmatkashidan va nafas zadanl: "it is he property of lodestone to attract iron, and the nearer the iron is placed to it, the greater is the attracting force"
and you gasp
for breath
'
&*j o***^
^<H^^*^3^^
j,jUw l^j' dar sang-i maqndtis in* khassiyyat ast ki ahan ra jazb mi 8 va har kunad qadr ahan nazdiktar bashad haman qadr quvva-yi jaziba bishtar " 5 do you it is not advisable to leave him to live alone, accordingly ast*:
and he continue together

(2) If
' *
<H*l+? /***? $\
&}j*{**
o*~^
oscJUa/c ^jLwi<>
1^x3 \^\
ura tanhd guzdshtan maslahat

va,
nist bindbar 6 in
shumd va u bdham bi-mdnid.

c
may
'
the adjoined clause implies a logical sequence of thought, then for " **.* ba d '* " be substituted pas " then" baz again again, after; ;
wards
';
\&\j> Uj
bindbar in " therefore."
Examples
' ' :
There has been a
ter-
rible dacoity in
this village; accordingly the village

*** l*\*e
governor has come in
person to investigate it" eA

**\ iyj'f
*JVj&> ($** bind-barin Aqa-yi zabit khud-i shan bi-nafsih bi-jihat-i tahqiqdt tashrif dvarda and Ai| AiJ^l; *i**^| u;Âi( **he asked for you, so you must go" oJ> ^^ (m.c.)
:
^t^
i^ty i&ijf** cuî 8*x ?fj (j*ij*^j*j&) %*&}j& dar dih rahzani-yi gharib-% vaqi* shuda ast in ^?
^J
ishdn ism-atragiriftaand, pasbayad raft : tf His Excellency presented me with a watch well it was of no use to me for four days I kept thinking I would
;
return
it,
then I thought he would be offended, so at last I retained
it
' '
j px^Wj^f *> *iAiyL }&t> ^f J^3^ p**? o^ *^ Hazrat-i A jail yak marhamat farmudand- kJiub bi-chi dard-i man mi-khwurdl Ta chahdr ruz fikr mi-kardam ki pas bidiham, baz khaydl kardam ki dilgir khwdhand shud; akhir sa'at ra nigdh dashtam : (i first that man came, then this one Jy ty*
IC
sd'at-i
' '
tjî
e^l ^*J
^/
avval an
it
mard dmad ba d
(
and yet you ask why

ijjy-.
does not burn
"
^w
^ ^^
in yak-i the wood is ** <^* p&jb cu*|

:
' *
damp
y Â
hizam
tar ast t baz
ham mi-pur si
him
to
ki chird
nami-suzadi
(m.c.):
"what
need
was
there
for
right to contradict
" c*Api ine
put
in his oar?
Then too he had no
muddkhala-yi
na-ddsht.
chi
o^._VxJ ^Jy> t>) *i^=^ îjl ^ &j> pV **-j| AU.|^x5 Idzim bud ? va az an guzashta radd-i qawl-am niz jihat
In m.c. often pronounced dushmun (for dushniim), by educated Persians even. If t rJj+A hamln were used here it would mean " only this."
.
'-
Orc^.1
ast.
*
6
Or
-S>
ml
shavad.
:
In Urdu AsvJlx^. chunanchi would be correct, but not in modern Persian akela ch'iorjana maslahat nahm-zhunanchi turn aur wuh aath raha karo.
8
uako
Not
Asulia. chnanclti which might, however, be used
by Indians and Afghans
for
<;
accordingly," even at the beginning of a sentence
Remark.
*
579
clauses
What
are
apparently
adjunctive
introduced
by
:
therefore
'
or a
synonym, are in
reality principal clauses
which are preceded
*%*. chunki, etc., understood, as not advisable to leave him to live alone, accordingly let you and -j him continue together " may also be rendered by euaeJLa*: lgi> \\ &&f*.
" It
is
by causal
clauses with the conjunction
^^
>jJUj
fAb
j\
U^ f^ o*o
chunki urd tanhd guzdshtan maslahat mst lihdzd
shumd va u bdham bi-mdmd.

(d) (1)
Alternative clauses (Aj-xjay <xU^)
are joined
By
the conjunction
yd, or
l>j
vayd
"
or," as:
chanddn mubdlagha dar

ki
vasf-i
ishdn kardl va sukhanhd-yi panshdn gufti
vahm tqsavvur kunad

:
arzdq (Sa*di)
ki zahr-i fdqa ra taryaq and, va

(j.j
yd
J&
^>^ u^\jr
3'
^"S
t^y*.
& & ** W ^ <^+V

,
kalid-l khazina-yi
ÔJAJ ^li. AXSLJ ^j; 7 J bi-hamdn qdni' bud ki gdh gdh bu-yi mush-i az surakh-i shunidi va yd naqsh-i pd-yi u bar ru-yi takhta-yi khak bi-didi (Anw. Suh. Chap. I, St. Ill) "it (the cat) was content if occasionally it smelt the
odour of a mouse from
its hole,
or saw the print of the foot of one on
the surface of a board'"1 (East. Trans.): *J l> " " md-bayn-i tu va u hich khusumat-l ast yd na ? " you two or not ?
y j y ^w ^JUya^ is there any enmity between
0^1
The pleonastic va there are two yd.
is
seldom used in connecting two short clauses unless
In some phrases the "or'* is omitted, as: *->&* *^ " " " two or three books" G^ ^& yaki du td one or two
:
^ du
t>
si
kitdb
^^- A
"about seven or eight"

bist
si
td',
or
"about nine and ten ":
dah
tc.
;
Jt^
but ^J ÛuU hashtdd navad or *i b na to ?/ Interrogation can ba expressed by adding the words hamchumn ast yd na (m.c.) the end of the sentence, as *i ^ o*^f
:
^ ^^
si
chihal; slÔj
Jt ^
cA*At/
panjdh,
^y navad sad are not used.
"is this so or not

(2)
"
is,
^^Â
"Either.. or,"
is
^ ya
b yd; or ^ yd
..
l^
m-ya; but when

:
the sentence
ivj
interrogative the
first
L yd takht U i/a sar
" yd takhta a throne or a

i/a yfcw/a^:
0*^0 Lj ya becomes dyd* Examples "= bier, a man or a mouse, do or die
Ji^ e^^-Ji
^^ ^ ^ ^^/< ^ydkdr-ikhudin Indian Persian.
Fa
2/0
Ij
j common
in classical
and consequently
floor" compared to the board talchta-yi or canvas for painting on which the naqsh or drawing of the foot was made. ' 3 In m.c. The word nine is always generally slurrnd into ha ash dah ta.
2
The reading
khak means the
"mud
'
omitted.
4
Only
in interrogative clauses in direct narration does
bf aya mean
whether.'
In m.c.
jLo magar generally takes the place of uf ay a.
580
at
l
bi-kun va
yd
dast az sar-i
man
:
or be off and don't bother
me
"
khwdb mi'bmam
"
^ ^* vt^
m
bi-kash (m.c.)
lj
" either do your work

Ijf
^ta*j
:
aya* biddr-am yd
p\& ^tl^ j^y ô
(
khud biravam ya tdbistdn ra dar kuhistdn bi-sar I am perplexed whether 3 to go home or spend the hot weather baraml " l> M\* p&2 in the hills Uf aya tu az khud *j jtyf " did va* kas-i kardi bi-tu ta'tim ddda bud" confess of your own ya iqrdr you " one or did some to so do ? accord, prompt you
"
:
(V?r~- tot?**!?')* l> ki (dyd) bi-vildyat-i
cJ li
am I awake or in a dream ? k ~^ oj^j maw fjjjj â

(jv>t
"
(Ijf
*$
taraddud-i
khdtir
daram
& ^^
^^
\\
(3)
Other alternative conjunctions are the verbal derivative

**
chi
b
.
t^ khwah,
JAI
or the interrogative JJÂV owilu j *Ji*% v^
Examples
-
;j>
&*.
^^ ^
**. IL
o^x
'
Jf *Solia. A>
Ujl
" the friendship

it
of
the sincere
'
shows
itself in
:
the
same way before your

!>- (j) }***>
(
face as
(Sa'di.)
J>\j*>
*\j^
maw &am
6
naw'-i insdn ra
aziz
(A~* *L^ (*;l^ rni-daram Tchwah Muslim khwdh

l
does behind your back ui t^^ !y
j^
t^
Hindu
or
(va)
khwdh Nasrdni "

'-
I love the sons of
Adam, be they Muslims, Hindus

f^-*J
Christians"
tof*. cU>!
jt
Jf
*^
jjjb*
j)
yâr
j^^
*A.
gac^r /W5<
paydd narm-shavad chi az amir " search as you will, no Muslim is to be found in this city prince, pauper, or " &tf tradesman 2J|j^ jxiA xtâL j^ <X*A hama-yi j*+*)&& ^\*t> /J^** \) j\ shahr Tchipah Hindu, khwah Muslim du'd yi tandurusti-yi urd mi-kunand,
:
(jl*i^x)jyxi (^j> ^j^j j.sJL.^.j^5Â ju bi-shavad dar in shahr Musalman 1 (va) chi az faqir va chi az ahl-i hirfa
>i>î*^
tt
10
(or <*iix/o
\)
^W
i^*$
Muslim bdshand va chi city, Hindus and Muhammadans
*^ j <&&> (&~* **$- j<f* *+ A hama-yi shahr chi Hindu du d-yi shifd-yi urdmi-kunand 8 ) " the whole
(
^^
alike,
are praying
for
his
recovery"
Or better omit the

it is
va.
In mod. Pers. the va
is
usually prefixed to
lj
ya, only
when
*
preceded by another b ya.

direct question
Here aya simply introduces the

substituted.
and does not mean "whether."
Magar could not be

3
clause
Note that aya translated "whether" introduces the direct narration and the is therefore merely equivalent to a direct question. It is better to omit aya
possible.
when
*
6
Or better omit
Chi
va.
it matter one way or the other?" There is no distinction between chi and &hwah as there is between the Hindi verbal form chahe chahe and the Hindi interrogatives Tcya kya (' Vide' Hindustani Stumbling Blocks). 6 Ml-daram fy&x/o (and not daram) comp. verb.
.
. . .
"what
does
Here az gives the sense of amongst and means chi az amir just uju bi-shavad omit az and the meaning is na muslim-i amir na muslim-i faqlr payda ml-shavad. 8 From this sentence it is not clear whether the whole city is Muhammadan or the
7
'
'
whole Hindu, or whether mixed.
jb\tt
\\
&s*.
,JLc j
HA. H->
is
it^** tamaml-yi shahr chi

.JU^c A+& AA.^<
az Muslim chi as Hindu shows that the population
mixed.
^^
i^L tamaml-yi shahr chi hama Muslim bashand chi Hindu
needs no explanation.
t)
581
a'amm
l
az In ya an " whether this or that

or I."
"
:
chi
man
va
chi
shuma " whether you

or
:
&*. 9
^x d^
not" is rendered by *n!^ khwah-lchwah 7ia,both verbs being in the Subjunctive, as fjj&o *x&lx at^ *(j o*xJLa>c $|yk khwah maslahat bashad khwah na-bdshad mi-ravam: "whether advisible or not I'm
going": p&) *j* raftam "whether
(4)
"Whether
-^
!y^
it
&
cusOAo
is
^ MwaA
maslahat bud khwah no-bud

<w
was advisable or not, I went."

expressed by
na.
.
Negative alternation
AJ
na, or
Ai
na. .AJJ
t?a
na.
The English adverb

(contractions of *>
in a contracted form.
is rendered by rama or *'>j>j vagarna va are and aâr na), /( j consequently conditional clauses
'else
^
)
Synonyms
for these are
HI
&7Za,
and
A&J| U
yamki.
Examples
jjji^jt o^^^^jt (^x> *- ^ o*- ^fj j^L v-^t^ ji ^f *j na fi a2 mavajib-i khud razi-st, va* no-man az kar kardan-i u Tchushnud " neither is he satisfied
with his pay, nor
am
I pleased with his

less
no kam " neither more nor

vishtam* "
jsj^'f
"
:
tamam shud varna î^J kaghaz-am
^ &j &) na ziyad va* ^ a^j cîU. ^& ^y ^ ^ ^ ^j^^

:
work "
*j
bard-yi tafarruj-i khatir-at ziyada mi-na-
my paper
is
used up, or
iJf
would write more
for
" your amusement
j c^^ eA) u^'f /*^^ J* &k' miyan-i du adorn dtash ^/o îjJ Â^l e^^ji rawshan ma-kun va ilia dar miydn-i ishan niza'-i mi-uftad "don't light a fire
between two persons, otherwise they
will
^jy
*j
t^
^>^ ^ ^ ^^^
ki dar in
have a quarrel "

Ij
a^
U ^Jy
&U|j
ill^
*^J^y
er*^
H^ t^'
u;^ ^^^ e;^ ;^
avvalm-i
* raqima zikr-ash ra mi-kunid mumkin na*bud ki javab-ash ra na-navisam (mod.) "I did not get your first letter, which you refer to in this, else I should have answered it as a
shuma
murasola-yi bi-manna-rasida, va ilia
matter
of course."
If
Remark.
^~~>V
u^-*-*
mumkin
nist
were substituted for
^ ^^
mumkin
&f
no-bud, the Past Subjunctive p&* ai^y ~jj or)
e^*^ mumkin no-bud
(or nist) ki
and the sentence would
have to run va ilia bild shak javab-ash ra mi-navishtam tj (Jtyj^ <j:^ Hj J/l ) {t My paper is finished, otherwise I would write more for Similarly in,
f^y^.
you
ilia
kdgjiaz-am tamam shudo va the Subjunctive could not be ziyad-tar mi-navishtam, bard-yi the Future could not be used; it would used for mi-navishtam, and obviously
/*J^>>
"
tf^yi^;
UA
(^fy
Vt
l^
fU5
p<ixl<
shuma
Better omit the
^.
4
5
Or omit
va.
;>"
budam
*
Ml-navishtam /*iy ,** could also mean (m.c.) however could refer to the past only. Or Jcarda-id, no difference.
would have written."
Navishta
582
however be correct to say,

bi-navisam.
f.xA wUa>l
j' o~o ÂJ &&* pl~& Jîa yakhafta pish dast az jdn shustam vali imruz khud bikhud bar khdsta ddkhil-i dd*ira-yi ahbdb shudam (: a week ago I despaired of " but life, whereas to-day I was able to get up and join the j^
Similarly AJÎ^J
^^yLS^j ^su
^\^ ^kdghaz ^ j^t ^ ^

o; 1
l
tf
na-ddshtam ki bishtar
company
-^
am
<u~
j*i
:
vati
JÂA> Ala* yak hafta mi-shavad ki dast az jan shustahere shustam would be incorrect the Present Tense *j&** mi~
u,U,
31
;
câ
t$
shavad shows that the action

necessary to signify
(e)
' '
is
continuing and therefore the Perfect

still
: ' '
is
despaired and
(
despair.
Adversative Clauses
*x\j<&
*W)
tk
When
tive,
and the conjunctions
a clause restricts the meaning of another, the relation is adversain use are (^6^ likin or lakin " but ", and its
^y
'
synonyms U| amma,
^j
vali, (Jj bal
or
balki,
-xîjf
juz mki,
'
Afijf Jt
^
y
ghayr az mki, jt>*> magar. etc. Balki *Îj has properly the enhansive sense of
(and in m.c. means
omitted.
*
'perhaps').
Sometimes
balki
nay rather &&J 'moreover* maybe
more
or
'
ball
Baz ham ^*j4 still, nevertheless,' are also adversative conjunctions. a To in roduce an afterthought IA ^^ vaU ha, or the exclamation ^bU ha " or is bash bash
used,
u*^^
*^
(m.c.)
stay, stay."
x^f ^^ fj*>J f**) f^jl f* ** fi*$ ^**<^> j ^J&c Uif Examples 'azim va suhbat-i ki Ali? bi'izzat-i dam bar. qadlm gw/a ej-^^ nayaram va î " he said I ki sukhan shavad na-daram bar gufta magar angah (Sa'dt) qadam s and our ancient friendship that I will not swear by the Great Glory " draw breath nor move from this spot till I hear you speak
: :
c^
sd*ir-i dukhtarha muftis budand vail* nisbat -'l-hdl va yak-i faqlr 'all the mutavassit girls bi-yak digar yak-1 ghani, yaki the with Princess, but, compared with each other were poor in comparison
&
nisbat
bi-shdhzada
b
khanum
ll
one was wall

iXxSLjj
off,
another middling, another very poor"

bi-shahr
y
:
f#
c^.^'er
^x b lî &&)] man (m.c.) "I won't go to

1
nami-ravam juz
in-ki
shumd bd man
the city unless you accompany
me "
bi-yayid
\*)j
Shustabudam *zy &LJi> would signify that at the time mentioned, i.e. a week ago, I had previous to that washed my hands of life the Preterite fixes the action at the
:
time mentioned.
*
And
.&13
taham " yet still" (Indian and Afghan).
8 i.e.
God.
Ixf
A common
m.c. expression
is
j*3L
J^sv ^
(^
(J
bi-haqq-i
Khuda
va bi-haqq-i salam.
*
6
Or
amma,
^J
aJa_j(
llkin or
^<Jj
va-llkin.
Or ba'z-i..badand.
Qbayr az Inkl
jtÂtf
6
O.J..J
could be substituted for a&jlja* juz
infer.
Bi-ravld
could not be idiomatically used for 6Jj5Uj M-yayid.
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSKS.
583
zaman na-nalida budam vi ruy az gardish-i dsmdn vaqt-i ki payam barahana bud va islita'at-i pdynever had I grumbled at my pushi na-dashtam (Gulistan, Book 3, St. 19) ill-luck nor got upset by my ill-fortune, but once, when I had not the means
hargiz az dawr-i
darham na-kashida magar
'
to get protection for

^x*l>
my
feet
[
' ' :
(^^ c^-^ \\
*Jb *k<f ^+> er*^
Hasan nami-guyand balki ura H. aji Hasan ml-namand 11 no one calls him by the bare name of Hasan but all call him Haj! Hasan U ^ty ^~~))&j &b cu^ v-^vo ^Ji in sag riist balki 1 pidar-i-'st bard-yi shuma
ism-i ura tanhd
'
^ hJ
f**'
'
(m.c.). ."this is not a dog

Jjk^^j v^ws^
you keep, rather it's an intelligent human creature

jf
"
o>^(
oÂA.l^.x3
*r
CA-Î
-as^k'O
(i^^)^
^liit^ ofetlU*. Ailj
I*M ^â^|j ii
mhat-i shumd balki hifazat-ijdn-i tan darin munhasirast ki az musahabat-i ishan dast bi-kashid "your comfort, nay more, your safety depends on your JtL iU *^jf *j na dnki 'ilaj |j>j*i 8>=p.*x> withdrawing from their society
Tia
' ' :
|.vy
karda-i balki mu'jiza namuda-t
"it isn't a cure you have performed,

*^Jb dj!^
it's
(
" a miracle
ni darad
(
** *Ui^t ishtibah chi ma ^*jfa t^4^ ^S]^! ^* î*^ nn what do you mean by balki fi'l waqi' amd na-farmani karda-l
:
Ly
' '
a misapprehension of orders ? the plain fact *j wilful disobedience (J&j AÂ *b

' '
:
is
9
Û
you have been guilty of ^\^^< e/ &> na man mit(
khwanam va na
I,
<X3|
tu balki harki* nawbat-ash bashad,

it is
neither will you read nor

**
5
but he whose turn
"
:
cA?^
!
I;
vJ-^ L&t&j"
chundn bi-gu
& &^ *Q
sar-i pir-i
**
^j
i$f v^ ^h^ tiring chlst

i
balki
ki
bar dush-i javdn
" nasb karda and you
may
:
well call
mujarrab ra him intelligent; why he
has an old head upon young shoulders" &**$ Jll^î Û <*b U ta> *'* jiuA y na faqat ma balki tamam-i shahr mushtdj-i dmadan-i u hastand "not
we
alone, the whole city, I

ija.
may
say, longs for his advent
": J^J^;AJJ/
OA^W
pul giriftan chi, balki az talabidan

;
(&*& az pidar-i khud u bi-'aynih mdl-i in khud-i sliuma-si is there taking money from your father nothing wrong nay more there is nothing wrong in asking for it his money is really your own: " j*oUi ^Jau Jj'V c7i j|3^ p*^ {*>/ &)j** )^ & )* &*) (.5^ ^ td khayli
JU
<xix*j
y J^
*Hs^ t^'J/v r**
^^W^
*^
;
*^-
ham
parvcfi nist
pul-i
'
vaqtdar in kar mashvarat kardim, bdz
yamad "we had

was arranged":
ham tadbir-i muvafiq bi-nazar na~ a long consultation on the matter but no suitable remedy
6
(
*^-t
or) -^~f
^JA &
j!
^-~y*-
^- siydh
chist
Or Hasan-i tanha. Or omit balki.

Or
insert /aêrt after na, ki
:
and
n?z after aw.
Or har kas Or omit
also ast could
be substituted
for
bashad but would not be so
good.
5
*
either the
words A^
or ra/.
jj
(^JJ^
chunln U-gii
ki, or
Or
llkin, or
amma,
584
'
]
guya
as
kun-i dig ast
f(
(or qir ast)
black do you
call
him
why
he's as black
my
hat
' ' :
^*l yjj _>*
J^
tm-khwahld bi-guyid bdz ham z much as you please, a man's
<U& jf ^LJf ijU. Â jb i^S^j AJUM^SIÔ <XÂ harchi jan-i insdn az hama chiz 'azlz-tar ast "talk as
life is
the dearest of his possessions
nami-rasad, ha ball
fihrist-i
kas layiq-i in kdr bi-lchayal-am ashkhas-l ki talib-i nawkari hastand mawjud ast,
dyU.
bi-'l-fi'l filch
shayad dar an yak-i dilkhwah-i man pay da bi-shavad "I can't think of a good man just now but stay, the list of applicants is here perhaps a suitable person may be found in it " ^l*. l^ - <jtj <j$j IA 3a5Uj oJ^ ^.A+A t^* hamm vaqt bi-yayid, ha bash* bash, far da jcfi va'da daram j*;li JJAcj /arcZa " come to-morrow at this time but (m.c.) stay, no, I have an appointment
:
somewhere "
e**! v L>li ^jli^ (î^ &&.AXj* **\f j** CU*A chumn kitab-i ast vali sabr kunid dar j.=R.i nayab ^JLb^4|^ \j l^jf b\.*jtoj\ dawlati chand kitdb-i u nahv hast, agar bi-jarmayid 6 anna kitab-khana-yi sarf
:
o^> v
^ ^^ ^**
TO,
khwaham
them."
1
talabid
" no such book

in the
is
obtainable
;
but stay there are several
works on grammar
for
Government Library
if
you wish
it,
will
send
Orbalki.
* Or, eA*>|^>
3
sU
Jt
az siyah
ham
siyah tar ast "he's blacker than a blackey.'
'
*
6
*&> jb 602 ham. Note the m.c. singular ^JJU bash; the plural iJ^lj bashid would Or .SjJjXf jf.5 vJÛvo agar ray-i mubarak qatar bi-glrad. ^\j
\
Or omit
also be correct.
CHAPTER
135.
XIX.
and Verb.
:
Concord
of Subject
are the rules for concord in Classical Persian Persian or Arabic plural noun expressive of rational beings, is followed by the verb in the plural, as jJ^j jjUÛ &j o* " pamba-farushdn shikdyat bi-pddishdh burdand the cotton sellers carried their
(a)
The following
complaint to the king":
xif
*ij}lT OXÂ/O &> O^-AC philosophers have said ^\^ Ûô^ ^JLci agjâb-i tuhldastdn ddmdn-i 'ismat bi-ma'siyat dldyand (Sa'di) "most of the poor are
:
"
alK U*. hukamd gufia and
"the
(ancient)
forced to do
fcm-&
ctod
(Sa'di)
" some few travellers joined together to make a journey

If
wrong": o^f; ^ tJÂj AJ^JJ oÛ~> jio ^1^; j| az ravandagdn muttafiq-i siyahat budand va shank-i ranj
^^
u rdhat and share
together the pains and pleasures of the way."

(b)
the plural noun expresses irrational beings the verb

it,
is
usually in
concord with
mi-dihand "he
as: ^XA^/O oJtf guft pfLjjJ &(** said the flies are worrying me."
magasdn tashmsh-am
Remark.
Ast
oH
'
'
is
"
and
j>^j
bud
' '
was
' '
Persian used after a plural irrational noun provided tion IA ltd (and not in e/f), as: ( o^J or) o**!
injd khub ast
(i)
it
are frequently in Modern has the plural termina^?*A^
^^
^j^^*^ asphd-yi
(or bud)
but
*i|
v>^ ***#
c^4*"t
aspdn-i
mjd khub
and.
Vide
(18).
(c)
Two
or
more nouns in the singular expressive

:
\^> c;^ foty &}[>A,U j 8^lJ uj*j> ^ p rd bar khud va shdhzdda chunhavd shud, labdda-yi pddishaJi AJil^J *îuwo garm dush-i maskhara-i nihddand "when the day became hot, the king and the
the verb in the plural, as
of rational beings take
prince gave their cloaks to a jester with them, to carry

^kii!^
OAASI/
' '
:
e>Aj
fl/if
)*
**
j*;!i
t>\*
pishin
man
y&d ddram ki dar ayydm-i c5**^ ;> c\*^ J" 1* &f<$- {g^J^J va dust-i chun du maghz-i bdddm dar pust'i suhbat ddshtlm (Gul.,
A*A
Book V,
St. 4): A>!^JU
&*
zan va farzand va shutur-i his wife and son and camel were
(d)
^ man
*>jj*
j oj *$ hama sdlim-and
**#
?
o-tr*!
' '
rdbi pursid ki
the
Arab
asked
if
all
well."
asp
more singular nouns expressive of irrational animals of distinct genera are followed by a plural verb, as: ^l~*i <j'^ *-&$ j*>j yf u kharaz nlstand 1 " the horse and the ass are not of the same
or
Two
yak jins
Siyahat ou^lx
travel in probably implies a pilgrimage, as no Persian would
Persia for pleasure. 5 In m.c. riist might be used.
586
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB.

^J^S.
genus": "a
(e)
horse,
an
ass.
ALSo^lfj LS^JC*^' asp-l va khar-l va gav-l kushta shudand and an ox were killed."
of
Nouns
Multitude,
the
and
rule
Collective
in
Nouns expressive
of things
with
life,
follow
same
Persian as in English,
and
take
;
a singular or plural verb according to the idea in ffl galla-yigusjand paraganda shudand vide 119 (a) to (d) *'>* *^[^J ^SL*
:
the speaker's mind
(or
shud in m.c.)
A&J(
" J*t y <^)^ *! <&** the flock of sheep scattered ,4* "a Inki ahl-i and bar az 'Urn many of (mod.) mu'taqid bisyar-l
* '
i
ÂAXX *^*$* sahibmansab u sarbaz-i ziyad-l budand (Shah's D.) "there were a lot of officers
the scientists are of opinion that"
:
<**&}*
is&j
jb
and
soldiers there.
'
'
Remark.
A
in
generic
noun
in
the singular and
expressive of
rational
:
be followed by the verb in the singular, as beings, may ^_Û 70 *r**^*> sahib mansab-i ziyad-l bud (m.c.), also ^*AV* sahib mansab-i ziyad-l raft (or better ^*; raftand) but -AÛ
Mod.
Pers.
wâixj sahib-mansab va sarbaz-i ziyad-l budand (Shah's D.) ^*j*" j The plural verb gives an idea of greater plurality (or not so good, bud}.
or of scattered individuals
(/)
Though a noun
:
the singular verb gives a collective idea. preceded by a cardinal number does not take the
;
plural termination, yet,

plural verb, as
if it
denotes rational beings,
it
îs^&
^5*-^' j^
al^b^j
^xjk**ab.j
^$)t>
0^.3) &
usually requires a dun darrlsh dar
gillm-l bi-fchuspand va du padishah dar iqllm-l na-gunjand (Sa'di) "ten darvishes can sleep on one carpet, while two kings can't exist together in one
kingdom."
Remark. Occasionally the singular is used, especially with irrational animals and large numbers, as: sad hazar asp (or mard) kushta shud ;D* " a hundred thousand horses were U ) ,u.ir (class, and m.c.) ( *jc
^!
'
killed":
Hazar u sad u shast gurd-i 3 dillr Bi-yak zakhm shud kushta dar jang-i shir avval ; Razm i Iraniyan bz Turkan va shikast-i Turkan}. (Shah Nama, jild-i noun preceded by the cardinal number expresses irra(g) If the
tional beings, the verb is usually in the plural, as
:
>>y>
ji
fI
J>>
Note the English phrases, all is well where all is singular. Also a thousand " Twelve years is as one day,' a thousand years here being taken as a unit of time. In, Nineteen twentieths of his fortune is derived from per cent is extortionate interest.' In Thine is the kingdom and coal,' the fraction being less than the whole is singular. the power and the glory,' the word is, is probably understood after each nominative.
1
' ' ' ' '
'
'
'
'
'
Iqllm
f^l n Mod.
i
Pers.
is
a "continent" and mamlakat a "kingdom."

Sa'di has Iqlim-i Pars.
By
Arab Geographers iqlim 3 Another readin
is
is
used in the sense of a province. rjJ,> b*xj mard-i dilir.
587
&Uf
dam-sdz budand
pigeons
1
vazir
gujt
shunuda
in
am
ki
(Anvar-i Suh.) "the Vazir
du kabutar dar dshiydna-i said I have heard that two
consorted
together
one nest."
:
singular, especially in the Passive, as
" four horses were killed"

(h)
The verb may however be & <u-o y*i ;^ chahdr asp kushta shud
(/).
vide
(/)
Remark, and example No. 6
Plural neuter nouns expressive of material things are generally followed by a singular verb (especially if the verb is in the passive voice)
:
LTt>* &&**j ^~f cA^;* t** ** e/ t^l 3' ***** dast az In harakat kutdh kun ki vdqi'ahd dar pish ast vi dushmandn dar pas (Sa'di) "discontinue this (extravagance), for dangers are before you and enemies behind
(1)
l
(
>'
&f
^^
Jiî oUviLo jf ^J^ ; tif dsar-i shukhi va diEri az safahdt-i ahvdl-i tu bi-g&ayat rawshan ast (Anvar-i Suh.) " the marks of audacity and hardihood are very manifest on the pages of thy condition
you"
o~l e^v
cujUj
_,
^,
' '
' '
(East Trans.)
AJJ^J
J^-t
^ l^f A*A
tf *\*
iJo
^^
^ va U-har kas
yak
chub dad ki hama-yi dnhd dar tul bardbar bud'2 stick, the length of all of them being the same ".
(2)
"and he gave
to each a
Such neuter nouns may however be followed by the plural, as: &+*> A*"^ vl^ )* ^*** i badishah-i dar khwdb didkiJiama-yi "a 8 u and (Sa'di) uftdda dandanhd-yi king once dreamed that all his teeth had
*M ibU'l^f <î|<>^
[
fallen
' '
out
'
'
*>*
^^
f$j*
^$^^ khdnaM-yi mardum

'
khardb shudand
oJ^Lixx!
the houses of the people were destroyed : Li^ A^ (*> Îj-w^^ khushd bi-hdl-i chashmdni shumd ki mi-binand va
îu> &{ (+& Û-^^ Jlsu
' ' :
'
'
but blessed are your eyes, for they see gushhd-yi shumd ki mi shinavand Ua> tf and your ears for they hear vide end of Remark to (e) j\ ^*>j
' ;
:
oJ,iÔkX5
^\s ^ &<*i) ki jumla-yi vujud-i u rikhta va khdk shuda magar chashmdn-ash ki dar chashm-khdna " that all his 6 body had rotted hami-gardidand va nazar mi-kardand (Sa*di)
.Jai
^ ^>j,^,> i^f+k
Alafci.*-gj^
j^
A^
^J!*.\+'J+^.
>< jj*^
(gone to pieces) except his eyes which were vide Remark to (b).
still
rolling in their sockets
' '
Remark.
f' *.>/
î^-io^lîxjJUxJj dawr-i khdna nilial karda
e;f JS\ J^J AiULÎô fo j& jb sa;yf bdz dar dil-am guzasht agar shakhhd-yi an darakht ki daurd-
^ ^^*
^lÛ
c^^
am
awarda zambil bi-bdfam shdyad na-sliikanand
'
*
3
Note absence Or budand.
of
&f
fa after
guft.
In
mod
Pers. bud singular.
Xo t e
Shud
narration.
*
the dramatic Perfect for the English Pluperfect, Also u instead of Mxud.
2*
and
also
the indirect
would be used
in
mod. Pers. and would probably be better
in
classical
Persian,
^
rossibly the
word
is
the word gardid after this neuter plural in an. After rilchta ast (or bud) is understood. Also note the Imperfect haml-gardid or haml gardidand, instead of the more dramatic Present, which would be preferred in modern Persian.
f^x mardum
close to the verb has influenced the concord.
Another reading
588
{

;
here the plural verb tXxiCio na-shikanand is required after the neuter 138 (m) (8). plural (slwikha) for the reason stated in such neuter nouns If several representing distinct classes have a (3)
Af.)
common
other.'
If
7
verb,
it is
in the plural, as
l
^f^j^j
fire
u khak bar
zidd-i
yak digar and
"
water,
*>y ^J(^ ^ cA^l? vf b u atash and earth are enemies of each
however such neuter nouns represent the

is
the verb
&J&
usually in
ô
iiijo *_,ji.
Û
%
:
same quality or class, the singular, as: cUl ; u"^$ J j*^ 5 )*\ l/c dar ~bagh,-i ma angur va anjir va gilds va shalilha-yi khub
^^
paydd mi-shavad
in our
'
'
garden
grapes, figs, cherries and good nectarines are grown (note that the adjective v^" khub may refer to IÎA* shalilha
all
"
only, or
may
qualify
the preceding nouns; the sentence should be
reconstructed to remove this ambiguity). (4) Several abstract nouns are followed
by a
singular verb, as: ^sj&*&*
c>LH& zjj%* c$AJjl**- 3'^keA/ojy.L cuk*e}yo^:> &$o^lft3j taqsir-1 **ia>Ûfik va taqa'ud-l ki dar muvdzabat-i khidmat-i bdrgah-i khuddvandi mi-ravad, bina the omission and negligence that I baran ast ki tdyifa-yi hukama-yi Hind
' '
&U.t
*$"
ov*>f
show
in
your service are due to what the Indian philosophers have
c5^3 j ^j* ) LS^ j p* mi-rasad "grief, joy, death, and hama is used, the plural verb
.x*jA/c {Jsa^jt
gham va
life
is
shadi va marg va zindagi az
Khuda
if
(all)
proceed from
as:
God";
c/^j
j
but
<w*
j p*
used,
!**
jl
A**
^J
gham va marg va
zindagi
hama
az
Khuda
mi-rasand.
Dawran-i baqa chu bdd-i sahra bi-guzasht Talkhi u khushi u zisht u ziba bi-guzasht (Sa'di)
" Time that we thought would last for ever, has passed like the wind Passed too is the bitterness and joy, and the bad and good." +>.=*. î w* &(~j ^ 3jL5 (3*C5t Q>y ahmaq ruz u shab dar chashm-i tu 8 " fool day and night are alike to thee yaksdnast <*&% cr*-'.i* )t ^l&ib îa. A^ az ou^b ^/o j+* jt JU. munajjim-i pursid ki chand sal az padishah-l <{ umr-i man baqi-st a king asked an astrologer how many years he had to
;
21
-!
' '
live."
(i)
A plural
verb
as
:
express respect,
1 '
sometimes used with a singular subject (rational) to Hazrat-i ajall tashrlf avardand <^^f <J^> cUi
is
^^
His Excellency has just arrived."

1
2 3
Even in m.c., and and not ast would be used here. The plural would probably be used in classical Persian. The person addressed was blind and carrying a lamp. The plural of majesty a form of hyperbole. Similarly OJ^yf
:
ishan tashrlf avardand

Hazrat-i Ajatt. H.
"he
has just arrived
(lit.
title of
governors of large districts
they have arrived)," cla.f when not royal princes. In the

Navvab-i FaZaisused
latter case they are styled
^ eÔA. Hazrai-i Vala, while ^ ^'y
for princes not royal, or not nearly related to the reigning Shah.

(/)
589
in their concords, but not be should Liberties mistakes in this respect copied even in speaking. " vide to be 136 (a), page 593. are especially taken with the verb (8) and The following examples are taken from modern colloquial
1
'
:
Modern Persians are somewhat slovenly
(1)
" There are many sheep here"

â
yd
e~-| jU~j ty Ui.vi
mjd
barra'2 bisydr
ast,
or ^-"l y*-*:
* '
i^J
**$
mjd
barra-yi bisydr ast.
(2)
There are
tnjd dsiyd-yi bddi
many wind-mills ham bisydr ast.
here
' '
o*^| Û~o
Ûwf IwjLji
Remark.
adjective,
it
It
the word for " wind -mills
" were
qualified
would be in the plural, as:

<-=~>t
ol <^^
lûjf
by any other
<^^*1
^^
inja
dsiyd-hd-yi khub-l ast, or

Tchub-i ast.
(3)
^^-
^^
ÛU^f
injd dsiydhd-yi bddi-yi
ki"
3 d*3 ptf A4A ^-^1^ kdliskahd hama bi-ham vasl bud tawr-i "the D.) (railway) carriages all communicated with one an(Shah's
.
& LS)}^
other so that"
(4)
si
AJ
l
^l^l
in shahr va
kdliskahd-yi
4
kdliskahd ^-yi
place,
asphd-yi kdliskahd bi-ziyddi va khubi-yi asphd-yi dnjd mst (Shah's Diary) ''the carriages of this and the horses in the carriages, are not so numerous nor so beautiful
Rus va
as those in Russia."
6
(5)
^j
l^l^ ; ^
l ^jf c? t*/
fl*~*l
aqsdm-i
mur ghlia-yi
dbl dar darydchahd
bud
(Shah's diary) "there were various species of waterfowl in the ponds."

(6)
*>*j v-jô 3 ^j;&

6
^kL &.$ J-^Jt jt
^J A
IA*
îb ^^ du palang-i siydh
ham
a Afriq ki khayti ghanb va muhib budand (Shah's D.) two black leopards from Africa were there, singular and -terrific to look at" *J^ <jg^ JU*"^ *.$ ^ >js u*& ^ du shakhs dida shud ki dar kamdl-i khush-gili budand (m.c.).
dida shud
"also
In the Vazlr-i Lankaran occurs the expression

j>i.
jjwou
This
is
mardum hama
dar
fikr
kh,ayal-i asayish-i kjiud ast.
much
the
same
as the English vulgarism

2
"
says we."
Barra
Better
j^j
properly a
"lamb."
aspha-yi kaliska and not
&J!
cs^ti**''
i*J\
kaliskaha.
Birawaspha:
" go and bring the horses for the carriages aspha-yi yi kaliskaha ra biyar (not kaliska ra) kaliska ra would mean for one carriage but Ûo^s J&J|< aspha-yi kaliska-yi
;
^'^!
Kirman
*
(not plural)
' *
" the carriage-horses of Kirman."

' '
* i.e. of
Konigsberg. mistake should be

;
<X>,^J
budand.
the Passive
singular
In No.
(6),
note dlda
shud
followed by
^î
budand
the plural, the subject to both being du palang; while in number No. (7), du fll and not be used si zarafa are followed by a singular verb. The plural dlda shudand would
,
but either bud or budand could be substituted.
590
(7)

*j
d&j* du
:
fil
so good budand) In these examples the idea giraffes."

(8)
bud (Shah's D.) " there were two elephants," (or not " there *si zarafa bud (Shah's D.) were three &*\)j
*>*
**f
^ v^
f y(
3^ **
is
a single collection.
;*
>^f
p*
j^ v^t^
*stiijAft.
^3^
-(^
Jyt
u guraz va liayvanat-i 'ajib-i digar ham an qadr dar an ja bud ki " various kinds of swine and other strange bi'liisab nami-amad (Shah's D.) creatures were collected in that place to an extent that couldn't be comanva'-i khuk
puted
"
:
vide Remark to
?
(9).
(9)
IÂJ
tj ,JiJ jU-j
tf Ui>u-l
*^
LSJ^-jJlVv Jî^x>
cJj_>j jU-uj (^fiJI
|y ^^JD ^j\i>*j lÛ,^ t ji ^Jj u^*- anva'-i tutiha va ta*us-ha va

l
^b
qarqavul-hd-yi til&i-yi Ustraliya ki bisyar qashang bud, va anva-'i murghjia-yi khush-rang dar qafas-i bisyar buzurg maahyhul-i parvaz va bazi budand (Shah's
D.).
Remark.
verb must
anva'~i
Note that one verb

is
is
singular
and one
;
plural.
The second
be plural to give the idea of

correct,
is
number
thus, though
l^^x>
^
l
murghha bud
î e^ty* J>*^;
^\
anva'-i
is
mashghul-i khwandan bud

(10)
incorrect
the plural
^J^ budand
yak
necessary.
shud ki
" we saw a flock of sheep (the members bisyar chaq budand
^^ $* jhri
"
.
** ***
'^
iu
&S&*jf
&&
<*&>
galla-yi gusfandi
of)
dlda
which
were very f at 1 ast misl-i kuh (11) / JA* e*t L**.^ cs-M*^ chakushha-yi ghanb-i (t wonderful hammers are like mountains." they (Shah's D.) " he is a workman" *A** u ast
(12) o**l
jt
fa'la*
(m.c.)
(specially
one engaged in building)."

(13) *ity
tjfj yU.jjbai^f y&X>t va chaqu va kard va miqraz va tabar va chizha-yi cfinadar angushtarha-yi " there were khurd khurd budand* (m.c.) rings with small mirrors, penknives,
yy^yj^Lstej^jjAjucljfaj
knives, scissors, axes and many small articles." AJ^ôr ) * *i^^ ^j* jfJA jjj> ddh hazar fawj kushta shud (or (14) ( *>** kushta shudand) (m.c.) "ten thousand of the army were killed."
(15) **&.
^>A crr
'J
***
gandum va jaw
ki bala-yi jahdz
[ 3 t^ LS% ? ** j* J f*& j va anchi bud hama ra mush khwurda budand b (Afghan)

l
*^
gusjandi, adj.
passive,
*
S
the subs, gusfand could be used.
Note,
first
the sing.
and then the plural budand for the individuals. of unity with the plural noun, " a set Note the
of
hammers."
&1*J fa'ala (Ar. pi of
(Jlclj fa'il) is
in m.c. generally used as a singular.

is
Or
bud, but
the
pi.
budand here
better
as the articles are miscellaneous
but
if
2UP) vaghayrah were inserted after kûrd, the singular
bud would be better,

or
as vaghayrah itself gives the idea of miscellany. * This ought to be j>jj bud singular after the generic
noun u&y* mush
I^&JAJ
ftsff20i
mushha Miurda budand:

Jjb
also
in
Mod.
Pers.
^3
tii-yi
or
Jl^^
dar
jahaz and not jl^
bala-yi jahaz.
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB

" and as for the wheat and barley No. (16). " In the
(16)
(contd.)
left in
ERRORS IN CONCORDS, ETC. 591

it all
the ship, the mice ate
"
;
vide
Partridges fly in covies" <yo <jjtf atf ,jy âbk is better than the plural galla galla mi-parad (in.c.), the singular ^j^ ^*
sentence,
mt-parand.
khdnahd va qandtha-yi bisyar (17) ^/*~? t5^li5j lîUL ^ t*k bdgjihdva bud " there were many gardens and houses and underground channels." Kirmani khub and ( not ast) (m.c.), or (18) *3| v-A 15* ^.^ ^V* as P an 'i
l
Ow "
>l
VJ*"
L5^y
,
c$*t$*"f
horses are good but *vy ml-barand (not mi-barad).

(19)
asphd-yi kirmani khub ast (m.c.)
"the Kirman ;b ÛL Û^ ^lî aspha-yi Kirmani khayli bar Vide (b) Remark.
fea*
Âi*
M&
M*,&
l^f iiAiJ
A>^ gfcUU|
faqat
p.
;
yaghihv-i ki
bi-taraf-i
ej^ jj^ Ai^ JU. ^5l^b chdl rafta budand chun ta'ddd-i dnhd
du hazdr budand chanddn istddagi na-kardand (Memoirs 'Abdu~l-Rahman, bud.* 28) here *>ty budand should be
136.
Concord of Subject and Verb

Errors in Concords,
etc.
(continued).
(a)
When
the nominative
or clause,
some noun
for the nominative.
separated from its verb by a phrase phrase or clause is oftentimes mistaken This error has been termed the " Error of Proximity."
is
in that
An English example is, 'His attempt to preach extempore, and the shame and pain to which his failure expose him, are in a small way really tragic (* Failure exposes ', not shame and pain which expose ').
'
Since in Persian, neuter nouns, even
when
plural, are followed
by a
singular noun, the error illustrated above cannot be

tion.
repeated in transla-
an
ast
rd karda and
Compare however <3J| *^y (yl &( f\*f "has any one of them done that would rarely be used in modern Persian.
:
^
in
"
Uf dyd hich kuddm-i-shdn the grammatical owt

;
A
'
similar error, however,

is
common both
English and in
modern
after
Persian,
ils
to
treat
singular
nominative
and
an
objective
well as'
"Magnus
1
or 'with', as the joint subject of a plural verb. 3 Thus: with 4000 of his supposed accomplices were put to death"
Vide
(h) (3).
Note that bisyar may

&j*
qualify
all
three substantives
or
only
the
last.
*
In modern Persian
'adad would be used and not &\&*j ta'dad for
'
number,'
but /Oj^ ^t^*J ta'dad kardan (m.c.) "to count."

3
This copulative use of
'
with
'
is
occasionally adopted by even good English
writers.
592
(contd.)
ERRORS
IN
CONCORDS. ETC.
b Empire) &l&*&~&j o^4A AXJ| JLx2Eu^&;|>. bd chahdr hazdr inki u hamdast-i hastand kushta Magnas nafar bi-khaydl-i shudand (mod. Pers.) man bd u raftim (m.c.) " I went with $ U
(Gibbon's
Roman
y^
**
p>)
him":
fo
j\
j <j*
man u u
&>J}
raftam (m.c.).
**u
fot*
&$
)> j ^C; Lj Ûf ^tjj AX& &j* ki bi-guzdr biydyand bi-Khudd agar hazdrdn hazdr bdshand bi-ittifdq mi-guftlm Imam Eizd yak-i az ishdn sar-i zinda bi-gur na-khwdhand burd bi-ydn-yi
AUMySii
yj'Ajl 31
(Trans. Haji Bdba, Chap. II)
"we
one and
all
exclaimed
let
them
[the
Turkomans] come. By God should there be thousands upon thousands of them, by the help of the Imam Riza not one of them would go to the grave with a whole head on his shoulders." ^yôjt^S, b ^t adJU ^l&a. " I have made some changdl and will eat it with my husband." (Prof. S. T.}. The error is traceable to the fact that sentences like Pharoah and all his and Pharoah with all his host were host were drowned in the sea
'
'
'
drowned in the
juncts of
convey the same meaning. Grammatically the adthe nominative should not affect the concord between it and
sea,'
is
the verb.
The construction under discussion modern languages. It certainly violates

according to one English writer,
it is
found both in ancient and in

concord.
1
strict rules of
However,
occasionally preferable
to the correct
form
of expression.
Sa'di in the Gulistan,
it is
worthy of remark, often adheres to the correct
concord
nishasta
j*^
AJUJiJ
^S^
I,
' '
budam* (Book
)& vffjji ^Lfe> k bd tdyifa-yi buzurgdn dar kashtl cc I was seated in a boat in the company of St. 35)
tff
a party of great people ^LLxj AJ ij*&j j* oUU. j| oi^. ^xi I c^l/c jf ^j bd tan-i chand az khdssdn dar shikdrgdh-i bi.iliil ji}^ e>jl^ jt yak-i az muluk zamistdn az imdrat dur uftdd (Sa'di) 'a certain king with his companions
;
'
{
was belated
in winter while
hunting."
A singular verb is correct after yak-i. "A woman with a child in her arms
*,)'* is
(*3^
^ ^
' '
^**
zan-l ba
both
'
good grammar
is
needs only one ticket" (<_!*] &cu b ^J) bachcha-yi baghal-ash faqat. yak billt lazim darad) and good sense; but 'A woman with a man requires two
'
tickets
as faulty in sense as
A woman
in
with a
man
require two tickets,'
is
faulty 'in
grammar.
Where
plurality
is signified (as
woman and man)

*
the copulative
*
and
'
^ must be
&ijlb
used both in English and in Persian, and not with ', or as well as.' S Apparent violations of this concord are frequent in the Gulistan, as
****!*$ found however that Sa'di prefers a plural verb after the collective noun
Jt>*
Ûy
*k&*'
fayifa-yi awbaah-i mahalla dar
u paivastand (Bk.
I,
St. 4).
It will be
AfijLb tjayifa, etc.,

:
and that the intervening genitive

A3f
(jtfbjt
awbash does not here

bi-kMlaf-i
8AJ^ o*2Eutax
52).
^f
oiliu va guruh-l
concord ^ maslahat dlda and (Gul., Bk. 8,

affect the
^^
No.
(COUtd.}
ERRORS IN CONCORDS, ETC. 593
o^> AX^-, Û*.! ^ &>l^ khana va ashbab-ash sukhta shud; but "The house with the goods was 1 burnt" b AJU. * Ai^*. ^jlx^t khana ba sbab-ash sukhta shud : no difference in Persian in
" " The house and the goods were burnt
the concord.
"The
them together "
material and mental world have their points of union blending (Read the material and mental worlds have, etc.) Vide
'
also 123 (d). In, ^b <^K fcij c^j; j Û-o. p)\* <alam-i jismani va ruhani rabt-i kulli bi-ham darad (mod. Pers.) the verb should be plural AJJ^ atom may at first appear to be one darand, otherwise noun
^Jtc
singular
by the two adjectives Û-*^ jismani and ^^^ ruhani; it would however be much better to repeat the word Jtc alam before (jJl*^ ruhani. In modern Persian, the correct concord in the case of the verb " to be
qualified
(
is
often violated
(Tr.
^tja &laJ
**(
&<*>
j jb
**~>
)Ue
oljUoj
all
**
B. Chap. XI), "but unfortunately
my
patients were not
druggists with an obstruction in their bowels,
and every paper was not the

p. 589.
is
wrapper that had contained an emetic."
Vide
(j)
The
Vide
(c).
correct
number
of the relative
pronoun
frequently overlooked.
(b) (I) When the subject consists of several singular nouns or pronouns connected by the disjunctives 'or' or 'nor,' the verb, both in English and in Persian, should be in the Singular as " Either Muhammad or Hasan is come " o^f sôf ^.^^ U ^su* U yd
:
Muhammad yd Hasan amada ast, Muhammad amada ast yd Hasan)

:
' '
(but better neither man,

*>
vi>J
ti>~A>
o*f
jjsvof
j^-soo
(j
ya
woman,
child, nor beast
was
to be seen
' '
*&
**** oLM:^ *> ) **-?

;
*>
21
&>
na mard na zan na bachcha

*i
va na hayvan dida shud (m.c.) better eJ^- * & ( ) ) &*y mard dida shud, na zan, na bachcha (va) na hayvan.
<>)
*J
l>j ** no>
the subject is plural (2) If however one of the nouns forming should be placed last the verb agreeing with it *i Neither the man nor the woman nor the horses were there ^/o
, :
it
' '
' '
ai
aspha bud)
" " neither dog, cat, nor mice, are in the house % * o-J| AJl^ j& ^4^/0 AJ j na sag na gurba va na mush dar khana
:
(^'
^'
r)
^^ ^T
the
ejl$!
*^
oj na mard na zan na aspdn anja budand

tojS
ast.
&'*
(or
**
^~*
(3)
When
nominatives require different forms of the verb,
it is
in English generally
more elegant
to express the verb, or
its
auxiliary, with
each of them, as
*'
"Neither were their number, nor was their destination known"; either thou art a knave or I am." In Persian it is more elegant to express
The
plural
l^^ mushha
should not here be used
it
would be contrary to idiom.
38
594 CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB

the auxiliary after the
rest,
first
(COfltd.)
ERRORS IN CONCORDS, ETC.

let
it
nominative and
be understood for the
will
" either Muhammad ^ pZa&* ô b ya man muqassir-am yd tu: take the prize or I will" &+s^.*> l> cu^f f*t^ fj j*UJf ^/o l> ya rnan
as
:
in'am ra khivaham
girift
ya
Muhammad
(m.c.).
Vide also
(d).
There are stated, the above-mentioned forms are more elegant. (4) in such however other methods of rendering expressions English and in
As
Persian.
forms
4 *
of
English grammarians are by no means agreed as to the correct such sentences. One writer says that the verb must agree with the
nominative
cerned."
' '
placed nearest to it, and be understood to the rest, as: Neither he nor his brothers were there", "neither you nor I am con-
Another writer
states,
"
If the
'
nominatives grammatically connected by is absent, the verb is in the plural form I

,
pronoun you forms one of the or and the first personal pronoun
' *
;
'
'
Either he or you were

series of singular
*
'
playing.'
If,
however, the pronoun 'I'

'
is
one of a
nominatives grammatically conjoined by or \ the pronoun I goes last in the One must not series, and the verb takes the form of the first person singular. I to or is win the but John, (or) James, or I prize,' say John, (or) James,
*
'
am
very nice question arises, when two singular* pronouns of different persons are connected by a disjunctive, as to what person and number the verb should stand in. Should
to
prize.'
win the
"
Hodgson
writes,
"
one say Neither he nor I are wrong ' Neither he nor I is wrong ?
*
'
* ;
Neither he nor I
am wrong
'
or
'
tj&o
" should be in Persian oJj yk Apparently, "Whenever my wife or I die &f liar vaqt Tci man ya zan-am bi-mlrad 6 ; (in modern AJ *j) U jjy*
would often be used). But instead of ) ^/o $ J| amadand baradar-am u va du man az bi-vujud say f^f f;4/
t
colloquial f*jx* &? bi-mirim

3JtWf tj^j*
amadim because
*> (5) jt
of the copula (not disjunctive) va.
pj6&* wrong nor is he."
^
AJ
AJ
na man 6 muqassir-am na u
(elegant) "neither
am
&^
na man va na u muqassir-lm
ii
(not elegant).
j f^c
AJ
na man va na u hich-kudam muqassri
j|
For further Persian examples vide (5). U U-w L ya shuma ya u bazl mi-kardid: better ^xj ^JU io.ÂXj ^c'^^\ 6.1 ya shuma lazl m^kardid ya u.
j>y
^
._>Xxx b
A>.JLÂX>
(^
p'Uif
<xsuo L
^.ô
man ya Muhammad
n 'am
ra ml-glrlm
(m.c.); also ml-glram (m.c.).

*
6
You
Or
'
is
+)j
/^x*.j ^.j/o
by some English grammarians considered singular as well as plural. zanam. *j^ $j -A har vaqt man bi-tnlram ya na u muqassir hastlm (m.c.) better ^.ô j[ dj ^ 1.^0 u na man va
;
A>
na man muqassiram va na
u.
CONCORD OF ANTECEDENT,
nistim m.c.
Persian).
;
ETC.
AND VERB
(COHtd.)
ERRORS, ETC. 595
(the
grammatical o~*i
nist is
never used in such cases in modern
lj
AJÂXJ ^cjb
l*^--
b yd shuma bdzi mi-kardid yd u
(elegant)
" either
you were playing or he was." b U b yd shuma ya u bdzi mi-kardid b U& shumd ya u yak kuddm ^cjb +\' <-y
(in
(m.c.).
bdzi mi-kard (class.)
mod. Persian *n>j& mi-kardid). ^ y^ shuma yd u ^ ^ *&S*LS$
yak-i bdzi mi-kard (but in
mod.
Pers. often &*$?**> mi-kardid).
+ûc b *j**'
\)
fbiit
" either I (elegant)
will take the prize or

L>
dm rd mi-giram yd Muhammad Muhammad." man yd Muhammad in dm rdmi-girim (modern). ^sv/o b mew ?/a Muhammad yak kuddm in dm
^y b yd
man
in'
rd mi-girad
,3.jJô
(class.)
/*li| ]j
in
mod. Pers.
Cl
p^**
mi-girim.
^j_
ô
L i^sux)
.
Muhammad
ii>i^
ijjt
yd
man
f yak-i in dm rd mi-girad
(in
speaking fj*& mi-girim) Ûol f^ >*b j>j!ij cujli^
iô
f>^
Tchwdh^
man
urd kushta
bdsham khwdh ishdn tafdvut na-ddrad

^jtoJ
(elegant).
^l^f ji^ ^yo j(|^^ khwdh man Ichwdh ishan urd kushta bdshim tafdvat na-ddrad (not good, but used). JIL ^.y* j waw kaniz-am va tu Tchdnum, yd tu ^} f**^y J (*)ft^ e^ kaniz-i va man Khanum* (Tr. H. B. Chap, xxiv) "am I the slave and
ejta>
^V
*i!T
|j^{
cH^y
are
you the mistress, or are you the slave and

Remark.
In,
am
I the mistress
"
/*^ 8<^j*-
/*^L|
L^L */ î^fi c5*M)
fafiq-i
ddshtam ki sdlhd
TTJ^ âr c?% or bd-ham safar karda budim (Sa'di), there is an ellipsis of ^Â jj ^x> maw va u after H, "I had a friend that (conj.) (we two) travelled
lx>
together for years."

(c)
Persians delight in elliptical expressions.

is
Vide also
(d).
(1)
When
the nominative
a relative pronoun, the antecedent

'all
:
determines the
number
"
of the verb:
is a common error ing ," writes Hodgson, ' that has appeared in any language.'
ye that pass by.' "The followone of the most valuable books

'
"
country has produced
'Snellingis one of the most esteemed numismatical writers that this (Right; but, that have appeared in this country ')".
'
'
Compare cut t*& lXu

ash-har musannifin ast
^^jj
eJu>
<*r
*ju*f
(i
^\ô jfi\
jf
^y u
yak-% az
dar mulk
Iran paydd shuda
ast
(wrong; ^| and}.
j\ AJ
na u muqassir-ast va na man
is
also used in m.c.

tell
In
to.
English the speaker does not always put himself last though grammars u bazl ml-kard ya shuma. Similarly l* U ^} b ya
him
^x* ^jb
The modern tendency
is
to use Aa* chi
A^
chi for
>[^
fehwah
jft^x
khwah.
596
CONCORD OF ANTECEDENT AND VERB.
ERRORS, ELLIPSIS.
"
I confess that I
am
'
'
one of those who
am
unable to refuse
'
my
*$
assent to the
conclusions of those philosophers perceived (read are for am

' ;
who
assert that nothing exists but as it is
'
and omit
my
"
')
^ &*
p&*
jfyi a)
** (jcUiu&t ^f &U-*. j| man iqrar mi-kunam lei man (&* JsP /^LA** yak-i az jumla-yi an ashkhas hastam ki nami-tavanam qabul bi-kunam ki (write <*iij Jy3 ^fy^ *^ ki nami-tavanand qabul bi-kunand).
*^
^*
(2)
By
sometimes used that does not

* '
a similar mistake, a demonstrative or personal pronoun refer to the true antecedent, as

:
is
am
î& ki nami tavanam bayan-i chlzha-yi na-dlda bi-kunam (should be*U& namitavanand bi-kunand)
.
<xjj
one of those who cannot describe what I (they) do not see U}A&. ^Lw fJîjj+i *$ f~a> ^'Ifif J| f^j. &<* man yak-i az anha-i hastam
' '
^1^3
Clyc
|j
lA^XÂ.
^f
OOfîj
^^JJ^^Jjij <xy
*A.l5 tiJjj v-JUf
nistam ki murshid-i tu ham
iS ^JU4 ^Gf jf (ô Oiy^ Jj4J ^ ^Jij^ ^4s> va bi-marg-i khudat man az anau kh,udam bi-marg-i bitavanad in jafangha ra ba man qalib bi-zanad td chi
Ây
tXiô
rasad bi-tu nar qalandar (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) ^Li.jf U ba Ishan.
T
;
instead of &*>
lj
ba
man
read
fj^ jjj*** J
ki
*-&?j*
i^li 5
*J
*^ r&~*j ^y ofjt
cj"
wa?i az an mard nistam
u maghrur shavam (Mirkhond) <c I'm not the " sort of man to be deluded by your words (read mi-shavad). Sometimes in a contracted compound sentence, one predicate has two (d) or more subjects, there being then an ellipsis of one or more verbs, as
bi-sukhanan-i
shuma
farifta
heard, not a funeral note (was heard)." According to the subjects in admissible when this contraction is, Hodgson English, only ' are in the same number. are The following examples cited by him as
'
"Not
drum was
errors
" His (Peter the Hermit's) diet was abstemious, his prayers (were*) long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed
with the other/'
Gibbon.
In Persian, on the contrary, not only are ellipses like those just mentioned, considered grammatically correct, but also a species of ornament.
Examples
SJ^L &\*J)j9y
tarbiyat-ash
^j &f
(^('^ JtAtfji o~->
<^jy eHl
&& guft in farzand-i tust

(Sa'di)
;
chundn kun ki yak-i az farzandan-i khud 3
(supply
ra tarbiyat mi-kuni).
jjl^ ja/ang (m.c.)

stuff
with
(lit.
buck qalandar "

2
" bosh": make to swallow, îj ^)\j qalib zadan (m.c.) " " to put inside one as in a mould) nar-qalandar (m.c.) you jciJJIS y
:
(abusive).
if
This English error,
true error
it
be, generally occurs in the case
of the verb
to be.'
8
The omission
of ra
after
khud
is
perhaps a typographical
error.
The ra
is
necessary in modern Persian.
CONCORD OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE AND VERB.
ERRORS, ETC.
597
Chi budi ar
sar-i zulf-ash bi-dast-am uftddi
dstm-i karimdn bi-dast-i darwshan
(Sa'di).
qadd bud va haqir, va digar baradaran-ash buland-bald va khub-ruy (Sa'di, B. 1., St. 13) " I have heard of a certain prince who was diminutive in stature and mean in appearance, while his brothers
l
malik-zada-i rd shunidam
M kutdh
were
tall
and handsome."
J
va mct'lum* ki agar tanha bi-gurizam, mdnand-i bisyar-i az cfogaran, az mr-i naw giriftdr, va azab~am yak bar hazdr shavad (Tr. H. B., Chap. V.) ; though the verb expressed is 3rd pers. (shavad), the 1st pers. (
(
shavam) has to be supplied after )&jf

dar hujra-i kuchkak dar
ratiht-i
giriftdr.
rdmun-i u gird dmada

in the Persian there
is
khivdb dirdz kashtda ast vanukaran-ash dar pay(Intro. Trans. Haji Baba) "there, on a bedspread
in the middle of a small room, surrounded
an
ellipsis
of
&Sf
by several of his servants, I and after **T dmada, though the

(
"
preceding verb d~*| &>o^ kashida ast
Compare Â p** $ hama, balki man va haTdm ham

astonishment of
p. 50)
:
*^Jb
is singular. *A CI^JA. c^pL^La. b bd hdlat-i bd
is-i hayrat-i
all,
not
H. B., Chap. 11) "when, to the " excepting myself and the doctor (H. B.,
(Tr. ba'is-i hayrat-i after balki).
'
(too elliptical
even for Persian; repeat
(e)
In English the pronominal adjectives

pers., sing.,
each
'
and
'
every
should
their
be in the 3rd
clauses they require singular verbs
and when they are the leading words in and pronouns to agree with them.
*
'
'
In Persian however a plural verb generally follows each and every, {tJÂ har yak and J*!Â har Tcudam) etc., not only in the modern but also in the classical 4 language
:
**>'* <J$"
4t
'
(!**>*
or )
^j*
nar yuk
or har kuddm) asp-i ddrand (m.c.)

vide
each one has a horse."
For examples from Sa'df,
39
(j) (2).
td har
kudam
(
dast-i
6
sharaf bi-darajdt-i va la-qad
Suhayll, Chap.
I, Intro.)
muvdfaqat dar daman-i 'aql* zanand bi-qadam-i karramnd bani Adam a 'taraqqi numdyand (Anvar-i "so that every one should place the hand of compli-
In m.c.
jjG^tiJf
qad kutah.
*
s
Note omission
For examples
of
^j
bud.
'
Also either and neither;

of
vide
'
(/).
hama
before a
noun with the
of unity
and signifying every
'
39()
6
(1).
Quotation from the Qoran,
xvii. 72.
598 CONCORD OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE
AND VERB
(COntd.)
ERRORS, ETC.
ance on the skirt of reason, and by the step of exaltation should be promoted
to the rank of,
'
And now have we honoured
the children of Adam.'
'
rd
har yak az ishan sifat-1 az sifdt-1 ham/Ida ta'rif mi-kardand (Anv. Suh.).
va khaslat-i az khisdl-i pasandida
j ^f^ta.
murtafi'
jt
c
ii>f
.\uft}j ojf) ta-
*Aj <^ cXd.lj.io gftyo JÂxi &j> 8-Xilja. ^j| 13 ,^/cy ^jJLiot^ i^l* ddbishUm farmud ki td in khwdnda na-shavad shubha
na-khwdhad
shud va hich yak az hdzirdn bar qd'ida-yi an khatt
" Dabishllm said that until vuquf na-ddshtand (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) this should be read the doubt would not be removed, and that as no one of
those present was acquainted with that character ." It is however more logical to use the singular verb.
<j*O A nar kas, however, even in slovenly modern Persian, is usually followed by the singular verb, but <j*T <u& hama kas by a plural one. The
(2)
Persian translator of Hdji Baba of Isfahan however uses a singular verb after
^ UA
hama
jtyf
kas.
a-xkb
^kLp ^jki^ c$?^
*T {y
î^
.>UJG| oJ^,s
^(^ ÛjiU muldzimdn-i
rikab-i dawlat-intisdb har
yak bar lab-i juî dar saya-yi darakht-i
dram ydftand
(Anw. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) "the attendants of his auspicious retinue disposed themselves to rest under the shade of trees on the bank of a rivulet
and"
(East. Trans.).
it is
In modern Persian
not unusual for the same author to use the

A**
singular or the plural verb indifferently after ^j
hama
kas.
(3) Instances of each or every being in English erroneously followed by a plural pronoun are
:
if
not tied down to relate every minute passage or circumstance, be not absolutely necessary to the main story, etc." " Each of they (it) * 1 the girls went up into their separate rooms to rest and calm themselves
is
'
"He
'
(Mrs. Gaskell's Wives
MJ
e-A.|j
*ii*)
and Daughters (1867), Ch. 42, p. 419) )\ Jjy* &( î. ÎfSU^ har yak az dukhtardn bi-utdqhz-yi khud-i
;
"
v^*
;
shdn raftand id rdhat shavand. In modern Persian iJ^ to
Jf
*~& )K eH' && hich yak az shumd layiq-i m kdr

^bj>
liar
-Â
har yak az
md
guftand
;
U^ jt
nistid
J&\
c;t^t
jt )
kas (az ishdn) inkdr kardand, etc., etc., are used both in speaHng and in writing. The Persians will hardly acknowledge that these concords
are incorrect.
(4)
be his
4
Every strong and every weak point of those who might probably '"Point' should follow rivals were laid down on the charts."
' '
number of strong' as well as weak,' but authorities differ as to the proper the verb. Crombie, in his Etymological Syntax of the English Language
'
Corrected; "
Each
of the girls
went up into her separate room to
rest
and calm
herself."
CONCORD OF DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES, ETC.

(5th Ed. 1843), p. 167, opines that, (1)
is
'
599
easier
',
and
more
precise
*
than,
Every officer and every soldier claims', (2) Every officer and every soldier
'
J
though the latter is unquestionably more agreeable to analogy.' " Professor Bain too says (English Grammar, p. 175) Plurality is cera is effect there produced by joining disagreeable tainly implied, but 'every* with a plural verb, and we might take shelter under the elliptical
claim
:
usage, and say,
"
Every
officer (claims),
'all.'
dilemma might be solved by using

iS &iif
"
and every
soldier claims
"
'.
The
In Persian, the plural verb would be preferred for No. (1), as 1 ô *Uat jtyj ^wAvo vÛaÂ har sahib mansab va sarbaz iddi'd*mi:
kunand
&>
ki
but the singular verb for No.
(2), as
har sahib mansab va har sarbaz iddi'd* mi kunad ki; in latter case the verb is understood to the first subject.
oi&jA>
(.cat
' *
the
(5)
A difficulty
*
arises in the English
when both genders
are implied in
each, every, etc., and according to Professor Bain the plural may then be used. Where everybody [all] can ride as soon as they are born.*' In Europe no one marries unless they have the certain means of supportMadame Bonaparte, Life and Letters (1879), Ch. 8, p. ing their children
' '
:
135.
is
% Hodgson. people do not marry'.] As the pronouns in Persian have no distinction for gender, this error Thus the last example might be rendered practically absent. &\L~&j9
[Read,
'
"
&JL&+J
6 t/^jJT
^^
;
*if>j oli
Aa>j
kifdf na-ddshta bdshad
'arusi
own work "

bi-kunad.
dar Farangistdn Inch kas ta vajh-i gr.xd> " Let nami-kunad. 8 every man do their
(j*o
*&
\)
<Ju*j^
ft <xU ijfj*
*
har kas bay ad kdr-i khud-ash rd
The
and
this
indefinite
one,' is in Persian j*yf ddam, &\~J\ insdn, etc., would naturally be followed by a singular pronoun and a singular
pronoun
verb.
Like each and every * the distributive pronouns either and neither, should in English be followed by a singular verb. In modern Persian, however, not only are these distributive pronouns
(/)
6 followed by a plural verb but, by a confusion of thought, their adjuncts (if the 6 uj U>U $ j| pronoun be the subject) affect the verb, as *~#ft ^XA
:
h'tchyak az
(or none) of
shumdhd
Idyiq-i in Tear nistid (should
be
nist)
(m.c.)
"neither
jt
*>*
you
are
[is] fit
for this business
"
c***/>
&$ Û
Note that har boy and each girl."

1
is
not usually repeated,
yâ j^-J^*
har pisar va dukhtar

:
l(
Each
Chun dar mulk-ihar kaa ml-tavanand
az vaqt-i tavallud savar bi-ahavand
better
hama kas, or else the verb in the singular. 3 Note that in the Persian there are two negatives for one in English. * 4 For each and every vide (e).
'
&
*'
Error of
Proximity
"
vide (a).
universal.
This error
may
in
modern Persian be considered
600
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND ERRORS.

hich
ki
1
az shumaha Idyiq-imarhamatha-yi man nistid. (Vazlr-i one "not of are of Lankaran) (none) (is) deserving you my many kindnesses": 4^6 tjtj*j*> -~*l i&*\ k *); ** jA cs*LW y u^j owciLi &j* ^[jio J}^ j* grxA ki "Haji agar tu bi-khwahi dar in rah
^^
bd in asp khar-davani bi-kuni hich yak sar-i salamat bi-manzil na-khwahid burd (Pers. Trans. Haji Baba of Isfahan) " Haji, if you mean to play the fool like this with your horse neither of you will finish the day's march in
safety."
i
Concord of Adjectives, and of Pronoun with Noun.

(g)
Some
errors in the use of the
demonstrative pronouns have been
noticed [vide (c) (2). An English blunder is to make them plural before the singular nouns kind and sort, as: "I always delight in overthrowing those [that] kind of schemes and cheating a person of their [his] premeditated contempt." (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. X.) In Persian )>*^1 in jur " this kind " etc., is used before either a singular or a plural noun or verb, as oÛ^. e^f j^ p&f jj-^-SJf in jur adam dar Iran
:
khayU-st "this sort of character is common in Persian" and jd'ljtaf JijqUji <yL~A cs^ cd*!l in jur adamha dar Iran khayli hastand.
(h)
With the exception
of the feminine affix
of Arabic adjectives
2
and
participles, adjectives in Persian
may
be said to have no inflections.
With
the exception of the one or two points already referred to in 43 (n) (s) and and footnote to concord of of the (t) (t) (1), questions adjectives are not likely to arise.
(i)
The antecedent,
H.
in Persian, of
a pronoun in the plural should not be a
singular collective noun.
(tt*** (Tr.
is
tion
faulty.
*> -*^ c>J e;U*t>l ^j^j! V^ j* but the colloca" is ishan incorrect not B., Chap. XXXIII), only Omit cA^> ishan, and after zan insert *l !j ?* ja dar sar-i
In:
*l
8tj
^W
rah-i Shah.
137.
(a)
Government
of Verbs, Prepositions
Jl*l
o^ô
),
and Errors.
accusative case.
Transitive verbs govern, in English, the objective, and in Persian the The following English errors are taken from Hodgson
:
"He, who had always inspired in her a respect which almost ov#rcame her affection, she now saw the object of open pleasantry (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. 61) [For he read him } ".
'
'
For one thing, the This error can hardly be repeated in Persian. the Persian not in her could in pronoun she, pronoun prose precede which is the subject of the principal clause. An kas-i ki hamisha Muhammad
'
'
'
'
Hlch K, m.c. The case of a
for hlch kas
plural adjective being used as a plural
noun
[vide
43 (m)
need
not be considered.
GOVERNMENT.
bi-u ihtiram mi-kard hdld
601
&& %$*\
hamisha
A&EUAA5
^jcjfuo
Muhammad
mazhaka uftdda did *$ k2L>o dua4& or aw kas-i rd ki j& ^x> j*ty^{ jb ihtiram mi-kard hdld dar ma raz-i mazhaka uftdda did
rd dar ma'raz-i
|^j| Jfla. &j*
?
both incorrect; the subject to did is obscure, nor is it clear to whom urd refers in the first example. In, &f ^/f x..<c ^y^f ^l &ia+A * \j Muhammad an kas-i rd ki hamisha bi-u ihtiram mi-kard the subject to mi- kard
^f
might be either
Muhammad or an
kas-i
but omit
bi-u
and
write,
Muhammad
an
kas-i rd ki
is
and the sense

(b)
hamisha ihtiram mi-kard hdld dar ma'raz-i mazhaka uftdda did clear, Muhammad being clearly the subject to both verbs.
nouns or pronouns
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case. Also in apposition must in English be in the same case.
:
The following English errors are taken from Hodgson " God will send no such fools as I Westward (1) [me] upon His errands Ho Khudd hich ahmaq-i misl-i man-i rd bi-pay ghambari intikhdb nami:
'
" 'In this state Frank Churchill found her, she [her] trembling, they loud and insolent.' Miss Austen, Emma, Ch. 39." Fuldn urd dar [them] oJU*. ^f ^ |^y &&' in lidlat ydft-urd larzan va ishdn rd gustdkh &\'^ \\$\ oiL> \L~Z !_>ilgjf j. In the Persian sentence if u larzan were substituted, the eMJ^ jt u would to refer Frank. pronoun
(2)
(c) Prepositions in English govern the objective case, and nouns and pronouns in apposition to a noun or pronoun so governed must be in the same
case.
"God
he [him]
my own
hdshd ki
penny to a poor man and *^'^ p^s^j^j (^ 3 (^-*. )^ L$J!& &^* J>v "-^ ^ man az yak pul da dan bi-faqir-i inkar bi-kunam va an ham pisar-i
forbid
that I should refuse a
son
"
Khudd na-kunad
Jchud-am
ast.
lei
man
pul dddan
bi-faqir-i
inkar
kunam va
hdl
an
ki pisar- 1
" and similar expressions, an affirmative verb is required in Persian, thus " God forbid that I should refuse, etc." is correct; but "God forbid that I should not give, etc.," Hdshd (or Khudd
Remark.
After "
God
forbid
na-kunad) ki
is
bi-faqir-i
pul na-diham /^^ <J^ CTÂJ a^( î&
|^
tl*., etc.,
unusual.
(e)
One
relative
' '
Muhammad
pronoun may do duty for more than one clause as, Muhammad ki dar Tabriz who was born and buried in Tabriz
' '
mutawallid va madfun shud **> \sfri&* j *)j*j-tj*>jt> *^ +**~'. If however the relative pronoun is in different cases,
it
should be
Note accusative
of
man.
Or ahmaq-i
mixl-i
manra (not mara).
602
GOVERNMENT.
repeated in English but not in Persian.

s
An example
of
an error in English
upper part of the house of which I know nothing, and [which I] have never seen. A Life for a Life (1859), Vol. II, p. 65." tj aJLk ^\j 5*1,
1*1
" The
*X><>}JÂJ fJpA*J
j> vyf
%b;i
<^x>
*r tabaqa-yi bdld-yi khdna rd
H man dar
bdra-yi
(/)
an
Inch
nami-ddnam va hargiz na dida

illustrate the
am

:
government
of
some verbs and

they
prepositions
(1)
Az u pursldand
<w<>ju^jy
31
(mod.)
*S
"
)
He
was
asked
asked
(2)
Urd pursidand ^^^J \\ Az shumd iltimds ddram ki

Nizd-i shumd,
1
(class) 5
him."
"
)
^\^ (j-UUi U^jf

&'
(3)
> beseech mi-kunam ki (&** <j-UJ| U^ Az shumd multimas-am ki t ) U&ji you." p~+&>o Az shumd mamnun- am am (much) obliged to pjf*+sc(+2>y |"I Mamnun-i shumd hastam$*~& U*i njy^c you."
iltimds
Muhtdj-i an (or muhtdj bi-dn) mstam *!**# ( cjl Ûan.x U " I am not in need of it." = dn rd Idzim na-ddram ^txi lyf
(4)
^f
(5)
Dar
fikr-i
In
amr hastam (&~&
^j&)* "I'm
tsj )* (class.)
tjf
(6) Dar vay nazar kard j> *' he looked at him." (mod.) (7) Az u khayli ml-tarsam (8)
j&
thinking about it." = bi-u nazar kardj& jL
^^^> c^-jAy
kunl^
i
jl
" I'm much afraid of him."

ought
to
Bayad
ijff
bi-taqsir-i
khud
ra
i'tirdf
oty*!
j^LÂ-flflL tXjU
<
You
confess
your
Bayad
a
taqsir-at
iqrdr kuni
.
fault."
t5^^!/*' b ^j***** *}k
J
Iwiji j|
(9) x4s 'aqab-iu injd dmada am fl 8yxf " here to look for him (now or previously).
^^3' "I have come

" I went there to look
Az
after
'
aqab-i
u dnja raftam
him"
Az 8
^ luf ^ v^j*
(
1
(on a certain day).

(
aqab-i u
uftddam ^HJIÎ v^*3'
either
dmadan
or raftan)
I followed
(10) .4?
him."
mihmdnt
enjoyed the
being hosts).
" entertainment
bar hakim
khayli mutamatti
;
shudim f&> ^*i^ <J^^

here
t5^^t
x>
3'
" we
mihmdm
may mean
being guests or
/**^ j> o**ia. (in m.c. bi-hdkim) "The governor was presented with a dress of honour"; also hakim rd khil'al pushdmdand or kardand *>&jf or aJîl^j ojd^ i;
(11) Khil'at*
pushdmdand
AiA*5t^J
^L^
:
(12) ^2;
namdz parddkht m^f^jjUijt "he

*'
Bi-namdz parddkht oA.f^j jUij
prayers" he began to pray."
finished his
Or bi-shuma. Or dar 'aqab,

Here
Or
cZar 'aqab,
or bi-'aqab.
or bi-'aqab.
Mbit' at is
used generally and does not need the
45*
of unity.
GOVERNMENT.
(13)
603
!;
" the
in
nazar-i shah pishkash ra guzarandand AJ^f;^ gift was presented to the Shah."
Az
^^
Az vay dar guzasht C*A?>> ^j jf (class.) "he passed by him " (but mod. Per. = " he forgave him his fault," or ''he beat him in the race
(14)
etc.)."
Az u
by him."
guzasht (or radd shud)
&j or)
o^<^ jt y
-\
(mod.)
"he
passed
(15) Bar u khandidand <5o^jî^ j\j* V (modern); az u khandZdand
az harf-i u Jchandidand AJAJAXS. (mod.) also bar harf-i u

.
>^*^J
(or
(olaas.)
9
i
o^
L Th
C
hed at him/
Jf
J
shikdyat burd (or kard)
jlj
(16) U az man oj& (^j j>y or ) ^J
bi-u
1
pish-i
u)
4^3
jt
>
(Jiaj or)
" he made a complaint against

ittila'
me
to
him."
ejf ^t
(17)
Az an sukhan
hich
1
na-yafta
am
ft
aiaUS
^lU,}
ûb îu*
bar-an sukhan muttali
na-shuda
am X
8^*i
^lla/o
^su*> ^f
"I know
nothing about the matter."
CHAPTER
138.
(a)
XX.
Order of Words and Phrases.
The formal
as:
generally speaking, the
or conventional order of words in a simple sentence is, same as in Latin, i.e. subject, object or complement,
and verb,
something
"
;
o~>t^
<^^
J*A
jaqir
chiz-i Tchwdst
"the beggar asked
for
cujîuo^t u
bi-safar raft
"he
started on a journey."
It is also a
general principle
that
things to be thought of together

<*+*
should be placed in close conjunction,

oJiftiô o*j<3 ya'qub
j^k^&i ol<Hi^
jty^tf
\)
<-***! *->->***
yusuf ra bishtar az
dust mi-ddsht " Jacob loved Joseph
more
hama-yi farzanddn-i digar-i khud than all his other sons."
" forms part of a compound verb, as: fate^ \j )^ bdz ra bi-u dddam " him the female goshawk fÛ l+j jt u bi-md saldm kard?
:
Remark. Even if the accusative is part of a compound verb it does not always immediately precede the actual verb, as f^-^ !*L al CA-^JJJ Â J *(* |; |^ or) dar an vaqt ydd-i Khuda kardam (or Khuda ra ydd kardam ). (f a/ unless the accusative (6) The dative generally follows the accusative,
:
gave
sentence,
when they apply to the whole )t> ^5^^ ^,5*^ shab-i qazi-i usually placed " dar kitab-l did ki one night a Qazi read in a book that JA LS*J* c?3j; " one nS i^MtJ^ ^5>Asu*ô ruz-l mard-i dar masjid-l nishasta bud ki day a " certain man was sitting (seated) in a mosque when ufaj)t isjv" J* isJj)
(c)
Words and phrases denoting

are
first,
* '
time,
:
as
t$ **&
^^
o**>
darwsh-l dar-i dukdn-i baqqal-i raft " one " day, in a certain city, a darvish went to the shop of a green-grocer.* (d) When the complement to the verb is a complete sentence, it is put
&
^KSj
o^^^
ruz-l dar
shahr~i
last, as
c>t*^
" the
(J+M
y
'
*4*Vv ty
mar^ pursid mard dhmaq mi-pindari
man
enquired saying,
Do you
think
me
a fool
'
"
:
^ ^^&
&f f*ja
^y p&jj& ^(A if ^^ didam hi dar miyan-i daryd chand Jcuhhd-yi** digar ham bud (m.c.) "I saw that there were several other rocks as well, in the middle
of the sea."
is qualified by a relative sentence, the object the verb and the relative clause follow, as immediately precede f;
(e)
:
When
the object
may
inja Hh.alasl yaftan

-jxilj
ummid
The
tilst,
or
umid-i khalasi yaftan az Inja
nlst.
sa l<*
kardan " orally, or with the hand."

r ^z~^ darvish-i
Afghans say
for the former.

3
Or
gw
^^-^^(i 4^*i^^
" a baqqal
CFJA)
dar shahr-i.
4
Jlftj
*
man who
sells
dried
and
fresh fruits, ghi, curds, etc.
Note plural noun
after chand.
The
singular could be used.
ORDER OF WORDS AND PHRASES.

-"*
605
padiskah-i ra shunidam ki bi-kushtan-i asir-i

of a king
ishdrat kard (Sa'di)
"
have heard
who made
a signal for a captive
to be put to death."
The
in
collocation of relative sentences

(q)
is
fully illustrated
by the examples
120
(/)
Relative Pronouns, and
130 Relative Clauses.
As the verb
closes the clause, it
may happen
is
intricate sentence that

(a) (3)
more than one verb

is
in a complex and found at the end, vide 130
If
and (b). however the verb
in the Imperative,
it
can correctly begin the
clause, as:
Kunun-at
ki imkdn-i guftar hast

bi-lutf
Bi-gu ay barddar
Tchushi
(Sa'di).
Ki
biraw.
(g)
farda .....................
or less emphatic Jjjj bi-raw bi-ahistagi,
^ ^twfcf
bi-dhistagi
AjU. raft
In m.c., a few verbs frequently precede their dative, as: oj>> " *J " khdna l " he went home ^.^^ rasidim bi-dih we reached the
:
village": eAîa
fj
j
tj
J^
"
put
ra dddam-ash
J.j pwZ ra cârfam bi-faqir

*
"
I
'
"I gave him gave the money to
the
money":
:
the beggar"
bi-raw bazar
go to the bazar.'
first
(h)
is
The
position of the
portion of a verb,
compound and
cufsua e>ly^
l
potential,
-Mt
illustrated
by
the
following
examples
a/
Inja
nami-tavan suhbat kard, or uL^*> o^xv/o lojf Jw/5 suJibat nami-tavan kard " we (one) can't talk together in this place."
of the sentence as described above is frequently This departure from the normal order is called ' Inversion.' 3 The object of Inversion is to place important words or phrases in the most prominent place in the sentence and thereby excite attention to
(f)
The formal order
altered or reversed.
them.
In grammar and rhetoric this figure
is
also
known
as
Hyperbaton,
and rarely
as Trajection.
A sentence
The
(1)
that
fails to
excite attention
is ill- cons true ted.

:
following are a few examples of the object of Inversion

Substantive
and
Adjective.
The qualifying adjective sometimes

43
(b).
pre-
cedes
its
noun
for the sake of emphasis, vide
Other instances of the
For JbUu bi-khana.
*
3
For
jfjl
&> bi-bazar.
inqilab-i kalam.
is
'
Mf
jîi!
Inversion
is
branch of Ornament.
'
'
striking
example
in English
" Sunk are thy Bowers
in shapeless ruin
all.'
606
ORDER OF WORDS; INVERSION.
displacement of the adjective, either for emphasis or for the sake of avoiding a strain on the attention, are:
"He is
u mardl-st
rest)
a man, wise, just and honourable

(
"
5
'adil,
aqil
va salih:
"one
of
^\^ you who
cls^
Jj^
"
vs*
J^jt
is
braver (than the
and manly and strong should climb on to

%
this pillar
and
ki dildvar tar ast
va marddna va zurmand bayad ki bar In sutun bi-ravad va

of
risman-i kashti bi-girad (Sa'di).
For an instance
in Apposition vide
(2)
end
of
the displacement of an adjective or 139 (d).

subject.
participle
presented before the subject, when it is desired that the latter should at once be conceived in " Blessed are the connection with the special aspect of the former, as
Predicate
before
is
:
The predicate
" peace- makers

wide
is
itjif^JJ/
JLo
<Ûo
is
mubarak-and sulh-kunandagan.
"For
l^j
the gate and broad
" &* the way that leadeth to destruction
OH
and
*'
c^X$j
LS&
**
^ e^f
VSA-M.I
5^ 3 )* c>f
:
^*1
j zwa
ki farakh ast
an dar va
vasi' ast
an rah
o^Jf
ki mtfaddi bi-haldkat ast.
*$
^/o
i.e.
mard an
<c
ast ki
o-*t &+*.] ^JU 'alim Ahmad ast y this construction is called j^^ hasr
restricting,"
(3)
wise
is
Ahmad and Ahmad

verb,
alone."
or, verb
Copula or Auxiliary
and
subject;
and
subject.
The
copula or auxiliary verb,

tageously inverted,
e.g.
and the subject, may often in English be advan" "Is " Are in questions your father at you well ?
;
home?"
Inversion
is
not employed in Persian to signify interrogation.
" Eyes was I to the blind &\) ^\jt fty kurdn: "feet was I to the lame" (J&J ^f^j
"
langan.
^^
j**>
chashm budam b ^ va pa budam
bara-yi
baray-i
Tariqa-yi kharj-i in naqd ra man mi-danam, *>\&$*> (^ \) && ^\ " the (H. B., Chap. V) proper way to spend this money 7 know."
,
-j=*.
ttyJo
Prominence in English is given to (4) Object and Subject of verb. *' the object by inverting it and placing it first, as Silver and gold have I none." In Persian, the object naturally precedes the verb inver:
sion therefore requires that
it
should follow, as
) +*
p!*i na
ddram sim
zar.
f 1 Ordinarily u mard-i 'adil-i 'aqilri salih-i-st, or mard-i adil va 'aqil va salih-ist; or the ^. of unity could be added to mard. 1 Note that yak-l az shuma is correctly followed by the verb in the 3rd pers. sing. ^ even in modern Persian the usual error would not be made with the verb so close to
:
yak-l. _JL
Jl^J
ljA
khusha
bi-hul-i sulh
kunandagan.
ORDER OF WORDS AND PHRASES; CROWDING.
607
In conditional, concessional, and temporal sentences, the object or subject may, for emphasis, precede the conjunction, as: <-** cjtîuLot j " the xkiu i&f^ >x ccjjUj/l -?/ (H. B., Chap. XI) eye and knucklebones of a wolf, attached to a boy's person, give him courage "
*$
^k
hakim chun
raft
"when
the doctor departed
"
iUj| Uj +&A.
savaran rd chun chashm bi-md uftdd takhtan dvardand, for
chunchasm-i savaran
(5)
Subordinate before Principal Proposition.
When
:
a sentence consists
l
two Propositions, a principal one and a subordinate, greater force is " obtained if the subordinate precedes the principal, as " If you stay I'll go agar tu bi-mdni man mi-ravam* (*i^* (&* (J*+*. y
of
\
Remark.
(as
When
the inversion
it is
is
so violent as to confuse
the sense
sometimes in poetry)
(/)
called Synchysis.
'
Never crowd many circumstances together.
When
in
a complex
sentence the qualifications of the subject or the modifications of the predicate are numerous, the most judicious course is to distribute them, placing
part before and part after the subject or predicate." blow was his head severed from his body ' ' <^> !*,
zarb sar-ash az tan juda shud.
'
'
Example:
<Jj>
" At one
-*
jt
v^
'
bi-yak
y
two modifications, at one blow and from his body one is placed before and one after the predicate. (k) "A circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital
Here
of the
members;
since,
it
by such a proposition,
it is
doubtful to which
it
belongs.
By
is
between parts of the member to which it belongs, ambiguity avoided, and the capital members are kept distinct. "'By the articles subsisting between us, on the day of marriage, you
placing
'
agree to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds.' " Better thus By the articles subsisting between us, you agree to pay
:
down on
the day of marriage, the
sum
'
of eighty
thousand pounds.'
For example vide (n) (1). The following sentence from Hafi Bdbd
4 wSA*f
is
not clear at
first
sight
^> QjAAa. ^J Ovof j*y*AJ W U( J/ " different things have (I)
& jjjj ^^
an
&^ *& J?jt>*jf
$j&\
CS
When
obvious relation to each other with
a corresrespect to the order of time, place, cause and effect, or the like, in the ponding order should be observed in assigning them their position
Better pJU j *.*) zinda va sdlim " alive and well ", than sdlim va zinda " well and alive." Vide also (n) (5).
sentence.
And
More
also
'
Suspense.'
forcible
than "
I'll
go
* '
if
you stay
'
"
îU?
^ V& V man
clear.
'
rava
agar tu bi-mani. 8 Vide Herbert Spencer on

*
'
Style.
semi-colon
is
required after *S
na to make the sense
608
(m)
(1)
1
ORDER OF WORDS; EXAMPLES.

The
cJXc
following Persian examples of collocation will repay study
^t
*
^llaLi fi/c ^Jtf jÛ^tj
'
the king said

(2)
It
is
I
-3
who am
pddishdh guft man-am sultdn-i in the king of this realm.'

'
mulk
(Jtt'Aej
c$*^
t5*^ ^ **f )* <^*-U>*
dalq-i
va ambdn-i va
'asd-i,
*^ nd-gah darvish-i dar dmad bd entered with his habit, a darvish "suddenly
sdqhd-yi
and leather bag, and

(3)
staff."
Jt
<x>j>
y *ilj
o*ot
jof
&5
j*^ ÎfjU
gandum
did az qadd-i
ddam
buland-tar
(4)
"he saw
stalks of wheat, taller were they than a
man's stature."
" the same

(5)
^/^
is
city
khud-i shahr tijdratgdh-i buzurg-i ast (mod.) jtojlxJî a large commercial place."
!>>
^*j**> i)ljjjk /*A>;&ftiUd> ^jf
y*~J *^
tj
^*A3BU&
4^
0^|
(X
X^ U;U
6arâ ^<Za s^wcZa as^ ki shakhs-i rd ki bisydr sud dyad hamdn qadr ham-bi-u
ziydn mi-rasad.
(6)
^liJI
(*
luftj
(J&.
5^
;^ ^>;U^
aâ/'a
IsoT
^^3 c^j
l
**
ty^
^^ ^
li
f^ i^ x3
***** ***
^xi
zamin bi-chundn
shiddat larzid ki ruy-i zamln-i
an dnjd 'imdrat-i bisydr buzurg-i agar mi-bud yaqin mi-ujtdd "the earth shook three times with such violence that had there been a large building there, it
would certainly have

(7)
ajj c;'j^ <-kfO
fallen'
'
.
*^
**$
^f ;* ^
*^^
(*t
î^
a
j* t^ 1- ^;>^
^j ^
dar
vaqt-i khurdsdli dar jd-i ki khdna-am bud dar dnjd chand khdna-yi zambil-sdzdn bud " there were several houses of basket weavers near the home of my
youth."
*r wîAf f; cr.Û i^Jlî Jf jU Jl^ Aita. Â 6?ar 62: dil-am guzasht ki oJy ^l^ /*;^J -^j^ ^l^LUi o^}i az darakht-i ki shdkhhd-yash rd gird-d gird-i khdna nihdl zada am agar az
(8)
vuUA jl^|
j*|
JJJ.J
^[^
xix<AJ cUxij (^^'b
hamdn darakht*
na-shikanand "it then crossed
shdkhhd-yi kuchak bi-ydram shdyad bi-vaqt-i bdftan-i zambil my mind that if I were to bring some twigs
from the same tree from which I had gathered the cuttings which I had planted round the house, perhaps, they would not break when weaving the
baskets."
(9)
10
c ^tun bi-dftdb mi bar dmadam (Afghan) (m.c. ^*=T j> if* v^'^ &>5" when I went out in the sun * b ar mi-dmadam) (sunshine)." ^
1 2
Or
<y>jjy
oxo
oUa. chunan bi-shiddat

of
larzid.
Note repetition
dar anja.
noun
of
place after relative clause

tXx^.
Also
jU J^W}
AJl^.
ACxjl^ j& dar chand khana-yi zambil-saz (sing.)

:
jcti ki
.
and
Note repetition
is
of substantive after relative clause.

pi.
Also that the plural verb
na-shikanand
used after the neuter
shakhha to avoid the possibility of the word
darakht being mistaken for the subject. * Bar-i a/tab raftan ijj^'f jj, or plsh-i a/tab raftan ^JJ) ujli^fj^J ' out in the sun. go
^j
mod. " to
,
'
OEDER OF WORDS
(10)
EXAMPLES OP ERRORS.
609
^ JjU
<j^4J
X>
^ôyo
dTîx) 31
^
o*&
yak-i rd
az muluk maraz-i h&il bud
" a certain (Sa'di) king was

(11)
afflicted
with a horrible disease."

guft ki fuldn rd* dir
jj*
\j
c4
*?
shud ki na-didi time since
(Sa'di)
"he
said
with
regard to
So-and-so
it's
a long
you saw him."

(12) cuftkx
*r Ufcw jt |^ yak-i rd az* hukama shunidam ki mi-guft " one of the (Sa'di) leading men of the day, I heard him say that ".
^x
(13) isj% ** *?
***^
;> LSJ
b e/>^ <^3 zan-l javdn* rd agarfir-i
pir-i (Sa'di) "for a young girl it is better to be wounded by an arrow than to have an old husband." (14) ^^^ tx>3 eî-> e~t jQ *i>)r*> ATyk *J na har ki bi-surat niku ast sirat-izibddarusl 5 (Sa,'dl) ee not every one who has a pleasing exterior,
dar pahlu nishtnad bih ki
has a pleasing disposition."

eJ^f j>3^>A.& L> j va 6a shamshir zad gardan- i salmdni rd " the neck of that barber he cut in two." (Prof. S. T.)
(15)
]j
îUU
\)
(16)
**>^
(3^
A *A
cw^ *^J
(-
**J^~J
el^^^
(^Xftf
jjU
AjjJt
AJ
e^-
^^
tyULi^b gw/^ sukhan bi-andisha bdyad guftan va harakdt-i pasandida bdyad kardan hama khalq rd, khdssa pddishdn 6 rd (Sa'di) "he said, to speak after consideration and to act with propriety is proper for all but especially for
kings."
(17)
*A&
lj
^ aUi*t
^xaJU/o
â.
^/c mizdj agarchi mustaqim buvad

a person's health be perfect, one on that account."
if
i'timdd-i baqd rd nashdyad
(Sa'di)
life
" even
cannot hope for everlasting

(18)
az in safar-i jahdz
p&j p)* j>~ eHjf &*> *&* manki pishtar na karda budam dil-am barham khwurd (m..c.) " I who had never voyaged in a ship before, my stomach felt sick."
f a*
for
him
a^>
3^
(19) *jf
^
31
fA^
**$** j&ty $J*
^V banda hargiz in jur musdfarat
khush-am
1
nami-dyad (m.c.)
vJjJU> )\
"I never
like this
kind of travelling."
More common
(^
^&
yak-l az
muluk
ra.
2
3
Note iulan ra object
of na-didl.
^ [+^
3t
^j
2/afc-
az
hukama
ra
more usual
ml-guft.
order.
Also
<J
C 4^
..(iai^
shunldam
ki yak-l az
hukama
In mod. Pers., the plural verb

31
ml-guftand would probably be used after UC=*.

*
yafc-*
as ^wfejma.
tlr-l
More
forcible
than
(XJjJyJ
jJL^J^)3
(c^
\j
e^t^ (V3^l
agrar
Ofl'or
zan- javan ra
dar
pahlu nishlnad, or iixû v^J^nishlnad.

6
^3
c^J^t^J^ t^H^^r'
<?r-J
dar pahlu-yi zan-i javan
More
forcible
than o*~^ o^-|
Aar
H bi-surat nlku-ast nlst.

6
jxi CJÂJ A^yk jji>^^ dji*

f^
slrat-i
niifcw
oar
In modern Persian, to avoid the repetition of

T^hjassa
ra,
this
would be worded
hama khalq
7
padishan
is
'
ra.
Note that there

musa/arat
'
:
no verb
130 (a)
for u^xj
(2).
banda
the subject to jjf
^^
naml-ayad
is
vide
39
610
(20)
ORDER OF WORDS
**f cj*
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
l
\
agar tambal na-bud u ham u*r^ &i&j? î p*> )\ *j*> cUxS " had he not been lazy, he too would have yak gusfand gir-ash mi-amad (m.c.)
got hold of a sheep."
(21)
OM*J(>
|;
îu*
4.^1
jfo'
&j
p*^>
fA jt^
gufta
^-l^d jb
budam
tf
(*#
AAA? Jjt j^; A&A>
ndm-i jahdz sukhan* rd dust-i man bi-ydd dvarda guft ki ham na-khwaham burd " I who had that I would never even mention the word ship 'said formerly
Af oif
tojyf aU?
(^.xj
raaw
Hiz-i
awaZ
ki bdr-i dlgar
'
my
friend recollected
(22)
what
had
said,
and said to me."
J&?
s
;^ e^!f^ L&AOl iSWjt^)*^

19).
*# V*^
eJ^
AT
Ûk ^L^
bi-
Hdtim-i Taî
ki biydbdn-nishm bud agar dar shahr budi az jush- i gaddydn
chara gashtl (Gul., Chap. VII, St.
va dar zumra-yi sdhib-jamdldn
mutajalli na-shavad
l
magar dngdh
3rd
line).
ki mutahalti gardad bi-zivar-i qabul-i amir-i kabir-i
dlim-i 'ddil-i
mu*yyad-imuzaffar-i, etc. etc. (Gul.,
Muqaddama;
Remark and
Zikr-i, Amir-i Kablr-i, etc.,
(24)
(25)
Vide example in
129
AS"
(6),
footnote.
3JoU U>| ^*w ^Jlk* A; ^Lj j+ \) ^ZZZ+J ammd mdnand-i radd-i mazdlim nima-yi birydn-i pishkashi rd, kamar *' but I determined bastam ki bi-'Usmdn Aghd firistam (Tr. H. B. Chap. IV) to send to 'Usman Agjja as a reparation,, half the roast (sheep's head) that had been bestowed on me ": note position of *$ f~> j*$ kamar bastam ki. or oaiuiJ v-M^3 tabib hamdn khub ast ki (26) A^ is~*\ v^-
f^
l*f
cAxc
*j
^^
^^
*S o~*t tabib
(27)
an shakhs
ast ki
' '
he
is
rightly called a physician
who
' '
.
*^ ^j 4jJU >^,j JJyjt ^ ajjjf c/fÛjt a>& AiÛ ^2^ w**. Mu'tamad^d-Dawla ki az qulinj va sudda kam mdnda bud cuaC }l) ki kdr-ash sdkhta shavad az ta*sir-i an habb haydt-i tdza ydft (Tr. H. B., " the Mu'tamad- U who from colic and an obstruction
o^
Chap. XIX)
'd-Dawla,
in the intestines
(n)
(1)
had very nearly
died, got from this pill a

:
new
lease of life."
The following are instances of faulty collocation *" The Moor seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy smothers
Alia.
I;
her.'
v^*
full of
iju)
p2*3>.
^ Jaxi
girifta
pur az
Moor,
va khashm and jealousy, seizing a rage

c^fiyz
^j ai^f ^jKxx> igijM maghribi muttaka*-i zan-ash rd khafa mi-kunad. Corrected, 'The
31
bolster,
smothers her
'
Ja** jt
^J
Note that there
is
no verb
for u\
'
vide
note
7, p. 609.
Note how the sentence breaks

subject.
off in
the middle, a second clause being introduced
by a new
ffil is the relative adjective
from
ORDER OP WORDS
jl
girifta zan-ash
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
611
J&Lc
az ghayz va khashm muttakd*-i pj&* j maghribi pur
rd khafa mi-kunad. 1
eye and a graphic pen see and set down for us the characteristic details of both scenery and manners.' (Corrected by Hodgson a keen eye sees and a graphic pen sets down ').
(2)
'
"
'A keen
The original collocation (apart from the error in the concord of the verb) would not be considered faulty in Persian, 2 as: jy <WA pt**. ])&&+*> jô]
j^XU/oj *ix>
^*
(jâij fjufo
p& j hama-yi umur-i mamlakat

;
rd chashm-i
tiz
va
qalam-i naqsh-band-ash mi-bmad va m/i-nigdrad (better ptt j AJJO ^fe^j +&*. chashm-i tiz-ash mi-binad va-qalam-i naqsh-band-ash miu*^V y /*
u^
nigdrad).
"
(3)
[ &j
Though
all
)t>
seeds do not contain
albumen"
AJU.LSJ
l^-ij
<x**
&^\
yg*>
|*xj
^M
jb
*ij|*i
garchi hama-yi tulchmhd nishdsta na-ddrand

(m.c.).
If all seeds
\bdz dar ba'zi
paydd mi-shavad]
then
is
there no seed which contains albumen.
seeds contain
albumen"
].
jL? ] d>l*i
L.l**i
do not contain albumen, Corrected " Though not all 3 u+s j* &*. Jl agarchi har tukhm-i
nishdsta na-ddrad [bdz

(4)
"All who lay claim to these virtues, are not to be depended upon"
îJUxJ jUxef jjjy

fazl
AuT
jyo Jâi
Û^t
*^x<el2R^t ^**>
hama-yi ashkhds-i ki idda'd-yi
mi-kunand
lafiq-i i'tibdr nistand.
Corrected,
" Not
all
who 4
lay claim to
these virtues are to be depended on
"
siîjUipt
^5$
xxXx
tXi? 4^1*^1 *$ jt>
na har
(5)
ki idda'd-yi fazl
ml kunad
Id iq-i i'tibdr ast.
"
He was bred and

Kerman
J '
born in Kerman
l
"
<x
Kirmdn buzurg va
bred
in
zd* Ida shud-,
vide
'
(I).
<^(3j "-^JJ &\*j? j& >\ u dar Corrected, "He was born and
*Jjj>
j *^tj
ot/
;d
y M
"
rfar
Kirmdn
zd*ida va
buzurg shud.
<c
(7)
Do you wish me to roast

^
vT
^b^ Ijowi/ mi'khwdhid ki gusht rd birydn ya db-paz kunam? (Better

?
or boil the
meat
Simple and more natural ^J&J

alU.
(^
AiA(<iI
c^&ix ^j ^-2^ ^ J^ J| ^j A Maghriblki pur az ghayz va Mkashm bud muttaka*-i bi-dahn-i
e^^
zan-aeh guzashta ura kjiafa mi-kunad.

2 Obscurity is not necessarily a fault in Persian. However, in modern Persian, the simpler collocation as in the corrected English example would be preferred -ôf JLÂ
ijKi
ijt^sj ij&>
^JLjl
j jjuj
ô
is
^^.xj ^.i^.
(^
oXL*x> hama-yi umur-i mamlakat ra
chashm-i tiz-ash
8
xi;t,i
mi binad va qalam-i naqsh-band ash mi-nigarad.

l^^su AÂ ii
unidiomatic.
A AJ
is
Ai^l^j
unidiomatic.
612
^j
ORDER OF WORDS
U
ftf
c) 1
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
1
vf
t;
gusht rd
birydn
kunam yd
db-paz
grill
the meat
)
or boil
it).
***
jsiLotj-iuÂ!
^xaaxô ^îu ^su*
c5^ ^
fj
I^^ %a***u
+&
ammd,
mushtariydn-i
pdyddr va luqmahd-yi charb u shirin-i darwsh, andaruniydn-i pddshdhi budanp ki hama mahabbat-i pddshdh rd bi-niru-yi sihr bi-khudmunhasir m/i-khwdstand (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) "but the ladies of the king's seraglio were his
principal customers. Their most urgent demand to insure the attention of the king": (put
after *+* hama).
(9)
was some powerful charm ^su

<jrjj*b
bi-niru-yi
sihr
^jf ^+* j*
jf
Jt
(sy*
^' )^
)jr
Jl
p* *** 3*. j*\

kdr-i
I,
&>
ti^
**
J* 3 vagar
na man na agar Bu
(Tr.
'Ati
ham
az gur dar dyad,
az u bar nami-dyad
H. B., Chap. 11) " otherwise not alone " do nothing, were he to rise from the dead
:
[to
why Avicenna himself could make the sense clear insert,
in the Persian, a
comma
after each
na
&lsoagar should follow the subject of
the conditional clause,
i.e.
be placed after ham].

c/b
4
Ûj|
c;tx+?-^
fî
/0
i^Jf*^
tj
^ !^ man
tarsdn
larzdn ki
Sultan biydyad va ustukhwdn-i mundzi' flh rd az miydn bi-rubdyad

' '
mabddd Arslan Khudd
pidarash rd bi-ydmurzad, munajjim niz bi-miydn uftdd (Tr. H. B., Chap. IV) I all the while in terror lest Arslan Sultan should arrive and bear off
the bone of contention.
father, the astrologer too interfered." astrologer following it, and as there are no stops in the
God bless his *
As
his refers
feo
original, the phrase
God
;
bless his father, might,
and does
at first appear to,
refer to Sultan Arslan
but place munajjim before Khudd and the ambiguity
disappears.
(11)
am
(Tr.
fU ^f.Jî-jj4^d nr* wcm dukhtar-i Ukuz Aghd ndm-i Shaykhft f& H. B. Chap. XXVI, 1st line) note the awkwardness of an izdfat after
,
:
ndm.
Re-constructed
/*-**
pb Uf )^\
*,
S^^
(1
ô man dukhtar-i Shaykh
tJTcuz Agjui
ndm
hastam, or jU Uf jyh
puji^t>
no
ô
man
dukhtar-i Shaylch-am
IJkuz Aghd ndm.
Remark I.
words
The order
of sentences is
less
important than the order of
in a sentence.
biryan
vjj>
lc.
to roast or fry
iSJrtji
birishta k.
k.
"to parch
"
;
(jtjf
yj*
qirmiz
Jc.
to fry in
oil
or butter
;
also to
bake 'bread in the Persian fashion
v>Uf
&&J? kdbab
k. or
"to broil";
Jcabab k.
;
(to
&sj
ft
Ûf
&#*
'pop' Indian corn is either *&?* biriahta bu dadan "to fry coffee berries, gram, melon. j>
in poetry only.
^^
seeds, nuts)."
Example of Or with the
jf*J\
J-^ ;U^| a construction admissible

am.
of unity shaykli-3,
ORDER OF WORDS AND SENTENCES.
613
is a logical sequence of the sense of its the then are two sentences in a proper order and the sense preceding sentence, of each sentence should be carried a step further by the sentence following.
When
the sense of a sentence
When
a sentence refers
less
than to some earlier sentence,
it is
to the sentence immediately preceding it not in its proper place.
Sentences closely related to each other form, in English, a paragraph, and each paragraph should start a new departure.
II.
Remark
In Persian there are no paragraphs, but a chapter (bdb) 1 ^ sometimes, in MSS., divided into sections (fasl), each fasl having this word in red ink at
its
commencement.
Sometimes the
first
word
of a sentence has a red
ink line over

*
,
it.
Some-
times a
full
stop
is
shown
in red ink
aids,
by four dots, thus

rare.
two
of the centres
being usually joined.
Such
however, are
is
In
modem
Persian, a short dash

is
often
made
,
to represent a
comma,
while a full stop called in Persian chaprdst.

first
indicated
by the plus +
Proper names
or the multiplication sign x have a red line over them like the
word
in a sentence.
In a comprehensive composition, paragraphs related to each other, together form a chapter, and each chapter has usually an express heading of its own, stating the matter in ife.
III.
Remark
bob or sometimes jU&f gujtar.
CHAPTER
139.
(a)
XXI.
Apposition.
or in
some
"Apposition is the relation to a noun or pronoun, of another noun, cases of an adjective, or a clause, added by way of explanation
' '
or characterisation.
noun or pronoun, etc., placed in apposition must be in noun or pronoun to which it is apposed. Arab grammarians enumerate % descriptions of what may be called apposition. For practical purposes there is but one apposition. A substantive or adjective in apposition is called $ ( pi. j|y ) "the follower or appositive it follows the noun to which it refers, which is
It is a rule that a
l
the same case
as the
' '
called
jj**
"
that which
<j<a*J
is
followed."
Badal-i ba'z,
J^J, a
form
of the 'Apposition of Substitution
'
,
corrects
a statement respecting the whole of a thing, and states that a portion only was meant, as in 'I eat the loaf, the half of it.' This apposition is rare in
Persian.
Ex
c/f -ft^
fj
<^ C^^
J*J
is
" I eat the
fish
half of it."
Badal-i ishtimal
correct a statement
itself,
JUk|
and
to slate that
the substitution of a word or phrase to it is not the person himself or the thing
but something connected with him or it. The first example above is a better example of JU-x&f J*j badal4 ishtimal than of (je*> J*x* badal-i ba'z.
This Jso badal
is
very rare in Persian.
Badal-i ghalat kU J*> is the substitution of a word or phrase to correct " Savdr-i asp shudama lapsus lingua as " I rode the horse the she-camel
!
na
f*~ ^f jf^-*. This badal is rare in Persian. Possibly the an example <jr^ *& &*+ ^^j) {,& villagers are considered " to die " is dolts, y^ khar, and the term &*& saqat shudan applied to not to human of the Another construction is animals, explanation beings.
;
shutur
<*J
following
is
&
that ^J
bud
is
understood after
^^jy rusta^-i.
last descriptions
It will
be seen that the distinction between these three

is fine.
of
Jv
badal
The simple term

(4),
J<y>
badal could with advantage be applied to
all
these
(b)
descriptions of J*J badal
and
also to e;Uj
Jifeu:
atf-i
bayan for which vide
Remarks
1
and
II.
It
must be
recollected that the accusative has
two forms, one with ra
\\
and one
without.
APPOSITION.
615
There
is
a sixth form of apposition in Persian, called

' '
t^* Û, "the

and such
like
meaningless appositive Vide also low fellows/'

(b)
1
,
as:
Jo^
^^
luti puti
"lutis
140
(a).
(1)
Examples: Pronoun and Adjective.
/i=su ^,0
maw
az nishana-yi
lutf-i
^b>\*r kad-banu
)\j&**\
>^ ^^
11
&Uoj! &*
ummidvar
sawdaha-yi
khdm
mi-pukhtam (Tr. Haji Baba) "the mark of favour which I had just received had set my imagination to work, and ", (lit. "I, hopeful from the mark of
favour of the chief wife,
")
wan and ummidvar are
in apposition
didar-i varta-ha-yi-hawl-angiz va past
u bulandlhd-yi sdhm-amiz,
bi-chasm-i
manand-i man, adam-i nashi, dar niTmyat-i vahshat u dahshat mi-namud (Tr. H. B., Chap. V) "the danger of the precipices and the steep ascents were something quite appalling to a young traveller like
me
(note that there is no izafat after man, though grammatically one might be expected). sar w 8 pa (2) Noun and Adjectives, or Phrase aia^j ^jj~ Lri?;* darmsh, barahna (Sa'di) " a darvish. bare headed and footed, but *uy ^Jj" <JL*J)* dar& msh-i sar u pa barahna "a bare-headed and bare-footed darvish " JU L^ty
;
:
:
"
*^jX
ou<i^j farrashha, shot bi-dast, harakat-i digar karda >^?<^>> *t>j*j&* nazdik-tar mi-rasand (Vazlr-i Lankaran) " the farrashes, shawl in hand, make
o*^
*-^* > JUy^ ^^ j **^ er^**^ y l banu zada bar ruy-i khirsak, 5 na-shikib astm bar* (^x! j^j p**. chashm bi-rah-i man 8 nishasta bud (Tr. Haji Baba) where I found the
another
:
-
movement and draw nearer "

6
al*~j
'
tience."
Banou seated on a carpet on the ground, waiting for me with great impana-shikib and the phrase Here the adjective ^*& tij* (*-* chashm bi-rah-i man are both in apposition to the nominative Banu.
('*
^
:
Adjectives and phrases in apposition
may
follow the verb, as

Upij
^ l?*/
^^ 3' tA
mard-i bud panjah-sala, barik-qadd, tiz-nigah, surkh-rukhsar, ambuh-nsh, zir-jama-yi qasab dar pa,
va kulija-yi Kashmiri dar bar, shabih
bi-ahl-i dar-i Tchana (Tr.
H. B., Chap. VI)
common in Urdu. In Arabic umiMdvar here would not be considered apposition it would be Ual. If in the sar u P& barahna may be considered a compound adjective. iiA^j ^vAr"
So
:
accusative,
AXA^J
"I saw
a certain dervish with bare head and

or,
feet
"
ljj>
(*<^5
\)
ts**iJ)*
darvlah-l ra
dervish
"
^joj>
(^
dldam sar u pa barahna;

*AxA^>
"I saw
a bareheaded and barefooted
b^. cA^5
"
darviah-i sar
u pa barahna-l ra dldam.
'
**T <w<*n 6ar 2ac?a
having rolled up her sleeve.'
rough, and badly woven rug or carpet. often applied as an adjective by carpet weavers to express bad work. 6 Buda understood.
Tchirsak, a coarse,
The word
is
616
APPOSITION.
of
"one
them was a man

fine
of fifty years, short, quick- sighted, rosy-cheeked,

legs,
thickly-bearded,
muslin under-drawers on his
and a Kashmir
overcoat on his body."

(3)
Two
Indefinite
Nouns
td
in Accusative.
^^y
la^^Jj ^.iji**/
1
13
^ ^s^
^lx*j* c5>U3 shakhs-i

( l
dah
gusfand bi-tavassut-i navkar-ita'druf
firistdd(m.c.)
a person once sent by means of his servant ten head of sheep as a present
(to
some one)."
(4)
*j~j pisara Muhammad* U^ j*\j> *>j Zayd barddar-i mi-guyad ki "the boy Muhammad says" **f " shuma dmad Zaid your brother come," but better */of *jj U& ;,My barddar-i shuma Zayd dmad, [or ^f e;^ *?.j Zayd-i barddar-at dmad (vulg.)
Two Nouns
in Nominative.
&ijS>*
c*+^*>
:
m.c. and incorrect]
"your brother Zaid came."

kull.
These are examples
of J-^>
badal, or Jf J&J badal-i
Remark
/.
&(#
Jikc
"Explanatory Apposition"
It
is
defines
more
of
J<x>
parti-
cularly something
that has gone before.
also a
is
form
c;Lw
or the
as the
"Apposition of Substitution."
^jtf is
Ex.
j+
^f
&M\**e,
is
uftkc,
is,
a better
known person; but

between the two.
poet's
U*j*\j**ij,
JV.
There
however,
really
no
difference
II.
nom de plume', should grammatically speaking be in apposition: however, in Persia, but not in India, they are joined by an izdfat. In Persia, but not in India, a person's name and his trade also are joined by an izdfat.
Remark
name and
his
o^
1
'
lakhallus,
eJix/c OÂX &j*.j Ûu| p~J ^l chun va /JLS^t mi-guft ay pisar-am i^^. mi-raft t5^*^ \J &*j~v ! Kdshki Abshdlum Abshdlum, ay pisar-am pisar-am bi-jd-yi tu mi-murdam ay Abshdlum pisar-iman 8 " and as he went thus he said, Oh, my son Absalom, Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would to God I had died for thee,
(5)
Nouns
in Vocative.
pyo
^^ ^
fM-î <^t (*ix
'
my
son,
(6)
my
son!
or
'
"
*.
Noun
Pronoun understood.
îl^ Al*
firistdda ast (Vazir-i
^t te&j* oU^.
** ^(^j e;U- out*A e>3 Jchwdhid guft zan-i Hiddyat Khan bardy-i
Lankaran) "You'll say
6
**W>^
Shu
'
la
Khdnum
'
sawqdt
of
will
you that
?
,
;
The wife
(c)
Hidayat Khan has sent

Apposition
it
(or
the jacket) as a present

place, either
in
Corroborative
takes
the
words,
u 0)1*3 ta'aruf could be considered JL^ hal, or tJ Jj*&* maf'ul lah
In Muhammad-i pisara, pisara
is si/at;
but in pisara
is
Muhammad,
'
Muhammad
'
is 'atj-i
5
*
^
bay an or badal. Also ay Abshalum-i pisar-i man. This izafat An example of badal or atj-i bay an.
'
m.c. and incorrect.

un bihi or
Sawqat
is
hal or maf'ul lah tt
and an ra understood,
"
is
maf'iil
object."
An
ra or
nlm tana
ra understood.
APPOSITION.
tf
617
*U ta f kU-i of
lafzi,
or
in
the
:
sense
c^y**
^^
ta^Jnd-i
ma'nam.
Examples
(1)
11
J& *+?$
<wf
ta*kid-i lafzi are
&+SIX)
me" :y<j^jy tu zadi tu " thou struckest, *+=uo Muhammad ra didam Muhammad ra " I saw thou " *+=v (*<* y ^ jf ^> man az 6ar-& ta Muhammad, Muhammad": _yy jt " or " I thee tu bar-i az thee, y y jf y^J jt c^ by passed guzashtam as 6ar-i /% az 6ar-i tu guzashtam : wan y y ^ fw amadt, î^j^
Muhammad, Muhammad, came
:
(^j;J
ix*.Â)
MuJiammad
to
pish-i
man dmad Muhammad
\)
f;
^^
or bettery
^^^Ty
/w
amadi
tu,
" thou earnest, thou."
^^
Z)an zakat-i husn u na-dam kira dihi
Man
mustahiqq-am ay Shah-i Wmban, bi-man bi-man.
" You have such a store that you must give alms of beauty, and you know not to whom to give. I, / have claim on it, oh, Prince of Beauties."
f*f cr^
(2)
c$JL?
balay balay
amadam
"
all right,
I'm with you."
In the species of apposition called <^yx) jj^l3 the " Corroboration or Strengthening in Meaning," the appositive is any word that strengthens the
idea of the self or of the totality of the
ta*kid-i
*j&
Examples
1 ma'naw are: "Zaid, he himself came" */of AJJ Zayd Tchud amad: "the people came all of them" <*i*i*of f^y mardum amadand, " **A olA A*A htfma-shan te I met the army all together fawj p*b f**t> \j ra didam hama ra baham ; "the two parties agreed both of them" ^V^9
:
of
c^y**
**fti
-
\>
tarafayn razi shudand har du taraf.

(3)
Vide also
(/).
In, ;U>
&*
v*> *s
du man rugjycm biyar
"
bring two
maunds
of
ghi"
man and
rughan, though in apposition, are not so considered
by native gram-
marians: du
is called
man
"
is
called JA*^
tamyiz
specificative," or else,
mumayyaz "specified," and ^^ rughan mumayyiz the specifier/ Vide also

'
w.
Remark.
ij
j(f*.
chahar panj "four or five"
is
an example of
>U.
t
1
Corroborative Apposition
o5
),
which takes place
in the words.
For Corrobo-
rative Apposition in sense vide (2)

2
and
(/).
^t
Also &jL*
(j-*V
*J.)
Zayd
bi-nafs-i khud, or
iJu
*j)
Zayd
bi-nafaih
" Zaid
himself": fulanlha or fulan ha, binafsihim or
Tchud-i
sham
l.
or)
618
APPOSITION.
The following are further examples of f*su o*Tl5 toftid-i lafzi; " or mar ! snake snake o*>l/o cu*jU mar ast ! mar ast /.
(t
' '
!
^lo
Û mar!
A *M
I^J
f w
<U5>
d&j
*
jjkf
jf^kif
Û/o JlÛ
a -definite noun in the accusative has an adjective, participle, or phrase in apposition to it, the noun (The affix tj ra requires the affix ra. can, however, be added at the end of the entire phrase without much
(^)
When
alteration in meaning). If the noun is indefinite, the
tj
ra
is
not usually required to mark the

1
noun,
vide (6) (3).

:
Examples
asleep," but ÂJA

zalim-i khufta ra
^
ij
(
*ii^
|j
^(&
zalim-i ra Tchufta
'
didam,
" I saw a tyrant
^5.
I
3
didam "
Ûfe g5Zim-i kkufta*-i ra

'
:
didam, or
'^^
u (raziya- llah
9
anh u )
saw a sleeping tyrant f*** vl*^ ra bikhwab didam I saw 'Ali (may Allah be pleased
' '
^1* 'Ati, though often so placed. "I had a servant, a fool" Jj-^M p&\& <^y> nawkar-i dashtam ahmaq but nawlcar-i ddshtam, or ahmaq î^b (jj"*-^ (sj*^ " I had a foolish servant." fc ^ft^^f nawkar-i dashtam ahmaq-l ^x&
t>
;
with him) in a dream."
It
is
incorrect to place
ra after
A
ju
similar construction is admissible for the dative,

'azz
a
as
5*
\j>\
*&
(J^
minnat Khuday ra
va
jatt
(-
a)
ki
here
:
!j
ra could be added after the
Arabic phrase
cUj
>c 'oe
â /^()
js^yojf
Û ^flf
i^
^îJi
shakhs-l
ra guftam jang-azmuda
"I
fighting"; but better AV&?
said to a certain person, who had seen much jj^j^jf ^x^ ^-îi^ shakhs-l jang-azmuda ra tj
guftam (or
tj
S*i^jT *î^x ^jass^ shakhs-i jang azmuda-i ra).

is
Sometimes the adjective or past participle
separated from
'
its
noun
bi-
by a verb, as:
asmar-i bisydr
Vide also
' '
Û~o ;U$lj ^suk* J-AJ^ ^^lapuit ashjar-i didam mashhun ' I saw a lot of trees covered with fruits
.
118
(c)
(9)
and
(d) (4)
and
(5).
Khufta
Sifat.
is
hal.
2
%
Jumla-yi
sifat.
If ra
were to follow immediately after
'All, the clause

'
would be
parenthetical, jumla-yi mu'tariza.
The Shias say
'Ali 'alayh 1
s-salam.
APPOSITION.
619
(e)
Words connected by
to
'
certain particles are also considered
by Arab
1
:
grammarians
or
be in apposition.
This
is
v^fe* or
Simple Apposition,'
osu
(1)
Jls*
*
Apposition by means of a Conjunction.'

(
Examples
" and."
Cl
jj+ ) *jj
" " Zayd va Amr(u) Zaid and Amr.*

III
(2)î^ hattq
even to."
p* \sjfty
J^ <^H>
jtj>3
zuvvar rasidand hattq
3 piyadagan ham "the pilgrims arrived even to those on foot" (or jtjj zuvvdr hatta, piyadagan ham 8 rasidand) eXiLu ^*> *&tf tj (*^x>
^^
mardum
t yd
' '
ra kushtand hatta bachchagan rd niz
"they
killed
the
people, even to the children."
?/a
ya'Amr
(4)
U *xf AJ) Za?/d amad ya 'Amr*, or *x>f j^ L AJJ ZeM/d -)j+* " ',4w amac^ Zaid or 'Ainr came" )j>* t; s*~3 b ^J If Jâ Zayd ba tust " Is Zaid or Amr with cuiti *^ J(i dar
(3)
or."
you"?:
Lr>j
i^*
^Xr
kalam-ash
man
L,
va tura qasd 6 dasht
" he meant you and me."

o
L ifii U ya ya "either or", as: *s**l *J>/ Ji-asJ os^^ law or philoeither learnt hikmat has tahsil he karda ast religious 2/a " or o^.^ L karda ast tahsil JU^sJ ASJ (^ ya fiqh cu-o| ya hikmat. sophy
ya
* '
t^jf
Compare with No.

(5)
&>
(9)
na
'
'
not."
jj*
*i
'Amr."
(6)
amad
J j^. ai na khayr.j+c na khayr 'Amr " Zaid came to
^ ^
" ^3 Zayd amad, na Amr Zaid came, not

l
*x=f
Jt>*
*j Zayd
*
ffish-i
;
man
*>
na-khayr
(7)
(8)
^
I;
badal-i ghalat). J-^ *j&* atf-i nasaq, " no." kharra. khayr t;^^>A ptef \> *f*\ asprakushtam,khayr *^ *T j^xG o^L;^ ^H*^* '; t5*^ *i#jj>j o^t Ajyf Û'j ^f^sL
is
c
me and Amr is
nay, rather,
Amr "
j^
^^
^j|i>S^ *T
ki
ju*j^
tiJuîo ^f)f
|^
^^0 gAA
ow>t
l
<3jJf^
hakim-i ra pursidand
chandin darakht-i ndmvar ki Khuday Ta ala afarida ast va barumand 6 garddnida ast hich yak-i ra azad na khwanand magar sarv ra ki samar na" a certain philosopher was asked, why out of all the noteworthy ddrad (Gul.) trees created and God, none is called 'free' except the
fruit-bearing
cypress, which does not bear."
apposition to
tj
by Here
;
i;
sarv ra
is
may be
considered in
**& hich yak-i ra
the ra
necessary, both because sarv
As distinguished from Ûj
i-fthr.
it
This
'
'atf is called
2
3
'Amr
This
spelt
^4^
to distinguish
riiz
from Umar
j+,
galled
Better omit /iom and

is 'atf-i
here.
*
6
man Or c^lA magswd doA. In j &* t/5t '^^ maqmd-ash va tu budlm (mod. Pers.), the verb should of course be bud however most Persians say budlm in this and like cases.
nasaq.
j^*
^^y
tion
In Arabic, words connected by particles or nouns of exception are not in apposithese come under special rules.
620
is
APPOSITION.
definite
and because without
this affix, sarv

ki.
might at
first
be taken for a
nominative qualified by the relative

(9)
tj
^j^C*
"
I sent
all
f^lx^j \) a+& ^yo man hama ra firistadam magar yak-i ra but one ". Compare with No. (4).
|j
J
:
(10) (AJJ.W
^^ &*j)\j**
in
gliayr az
Zayd
kas-i ra %
na-didam "
saw no
one but Zaid."

(/)
Apposition
:
Persian
English, as
(or
f-j^fyl ^îu^ Ibrahim"; named)
fU
supersedes the genitive in " a shakhs-i, Ibrahim nam person of the name of
occasionally
<**su*
âsi^
shakhs-i
Muhammad ndm "the
person called
(g)
Muhammad."
the other hand, in some cases where the English idiom requires apposition, the Persian idiom requires the izafat, as: l^ &) lafz-i daryd " t( "the word sea" J*i &$ rud-i NU the river Nile ;U^ *^)t> darakht-i
: :
On
chindr
"the petunia": ^^M "the religion Islam" (or of Islam)": \&* mlva-yi kharbuza "the fruit melon": (^ jl filizz-i ahan "the " " " " 3 metal iron Oh Abraham, the thou the slave (*3U ^y tu-yi ghulam
plane
"the
tree":
<-tf
gul-i
atlasi
juAô
mazhab-i
Islam
Friend of
God"
*l)f
Zayd, the slave
"
(Jî^ ^*l^l
ojj
^f ay Ibrahtm-i Khalil" llah*

4
(m.c.)
"Oh,
:
fÛ
man, Zaid"
lt
am
x3 j>^x. ^f J3U p*< the beater of the slave Zaid"
Û
^t ay Zayd-i ghulam b qdtil-i an mard-i Zayd nam marram

:
"
f<
am
the slayer of the
AJJ
lxl>3
man-am zananda-yi
Zayd-i gfiulam* If the Arabic interjection ya be used, it is better to employ the correct 1 Arabic construction, as alJf JUU> ^\^\ Lj ya Ibrahim" Khatift'llah but such a construction is of course not colloquial.
:
Remark.
ed; thus
It will
be seen that in m.c., anizafat
is
often incorrectly insert(m.c.),
&* ^j
,
jUU ^t ay ghulam-i pisar-i

!
man
" oh
slave of
my son"
by a
or to
n^^-J
his
p&e ^t
:
ay ghulam
o*.^*
pisar-i
slave
son
^*/-J
^\
ay
man, might be said "O Muhammad

pisar-am
Muhammad my son"
mean
is
correct, but
f^-J
*4.st/o
^
In
ay
Û
Muhammad-i
pisar-am though used in m.c.
in the
foregoing
sense,
might and should

**.:
'0h Muhammad belonging
to
my
son".
Mukam-
4
3
Jumla-yi ia In speaking,
JS<Xw ^.ô
this ra miprht
is
is
be omitted.
jj&V (^-*
man-i banda
sometimes used in m.c., but

better than
man banda
sounds
better; while man-i bichara

*
6 6
man
blchara.
The Afghans
say, man-i banda.
'Atj-ibayan.
'ApJ-i 'bayan and badal. Badal.
APPOSITION,
621
&+x^c
mad-i ghulam
ghulam-i
^4-as.*
''Muhammad
* '
the slave", or in
slave
sifat',
' '
,
i^*>
{&*
Muhammad-i
man Muhammad my Muhammad are considered

e>*>
the
word
<>*>
or
words following
&+^*>
but in
p&*
Muhammad
ghulam-i man, the words

of substitution.'
(h)
(c) (3)
f&* ghulam-i
man
are 6ada
or 'apposition
*et ft*
Qualifying words used with numerals or signifying quantity [vide 47 (g)] are usually in Persian placed in apposition, as: 1 b one anc* a kalf y ar ds' depth of water *& yak 9az u ->-
and
m
' *
' '
' '
j*. cÂ/o u^j t/a&
ten musht jaw a handful of barley >=" eJ70 *^ â ^ WMW jaw " l/0 maunds of barley ty*xj>. *-&* cr^ j!>* *i jy e^t * w faru-maya hazar man *' this common fellow can lift a thousand maunds sang bar ml-darad (Sa'di)
{ * : :
' '
in
weight":
A^b
oJj>&( J^J ;t^.
chahar panj angusht parcha "four or
five finger's
" breadth of cloth.

The
words
jU^j
Remark.
mablagh
"sum"
and
"equal to
as:
(parallel), to the
cJ^y tumans "

jib
*z~4)&
:
jk*
mdblacfh-i
amount of," etc., are followed by the izafat, " the sum of duvist tuman two hundred
^x
miqdar-i
(i)
muvazi-yi panj jild kitab "five volumes": " ten camels " dah i ^y^ i* JI.XR.C nafar shutur muvazi-yi ?*& " wheat to the dah man of ten maunds."
cjliT O>!A.
;
l.ij cfi)^
gandum
quantity
The pronouns when

to take or
in
seem either
omit the
apposition to a noun or to an adjective, Modern Persians prefer the izafat izafat.
with the singular but not with the plural personal pronouns. According to Platts, man and ma may either be in apposition (without an izafat) to an adjective, or connected to an adjective by an izafat', but the other separate
pronouns cannot be joined by an izafat to a qualifying adjective. From the following examples, however, this does not appear to be correct: man-i banda 8 (m.c.) "I the slave," but man banda (m.c.) "I, that is
to say, the
slave"
Persians prefer the latter, Afghans the former.

*
man-i Muhammad
and
p>&*> (>*>
man-i hakim
are in m.c. preferred to

tylfjj
man Muhammad, and p**

"I
the helpless creature" or
bichara.
^
^y
man-hakim,
man-i bichara
{$*
tu
ghulam or f&
*)Uuj bichara man, are preferred " thou the slave tu-yi ghulam
toman "
(also
gaz ab (Afghan). & ) *-. yak u For things that can be counted only. S Also, U> e/f tylûxj bichara anha, but rarely tylsuJ ^l^f the latter ^(Ûuj ^f an blcharagan is used.
51
mm
anha-yi bichara
for
Better **+s<so ti jô
man
Tci
Muhammad
am, or
^.t
^*- &
eX man
ki
am,
etc.
622
AOJ
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
both correct
;
tu faqir or
^ ^y
iza/aZ
tu-yi faqir) are
but in jJUj ^rf
ta
ddam-i Rustam, the
would be incorrect after y
M.
The
Khudd
iza/aZ does not appear to be used after u, thus: t^^>jl u shir-i is correct: j*& ^jf u-yi faqir does not a.ppear to be used, though
grammatically correct.
plural, the adjectives are either coupled to their pronouns by an ordinary adjectives, or else placed in apposition without the izafat but in the plural, thus &\*k ma-yi ndddn, or ^fj>Li U> ma ndddndn or ishdn-i bichdra, o(f;U:uj cjlAj| ishdn bichdragdn (or ijlAt &jlf4J ajbsujj ejlA>t
With the
izafat as
^^
bichdra ishdn)
(< mdbandagdn-i Khudd we the slaves of God," shumd bichdra, (apposition), or or t<^ x^ to ma banda-yi Khudd ; syûu l* 1 *"' U 4 U shumd bichdrahd). U ma and bichdra, L?* (also *j^J shumd-yi *> ?^
:
fx^ e>^^
to
U& sTmmaJn modern Persian, colloquially admit of the plural termination when used in an extended sense; but ut;^ ^ isjLjLo mayan* gundhgdran,
vs^lS*
/â
or
*^ o^to
140.
mdydn-i gundhgdr*
is
Afghan, for e)l^
*^
to
ma
gundhkdrdn.
Repetition of a
Word
or Phrase
Jingling Sounds
Alliteration.
(a)
The Persians
sometimes
Words
sense;
of the hurry-scurry
;
are extremely fond of alliterative and jingling sounds. type abound. Sometimes the second word is a
it is
synonym
rhyme.
and sometimes
it
a real word used merely for sound and not for is a meaningless sound used for the sake of
" each adjective In fj*>j uw^- khush u khurram* pleased and cheerful is combination than the and more the single itself has a meaning by expressive $ the nouns bi u shakk shubha; j & A# 9 ^j Similarly with adjective.
:
"
c>!3 yfayft
^'
In^jtf ^
^
tar
tar
tdzagi "freshness," the^<x-ax3 ^.b yd:
masdar
which is an adjective this is an instance oi tari the Persian dislike to the repetition of the same sound but ^jfi j u <JjJ> In a for J^H* j Jl* gal JU> ^ qitdl, qil vulgarism tdzagi is also correct. is meaningless. L qdl* "chattering, wrangling", the second word
is
understood after
J(<3^ j
In,
^XA. jang u jaddl the first word is Persian and the second Arabic *^*^ t>j> urd lakht u luch kardand "he was robbed of <*J<>/
gjJj
<
thing", the word luch (properly "squint-eyed")
is
vulgar for
luch
"naked".
Better
oôtA^Â
S$ j\ u ki shir- Khuda
'st.
*
8
The
izafat
cannot be used when the predicate
is
in the plural.
o<if^ muradif, synonymous.
From Arabic
gil*
"
it
was
said
" and
'
qal"
he said."
f * $* In Arabic JLjJ ^ Jlj
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR
PHRASE.
623
In *ap^
*3pJ
bachcha mackcha
it
(or *f.x3
aaeo fcac&a
word
is
meaningless, but
gives a plural idea.
It
macha, m.c.) the second should be remarked that
the form of this meaningless word is in Persia, as in India, fixed by usage: to say Aap3 **u bachcha tachcha, or *<*.j **u bachcha wachcha* would raise a laugh.
Remark
In Persia, in words of the *svx **u bachcha machcha descrip:
tion, the second word generally begins with mim unless the first word begins with mim in this case the second word usually commences with p or " curds " " 6, as ^-.b j ^^,U mast u past j J** miz u biz table, etc."
:
This
is
called
cL^
" the ^13 meaningless appositive, vide

first,
139
(a).
As a
rule,
the shorter of the two words comes
but
<x& ^
^ amad
u shud\ iy*) *)<$ dvard u burd, "transporting," and possibly one or two more are exceptions.
Remark IL
is
The use
of a second meaningless in
word to rhyme with the

reply,
Ufa
+&-*>
first especially peculiarity, asked the Kaldntar its reason
common
\>j$
Kirman.
A new
governor, struck with the
and received the
oJj^
ô
lA^fejj
j^Jjy)
^4J ^îaaÂ mardum-i ddnd hamchunm nami-guyand
lull puti-lid
(b)
mi-guyand.
:
The same number repeated has
as:
at
v^
**&*
(1)
<J^
Jt*.
bi-har kas yak yak
sometimes a distributive sense, 8 chub* dad "he gave them

as: <xf
a stick apiece ";
(2)
sometimes a continuative sense,

< '
'
^ ^ J ^b
bdrdn
^tjL)
nam nam
mi-dyad
AJ
rdst rdst ki
keeps on drizzling ; **j** *}5jX ** OM.|; o**o(; mi-rasld *'if bi-bdzdr mi-rawd, (m.c.) you keep straight on
it
'
you'll reach the bazar

Âlj
(
"
(3)
sometimes an intensive sense, as

fikr-i
;!>*y^
' '
:
^ &*
*iit^
\j
j&
;(>k
' '
man bdyad
I
hazdr hazdr nafar rd
ddshta bdsham
Vazir-i
Lankaran)
must take thought for thousands * of people

b
o'f^jj
zdr zdr
parandagdn juq juq shuda paridand Ai.xjjj " zud in whole flocks very quickly a^j &j) zud " " to giristan **j weep very bitterly
Stxi
&*.
gj**
(m.c.)
" the birds rose

f>
' '
' '
v*~>tj! jlj
Compare
48.
carried to excess- parii
" chick or child." In some districts in India this jingling of words is tarii, rasta masta (or wasta), etc. etc.- vide Hindustani Manual,
'
Lesson
2
Examples of dual phrases in English are wear and tooth and nail sum and substance.' In 'use and wont 1 Norman and Saxon are linked together. edge and confess
'
'
tear
'
'
'
might and main acknowact and deed

'
'
'
'
'
'
^laaJ
A^b
ta*kid-ilafzi.
Note ra here
to
mark the accusative
after a cardinal
number
is ,
it
does not
make
the
' '
noun definite. The ra could be omitted. Perhaps the meaning

6
" as many as a thousand.
Or omit
shuda.
&>**>{
jc
mardum
jawj fawj amadand.
Juq
collo-
quial for jawq.
624
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
sayl-l
andak andak khayli shavad va qatra qatra " make a muckle, many drops a flood
:
gardad (Sa'dl)
"
many
mickles
Andak andak biham shavad bisyar, Dana ddna ast gjtalla dar ambdr (Sa'dl).
^ **> v_>T vf db-i db bi-dih yd shir-i shir x " fused literally) l> *' elA. Û^ (m.c.) "give either all water, or all milk " bi-dih yd gandum-i gandum (m.c.) khdk-ikhdk give all* earth or all l*Axf j**x? wheat." Remark.
:
Note the idiom j**
(c)
Sometimes an Arabic singular

:
is
followed by
its
broken plural to
:
signify excess, as: \j&j& faqir fuqard** "beggars and such like" L>ijitf " U\p| ^VP ghdni aghniyd "the rich and the vazir vuzard ministers, etc."
well-off"
\6j&
-%^
sharik shurakd "partners." 3

of this
Uneducated people are specially fond
kind of phrase > under the
impression that they are using different words.*
Sometimes the repetition consists of two different measures from the same root, as: oÛJb ^ ^.fe tibb u tibdbal "the medical art": <3 *c ^ Here either word alone o**f jx* *2+3\**oj bi-sidq u saddqat mashhur ast.
(d)
tis
would be
(e)
sufficient for the sense.

:
a few cases, a Persian plural precedes a Persian singular, as " JL* ^l^JU sdlhd-yi sal long years, many years ": e^> LS^J* qarnhd-yi qarn
In
"long ages."
are not used.
(/)
But
U ÛU
mdhd-yi
mdh and
îAA
^(î&* haftahd-yi hafta
Professional story-tellers frequently repeat a
indicate continuation, as:
^ ^^V
little
word several times
to
ml'shavad (PToL S. T.)

*5*
"by
âm ham, kam bam,* bihtar fV*" f*V' and little and little he improves": o^
ki (Prof. S. T.)
<*s}& j*
6 oJ; oJ; raft raft raft td bi-shahr-l rasid " travelled on and on till he reached a city where ^*
*ju*j ^jr^-ij
lj
"he
j* * .^.
}
o*^
U x-^j *-^Mo+)
xxr
u**
kunad sa'y kunad,

(g)
td
xx^ shakhs *iS ^5* bayad dar har kdr-1 sa'y kunad sa'y bi-matlab bi-rasad (m.c.) " you must try, try, try again."
The
repetition of the
same word or phrase is

139
(c)
:
also used for
emphasis
vide Corroborative Apposition
the example, there, "
Thou struckest
Compare the Hindustani idiom dudh ka dudh ya panl ka panl "all milk or
i.e.
all
water ",
^
8
one thing or the other.

j^fii
Vulgarly,
Âflj faqir fuqara is
used for one beggar.
But
4j&A)|jAJ
u faqir 'l-fuqara;
and Ûu-x o**x> mast-i mastan are intensive

used, but not three.
adjectives.
*
6
Either two, or four, Or four raft.
kam can be
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
625
me, thou," could mara zadl.

Balay balay
<Jb*j
*ila.
also be expressed
' '
by <^j
(yy
<^j
l
f>*
y
* <
tu
mara
zadi tu
^^
tj
' '
yes, yes ai&j *r _ftkJ
and dray balay Jb <^f JiU ZM$/ &MW, lutf

:
yes certainly."
bigdna shavad
halqa bi-gush (Sa'dl).
The
following expressions give the idea of excess
Remark.
Compare
(Jk
J(5
,J^ abash gaz dar shash gaz "four
yards by four yards; four yards square."

(h) The following example illustrates another signification of the repetition of a substantive with the izafat. In chapter XXII of Haji Babd, the
hero relates to his master the HaKim, a fable of the dog and the wolves, as a broad hint that he wants a salary. The dog makes up its mind to become
either a pure
*
dog or a pure wolf
of
lj
jf
eAw j *>
<xi
6^
cA^Lb djj
^^lT^.3
^}
lj
4y* v-Cs s-t. U
Û5 fAAlsuo
AT
^fy aJUi
oJU cMw az
31
&j*.
hdlat-i
taraddud tdqat-ash Idq shud va bish az an tahammul-ash na-mdnd, bar an shud ki, bd mujdhada-yi tamdm, yd sag-i sag shavad yd gurg-i gurg (Trans. Haji " when .... he Baba) (the dog) had no more power of endurance left, he determined to do his best to become either a real dog or a real wolf." So
also
V-/T
wf
-*
jU* j$j*.2> U yd shir-i shir biydr yd db-i db (m.c.), or more com*

shir-i
monly ^T vT
^j^>. ^sj^ j* ^ yd either pure milk or pure water."

(i)
shin biydr yd db-i dbi* (m.c.)
"
bring

oJtf
illustrate the
signification
of
repetitions,
etc.
(1)
x>^
accent he said
(2)
^ ^bj "
an
lj
j va bd zabdn-i kaj u maj guft (m.c.) "altering his
U
p\6
*
f^
*
kdm nd kdm "
willing or unwilling."
(3) [>\>
\j&> jabr
y
khwdh ma-khwdh or
va qahr* n "by force and violence"; sl^wJ âL Jchwdh-na-khwdh.

' '
|^x>
jjf^L
*-b aJb pilla pitta bald ml-ravand (m.c.) ,,W tejj* W> gradually, step by step."
things are done
In Arabic, the repetition of these particles would come under the head of CorroboIn the first example the same word is repeated in the second the sense is repeated by a synonym. The Zardushtis use the phrase aray balay to signify the assent ( = " I do "; by Muslims
I
rative Apposition.
merely, balay} of a Zardushti bride, in reply to the questions of the Dastur. * The in is adjectival. Compare 140 (6) Remark. ^j* and
^f
40
626
(5)
REPETITION OF A
&*A}jb
jjdtjjja
WORD OR
l
PHRASE.
dawr-d
dawr-i
darydcha "all round

t>
sar-d sar or j-o j*
sar bi-sar,orj~
sar td sar (also
by
lake" 2 sardpd, b ti ^,
the
sar td pd, etc.) "throughout, completely": in
e~>o
vju*,^
dasj bi-dast
"hand
hand
"
also
from hand to hand."

:
mdl-d-mdl % "heaped, to the fullest extent" <*/ \&j gird-d ": " <_# U^ kam-d-blsh more or less." right round, all round gird " brimful" c^ '^ gun-d gun "of various kinds" (7) wJU) lab-d-lab* " '* breast to breast") level, opposite, equal to." jlj> bardbar (lit. har J^ in-hd kuddm yak yak bi-ravand " let cJ^j **jj* (8) ft^ yk lfij|
(6) Jl/
ifU>
: :
them
all
go singly."
(9)
(Shah's D.)
(10)
*-
pf"tj~jt J'>^t
u&>
l^* sufard rd yak yak ahval-pursi kardam I asked the Ambassadors, each singly, the state of his health."
<*&.*.
\j
t/aA^J yaA;-^
"
yak yak or e>& yakdyak, ^^j (^^ yagdn yagdn or ^C) (^ ": " two tij* dutd dutd, or j&> j& du bi-du singly, one by one
and two.
hubara
is
' '
(11) tj
^jyk hubara to be found here and there."

^/o
(joj
Ji3
Jai. la^L
e>
tak tak
pay da mt-shavad "an

(the
(12) j^j
^^
<>L>
badan-ash
Ichatt
kbatt
bud "it
zebra) was
marked
all
over with stripes."
(13) &\JJ>Q\
(* )
ratq "closing a fissure,

(14) Jl* j JUj qtt
ra tq u fatq-i umurdt "ordering of affairs" " mending ", and fatq cleaving, rending ").
qdl
(lit.
(15)
(16)
;
A^Lo
" altercation (vide page 619, footnote 1). " loud Jsli shdt u shut Je^ j jabber and chatter." " kestrils and such small ASUJ^
hawks " j^jjt>

people, etc.",
j-S+*>
tdr
u mar " jumbled "
dalija* malija (m.c.)

:
(useless)
or ^j* lutl muti &*j? ô j tj^L khwurd u murd u khurd kardan "to into bits." smash j AJ?*khamlr) l& shdkh dar shdkh "entwined; ramified." (17) ;d Û
:
^^
^^ ^^
luti putl
"loose and low

(or
(18)
jU
jj*
shur u shdr " noise and tumult

;
"
j^
3 j
zur
u shur
(of
a waterfall, river or of attacking soldiers entering a " far off. " (19) jtj5 jjîS dur u dardz
5
city).
(20)
jb jj^
Hr
w 6ar " business."
j,^5 |jj
dawr-a-dawr from AT.

joining
(old)
t3]d3
gird-argird,'P.
This
alif
two words exactly
alike
is
called tk>\j JUf alif-i rabitp.

alif joins
In
j^
cf.
lî
daw-a-daw
l&Z
"incessantly running ", the

all
two imperative roots:

'it
Lf^
kusha-kush "killing
lf& ahab-a-ruz (adv.)
the
way."
If
however
lj|^*
'
joins
two
different
words, as:
}j>;
"day and night";

called ali/-i 'atj
;
sar-a-pa
"head
(6).
to foot";
tak-a-pu
s
"
*
searching ",
9
it is
vide
also
110
For Ar.
Û^
Mattja
is
In falconers' parlance.
a meaningless appositive.
REPETITION OF A
(21)
WORD OR
"
PHRASE.
627
u-*J|aj
&>*
(Kda
u
:
ddnista
ax*;
also purposely, wittingly

(22)
"
knowingly, with the eyes
open";
'
AX>
rafta rafta
"gradually."
" as (23) aj,j </^->J bi-zudi-yi zud (m.c.) quickly as possible." ** khwurda bud ki khwurda bud (24) .sj^ &_tf tejji (m.c.) "he " he went embezzled it clean ": vs*, *> cuJ, raft ki
1
f^j
tyU*' fytiS
kindra kindra raftim " we hugged the coast.'
(25) (s*jj-
raft (m.c.)
right off."
j fl*
sham u
shab-i
khwurdi (vulg.) "have you eaten
any dinner ?
' '
&{.& kashdn kashdn* urd nazd-i hakim (26) ***jj f*** ty \j$ &\ burdand "they carried him before the Governor dragging him all the way." Jtf Utf kash-a-kash, or Jtf leash, ma-kash (subs.) "pulling and dragging
^^
different
(27)
ways."
j or rdhu raam, or j p~j rasm, u ravdj, "custom." " after xUj xaj t^J (28) ftj+> palida pafida payda namudam (Afghan *) a long continued search, or gradually searching, I found it."
pj j
^j
(29)
jjjj^j ruz ruz (Indian) "every day

riiz id
"= j^jj;
ruz bi-ruz (Pers.),
also
jjj Ujjj
ruz (m.c.).
(30) t^J j juydn u puydn, or l^ ^ b^ /wya u puyd (m.c.) seeking and searching" c^t>^ j e>U*t uftdn u Jchizdn " limping, staggering, tottering, in a broken- down condition": ^j* sarkdn parkan* (Afghan and
:
&^
^^
Persian) "in great agitation."

(31)
JJ^Jfy-xx
all
_4>
"
^So Ûjijf
dvdzhd-yi tarh tarh ml-Tchipdndand
(the birds) were

(32)
singing."
t^î^ ^Jj ^l A^ '*^ **^ t> e^^J *^.fAJf mm nim man, yd man man, bdrud dar ftjfjj " mnduqhd anddkhta zamin rd kanda judd judd gor kardam (Afghan) 5 I put to maund's maund a a of half from weight powder in all the boxes and then digging up the earth buried them." y 'f gdh bt-gdh, or oJ^jj oJ^ vaqt bi-vaqt "in season and out of (33) 6 at all times": ^(f gdh gdh-i "occasionally": gdh na gdh-l season; " some time or other " AJ ^^ yak-i na yak4 (m.c.) "one or the {Afghan)
(Afghan)
I
l*tu J[^_t*^ 6^r âr /awa^ dy &* panjdh panjdh* " in each sack were b maunds "
fifty
:
l^
^^ ^ ^
man bud
other."
4
6
The same as the classical bi-zudi-yi harchi tamam-tar. The Persians do not double the past participle in this sense. For <&.* ear kanad par kanad; probably old Persian. <Xx?jj The ftlÛD panjah would not be repeated in Persia.
In modern Persian &>$
*^
\j
n * w man
^/oj tojf l^jûaj^

><*n
man ya
j|
man
Li {i^c ^jo zamin ra kanda karda barud dar sanduqha
^jb
^.ô
^^
dafn kardam.
"
In Mod. Pers. &\*j\

rarely."
^j
vaqt-l az
awqat ; but etfjl )
628
(34) JUx: j
(35)
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
binam "
fXu
I
JU ^w
mal u manal " wealth and property."

^.yo
&.'
\jj\
&j
^/o
JL
JLs sal sal mi-shavad

;
Tci
man
ura naml
don't see him from year's end to year's end
A â/^ hafia an interval of years." Similarly **HJ (Vltf 3' L^*^ *^ A " weeks pass without my getting a letter Icaghaz-i az baradar-am nami-rasad, from my brother." " chashm-i chashm "light of my eyes e/^ e; -^ jan-i jan (36) f**a.
I only see
him
after
f^
' '
life
of
my
soul
' '
:
(endearing epithets).
For such substantives as, <jw^ j ty bud ubash (class.) "place of " 115 (j) to (o). abode ", *** 3 ^JS guft u shamd "controversy, etc., vide (j) Under Alliteration, may be classed certain forms of the rhetorical
(37)
figure Tajnis ^JÂXSO
or Jinas
(j^^
Also the figure Paronomasia
etc.
comes under
CHAPTER
141.
(a)
XXII.
Notes on Rhetoric and Composition.

:
These notes are merely an introduction to the study of Rhetoric

It
is
they are not intended to take the place of special treatises.
hoped
that they will explain some points that appear conflicting to the student who is reading both English, and Arabic (or Persian) rhetoric. The question
of
Prosody
is not touched upon. Rhetoric originally meant the art of speaking well
It taught Oratory
(ajlk^. îc).
The
objects of speaking well are:
(1)
to inform; (2) to please;
and (3) to persuade. The Ancients divided Style into three kinds, corresponding to three duties of the Orator: (1) the simple, to instruct ; (2) the medium or temperate, to please; and (3) the sublime, to move. As men may be informed, pleased, and persuaded by written as well
as
by spoken words,
'
rhetoric
'
came
to
mean the
art
of
writing well
also.
discusses
Rhetoric therefore means the art of speaking and writing well. It and shows how language can be made effective, and it treats
of the rules that govern effective composition in prose or verse.
Eloquence (a*&) is a faculty or natural gift. An uneducated man may be eloquent (&k) ! , though he will make mistakes; but a study of Rhetoric will help to banish those mistakes. The study of rhetoric cannot make
a
man
eloquent
who
is
not naturally so, but

logical speaker
it
may
give
him a
certain
ease,
and make him a correct and

(>ulJaiL
and
writer.
exercise
Oratory has
JU)
signifies the art of public speaking, or the

it
of public speaking.
Originally
was the same
as Rhetoric, but the latter
Oratory requires also, a knowledge of the people a addressed, knowledge of what most appeals to them. Rhetoric is variously divided by different writers.
i.e.
now a wider meaning.
The Will
is
moved through
fl*)
the Understanding and through the Feelings.

it
is
O*
AsLogic (&*>
Rhetoric.
appeals to the Understanding,
connected with
There
Rhetoric.
is
no Arabic term that exactly corresponds to the English word

to be either 'Ilm* 'l-Baldg&ah
tt
The best rendering appears
to
V
l
or '/Zm 'l-Adab
*jJb is
In Arabic rhetoric, the term

it is
applied to a
man but not to a word
or speech,
but in Persian
applied to either.
i.e.
word
may
be
in Arabic, nor in Persian),
" chaste and euphonious."
Â
(but not a
pi. l.Afli
man, neither
The
can be used of
630
NOTES ON RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION.

Arabs have divided their Rhetoric into three parts, 77ra- 'l-Ma'am <Ilm ut l-Bayan (oUdl and Ilm u -'l-Badi* (&*A\ f**). fl*),
tt
(
(^\jj\
flc),
Different writers, however, have applied these terms differently, thus while another one writer calls the whole of Rhetoric 'Ilm* 'l-Bayan (c>î
f*^)
calls it
(6)
Ilm u
'l-BacH* (g*d\
^), and so
on.
Literary composition (*l&t) is putting words together in order to convey our thought to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts
correctly, clearly,
and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and
easily remembered.
Style Osyhfljj-fc) is the particular manner in which a writer expresses It is the art of choosing words, setting them in sentences, and arranging the sentences in paragraphs. It has been called "the
(c)
his conceptions.
architecture of thought."
There are
kinds of style.
a large
number of epithets to distinguish the various The number of words determines whether it is diffuse
&
^
(J^kxs),
gj
or verbose (Jw9jft*?)i or whether concise

/
(JU j (4*),
(e>&&j);
or terse or the
(J^j
JJj[.
It
may
be Figurative (g\& ^j),

t
or Ornate
1 It may be opposites of these, Unfigurative (gSt^t fi**) or Plain (j?dl). named after any Figure (o**i*e) that predominates, as: Hyperbolical*
(A*fU* jj)
<
Antithetical (^LaJ jj) etc.

are
It also
may
all
be Periodic, or Loose.
stj'les,
(d)
There
.two merits
common
to
viz.: Perspicuity
and Ornament.
the reader
stand."
The former means that "care

clearly understand,
may
taken, not merely that but that he cannot possibly misunderis
Perspicuity implies purity and propriety in the choice of words and

phrases. write with grammatical purity, (1) the words must be arranged and construed according to the rules of Syntax (^so 8 ); and (2) they must
To
4 express the precise meaning that good usage has affixed to them.
An excess of elevated language is Bombast a deficiency Tameness. Arabs and Persians have divided Mubalaghah (a*JU*o) or Hyperbole into three kinds. viz (1) Tabllgh ((wJU3) or exaggeration that is possible to reason and experience ;
1
:
f
(2)
**
Ighrag ($j*\) or exaggeration

or exaggeration that
3
possible
to
reason
but improbable;
(3)
Ghuluvv
is
impossible.
The The
violation of (1)
is
Solecism, which
is
bad Syntax
or violation of
idiom
best of all others
Also using such incorrect phrases as "the violation of (2) is Impropriety. " ' " the best of such errors as all"), lays' for lies ', and the use of (for
wrong synonyms comes under Impropriety.

Barbarism
Purity.
631
all
(o^),
Solecism,
and Impropriety are
violations
of
Perspicuity includes,
Intelligibility.
(1)
Clearness or Precision, and (2) Simplicity or

is
The
no
first,
Clearness (cu^tj-*),
(flÔ-
(&jlJ), or ambiguity
opposed to obscurity (ow*U), vagueness statement is clear ( ) when there is
^-o
possibility of confounding it with anything else. One great obstacle to clearness (&*.)j*) t is the ambiguity of language generally. When a word has a plurality of meanings it should be placed
in such
It
is
a connection as to exclude
all
also desirable to avoid using the
same word
* meanings but the one intended. in two different senses
within a short interval. 8
The best known device

;
for
overcoming ambiguity
(fltfl),
is
to
employ
Contrast (^l^>) i.e. to state also the opposite of what is meant. If we write "light as opposed to darkness", there is no fear of this meaning ' being confused with light as opposed to heavy.'
* *
To prevent ambiguity,
it is
permissible to use Tautology (^LoÂa**).

easily understood,
Simplicity (cylâ o* &-)

to abstruseness (csÛ
means being
and is opposed
Figures (^tV 5U^>) are a part of Ornament. A Figure is a departure from the ordinary form of words (Figures of Etymology); or from their
(e)
regular construction (Figures of Syntax)
or from their literal signification

6
(Figures of Rhetoric).
6
Figures have
also
been divided into Figures of Words

5U*).
(i^feftJ
e^li*)
an(i Figures of
Thought
(<.$>">
Figures exist in all languages, though they may not be identical in Some Arabic and Persian Figures are confined classification or definition. to Poetry. It is impossible to find any exact English equivalent for many
the Arabic and Persian Figures, for there is overlapping thus, while * it includes a great it is also more the Tashtth (***&>) is the English Simile
of
; ' , ;
part of
tjf
Metaphor
Plafi
the
Euphemism
^**3 er*^) in
&' )** of of*M^
^j v ^
Trans.
Bdbd, p. 100, would by Persians be classed under the
Majaz-% Mursal (JUô

1
jU)
and the Oxymoron 7

of un-English words, obso-
lete
means the use U^y,L) <t Jl-Jo ). Barbarity words, technical terms, and unnecessarily-coined words.
In Urdu
(
Unless, of course,
it is
the writer's intention to be ambiguous.
Except Tautology as a fault
for special effect.

is
^-xu j2***.
Such as the Tajnis or Jiriaa (^j^x^J b Such as (3Ufc j l>, and A&)U.
The Oxymoron
is
a form of Antithesis.
632

1
would be considered, either an Antithesis

'Inadiyya (**&(/)
2
((j^> j
*^)>
or an Isti'ara-yi
|)l*iLf).
vary.'
Variety requires that the length and structure of sentences should In English literature proper, easy short-cut sentences are the
rule; but
they are relieved by long ones.

like
Some good English
writers,
however,
there
is
Macaulay, affect a succession of short sentences. In Gibbon an excess of the balanced period. The best style introduces every
type of effective sentence that suits the subject. There must, too, be a relief from bold figures and brilliancy. Variety is obtained by passing from the Tragic to the Comic, from the Humorous to
the Pathetic.
(g)
Pathos
of
Examples
(y&) awakens the tender emotions, sorrow, pity, sympathy. pathos are
:
"
And when
Saql, you shall pass Amongst the guests, star- scattered on the grass And in your joyous errand reach the spot
like her,
Where
made
one, turn
down an empty
glass."
(Fitzgerald's Trans.).
L^^^/O pf), excites to laughter. It is for the most part based on the degradation of some person or interest that is associated with gravity, dignity, or power but it is necessary
(h)
The Ludicrous
style
that the degradation should not be of a nature to produce any other
strong emotion, such as pity, anger, or fear.
In Humour, the laugh assumes a kindly character: the ludicrous degradation is softened or removed by kindly or tender feeling. Thus the great masters of pathos are the greatest humorists. Humour combines the
(i)
effects of wit
(;)
and poetic beauty, with the ludicrous.
a combination of ideas, (1) unexpected, (2) ingenious, the Epigram is in a (3) consisting play upon words (^^xsj). In English, Innuendo 4 and are wit. of as the Next, regarded purest representation
(eJi^Jo) is
1
Wit
A Euphemism is
often expressed
by Antonomasia (naming instead
of),
a form of
Syndoche.
2
Hence Composition has been

"
9 Pathetic,"
i>;^J.
" the art of styled as varying well."

it is
When
the language exceeds the occasion,
maudlin or
sentimental.
implying or suggesting, instead of stating plainly head would be classed ^&*a)\ JUiacuo or <*J;.iy . Euphemism is a special applicar-k>Sf -flfJf, or &i)j* -*U&*I, and several other figures. tion of Innuendo.
is
:
Innuendo or Insinuation
often used in a bad sense.
Under
this

Irony.
1
>
633
The effect produced by double meanings (<î*x jd) including puns (^jMxisO), and striking and ingenious metaphors, if they are unexpected, is
Wit,
(k) The Melody or Harmony of language involves both the action of the voice and the sense of hearing. What is hard to pronounce is also disagreeable to hear. However, even difficult and hard combinations of letters
(
eJlflj
)
may be an
same
agreeable variety
alternative of vowel and consonant is

tion of the
monotony in sweetness. The 2 The too frequent repetiagreeable.

to
of
letters should be avoided. 8

is
Occasionally there
Imitative
Harmony, or the Harmony
Sound
is
and Sense
softness of the following Persian couplet (Onomatopy). intended to imitate the soft notes of entreaty :
The
The harshness
of the following lines

:
on Rustam's
fight
with Afrasiyab
indicates noise or strife
In the following Persian couplet, the sound gives an idea

rapidity
:
of hurrying
The cry
of the wolf is suggested in
"There comes across the waves' tumultuous roar The wolf's long howl from Oonalaska's shore."
Campbell.
In the following Urdu couplet on the birth of a child, dun "shall I give ? ", imitates the sound of the naqqdra &g e^J (Dj*?j*^ <_/ 3^ _tfc j-# <* ^-j L jj I-/
"Said the bass

I give,
(1)
^^ ^ ^
the treble
to
by way
of
good omen: 'shall I give,

'
shall
why
should I not give the good news
"
Taste, or
of art.
from works
Good Taste (<j'Ax>), means It also means the kind of
first susceptibility
to pleasure
artistic excellence that gives
Or
in rhetoric, Antiphrasis
the use of words in a sense opposite to their proper

in
meanings; irony either in sarcasm or

sarcasm, irony, and
2
humour.
The Arabic Figure
includes
satire.
Hence
j$
in English the
ci>.
in Arabic the change change of a into an before a vowel, and

letter or syllable it is
of a final
8
into
In English, when successive words begin with the same

This
is
Homoeophrophgron). on a plan, as in balanced composition and some poetry, it is objectionable. remark applies also to iterations in the middle or the end of words.
called Alliteration (or
common
in proverbs.
Unless based
This
634
the greatest
all feel alike,
amount
of
ages, countries,
As men do not pleasure to cultivated minds. and individuals differ in their sense of what is
is
excellent in
composition. Further, each person attached to one school of writers than to another.
(m) Literary Composition
by education
more
may
The primary object of the first is Q*fc>). Each has many subdivisions. pleasure.
be divided into Prose (yJ), and Poetry to instruct, of the second to give
Poetry will be treated of first. The earliest compositions in all languages were metrical. Poetry differs from prose in that the words in poetry are arranged upon a definite principle of order as to their sound. Amongst
the Greeks and
still is,
Romans
this principle was,
and with the Arabs and Persians
based upon quantity,
those that are 'long'

'
i.e. the time occupied in pronouncing syllables, taking up twice as much time as those that are
short.'
In English poetry, the principle of arrangement

of
accented
and unaccented
syllables,
is the regular recurrence the stress of the voice in uttering
the accented ones occurring with perfect and anticipated regularity. The undulation of sound produced by a flow of accents and non-accents, and the symmetry produced by a methodical arrangement of words (according
to Greek, Latin, Arabic,
syllables,
Persian
to
and according
syllables
and Urdu verse, their long and short English and Hindi verse their accented
.
and unaccented
Rhythm.
1
and a recurrence
of
emphasis at intervals),
ia
If the
rhythm
If
is
has measure.
the
not regulated by fixed laws, it is prosaic. Fine prose rhythm is reduced to law, it becomes metre.
English composition that has metre, is Poetry. Composition that has rhythm only, or not even rhythm, is Prose. Rhyme (**&>) and Alliteration are, in English, embellishments of rhythm or of metre, but are not of
its essence.
Some
of the highest poetical
achievements in English are in un-
rhymed
of the
or blank verse.
In Arabic, Persian, and Urdu poetry, there is metre, depending like that Greeks and Romans on quantity, and there is also rhyme (a*tf).. There is no blank verse as in English, though there is in Hindi. A fewôf
the recognized Muslim metres
' 9
'o-?
(^.
*
'
a
)
resemble English metre, as for instance
G 'i>9
the metre
In this metre
is
the following
The rhythmical arrangement of inarticulate sounds produces music. For the definition of &u etc. consult a work on Prosody.
635>
.^
tc
Lj
jL_L *}L-3
little
^Jo
f>
U*^
V^
'*
b*.
'<>. *<. ejl** (JU*.
*
Twinkle, twinkle
star," resembles the metre
e>A*
A comparison, however, between the two systems is difficult. Arabic and Persian verse composed on the English principle would not be recognized as verse by Arabs or Persians, though owing to Hindi influence, it is possible that Urdu verse so composed would be recognized as verse.* The " " There is a happy land is missionary translation of
:
Further, the style and diction of poetry differ from that of prose. Diction comprises the choice, arrangement, and connection of words. Poetic diction is archaic and averse from colloquial expressions.
Muslims divide poetry into Bazm (>j), and Razm ff))). The first includes Love Songs (AxaAc), Drinking Songs (*/clJ ^Sl*), Odes (J>*j), Ballads (<Juwi3),
Stories (the masnavi
^>u* generally contains

&&*>** !*&***)
),
(
stories)
Satires (>*u*
),
the pure
Elegy
(jo,;
Aa^jS ),
).
and the Eulogy (
The second includes War songs

is
y*f
The Marsiya *4r*

is
or Elegy,
usually a mixture of the two.

:
(2)
English poetry Epic or Heroic

;
divided into three principal divisions
(1)
Lyric
(3)
Dramatic.
8
,
The
all
first,
the Lyric
is
represented by Songs,
Hymns and
Odes,
being the expression of emotion or feeling. Under this head come Hymns or Sacred Songs (JU>i,o eÛ/o), the War Song (J^> ), the Love the Political Song, the ), Song ( A*8Ac ), the Drinking Song ( &*l>
^L*
Sentimental song, the Comic song or Dirge (*4r*), and the Sonnet.
AJli^ fi>
),
the
Ode
of
J> ),
the Elegy
The Epic*, in contrast to the Lyric, is a narrative The author appears in his own person, introduces the the events. The Epic has the widest range and is the is an Epic. compositions. The Shdh-Nama (*oUlfc)
In dramatic poetry, there
is
outward events.
actors,
and narrates
longest of poetical
a story, as in the Epic, but the author does
'
In English prosody, the accent

is
prosody the quantity

principle involves.
is accentitally
the
first
|
the only principle, but in Arabic and Persian is a corollary which that principle and the accent
is
" Come
accented verse
into the
|
equivalent to Fd'ildtun
is
Fd'ildt,
garden, Maud but not quantitatively.
The
2
3
test of true
that
it
cannot be scanned according to the rules of

called
quantitative metre.
Such a composition would however be Lyric poetry comes under ^y. The Epic comes under
.
o^ 9^ an<
not
f&-
636
not narrate nor appear in his

is
own
person.
Opera
is
dramatic poetry that
sung.
(n) (1)
We now
come
to Prose.
Prose avoids a large number of words

is
that belong to Poetry. for sublime diction is pleasing and natural, only
Poetic diction without metre
usually unpleasing;
when the thought is sublime.
A
verb
(
Simple Sentence
(*|*XM>),
^^
(
&U^
is
a sentence that consists of one

):
subject
Iwj ),
" as:
and one predicate He is mad cu| aSt^y.

Sentence
(^
is
it
contains
only one finite
A Compound
i*O* &*?-
on8 tnat consists of two or more
sentences, simple or complex.
A
*wG
),
Complex Sentence
T^x>
&*^
(
contains subordinate clauses
!^ft>
besides one principal clause
**i*f
lî
),
as
'"
:
I will go,
whenever
you are ready." In a compound sentence, the component clauses or sentences are independent of each other, as: "The sun rose and the clouds disappeared"
<xfc
(
j tj$ Îk ^.4-i ) either assertion can stand alone. In a subordinate clause ( *jl3 iâi ), the construction and meaning are
v-AJU lAjjj
:
dependent on the principal assertion, as:

reach
"He
ran quickly that he might
home
first."
(2)
When
are
made
he different parts of a compound or of a complex sentence similar in form, they are Balanced, as:
He
but
he
remits

lation of Haji Baba.
637
Sentences
may be
re-formed, either by breaking
them
up them
into a
number
of small sentences (the isolated style), or
by recasting
into periods (the periodic style).
(o)
The Arabs, and consequently the

JX
Persians and the Indian Muslims,

:
dstinguish three kinds of prose composition

f
!
FIRST, Murajjaz
(J^y
),
in
which the clauses are balanced but not
rhymed,
as
This
is
the ordinary " Balanced Structure
"
of English.
SECOND, Musajja' or Muqaffq (^&x> U j:=v~x>), i.e. Rhymed Prose, of which (i) Mutawazi ^jlJ^ ) or "Parallel", in which the rhymed words have an equal number of letters, as (Jjty ^j ^ )^^^ Ow**^ \\there are four kinds:
(
:
(ii)
Saf-i Mutarraf
o,k*F-
or Diversified, in which the as:

is
rhymed
U ^yo.
words have an unequal number of
letters,
cui| jf^tt &L*s(A
j(5j
imitation, in su*: seeing that to fail and fall is the fate of English, of J;Jax> all, and to claim exemption from the lot of humanity a proof of pride and vanity, and somewhat of mercy our common need ; therefore let such as read,
following,
The
by Professor
E. G. Brown,
skilful
"Now
and
than
errors detect, either ignore or neglect or correct

revile
and conceal them,

(
rather
)
and
in
:
reveal
them
' ' ;
(iii)
"Balanced,"
which the
(
final
Saf-i words are the same

(
Mutavazin
oj'j-^
or
unrhymed,
'as
faqir
J*A>
and
jj
jalis
^-^
);
measure, but are (such words are said to be
âcJ
<Ljm or "syntactical
;
rhymes
3
(
", as opposed to <jy**
^^
or
"
poetical
j-
rhymes")
<yo ) or are rhymed) words that in the balanced only

(iv)
Murassa
"Jewelled "
,
(which
differs
from _>
as
This
is
the " Balanced Structure
"
of English, with
rhyme added.
9
<,-
o'
)
From
rajaz the
name
of
a particular metre
it is
mustaf'ilun
(Ûii-**
repeated
six times.
* If
8
rhymed,
it is
either
is
*j
/0
^?;u*,
or *^ e fourth variety o
The term Murassa'
applied to poetry also.
638

(
THIRD, 'An without rhyme.
<Û
or "
Naked ",
it
i.e.
plain prose without balance
and
not
).
'Rhymed
Prose', though
possesses both
rhythm and rhyme,
is
poetry, for it cannot pass the test of
any
of the recognized metres

l
(j*y
has rhythm and occasionally uses the diction of poetry. It canon while trespassing rarely poetic compounds,
Remark.
Impassioned English prose
not be classed under any form of Saj'

'
?*.-* ).
Balance in a sentence assists memory and is pleasing to the ear. It is Antithesis ( <j>UJ= j *(> ). In " Might is Right " * frequently combined with " 8 the sameness of sound is due to a and " Meddle is Muddle
'
ol jjj jg
),
kind of balance and surprise.
Note the
"And
sinning
caused by using the same words in an altered meaning in not a vanity is given in vain"*; "More sinned against than "* " The art of the science of sciences."
effect
:
arts,
" We do not live to The balance may be inverted 6 as: eat, but eat 6 " "It was dangerous to trust the sincerity of Augustus to seem to live 6 Gibbon: fJUjf JjJU vJÛt it was still more dangerous." to distrust " the words of kings are the kings of words " i^^lj<^L^ ** |X) dt*3y îiT HAd " the children ought not to lay up for the *&j uri*)tj \!)\&jj* cfty
,
^^
parents,
but the parents for the children."
2 Cor. XII. 14.

it
)
The advantages of balance are great, but

caution.
The Fasana-yi
rhyme
is
(
'Ajafib
51
&**
must be employed with in Urdu is an example
of balance and
(p)
*^
carried to excess.
:
Persian
the spoken language of more countries than Persia
it is
the spoken
language of Afghanistan, Baluchistan,

Farisi for Farsi
(
Bukhara, and Samarqand.

is
The word
(S^)
"Persian",
- 9 the ^j** mu'arrab
or Arabicized form of Parsi, a word derived from Pars the supposed son of Shem 7 and the founder of the Persian kingdom.
George Eliot
This
is
is full
of beautiful examples.
2
8
e>3*
/*
**^
^lU*,
for which see
This would be classed under the Figure Ly^sJ 9 or on Arabic or Persian Rhetoric. of * This is Osjouc, a form ^/osiso.
Jlfliwl
^
any treatise
Styled in rhetoric, Chiasmus ( ^jAxJ L c..JLfl3 ). In an obverse declaration, the equivalent fact is stated for the opposite side, as *'Heat relaxes the system; cold " Proverbs of braces it." For obverse iteration vide Solomon", Chaps. 12, 13.
:
6 1
^La3 U JlUx&l OJiL*. According to some dictionaries, Pars
is
another
name
for
Pahlu or Shem.
NOTES ON BHETORIC AND COMPOSITION.
639
faras,
The word
horsemanship.
is also
said to be derived from the Arabic

<j.;lj
^ji
"
mare",
as the ten sons
of
Pars the king of Persia were noted for their

is
The area over which Persian

still.
the language of literature
is
larger
It is therefore only natural to find
wide differences in expressions and
the use of words.
In Persia itself there were dialects Native writers mention seven. The principal of these were Parsi, the dialect of Persepolis or Istakhr ; Pahlavl, the dialect of Ray 1 Isfahan, and Hamadan; and Darl (for Darn) the pure
,
speech unmixed with foreign words, spoken in the mountains and villages. 2 Firdawsi is famous for the amount of his Pahlavl and Dan. He in
claimed,
fact, to
have omitted
all
:
Arabic from his Shah-Nama.
When
confronted
with the well-known lines

j
0_j
cAJ OJl~^[ oJf iJJU t 0- ft? u Qaza guft gir Qadar guft
'
;*J j
'
jJ
o^ l_^jf
'
dih,'
Malakguft ahsant
said
it.
'
',
falak guft 'zih'
he shufflingly replied that he hadn't saidoi~A.f ahsant, but that the angel had
The poet Nizdmi is noted for his Dan. The two most important countries where Persian is the language of literature but not of everyday life, are Turan s and Hindustan.* Even to-day Persian is taught in most Muslim schools throughout the Indian Empire,
while Indian gentlemen frequently write to each other preference to Urdu,
in
Persian,
in
most interesting prose works we have in Persian have come from the court of Delhi. Akbar, the great contemporary of Elizabeth, has left us his Akbar-Nama while every Indian student knows the intricate lnsha*-i Shaykh Ab&'l-Fazl* 'Allaml. The Persian introduced into India was a inflow and constant of Turanian Muslims kept it fresh. Turanian,
of the
;
Some
Hence the peculiarities of Indian Persian are chiefly the peculiarities of Turanian Persian. Though Indian Persian contains many expressions and certain pronunciations peculiar to itself, it is practically, as Dr. Rosen 8
describes
.
1
it,
"a
petrifaction of the old classical language ", for Indian stu-
Old
Bahman son of Isfandiyar is said to have made this the court language, so as to have one language for general intercourse. 3 Turkistan, Transoxiana. Said to be derived from Tur a son of Faridun. * Indian writers have applied the term Mughul or Mongol to all Persian-speaking immigrants other than Afghans, and not merely to the Emperor Babur and his followers and their descendants. The term Mughul is therefore vague and includes Turanis and Iranis. At the present day in Bombay, a modern Persian is often called a
*
and the Persian language Mughuli.

*
By
itself
pronounced abu but in construction abu
In his " Modern Persian Colloquial Grammar."
640
dents confine themselves to a study of the classics, which they imitate, and to poetic exercises. In the Persian of India, as well as in that of
Afghanistan,
is
the
J^^*
izafat
majhul
or
"unknown" sound
of
the vowels
its
retained,
and the
has a pronunciation quite distinct from

of
pro-
nunciation in modern Persian.
The Arab invasion and the consequent introduction
Islam into Persia,
made
a considerable addition to the ancient vocabulary.
large portion of
the population of Persia is Turkish, speaking Turkish* as its mother tongue, and Persian with a foreign accent. The reigning family too is Turkish. It
is
therefore only natural that an increasing
phrases should find their

lesser
French too, and in a degree English, have not been without their influence on the modern
number modern Persian. way into
of
Turkish words and
vocabulary.
literature in every nation shows a tendency to (q) The history of abbreviation and simplicity in language, but this progress towards simplicity
is
more marked in prose than in poetry. Poetry is an earlier culture than prose, and this is the reason given why the Elizabethan prose with its long sentences is inferior to the Elizabethan poetry. France had the start of
modern Europe in the cultivation of letters, and her prose is in consequence distinguished by an ease and brevity that are said to surpass those of any
other country.
8 it is at the Though modern Persian prose tends towards simplicity same time characterized by laxity of expression and grammatical inaccuracy. Persians deem the study of Persian Syntax beneath them, and there are no
(r)
prose writers of sufficient note to check the increasing corruption of the language. Many of the inaccuracies of the spoken language have found
their
way
into the written
the errors of Concord are frequent and the train

' '
:
of thought slovenly. Dr. Rosen in his
* *
says Unfortunately the inclination towards laxity of expression has proved stronger in the development of modern Persian than the tendency towards
Modern Persian Colloquial Grammar
"
lucidity.
To
this circumstance
must be ascribed the great lack of
rule
and the
So called by the invading Arabs because their sounds were unknown to them. There are several Turkish dialects in Persia, the most widely known is that These dialects of course differ widely from the western Turkish of Constantiof Tabriz. nople. Most of the Turks in Persia can speak Persian, but few Persians can speak
1
Turkish.
rhetorical forms
Modern Persian letters are usually marked by great simplicity, while the ancient and addresses are still preserved in India. There is also a tendency towards simplicity in court forms and ceremonies. Should it be necessary to write a formal letter, say to a royal personage, a modern Persian has to call in the aid of a
8
professional writer, as the ancient art of writing
is
now known
to the few only.

partially
641
apparent, partially real, arbitrariness and inconsistency of the language, which renders the use of some parts of speech, specially the conAlso junctions and prepositions, a difficulty for the pupil and the teacher.
1
the inflection of the verb has lost some of
its
clearness
and
simplicity,
by the
various forms being now frequently interchangeable, whereas in the classical language they are distinctly differentiated.
"But vanity and love of effect, which, from the earliest days, have been weak points in the Persian character, have done even more harm to the language than inaccuracy of expression. It is owing to this love of display
that the simplest subjects are mostly expressed in bombastic style, and that quaint turns of speech are constantly drawn from the archaic or classical language, and from Arabic. It is therefore, in dealing with the vocabulary and with grammar, only possible to form a general distinction between the
classical language and that of our own day. But such a distinction will not hold good in each particular case. Modern Persian must therefore to some extent be regarded as a mixture of strictly modern Persian and classical Persian.
adopt whichever style he likes, the classical, the bombastic, or the colloquial modern Persian, but it is always necessary to distinguish the language of Iran from the Persian which
It
is left
to the taste of the individual to
is still in
(s)
use in India.
is
'
'
always preferable to quantity, the briefer the style the better, provided always that brevity does not lead to ambiguity .* As regards the length of sentences, the long 8 and the short sentence
-
As quality
advantages and its disadvantages a succession of long sentences Some nations prefer a succession of short sentences distracts. wearies,
has each
its
:
long, others short sentences.
Some
styles require longer
sentences.
Wit for instance requires brevity, but
not
and others shorter In so humour.

is
English literature proper, short sentences are the rule but they are relieved
by
difficult to
long ones. A long sentence,* well expressed and well arranged, construct hence long periods are often feeble and obscure.
:
reader reading aloud will find that the long but well constructed sentences of George Eliot will present much less difficulty than the short frippery sentences of so many inferior modern novels.
In m.c., and even in modern writing, the conjunctions and prepositions are
frequently omitted.
2
" The law of
literary culture
is,
but nothing that is Reject all that is extraneous,
vital."
an English Act of Parliament consisted of a single sentence. In 1860 a Act was passed to authorize the insertion of full stops. its course * A sentence should, as a rule, keep the reader in suspense throughout and only relieve him at its close. This is called the Rule of Suspence.' This rule is
*
Originally
special
violated, for instance,
when the
a concessional clause follows prostasis of a condition or
the principal clause.
41
642
(t)
must be judged by a standard The j^f j]^\ Anvar-i Suhayli or totally different from that of Europeans. is a work once largely Va'iz of 'l-Kdshift\ Canopus" by Husayn "Lights read and admired in Persia and in India. Eastwick, in the preface of his scholarly translation, quotes some remarks by Sir William Jones "The most excellent book in the language is in my opinion the Anvar-i Suhaill by Husayn Va' iz, collection of tales and fables called surnamed Kashifl, who took the celebrated work of Bidpai or Pilpay for his
The
rhetorical style of the Persians
'
text and has comprised

beautiful chapters."
*
all
the wisdom of the Eastern nations in fourteen
These remarks are
sufficient proof of the excellence of this
book, from an
Oriental point of view.

will give
same preface the student some idea of the view that will probably be taken by
One more
extract however from the
most beginners. Mr. Eastwick says " To them 3 the present translation
:
is
offered
with
far
more confidence
than to the English public, for it is impossible not to perceive that those very characteristics of style, which form its chief est beauties in the eye of
Persian taste, will appear to the European reader as ridiculous blemishes. The undeviating equipoise of bi-propositional sentences, and oftentimes their length and intricacy; the hyperbole and sameness of metaphor, and the rudeness and unskilfulness of the plots of some of the stories, cannot but be
wearisome and repulsive to the better and simpler judgment of the West. Kings always sit on thrones stable as the firmanent, rub the stars with their heads, have all other kings to serve them, and are most just, wise,
and beneficent. Ministers are invariably gifted with intellects which whole world, and are so sagacious that they can unravel all the adorn Mountains constantly race with the sun difficulties with a single thought.
valiant,
in height,
all
Heaven
is
scared
gardens are the envy of Paradise, and every constellation in away in turn by some furious tiger or lion upon Earth.
These absurdities are so prominent that they would probably induce the generality of readers to close the book in disgust. Those, however, who have
patience enough to proceed with the perusal will not
beautiful thoughts,
fail
to discover
many
many
striking
and
original
ideas, forcibly expressed;
and though
their first beauty cannot

still
in translation,
enough
will
but have suffered very considerably remain to justify, in some degree, to all
candid judges the celebrity of the work.

1 These fables have been translated under various names into many languages. There are four Persian translations but that by Husayn Va'iz is the one generally
preferred.
translation.
2
8
For the names
of the
various
translations,
vide
Preface to Eastwick' s
i.e.
Baron de Sacy also praises this work. " those who desire to qualify themselves
for
examination in our Indian
territories."
643
"It may be here desirable to direct attention to those parts of the book which are generally considered the best. The whole work consists of an elaborate Preface and Introduction by Husain Va'iz, and of 14 chapters or books, with a very brief Conclusion. The Preface may be dismissed from
being a turgid specimen of the obscure and repulsive preludes with which Persian writers think fit to commence their compositions. A few helpless infantine ideas struggle in the gigantic coils
consideration at once,
as
of
an endless prolixity and verbossness, which

Nevertheless this Preface
it
would require a Hercules

be read by those
to disentangle.
for a
may
;
who wish
model
of such compositions in Persian.

is first
in
all.
There
an address to
The arrangement is the same the one God secondly, a lengthy eulogy
on the High Personage to a with dedicated, meagre explanation of the reasons which his undertaking. the to commence The whole is thickly induced author
of his Prophet,
Muhammad;
is
thirdly, a panegyric
whom
the work
larded with quotations from the Kur'an, and with difficult and unusual words; so that it would really seem as if a preface were intended, like a thorny hedge, to repel all intruders, and to preserve the fruit within from
the prying eyes of readers.
" In the Introduction, Husain Va'iz is at once simple and more agreeable. The description of the Bees and their habits is prettily given. The of the Pigeon, who left his quiet home to travel; and of the old story woman's cat, who was discontented with his meagre fare and safe seclusion,
are amongst the happiest in the whole work."
Perhaps
of
it will
be as well to quote one single sentence from the Preface

his
Husayn
Va'iz's Anvar-i Suhaili and leave the reader to judge whether
East wick was justified in the severity of
remarks
Gt
Uxiu
J>iu o^l'
\)
lib
yk
J.3
With a view to the universal diffusion of what is advantageous to mankind, and the multiplying what is beneficial to high and low, he condescended to favour me with an intimation of his will that this humble
c<
individual devoid of ability, and this insignificant person of small capital, Husain-bin 'All-u-'l-Wa'iz, known by the name of Kashifi (May God Most
High strengthen him with His hidden favours), should be bold enough to clothe the said book in a new dress, and bestow fresh adornment on the concealed by beauty of its tales of esoteric meaning, which were veiled and
644
NUMBER OF WORDS AND ARTS OF ABBREVIATION,
ETC.
tho curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions, by presenting them on the stages of lucid style and the upper chambers of
becoming metaphors, after a fashion that the eye of every examiner, without a glance of penetration or penetration of vision, may enjoy a share of the loveliness of those beauties of the ornamental bridal chamber of narrative,
and the heart

l
of every wise person, without the trouble of imagining
'
or the
obtain the fruition of union with those delicately imagining reared ones of the closet of the minds." East. Trans.
trouble
may
(u)
The student
2
of
classical Persian is
recommended
to
compare the
rhymed prose
of Sa'di,
Anvar-i Suhayti %
Akhlaq-i Jalati
8
;
the more modern and bombastic style of the of Husayn Va'iz, and the simpler and terser style of the
while for
modern Persian he can not do

tt
better than copy
Mirza Hayrat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia, or the * simpler colloquial style of the Diaries of Nasir -'d-Dm Shah, and the travels
of
Ibrahim Beg.
142.
Number
of
Words and Arts
of Abbreviation, etc.
6 Language should be brief (Î*ue ), i.e. no word should be used that does not add either to the sense or the beauty of the sentence.
(a)
Important
effects are,
however, often brought about by Diffuseness
Brevity would require that the shorter of two synonymous words ( Jj^kJ ). or expressions should be chosen, but emphasis or dignity might require the
longer.
(6)
There are three forms of Diffuseness
J^laii
(1)
Tautology
The
translator in a note remarks:
"These
intolerable insipidities are considered
beauties of style." 2 Both are admired

3
colloquial language
best and truest specimens of the modern * spoken at the Persian court and capital." Also that it is only the uneducated who use the style which Nasir^d-Dln Shah has now raised to the dignity Educated people do not adopt this style. The style of the of a written language.'
*
first
and copied in Persia. The author was a Persian. Dr. Rosen says these diaries "are the
Diary when
*
published raised a great deal of adverse criticism.

(Jjiax:
.
Opposed to
Brevity
is
a general term.
A statement may be
(
brief because
the most important things are omitted.

in
A concise
g\* j
^)
styl
:
expresses
much
a few words. A speech may be the reverse of brief as regards length it may contain a thousand statements each concisely explained. In a concise style, the thoughts are
JJ
conveyed in the fewest possible words but with the utmost precision. Terse is short but full of force. means eloquent as well as concise. Pithy (3*/o )
J>

*>*$
);
ETC.
1
645
(3)
(2)
(
Pleonism
^JUâ.
or
Redundancy (Jîx)^!^
other"
Circum-
locution
v -^
1
"They came
^j&t
iXiu
successively, one after the

'-ftJ^f or) c$rj>a
^
(
<iJ*x>f
^^
).
1
*v,
is
Tautology
is
-*jj^*
"I saw
"
I
it it
with
saw
with
my eyes" f*^ ^su Redundancy ( " my own eyes Â*^,} (**?=* ^^V is Pleonism
(
The
if
epithets of poetry are often pleonastic embellishments
^5^3 jt**.
not kept within limits, they constitute the vice of style called Turgidity.
is the repetition of the same idea in different words ) Tautology ( without the addition of force or clearness. The synonymous words or phrases
^xJj^
generally occur in the same grammatical place. Tautology is generally due to an error of thought (as in the expression universal panacea ', or a single
' '
unique
(c)
').
What may be termed

by a
'
,
Tautology,
'
is
justified if
the sense
'
is
not
satisfactorily expressed
and vulgar
i.e.
poor and needy', or when the two words mutually help each other.
single term, as
;
common
Legal documents have to guard against attempted evasion consequently repetition and synonyms (this is yL*. ) are necessary: "Tell the
j*
truth, the whole truth,
and nothing but the truth."
In a Persian deed of
#
sale etc. occurs the following:

ttjJU
U*>
J~J|A jUaOfij il/$tfed &pjllj

'
*J^.
1
I****
^^
*j
1*^)
'
alirn**
amid
bi-'t-taw'*
va 'r-raghbat dun^l-ikrdh 1
.
va
l-ijbar ddnista
(d) (I)
va fahmlda bi-saman-i mabla^-i fuldn
and % *t***J and may be styled A^!ux5 ^2*=^. % (2) In girya u zdn ^j j **f and "what we have seen with our eyes and heard with our ears" pt\ **&& o^^^j ^J| î ^*au A^*, the pleonisms are ta*kid *H'^> or emphasis, and constitute ^-xl* j*>. Vide also section " on Errors in Rhetoric."
Emphasis has sometimes the appearance single man of you" U& 31 bs^jjiu^ tonayak
without exception *UlLt ^b A+A hama bi-ld " v o jo that doeth good, no not one p*>
' '
Certain dual and tautological expressions as " null and void, ^LT? are justifiable by use, being almost regarded as one word,
"
^^ ^ g*
redundancy: "Not one nafar-i wahid azshuma: "all there is not one ististsna*' :
of
' '
hich kaa nikukar
nisi yalc-l
ham
na.
The
distinction
in
English
between Pleonism and Redundancy
is
often not
observed, the former term being used in Rhetoric and the latter as a general term.
/
2 8
Mutaradif o,}(^Lc synonomous." In the Persian translation of the New Testament this
"
is
nlkukar-l
riist
yak-l
ham nay
64ft

Emphasis sometimes requires the multiplication
ETC.
of connectives (Poly-
syndeton), vide
(3)
140.
The
refrain or
burden
justifiable repetition.
(e)
of a song or of an emotional speech, is a So too in affection or admiration there is iteration.

l
Emotion
of
any kind
is
often expressed
by
repetition, that is
by
CIRCUMLOCUTION ( v LLbl ) is a roundabout way of speaking. It is usually a defect. But it can be used for rhetorical effect, and then constitutes a Figure 8 As a defect, it is a form of diffuseness ( <J^K> ) that cannot
(/)
.
be remedied by the omission of superfluous words the whole sentence must be recast in terser language. Under Circumlocution (wli^l) may be included
:
>
digressions
Ji^sui
),
and the introduction
of irrelevant matter
The following are English examples a Figure: " Brain preserved in ink"
gentleman sent
ambassador);
(a fisherman).
of
(for
Circumlocution
^\
as
abroad to
lie
for
"A
(
rod with a
worm
is
book'); the good of his country" (i.e. an at one end and a fool at the other'*
'a
"An
honest
Euphemism
as
"
:
often expressed by circumlocution ( ^litf " " fond of romance " (a lie) Terminological inexactitude (a liar).
ÂX*J
(?***
Circumlocution
is
notably used in Commentary (j$~&

l
).*
(g)
VERBOSITY
<y ~J
is
an excessive use of words, and

not been corrected.
arises
from
a natural
gift of fluent expression that has
(k) PROLIXITY (<J3U $ J^fcu) is the tedious accumulation and needless particulars, so as to encumber the meaning.
of circumstances
Remark.
In
many
of the older English
and Persian
writers, Tautology
and other forms
of diffuseness are
common.
Tarji' band &lj *^>y English examples are:
is
a poem with a refrain or band.
"A
poor, infirm, weak, and despis'd old
man "; "I
aVn
astonished, I
never, never"
am
"
;
shocked, to hear that
";
"I would
;
never lay
down my arms,
never*
Absalom,
my son, my
son"
and
" Alone, alone, all alone Alone on a wide wide sea."

All these are
8
jj
Sometimes called Periphrasis.

u/
Commentators ( ^.-Ji* ) often carry the practice to sermon of " Old Mother Hubbard" is in ridicule of this.
excess.
The English mock

(t)
ETC.
647
The
chief sources of brevity are the selection of the aptest words, 1 the
of certain Figures. 2
:
grammatical structure, and the employment
The following are some of the methods of abbreviation ONE PREDICATE FOR SEVERAL SUBJECTS (or one subject
verbs).
for several
compound sentence where there are several statements, each with the same verb, the verb need in English be mentioned only once,
as:
In a
"
Reading maketh a
(a)
full
man."
amples:
In Persian this non-repetition of the verb
j\A* mi-kunad va harf zaian hdzir javdb. (b) cA-t? fj j?yf c an ***s>j~J &j? tijf esVl^ j <*** (^^^ ej 5 &j>9* ^^** 5 j&~ ^&*' ) ruz rd marddn bd baydn-i shajd'at va chigunagi-yi sa/ar va kashidan-i tutun, va zandn bi-navdkhtan~i daf va tardna-hd-yi-gundgun bi-sar burdand (Tr.
v^
man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready Exis very common. <JU khwdndan îî* ) &*j ^j=*\) j*> ejjjiî.
l
-l
mard rd
Icamil
^^ ^^^
H.B. Chap.
esteem of
III).
Compare
all
" He resided here
for
many
years,
and
after
he had won the

'
the citizens (he) died."
In Persian the second pronoun
he
'
could not be inserted.

(;')
(1)
PARTICIPLES.
Participles present or past.
Examples:
c^T
B
lyf^-cû
l
d^*
JaLt.5
Ûf
^(jji
at
a *s>y jL> o,2Eu*
^Loâ
(
t;
(j>Uf
vji
^3
sar-i-dn Zibd
Khdnum zud an*
darb-i utdq rd du-dastl
#j pusht-i sakht bdz karda,
f^
dad u farydd kunln, ddkhil rrii-shavai VazTr-i Lankaran) *' when his back is 6 turned, Zlba Kliinum, suddenly and with both hands, throws open the other door of the room, and comes in crying and screaming": Axf ->i) ) îl^ lx>j
(
V^
(^
1
)
guyad
^** jt) ***) o^' Zibd Khdnum (lund lund kundn rafta zir-ilab " Zlba IQilnum ." (going off muttering, says under her breath)
rni-
This construction, especially in modern Persian, is often carried to excess. 8 In a sentence of eight or nine lines there may be but one principal
verb at the end, separated from
sion of participial clauses.
1
its
subject at the beginning by a succes:
Example
Gashmz 9 va shambaUla bu ddda
ia
recollected that
For the selection of words, precise rules cannot be laid down. It should be words have both a denotation ( <^f*) ^j**' ) an<* a connotation
Metaphor,
the
2 In English, especially the following Figures: Comparison and Transferred Epithet, Antithesis, Epigram, and Ellipsis.
3
For
if
inserted
*
*
An " the
it would be emphatic. other" or " the further."
Du-dastl and sakht are both adverbs.

Pushtri ear
--M
OMUJ "behind"; ^T an
'
for
^|
u.
1
3
Stage directions in Vazlr-i Lankaran.
Producing the 'excess of
suspence
so
dear to schoolboys
when
A;
translating
from Latin. 9 In India JjJuutf kashniz.

Persian.
10
The g
of Iranian Persian often
becomes
in
Turanian
Bu dadan " to
roast like coffee."
648
l
ETC.
an au sd*ida az alak yd pdrcha birun karda va ba'd hama-yi fard ajzd ra fard ' namak makhlut namuda dar sd*ida namuda vazn paund mutdbiq-i
mm
ra
'
shisha
('
karda
sar-i
an
muhkam
&
bi-glrand ki hard
\) \\=^\
tasarruf
na-kunad
Paund '-i
Inglisi sad misqdl) \&j
\*j
&*& a*j
_>
jîa^j AJLUi^
^#
' '
*^-;^
w*Jl 31
roast the coriander seed
and fenugreek
:
pound
all
the ingredients separate;
ly
and pass them through a hair-seive or through cloth make them up to the weights (given above) mix in half a pound of pounded salt and in bottles. tightly stoppered (An English pound equals a hundred keep
'
'
"
misqal)
(2)
Cookery Receipt.
participial adjectives may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the relative, as: "The never-ceasing wind" for the " wind that never ceases." This construction is specially suitable to Persian,
Participles
and
which abounds with compound epithets.

shab-tdb-i shab-diiragh
In
would
in English
second epithet have to be rendered by a relative clause, or else rendered

firefly," the
"a
Q*. ^Z, ^G
^Jiyi.jf gawhar-i
carbuncle," or
"a
by a substantive in apposition. The following is an example of Arabic past participles: Maktub-i marqum-i muvarrakha-yi ghurra-yi Rajab^l-Murajjab-i sarkar* mashub-i "pust" mutazammin bi-mazdmin-i mahabbatdna va mundarij bi-mardtib-i
muvaddatdna ziydrat gardid r>* s'-*a'*
<
^^0**
V"^*^' v^,) \s* <5>)y
pi*j*
v>^
43J^f
letter written
fc-Jfj+3 your &*** J *ilixx> (ôUa^j ^^^x) o*^j and dated the first of Rajab, and sent by post and expressing your friendship (etc., etc.) reached me." Modern letter.
te
ci^bj AJt^^xj
(3) Participles
are often brief equivalents of phrases containing con-
junctions and verbs.
The participial construction is in English often ambiguous, as the writer does not always make it clear by the context whether the participle is used for a causal, a temporal, a concessive, or a relative clause. The same
U^ ^\ ^-JU ^* obscurity can occur in Persian. Thus in JlJyL oJj *>" is** mwd-i tdlib-i in dunyd hlch vaqt khush-hdl nami-shavad " man
seeking this life is never happy", it is not clear whether the sense " the man while he seeks, or because he seeks, or the man that seeks."
"is
Va should be
Note
this
omitted.
faulty collocation.
common but
Read
sarkar muvarrikh a-yi.
"The 3 And in English, adjectives also, as: "Drive it into his stupid head"; astonished mother finds a vacant nest" ; " War was preferred by the hardy mountaineers
[the Swiss because they were mountaineers
and hardy}"
Vide p. 651
(p).
NUMBER OP WORDS AND ARTS OF ABBREVIATION,

For the error known as the
'
ETC.
649
misrelated participle,'
vide
125
(n).
Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted, as: "France at our " or " " France doors, he sees no danger nigh ", for being though France
is
".
hand he
(k)
Compare *<s* OwÂjÂ^-i shamshir bi-dast nil-tar sad "sword " 2 etc. " = " while the sword or fears though the sword
;
in
OMISSION OF THE VERB.

:
The verb
expressed, as
giriftdr (Gul.,
&J
**
p*>\j^j& ^
f&t
j
^^
&$ ki
U ma
*'-
or copula need not always be dar In guftdr va har du bo-ham

l?oJ|
Chap. VII.,
St. 19,
about Sa'di's Quarrel): &l~J

c-J^tA/o
fj+V
j*
&<*
3'
)j+> _)*>
o4^j
ij~
jf**
f$j$
{$jl.t> la
sdya-yi
divdr-i
kardam mularaqqib
,
magar
kas-i zdhmat-i Jiarr-i

ax^/o
jaram iltijd bitamuz 8 az

kardan*
;
man bi-barad
zi'man
^JJÂX)
(Gul.
Book V,
' '
;
St. 8)
^31 <_#.
^& hazdr martaba bish az in

3
f
" a thousand times more

bi-sar davidan
Aft.
t^^ j~> e^3
&^ *)^
2 tu ishara
"
j\
\y\^&& jUj
you have merely to indicate an order and I obey" u bi-kinar, digaran ra chi mi-guyld (m.c.) leaving
' '
him out
of the question, what's
" your opinion about the others?
In the
Persian translation of Haji Babd, the verb is frequently omitted. ExAjlî \j ^x5 ample: >-&* vajUU j j* ^jje oUjt ^\ *$ &\X <Jj)i )*$ U *^ t5**! <s~jj* oU^c ^f dUÂ pidar puzish kunan ki In awqat arusi ra no-
'
shdyad
chi ? (Chap.
man bl sar u sdman, jang darmiydn, XXXVII) ***j* lp&* e^

6
:
^^
bd in
jtfeiib
arasdt-i 'arusi ya'ni

r
*xil*Jb
ÎJJU
^^
WÂ?' If&jS j va
bi-mariz
bal'driidam.
Hamgindn
bi-intizdr-i ta*$r-i du'a*~i
man, chashmhd danda va gardanhd kashida

patient swallow
it.
(Chap.
II)
"
and made the
All present (remained) in expectation of the result of
my
charm
their eyes staring, heads
poked forward (on tiptoe from expecta-
"
tion)
J'^ J*
:
^J*> ^j*
(V^3^- e/
&J&~ ^*W ^^ fSAfa'^ j\ A*Jjiu A; â. U* ammd chun na bi-khima-yi u rdh-% ^^- 3' )'& ^ v^-3'
*J>u e^3
ddshtam va na bi-khima yi sd*ir-i zandn, payvand-i dusti munhasir bud az jdnib-i u bi-ndz, va az jdnib-i man bi-niydz; an ham az dur (Chap. 14)
:
jt
az altdf-i
yazddm
inki
_^cLS.
^^
agar
guffi,
all
owi^j î<tf J>\
(Chap. IV) ^1 A^ *&& *$ ty ^t in bud ki guftand, ki ay shd'ir

:
rish-at
khalds, vagar na, khunat haldl
(Chap. VI)
"
they
if
(the
robbers)
exclaimed,
if
'Oh
poet, this instant compose verses:
you do,
you'll be spared;
you don't, you won't."
Vide also Appositive Clauses
134
(6).
Abbreviations of construction consist in omitting certain should be of such a nature as can be supplied but these omissions words,
(J)
ELLIPSIS.
Present and Past Obscurity can also occur from a careless use of the Persian
Participles.
* 8
For other kinds of participial obscurity, vide 125 (n), (p. 531). The Persians feel the heat much more than do the Indians.
*
5
The
Infinitives are here nouns.
Man refers
to the father
who
is
speaking.
650
ETC.
from the tenour of the sentence, easily and without ambiguity. 1

dnchi dar
chashm-i
Baytdr az kashid u dar )& A^Tjt )&*> dida-yi chahdrpdydn kardi
l a. I&JA )* (Sa'di) i^&jf e>Uj ; t p&*. * something into his eyes of the stuff he was
Axiyy
of
"the
animals": ^lii
tj
^te^
^ ^^
farrier (horse doctor) put accustomed to put into the eyes

j>
oA ;
fit
^ ^J
VERB.
^jUif
gu/tdr-i bi-
kirddr 8 chu darajcht-i bi-bdr juz sukhtan rd na-shdyad (Sa'di)
" words without
deeds are like trees that yield no fruit;
for
naught but burning."
OMISSION AND NON-REPETITION " " " letter ? Muhammad

[wrote
it]
OF THE
&>
:
"Who
Wrote
this
o^y
\>
*&
<^( In kdcfhaz rd ki navisht?
[*fJ \Jtf ] .x^* Muhammad[dn rd navisht] >^4J j <>s^*^J\ agar sbd'ir-t va " bi-chdra (Trans. Haji Baba) "if you are a poet and poor u)lj) uA&jt jl ^.
:
ffl
c>./ oôU j ^/ 3.^ L^,*5 yak i az ishdn zabdn-i maldmat kardan dg&dz(Gu\., Chap. II, St. 20).
N
ta*arruz dardz kard va
Chakdn khun-ash az ustukhwdn rm-david Hami-gujt u az hawl-i jdn mi-david

'
jfiT*
âr rastam az dast-i In tir-zan

9
u mush u virdna-yi pir-zan (Anv. Suh., Chap. "From the bone flowed the sanguine tide,
In terror of
its life it fled
Man
I).
and cried
'Could
I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell " Content with mice and the old wowan's cell.'
(East. Trans.)
(m)
METAPHOR BBIEFER THAN LITERAL STATEMENT.

'
comparison (such as like,' 'as,' not disturb the structure of the sentence
:
phrases of
etc.),
Metaphor
is brief,
Dispensing with and does
"All
able
flesh is grass
"
(Isa. xl. 6), is briefer
as
grass": dar
jang
shir
bud &* j*
^^
vide
than, "All flesh is as perish" he was a lion in )*
combat."
For examples
of ellipses, correct
is
and otherwise,
136
(d).
The
object (chiz-l)
understood.
Note jt^^ kirdar,i: om kardan, when y&'f kardar might be expected. For of a the verb in a contracted compound sentence and the difference (1) ellipsis between English and Persian in such a construction, vide 136 (d). 121 (;'). (2) For the non-repetition of a noun, vide For the repetition of a noun, necessary for clearness, vide 120 (h) Remark. 121 (k). (3) For the non-repetition of an adjective or participle, vide 122 (e). (4) For the non-repetition of an adverb, vide 123 (d). (5) For the non-repetition of a conjunction, vide
8
^^
(6)
Prepositions
for the non-repetition of, vide
124
(&).
NUMBER OF WORDS AND ARTS OP ABBREVIATION,

]
ETC.
651
GENERAL TERMS ARE BRIEFER THAN PARTICULAR TERMS. " He " is fond of J>;IH* ^^^ ;^ ^t u shikar dust mi-ddrad, is shorter than sport "he hawks, shoots, and courses " <^v jt ^$* 3 *^ J ^*& ) & 4 $ u bd bdz
(ri)
va tu/ang va tula va idzi

(6)
shikar mi-kunad.
PHRASE MAY BE EXPRESSED BY A WORD.

an obscure nature that
o**f
it
"The
style of this
' '
book
X*.ÂJ
is
of such
cannot be understood
tsijUc
^Jiyuj+i
mucfhiaq
^SSÂ &f u mubham ast

J|
/0 ibdrat-i in kitdb an tawr ^vo j (Jk jj-t o>T ki hich kas naml-tavdnad bi-fahmad is expressed better
f
y
v^
and more
cu-jf
" The briefly by, style of this book

'ibarat-i in kitdb Id
is unintelligible
"
w^ ^l d;lA
JJ
^t
aj
yujham
ast.
"
mere
stripling,
pisar-i no-
balicfh, is
" One who has not briefer and more forcible than yet attained the
' *
age of
manhood
ast.
o**t
*-H*y *-*&
^^
AÂ-y
kas-i
ki bi-hadd-i
taklif
na-rasida
(p)
The conqueror of Auslerlitz might be expected expressed at length, thus: to hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena," i.e. "Napoleon
STATEMENT MAY SOMETIMES BE BRIEFLY IMPLIED "
instead of being
when
by
tjS
elated by the victory of Austerlitz
" and " Napoleon when
depressed
his
imprisonment at St. Helena." So too a mere epithet may imply a statement.

i.e.
Thus Ji^-j^ iÂ* )^^
^j^\ Û.
" the bold chddar-nishin-i shir-dil jang ikhtiydr kard

'preferred war because he was a nomad and
nomad
therefore
preferred war,"
brave.'
(q)
CONJUNCTIONS MAY BE OMITTED.
In the short sentences of Macaulay,
for instance, conjunctions are frequently omitted.
Example:
"You
assert
this: I (on the other hand)
deny it."
:
In-
stances of this omission will be found in
134
(6).
8
The omission
jAjUi oJAr^ b
of connectives
is
called
1
Asyndeton,
t;
as in
&& tj
0!>Ui
sick,
^*
H^'
***j
t;
(D^ty
^3 ^ j^^>
I
ufl*>j*\
*&*
x.
" Heal the

8.
cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils."
Mat.
*yy** ijj* J*
v# j*
*&j*
**
*j* \-r\+d\
A^J ^^j
V* 1
^ *^t^~(^&UH
Tr
-
^fuo^S
.
B.,
Chap. XLI, p. 335).
THE IMPERATIVE MAY BE USED FOR "IF." Thus, biya td khidmat kunam 4 O^XJ^L |jj U LJ " Come (for If you come) and I will ptf
(r)
turd-
serve
you."
General terms are however not so forcible.
General or abstract terms are less
simple to conceive than particular or concrete terms. " the 2 greyTula is 'a pointer' and perhaps any " small dog" as opposed to tazl hound (Arab) ", and sag " the pariah dog" (and also dog' generally).
'
the opposite of Polysyndeton, the multiplication of connectives. " Example of _/o| javab-l amr Apodosis of a command."
It
is
v-jf^.
652
(s)
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.

APPOSITION
is
brief
A/ A*j
fclsxb
ji **;
(Iqbal-Ndma-yi Jahangiri,p. 241, Ed. Bib. Ind. Bengal As. Soc.). The above is briefer than && &e mushrif bar db va ij^l* fj&* 3 _)** j v_>f sabz u Jchurram bud
vabud.
'
2 c ^ Parenthetical clauses are commoner in (t) PARENTHESIS ( o*Lr modern than in classical Persian. In classical Persian, the parenthesis is
usually a blessingor a curse, as
(/*A*
^ *jUw*f ^ *Jf ^^JU ^
*j{JLc
*JJ(
(Ju
the meaning.
In along sentence, English or Persian, parentheses are liable to obscure Though conducive to brevity, they must be sparingly used.
Examples
^ ji^nx ^y ^ ^^^ isy

Guftdr II)
ÛfTy^ Â>
j$tj
j* ^cj^
î^x
*> j\
&&j&
^^
8 )
c4?^
&?.\
"he 8
trtt Jt ^ <^ J$^y t; ^ i/ (Pers. Trans. Haji Baba, on the road between Tehran and was a character well known
for having cut off a
Meshed, and enjoyed a great reputation for courage, which he had acquired Turcoman's head whom he had once found dead on the " road "But in vain I endeavoured to cheer up his (Haji Baba, Chap II).
spirits
by
saying"
if f
^fy*
^t^
^
first
)->
LSJ *
1
J>
cs'trf
u*
(Pers.
Trans.,
HafiBabd, Guftdr-i Sivum).

be the
consideration.
Remark. - Clearness should
Some
of
the
rules for brevity clash with the rules for clearness.
143.
Further Observations on Style.
'
" Other (a) things being equal' ', says a writer on English composition, a better-known word is to be preferred to a less known, a native or
thoroughly naturalized and appropriated word to a word of outlandish origin and habit, a concrete to an abstract word, a specific to a general, a homely to a technical." * ,
Persians are fond of obsolete Persian, and out-of-the-way Arabic words and expressions. Arabic phrases and quotations from the Quran are dragged
in wholesale,
and sometimes Arabic idioms
too,
literally
translated into
Gu*i,
" as
*
8
&*>jlM <xJL*.^ Chauwsh, T.,

it is
though you might say" " incidental

;
vide
91 (6) (10).
proposition."
lit.
"a sergeant." A
leader
and guide
of a pilgrim-caravan,
whose
duty
*
to
make arrangements
for supplies, regulate the
A business letter, even in Persian, is
hour of march, etc., etc. usually worded in every-day terms.

Persian.
letter of
will
653
Anjuman when composing the New- Year greeting to the Anjuman of another
Zardushti
l
usual congratulatory 2 city, or to the Shah,
search the dictionary for obsolete words with which to adorn the 8 As an example of ambiguity, the following quotation from the composition.
Anvdr-i Suhayli will

jt
suffice
jU
AcU
u manfa'at-i tasavvur mltavdn kard va bi-i'zdz-i harchi tamdmtar urd bi-dast mi-drand va bar sd'id-i
bdz
vdhshi
gharib ast chun az
-)}+
jj
^ÂftU
^XD
j| 31
|
;f
o~^J
ndz az ruy-% i'zdz bi-ihtizdz mi-par vardnand (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, St. VI) " while the hawk,* which is wild and strange they allure with every sort of kindness and bring him 4 up on the wrist of favour, indulgently
In a footnote Eastwick remarks, "The and proudly." (East. Trans.). MSS. I have consulted, omit the sentence after *i;f ^* mi~drand, which is found in the printed and lithographed editions. Keene translates
baihtizdz
tation.'
which
is
bear that sense, or mean, with exulThe word is no doubt chosen on account of its ambiguity, such a source of delight to the Persian author, and of despair
'to
exercise.' It
may
'
to the translator."
& bi-ihtizdz according to one or two learned means Persians I have consulted, "exercise", but the word would be understood by the few only. Most Persians would be contented by merely reading and enjoying the rhyme of the word.] The following sentence from the Persian translation of Hdjl Bdbd
[This
jf ji*t
(end of Chap. II) defeated

6
many
Persians
J
o &*,> cÛisf
,-aUJl
not
till
t5 er* f* ./& Jy> -^ >s**\) *(Jk J> the discovery was made that J^ was not the Arabic word qawl, but
k*'
^*
^^
* *&
etf'
&*
Jt
j^
was
" a slave the Turkish word qul ",

l
that the obscurity was removed.
A Parsee committee (in Kerman, twelve members) that meets every Friday and on other necessary occasions to discuss matters concerning the Parsees and to settle small disputes and religious matters. The Persian Anjumans are under the Bombay
Anjuman.
4
3
preacher too will first mouth a sentence in Arabic (though perhaps only two or three of the congregation are acquainted with Arabic), and then repeat it in Persian. If asked the reason, the reply is To display
This
Sent of course through the Sadr-i A'zam. is considered a sign of scholarship.
his*
knowledge.* esteem.
*
*
preacher
who
didn't
would be held in display his knowledge'
little
Baz properly the female goshawk.

as Baluchis will use the QizU-bash, a term often applied to Persians generally, just the is the Turkish tribe to which Persian. (Qajar, Qajar, signify any
word Qajar to Shah belongs).
the Sunnis, to which sect the Rafizi, i.e. Shi'ah, a term applied to the Shi'ahs by robber Turkomans belonged. The author 1 It is doubtful whether the word qul is used by any but the Turks.
should have used the
common word
banda.
654

The
difficulty
in the following passage from the same translation, to the imperfection of the Arabic character than to the rather is attributable The Malik" Sh-shu'ara* when relating his obsoleteness of the language.
adventures to Hajl Baba (Chap. VII), takes the opportunity in the translation of reciting a ridiculous couplet of his
own
Now
is
ku in
classical
a " dove" and also 1 poet has played on these different meanings.
" and ku-kft and modern Persian means " where? the murmuring of the dove. More than one Persian
Several Persians
who were
consulted, exhausted their ingenuity in trying to apply these meanings to the lines in question, but it was only when a Zardushti suggested that the reading " which was veiled and obscured should be gav and not ku that the meaning, by the curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions
appeared on the stage of lucid style and the upper chambers of becoming
metaphors."
(6)
(1)
" Yet
* Obscure and unintelligible expressions are in English improper when that flood in its own depths was drown' d,
It left
behind
it false
and slippery ground."
Dry den.
The author's meaning, in plain is nonsensical. the waters of the deluge had than 'when no more language, apparently it is idea is nt too extravagant for a as this subsided.'" Extravagant Persian, rather in its extravagance would lie its excellence.
first of
" The
these lines
is
(2) It
is
ambiguous, to employ a word or a phrase susceptible of

or generally speaking to use the
*
different interpretations,
same word or
phrase successively in different senses.

the crown'
ciJii^
He aimed
at nothing less than
j&
^-*
o^JbA
saltanat dar madd-i nazar na-ddsht
y .y^^*^ -c* A htch chiz kamtar az may denote either 'nothing was less
aimed at by him than the crown', or, 'nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy him.' In chapter 54 of Hajl Baba, the Persian translator describing the faded charms of the candidates for temporary wifehood,
employs the expression lala-yi shan rd az dam-i
( *r*-| ) ;j 3 j ^* p& sard-i ruzgar afat-ha (ast).
^f
j|
tîU*
&)$
A*^
chirayfe-i
It requires considerable
is it
thought on the part of a European to solve this passage. Ldla in Persian "a tulip, or a poppy ", and hence "the cheek of a mistress ", but in m.c.
is
with a small globe." On account of the latter meanhere A cold ing, !_.$. chiragh incorrectly used in the sense of "light." breath (dam-i sard) might extinguish a candle: lastly l^'f dfatha must be
also
is
"a candle-stick
considered equal to
!>?*>&*
sadmahd.
Persians consider that this kind of
equivoque exhibits the hunar of the writer.
Examples
of tajnis.
Vide also
(4).
655
the skilful use, however, of the same word in two senses, force and point is obtained, as "If the loss of temporal gain be the gain of eternal good, then the reverse of fortune is the reverse of misfortune." 1 Here 'gain' is
By
used in two somewhat different senses, while means revolution in the second opposite.'
'
reverse' in the first case
'
The Persians
fj\*i
delight in plays
upon words (Paronomasia)

J
V 13_X,>
' '
^y
v^-? cri?)
v^3 v* man
tab
az fab-i ru-yash va tdb-i vnu-
yash digar tab naddram.
The
first
signifies
"brightness", the second
"
curling
and the
third " endurance."
i marg mazdr Ma-shaw bi-ghussa-yi min zdr u bar ma-zdr. Mazdr ;t> is " tomb' zdr ;lj is " weeping ' and ma-zdr y_y is " don't weep.' This is a good example of the Figure o-^ tajms or <j^ jinds.
' '
,
1
,Chu bar mazdr-i
man
uftad guzdr-at az pas
'
(3)
Inconsistent words or phrases
must be avoided.
'"I do not remember

whole
*
life'
Spectator.
'
*
that I ever spoke three sentences together in my Instead of together, the writer should have said
successively
or,
in succession.'
"
is common in Persian. Rich ydd-am mat Jci bi-'umrjumla bd-ham gufta bdsham fl *ii /**lj *1>^ *^ (/*? *^ ^'^ c^ J f* (m.c.), is a sentence that would pass unchallenged by most modern Persians.
This kind of error
am
si
For bdham, substitute Â

(4)
'
^ pay-i ham or ^*^* cu^J pusht-i

is
sar-i
ham.
*
One source
:
of obscurity
the affectation of excellence, or
fine
writing
acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning their eyes inwards in order to explore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the
"'Men must
wastes and wilderness,

this obscure climate.'
as. well
as the
more
fruitful
and cultivated
tracts of
Characteristics.
most wonderful way
of telling us
that
it is difficult
to trace the operations of the

is
mind "
!
The following
from an American newspaper:

it is it
" This
is
not an event
of to-day or of yesterday or of to-morrow,
a fact which will go gallivant-
ing tlown the corridor of posterity until
reaches the ultimate back-fence of
humanity."
II of Hdjl Bdbd, the author says:
In chapter " The caravan was ready to depart a week after the festival of the New Year's day." A simple statement
Neither of these quotations
is
too extravagant for Persians.
like
this
does not satisfy the Persian translator,
who
writes j
The
figure Ploce or Antanaclasis.
Vide also
145
(*).
656
at
-!
/*
-jj--^
]
kamabish du hafta az Nawruz-i firuz rafta (Rahm u 'llah !) Mirza Mahdi Kh,an-i nasim-i 'ambar-shamim-i Bahar az farr-i Farwardln muzhda-yi rangmdvard.
Baqiyyat" 's-sayf-i Bahman va Shitd gurisna va ndshitd ruy bi-hazimat nihdd. Turdn-zamin-i chaman bi-Turk-tdzi-yi junud-i quvd-yi ndmiya bi-tasarruf-i QizLBdsh-i gul dar dmad. Ghdrat-gardn-i sahn-i chaman va yaghma*iydn-i
11
ddr u l~mulk-i gulshan sar bi-pustin kashidand. Turkdn-i tang-chashm-i shigufa fawj fawj va sahrd-nishmdn-i riydhin dasta dasta farmdn-bari-yi Sultdn-i Bahdr
*
rd ikhtiydr kardand.
dasht-i
Turkamdndn-i kuldg^-i pisa 8 mdnind i bddrlsa bi-firdz-i Qibchdq hdzir-yardq gashtand. Bard" l-'ajuz-i Day radd^l-'ajz-* 'ala
*
y
aZ'Zahrkarda bid-dnjd tdkht ki 'Arab nayza rdanddkht. Chdûshdn-i chakdvak* 1 6 vahazdr, dar rdsta- bdzdr-i bdgJi u gulzdr bd dvdz-i buland sald-yi khusJibash dar anddkht ki
.
"
Hamagdn-zm z'Irdn-safd Har ki z'ahl-i safd 'st khush bdshad."
The reader
'
is
at liberty to translate this rubbish.
(c)
(1)
Allied to the unintelligible, are the marvellous, the puerile, the
learned, the profound, etc. In Chapter 28 of Haji Bdbd,
when
the Shah visits the house of the

1
physician Mirza,
Ahmaq, the Malik" 'sh-Shu'ard* recites
" The firmament possesses but one sun, and the land of 'Iraq but one
king.
Life, light, joy
and prosperity, attend them both wherever they appear.

Minister of Nadir.
Name of the famous Prime

Bahman
is
two months before Naw-ruz.

Pisa
*
The Roys ton crow.
piebald.'
Bad-risa A-oj^b has apparently no meaning here.
It
however rhymes with A**J
pisa.
5
Chakavak c^â. a species of desert lark that sings both on the ground and
in the air.
For e/Wj>
T
)\'y*>
hazar dastan.
&I*o|^
is is
Rastorbazar ^(Jb rhymes with hazar but
the main street that runs straight through a city.
It
very unlike a bagh.

The doctor may boast
of his medicine; but what medicine glance from the king's eye ?
is is
657
equal to a
What
spikenard
what mumiyd*i 11
'
!
what pdd-zahr*? compared
to the twinkle of a royal eyelash
This
is
bad, but in the Persian translation occurs the following 3
Yak-i *st mihr-i munavvar sipihr-i gar dun rd Bi-din dalll ki yak Shah hast Iran rd *
;
Haydt u parvarish-i kd*indt u partav-i 'aysh Buvad mutt' u mutdbi' ham in u ham an rd
Bardy-i an ki rasad dast-i Mirzd

Bi-nabz,
Ahmaq
rd. 5
Haqq harakat bar-nihdd shirydn
Not quite so bad
is
the following from the Anvdr-i Suhayli
t5
-)U
6ar khdrd zadl az khashm dumbdl
shir-i
OAw
Fikandi
charkh az bim changdl :
Bar an
rdh-1 ki
u yakdam
nishasti
Ouzdr-i khalq id sdl-l bi-bastl.
(Anv. Suh., Chap.
I, St. 5.)
The mumiyaH of Eastern bazars is described as being the product of a mine, but it was formerly believed to be extracted from the skulls of living victims suspended head downwards over a fire. It is probably connected with and confused with bits
1
of
mummy anciently used in Europe in medicine.

2
The
bezoar-stone, obtained from the intestines of
some animals and considered
to
be an antidote to poison.
8
These
lines are said to survive in
Kashi, Malik* 'sh-Shu'araîn. the time of Fath 'AH Shah.

these Inves poetry, or whether he recited
his sleeve the while, is doubtful.
*
a book of poems by Fath 'All Kh5n-i aba-yi Whether the poet considered
them
in derision of his audience, laughing in
thore
6
is
line is to be translated first: as there is only one Shah, so by analogy only one sun and life, and all these depend both on the former and on the latter i.e. God made blood to flow in the arteries, solely that the physician Mirza Ahmaq
!
The second
might
feel the pulse.
The
'
tiger' of the story.
In the original palang, which means " leopard."
42
658
" When with

Heaven's
his
tail
he furious lashed the rock,

1
dropped his talons at the shock. And where he but for one short instant paused A long year's stoppage to that road he caused."
lion
(East Trans.).
" One form of (2) impropriety is the lack of sufficient precision. By 'precision,' it is understood that the words and phrases employed express
the writer's meaning, and nothing more." Lack of precision to be one of the characteristics of Persians and Persian writings.
may
be said
Haji Baba, replying to the questions of the Sardar as to the numbers and dispositions of the Russians 2 says: O~~JO l^V't Jt (JÂJ A^f - jl'tAî AJ
,
haft sad
yd hasht sad;
Dah
blst 3
ast; pansad, shash-sad, shdyad hazar; na du hazdr: aibatta blsh az inha mst. muntaha chihil yd panjdh, tup ddrand. khayti
Jja. dar sar-hadd,
Rus
kam
(d)
"Sentences should not be
extended
beyond
'
what seems
their
natural close."
To do so without some
special reason
is
to violate the
Rule of Suspence.'
The principle of suspence is so to write a sentence that the reader, until he comes to the full stop, feels the sentence to be incomplete. The violation of this rule is shewn in the following example: ^ p*> (&*>
"I putting (H. B. Chap. XI). on the saintly appearance of one whose prayers are ever answered, with the air of authority and a clergyman's voice demanded pen and paper although in my whole life I had never held pen in my hand."
. '
'
Sometimes however a violation

colloquial, as:
of
this
rule gives force, specially in
->^ d &f )* *^ 0*0^^ *^^#.j l^f )' an dar az dshna u Angah, diyar-i ghurbat, 3 y' p*>1 Higana u dust mahrum, va az dast-i ajrdz bi-bahra, amadam bar-sar-i mayamlik-i khud.R&ji Baba, Chap. IX. In Persian, the absence of punctuation makes such sentences particularly difficult.
0^9^31 ^ p^^\/o
Syt?
aA
cÛ.j
^^7*
Though the
rule
is
:
conduce to weakness
perhaps violated in the following, the violation does not c/i*^ <^fj +Xj*~J &j <y^j -*./ ^-b *^ jt
[
.
lye
ÂJ
e>f
(H. B. Chap. XL).

figura-
(e)
tive language
The strength and beauty of a sentence may be promoted by and the use of figures.
An
example of that variety of Hyperbole
A*JU;S oî,*
known
Chapter XL.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS IN RHETORIC.

144.
(a]
659
Examples of Errors
in Rhetoric.
In the sections on the Relative, on the Participle, and on Collocation, some instances of obscurity have been given. Those errors could, however,
be traced to a definite source.
The following
:
are instances
of incoherence,
either in expression or in thought

'
" The riches of the temple gradually disappeared but by whom or when is not known.' ( Read 'how or when' )." This error can hardly be repeated in Persian still in the following translation it would be better to
;
substitute j^> &*

o~~jji f^JU/o
chi tawr for *$
) A^la^yo
^ o^
who
k-y^
jf
bi-tavassat-i
p>
lei
8^ oo
eJ
**
kam
az
miydn
raft vali bi-tavassut-i ki
u va kay ma'lum
davlat
is
sarvat-i
j oJj^ but-kada Team
^^
nist?
"The
who
ki
philosophers
held that this world
naught but a creation of

belief of the philosophers
girifta
s
man's fancy ....

held that
(
their belief meant.

')."
(Read
ast,
The
Faylasufdn-i ki rdy-i
shdn bar in qarar

'aqida-yi shan
'
budaz
hama-yi in
dlam khwdb u Wiayal

is
ibarat ast
J^ j v ^ ^ t^
1
(This
correct in Persian, but better

f
%+*
^^
fan-iki ray-i shan bar in qarar girijta khayal ast ibarat bud az ).
'
(i^ aqida-yi faylasubud ki hama-yi in 'alam khwdb u

;Lr*
&
o
'
one cause of obscurity, while brevity is another. In the following English passages, the ambiguity is due to the ellipsis of four words at most
(b)
is
:
Great length
'Antony was not less desirous of destroying the conspirators than his .' officers, but he [Read than were his officers,' otherwise the meaning might " Fuldn khwahan-i 'than he was desirous of destroying his officers.'] be,
*
"
islisal-i
mufsidin kamtar az sdhib-manasibdn-ash na-bud
Jî^l cMi^L ^JU

31
y j^
i
e^ti
ss>.
mufsidin na-bud
(Read fuldn kamtar az sahibdn-ash khwahdn-i
&}*>*&* JlâxLot
^(A>^ ÛÛtf
+*
&&>).
despise the purse-proud man not one whit less than do ' ' the well-born and well-educated do is indispensable to avoid ambiguity." Faq\r hich kamtar az an ki najib u tarbiyat-ydfta mag&rur-i davlat rd haqir
'
"'The poor
mi-shumdrand, nami-shumdrad oJ^^
)>;**>
A^'^
îiP^ THi^
*^*' 3' -J***
ff^j^
Û^ ^^
on
in
it
;
xjU-i ^/o jxaa. \j is clear and can have but the one construction put but the following exhibits the same obscurity that would be found
\j
the English example were the word 'do' omitted:
Taken from Hodgson either directly or Or bi-tavassutri ki va dar chi vaqt

Or bud
j
indirectly.
660
EXAMPLES OF EREOES IN EHETOEIC.

faqir macfhrur-i davlat rd
kick
kamtar az najib u tarbiyat yafta haqir nami-shumdrad. Insert the affix ra after tarbiyat yafta *k\ ^+&j*, and ambiguity is removed, but the mean\) ing is not the meaning of the English.
"'The Persians rate him not less than Sa'di and Firdausi.' (Read than did Sa'di and Firdausi,' or else than they rate Sa'di and Firdausi ')." Irdnihd ura kamtar az Sa'di va Firdawsi dust nami-ddrand
' *
-J
t5>>**
Jt
is
ambiguous.
:
The two following however
are clear but with different meanings

ki Sa'di va
Iraniha ura kamtar dust nami-ddrand
Firdawsi ra
fj
^j^
^z**
sS jJy****
(
o**^
*$
\^\ lîtyt
liraniha ura kamtar dust nami-darand chunanki Sa di va Firdawsi ura dust
mi-darand
tl
^JjfAx/o
ow^
is
\)j\
^î
'
The
'
lecture
an able
'
ô*^ summary of the

and
otherwise
'
*&lia. sJ;t<3J^
^^^^l^ \^\
(^\^.\.
history of this remarkable man,
who
rose to the highest dignities,

'
deserves to be widely distributed.
[Insert
of
'
it
before
deserves
who
1*-
'
may seem
3
f
to be subject
"
deserves.']
)*
jlf***!
In
j
v^L^
**
s
^
^^^>
;UJo|
(Jsti-ô
i
^ ^ J &)** ^^^ ^ ^^ <3^ ^T ^ 8,^ ^^.3 AJU an nutq khulasa-yi

ki
kulliya-i
'st
az tarikh-i hal
in mard-i qabil
bi-maratib-i
'aliya
taraqqi
karda bud va mustahiqq-i intishar va ishtihar dar dunya 'st, the English error is of un nutq after j va, and the ambiguity repeated; but insert
J^
disappears.
spoke fifty languages.' [This reads as though the cardinal died babbling in fifty languages. Substitute, 'before his death was master of at least', etc., or something of the sort." 8 Mi-guyand Kardinal Fulan ki murd panjah zaban mi-danist c>& ek î^^
"'It
is
said,
when he
2 died, the Cardinal'
o*-J|tX>;/o cjb)
l.sîj
^yo &f
is
clear enough
but write o*Jtxxx ^Lj
2$lsoj ^1U'
J^ &fe
tr
panjah zaban mi-ddnist ki murd and the sense be that he died because he knew fifty languages. Better *>^j **ij^X might
**
Kardinal Fulan
',
9
(S*t>$6
vÂ-JfAyo
Ûj fclsoj Ût sj* panjah zaban mi-ddnist*

(c)
ml-guyand
vaqt-i ki
Kardinal murd aqallan
The construction that looks
to the implied sense rather than the
Read
<ijL
jlîAf
;lAxif lî^ ;^ A^
o^| j|^l>*o
is
Ûai
c^
^ va an nutq sazavar
ast ki
dar dunya intishar va ishtihar yabad.
It
necessary to repeat the word nutq
(3^
>
as the
pronoun an &\ can

*
3
refer to
animate beings as well as inanimate things.
Cardinal Mezzofanti.
Or mi-danista
ast
cu^t
&L~itJo.x>.
is
This construction, giving a double and ambiguous sense,

*
called
by the French
construction louche or
squinting construction.'

form,
1
661
in
which some part
of
speech not expressed has to be inferred
from the context, is comon in modern Persian.* " Our climate is mild and somewhat moist, and except when covered once in a year by snow, always presents a green surface.' [ The country
' '
'
is
ast va
Ab u havd-yi ma muldyim vd bdrutubat the implied subject to presents'].' sdl-l az a ki zir-i barf ast dar sd*ir-i awqat sabz va yak dap g&ayr
'
'
khurram mi-numayad 3 a*iiij ^L. y
j <*>] o^Jr) b j
JÛ
^fyk)
v.4
The tobacco monopoly was broken down in such and such a year and may be included among the benefits owed to the Mujtahids." Inhisdr-i tutun-jarushi dar sana-yi fuldn mawquf shud va mi-tavdn fahmid ki in yak-i az
' '
'
favafid-i' st ki az
mujtahidin rasida* ast
*<&
ow*| **Jt"j i^&f&auojt

'
^ o-o^tyjt ^j ^|
oyy
A*'
'
o^'
&
;a <j~jj* It
^yy
jl/axof
*xx+^ ^t^Js^j.
was not the

Insert
'
monopoly
^Lacsut v-ftA^j
but the breaking down thereof that was a tawqif-i inhisdr between in and yak-i.
benefit.'
"The weight of its skeleton [a whale's] was thirty-one tons and was afterwards exhibited in London and Paris." Vazn-i ustukhwdnhd~yi badan si va yak 'tan'-i Inglisi bud va dar Landan va Paris bardy-i tamdshd bi-mardum
nishdn ddda
^**^
js^fi cJ 1
mi-shud o<i^ )* j
1
(*^-*J
^^ csi^ u^; ^ J
Har
tj~A&\
(
"(^''
-^ j
**>
c^J
c>f
tA*0**l
ojj
A(id tne words l^îoL,|
an ustukhwan
ha before dar Landan ^^;^ ). " They both speak a little Persian though
left
6
it
(Persia)."
ten years since they du-yi ishdn* qadr-i Fdrsi mi-tavdnand harf bi-zanand
it is
<*ii(jixxj
bd-vujud-i ki dah sal pish az in az dnjd raftand

txlii;
^*>U
^^ u^t ^^^
Uof)|
crtj}! 3*
'
v\
y (J^ J^
*^!^w^
ik
M>? vJja..
Instead of ^fjt 02 aw ;a,
write
az /raw.
" In Great Britain and Ireland there are more females than males, and
in
France the excess of
women
'
is still
greater
but in Spain nearly equal and

'
sSmainomenon with reference to the meaning or the kata sunSsIn according to the sense. They were, in Greek and Latin, recognised as rhetorical devices to be used sparingly. They are incorrect in English. 2 " The guilelessness of his own heart led him to suspect none in others.' (' Guile,' ^ Read 'no guile')." Vide not guilelessness is the intended antecedent of 'none'.
1
Pros
'
to
'
'
'
Note
is
5.
Tt
^.jx/cj
zamin before
Jt^Jjtf
<jhayr az.
If
however zamin be omitted, there

a time of scarcity (and then
selling
according to Persian ideas not

*
an actual mistake.
hoarding up grain
'
Or
rasld.
Ihtikar
:
^^\
is
till
it
at a high price)
5
it
does not
mean monopoly.'
this construction correct as it is admissible in * u i'dilu huva
Modern Persians consider

of
Arabic on
'
the
authority
the
Quran:
aqrdb
li't-taqvy
" be just; (Quran) 6 Better &
it (i.e. justice) is
the nearest (thing) to piety."
J'
ls
han har du.
662

'
in the United States an excess of males'

It
is',
[ i.e.
the excess
is
nearly equal.'
should
etc.]."
be,
'the numbers are nearly equal, and in the U.S. there Dar Landan zan bish az mard ast va dar Frdnsa kasrat-i zan
1
az in
ham
an bardbarast va dar ziydd-tar ast valikin dar Ispdniyd taqrib
kasrat-i
mard
ast
j* &
Corrected:
Landan zan
ttkin
mard ast va dar Frdnsa zan az dnjd ham bishtar ast va dar Ispdniyd zan u mard taqrib an musdvi st vadar Itdzuni kasrat-i mard
bish az
9
"
It [the
?
sense could
is
Edinburgh Review] could agree with nobody. Whatman of [He speaks of parties in the Church strife agree with anybody
*
'
required in the last sentence.]

shakhs-i
"
An
ruz-ndma bd hich yak-i shdn durust naml-
dmad-kuddm
4<
'dqil mi-tavdnist
vT
Muhammad Hasan who was

in that
a friend of mine was a Kermani by birth

1$* i^-*)
3'
and was educated

i^>
town" Jp*jf ty
t&
*Z er^-
-'
*i*U 6Jp
î
c>f )* *t [y3 ^-H
Kirmdnl bud
1, 2,
zirdlci
Muhammad Hasan kiyak-% az rufaqd-yi man bud dar an shahr lavallud ydfta bud. Vide p. 661, foot-notes
fti j\
and
5.
A somewhat
khud-at
similar error occurs in *-**> j
(*^*^ ^
(**/
;^
cJ^*^
e>^ *^T {/ <^*>^ tamalluq-i bisydr
kardam
'
va pursidam ki az
'
ndm u
nasab-i
mard dgdh kun: pursidan is to ask and not 'to say,' and should be followed by a question. " His name is among the most distinguished of painters" ism-i u dar
'st
miydn-i musavvinn-i mashhur-i dunyd

Insert
owÛia
)^- &)yA*
Û*
oî
>\
9
f*!
^^
sabt before os~t ast,

bi-lashkar-i
and ^yoUf
'asdm/i-yi' after
'miydn-i.
"
Agarchi
pddshdhi ki bd-karrdt u marrdt bar sar-i

,
man
firistdd,
l^f
muqdvamat na-tavdnistam
c-xjlfix)
ammd o^y j
*$ c*iy ^
ÂU^b^sHI* *^/f
^fyi my sacred
of the
.ilLoy
tl
yo
y^j
(H. B. Tr. Chap. XI)
character was not proof against the attacks
" " -and although made upon it by the
Here the subject of firistdd is pddshdh, understood from the adjective pddshdhl\ read firistdda shud or firistddand, or else mention
Shah, yet
.'
arms
'
the subject of firistdd in the relative clause. "The name of our present cook is
when he
*
likes."
Ism-i dsh paz-i
Muhammad and a very good one & md Muhammad ast, va khayti hdliyya-yi
Geography
French
is
not taught in Persia.

apparently for awqatri haliyya.
2
*
ttats Unis.
fern.,
Haliyya,

khub
663
I*
ham
..k
hast agar bi-khipdhad khub bi-pazad (J^^- j
^~l **^-
dJU^ja^T
***[
y# v
îjiu^f oûA Â
v^.
modern
Persian, though incorrect
This might not be considered incorrect in it is, since 'he' is understood in Persian
*st.
as the subject to hast: write ow~x)^jAf ^JuA. j va khayli dshpaz-i khub-i
" 'Amen!
'
said Yeo,
it
and many an honest
voice joined in that

'
honest
compact, and kept
too like
'
men?
'
Kingsley, Westward Ho!

%
'
(Ed. 1879,
" Guft dmin va bisydr saddhd-yi digar niz bd u ma' Chap. XXV, p. 401)." shudand va 'ahd-i Ichud rd bi-pdydn rasdnidand j&.& ÂI^ ; U~j
^JixoU|
,jljlj
AJ
\)
zjsL
j ^xi*^
j|
Ojjj
insert after
'
va
sdhibdn-i sadd.
(d)
jsjjsA>iJo-
Bi
vdsita-yi
A^.2:
& l^-^ vJ^ j^
uldghhd va chd^-pdydn va asphd ki shayha mi-kashidand " on account of the asses and other -5 ^*JIT ^î>?
all of
animals, and the horses,
which were neighing
"
;
here JJAX&CA/O
all
dÂ
the
shayha mi-kashtdand does not refer to l^f asphd alone, but to animals this is not considered incorrect in Persian.
:
Zeugma
a
is
a figure in
grammar
in
which two
nouns are joined to
verb or to an adjective suitable to one only, the missing verb or In English, Zeugma is usually a blunder. adjective being suggested. " Instances of in Persian seem rare. are:
scenes or incidents
other travellers.'
vi*#
jtj
fj
'
Zeugma Many Examples which are graphically narrated, are told as well, or better, by [One cannot narrate a scene]." Compare >*>i ) ^>j^
tjL.
^ u s^jli ) shahrhd va dida u shuriida-hd-yi khud rd bdz guft.
accounted, handsomely enough, for the delay by saying that my long absence, and the recent loss in my family, prevented him from applying to me immediately on my return.' [This holds good of the second
reason but hardly of the first],"
fawt-i
"
He
U ma
*U
zarat khwdst ki ghvybat-i

f
shumd va
'
pidar-am mdni
-i
in
shud ki bi-mujarrad-i murdja

^jf
at-i
jandb-i
dti
bi-khidmat
bi-rasam *f
*&
However
in,
" " The bees and birds sang sweetly
'
(for
the bees
hummed
and the birds sang sweetly'), the Zeugma is hardly a blunder; it is a metaphor. 'Sang in gladness,' however, would be better than 'sang sweetly.' This may be called ^Jlapux jlxui
are a source of error. Amongst negatives (?) Too many negatives must be included such words as scarcely,' seldom,' 'few,' etc.
' '
He thought the wealth and honours of this world poor compensation for a quiet conscience and a healty frame.' [It should be, compensation for the
'
'
want
of
'
etc.]."
In,
Compare
last
example
in (c).
664
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
l
IN RHETORIC.
arza-yi pddishdh ra qabul na-kard
chunki
kam-i bardyî drdmi-yi zamir va *jJu !y read quvva-yi bunya pinddsht, Îjf f*> ^t/* bardy-i adam-i pte zamir va 'adam-i or else after tj Ui,> dunya ra, write drdmi-yi quvva-yi bunya;
izzat
davlat-i
dunya ra
jazd-yi
u^
]
'
*t*^ c?^
csite-
**V
M
'
.J
j* 4
"*
L^Ljf
(o^ or)
knew
A?
cux-J nisbat
bi-
(or
iwaz-i)
drdmi-yi zamir va quvva-yi bunya jaza-yi kam-i
pinddsht.
"
[This
'
'
-Few; of his friends, except

'
myself,
of his being in the
is like
' ;
saying,
'
have
little
money except a penny.'
For
'
kingdom.' few read

'
'
" and Ghayraz y j& means except 'aldva bary jUc means "besides," and the English error is reproduced in:
none
or for except,'
besides ']."
'
afo-Jfdjj/o J^\AMJ y (s^$ or) JCfik (^ycjt^ ghayr azman mushltil (or kamtar) or *f aiwifa** iJ^&j y kas-iazdustan-ash mi-danist % ki (&yj*?gh<**yr az man kam-l az rufaqd-yash mi-ddnistand ki however owing to the slovenly
(^
^^
sider either of the
ghayr and JJ^^c 'aldva, few Persians would conexamples faulty. Corrected: e>* j! (JÛ*^ Jt f\*f ^XA none of htch kuddm az dustan-ash ghayr az man nami-ddnist* ki ô^J(^jj4J
use in
of
modern Persian
'
except myself knew ." The foregoing examples are partly right and partly wrong. The fol" The ôwing are wholly wrong unwary traveller stumbles to rise no more.' falls' must after be inserted ['And 'stumbles,' stumbling, neither being
his friends
(/)
' :
possible to one
on the ground, nor necessarily implying a fall.] Agar musdfir az ruy-i gJyaflat dardn part-gah sikandari bi-khurad hargiz na khwahad bar khtist ^j*> j>j^*J ^}*& tfe^J ^1;^ oifi^ ^^ )\ yUxsî
lies
who
"
o^lA.^j
*'
f
jjAiîu.
Insert
**# ^ va
is
biyuftad, after d>ynj <>sj*&* sikandan bi-khurad.

exception, is one of the best transport ships
' '
The 'Queen,' without

[This
afloat.'
phrase
unmeaning, as the
Queen
is
said to be not
the best,
but one of the best, etc.]." Compare
^^*l &\jti
billd istisnd
<Û^ &ij*js**j\ ^. \&**\ mudabbir-tarin-i hukamd-yi Iran ast (m.c.)yak-laz

sight
& j\
8>
"The
surat-hd-yi
sad
faces
and joyous music formed an incongruous
ghjimgin-i ndzirdn va musiqi-yi tarab-angiz-i mutribdn tamdsha*-i

vifq na-ddsht isiUjia* >*îf
bud
ki
bdham
^.AU
o~f*J gij
*f
^j ^lÛ*.
In m.c. c>^/
^^ tamdshd kardan and
v^ L^*^
5
-5
^Lr *^ ^-J^*^ t^Vjtr

1
&*** didan
are frequently used in the sense of hearing, as: fuldn kas dvdz mi-khwdnad, biydyld biravim tamdshd kunim, bi-bimm chi tawr mi-khwdnad 3bf \j^ o^
^JîujXj^ AA. ^jJijj <Ju +*JS (\+> ffl)}* ^Lxj aJlîuj/o (m.C.). " 'The occurrence, it was said at the banquet, was a thing
'
unprece-
Or better ^J^j
,*<*.
chiz-i pasl-1.
2
3
In modern Persian the plural 0>xLJ|^jj/o ml-danistand is often (incorrectly) used. This is not exactly Zeugma, vide* (d), as the error lies in a noun, and not in an
'
adjective or verb.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
665
;
dented in the history of Scotland.' We have no doubt of it and we trust it will always remain so.' Times, 23rd October 1866." In vdqi'a dar tavdrikh-i Askdtland bi-sdbiqa ast va ummid ddrlm lei hamisha chunln bdshad (orkhwdhad
mdnd)
"
<i^lj
(j-via.
).
&.>-**
&
*j)\& *4*t
^^
*ajU
^ <xxlJ&f ^tyâ **Jfj

'
(*wU ^k[^ or
season more favourable for roses can scarcely be imagined, certainly 9 never has been surpassed. [For has been surpassed read 'has occurred.' It
*
is
nonsense to say
'
more favourable season has never been surpassed.'] "
Fasl-i bardy-i gulhd mufldtar az in fast tasavvur nami-tavdn Tcdrd va yaqinan
hich vaqtbihtar
o**t
*
ham na-buda
ast
&f &\&\)y&
cLo* ^jf
&Jix>
1^1?
^f^j
^^JLoJ
i>A>
p* jfy oJj ^xA
^ lixaj
j (correct).
to applause but I do not think not likely that a Kirmani audience would be
The dance roused the Kirmani audience

in London.'
[It is
it
would do so
to
applause in England. people do not listen to a dance.'] an ddsht ki shdbdsh bi-guyand vali
roused
substitute spectators Raqs-i u tamdshdchiydn-i Kirmani rd bar guman namlkunam dar Landan in tawr
:
For
'
audience
'
bdshad.
(Say cxup jjty( &**) Ûa-UUS tamdshdchiydn-i Landan in tawr
bi-kunand).
metaphor is an implied simile and unless an intelligible simile can be evolved from the metaphor, the metaphor is false. In the writings of even good Persian authors, metaphors abound that
(g)
(1)
are absurd, strained, false, or confused.
Study the following:
Surat-i
u jdma-yi majd u sa ddat rd

(
tardz
Ma'ni-yi u khdtim-i
iqbdl-i dawlat rd nigln
'Ariz-i rangin-i ash'dr-ash
hama ghanj u fanb
Turra-yi mushkin-i alfdz-ash sar-d-sar tab u chin Az kaldm-i kdmil-ash anvdr-i dZnisli shu'la-zan
East chun asrdr-i 'ilmaz sina-yiahl-iyaqin.(Anv. Suh.,Pret'.).
"
Its
[ fringe-like to the robe of joy and happiness, Its sense the gem that decks the ring of fortune and success
form
is
While from
its
verses' tinted cheek love's wiles
and witchcrafts
seem."
beam,
Its diction's labyrinthine curls' like
musky
ringlets
(East. Trans.)
The form
of the
book
is
like the fringe of the robe of happiness.'
666

Dil agar khdna bi-sdzad bi-sar-i zulf-i lusdzad
j>jL
y cJ
it
(Trans. Hajl Baba; Intro. Epis.) would build it upon thy locks.'
" were
'
my
heart able to build a dwelling,
" 'The passions may be humoured till they become our master, as a horse may be pampered till he gets the better of his rider; but early discipline will prevent mutiny, and keep the helm in the hands of reason.' [The metaphor, if not actually mixed, is here too abruptly changed.]" Tan dddan bi-nafs-i ammcira bd'is-i <jh,alaba-yi an khw^had shud- chundnki
asp rd agar bisydr tavajjuh va navdzish kunand digar savdri na-khwdhad dad va sar-kashi khwdhad kard ammd ajar az avval nafs va asp ra jalaw-girl va
;
lafdib
tarbiyat
numdyand az zahmat-i
'aql
sar-kashi-yi
dnha rihd^l miydband va
sukkdn-i har du dar dast-i
mi-mdnad
'^'
*
ôr
c>
^*
1
sukkdn " helm

]
' '
,
read
rein].
"'One
of usefulness
of
the sources from which has sprung that abundant harvest
which he has
of his native land.'
seed, not crop]."
through the length and breadth broad cast, which applies to [ I, Source; 2, harvest; 3, In asl yak-l az sar-chashma-hd^-i ki az an-hd hdsil-i vdfir-i
scattered broad-cast
mufi&i
ki
u dar
'arz
tul-i
zdd u bum-i
^j>j
khud pdshida sar zada
ast
jt
^
1
J^fc
j]
&f (^Â/o
y^ JÛ
ô
L>t
l^jf Jl
;
aSxSlf+ia.
[For Ifit) az awM, read l^f ilw^- bi-vdsita-yi dnha 8 pdshida, read Ai^l^ âsîaj.
j>}.
and
for
H-*b
"
We
see
how
difficult it is
puts upon her child.
"
to eradicate the stamp which the

ki istisdl-i
mother
cU>o
Azin masal mi-bimm
manqush-i ki madar
bar farzand-i khud mi-numdyad chi qadr mushkil ast Jlî^t *^

vs*t JC^'Ojti.fta. AjUi ^x> jî. jjjjy ^>
+HM ^c
Jl^JUi
^31
^Û *xj5i/o.
[Instead of
istisdl,
read
c<^^j-3ixx)
mahv
kardan].
The following, an instance of confusion of metaphors, is not considered U^ o-a^x5 ^.îj, * j*3 ^*i* ^j >^ J *^^l inelegant in modern Persian: ddman-i marhamat-i shumd chun abr sdya afkand va musmir-i samar shud. '
f
o^
In a work on Persian Grammar, occurs this sentence,
'This glare of
The word sukkan '^helm"

'
ever seen a ship.
word
*
8
ff)
is not generally known to Persians as few of them have " (Sukkan is also the Ar. pi. of sakin dweller.") The Anglo-Indian sea-cunny is a corruption of sukkam. zad-bum. j Mj zad u bum, m.c. for
fj
*\j
Bi-vasitfi-yi in
is
sar-chashma
fyasil
ra kashta
am
considered correct Persian.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
anger was evident in
his postures
IN RHETORIC.
667
dsdr-i
khashm dar harakdt wa sukandt
ashpaidd dmad." The English and Persian are equally objectionable. " Akin to confusion of metaphors, are incongruities of speech and (2) A medical student, when asked what progress he had made 'Irish Bulls.'
in medicine, replied,
for I think
I'
'
hope
I shall
am now able to cure a
child.
soon be fully qualified to be a physician,' Gufl ummidvdr-am ki hamin zudihd

' '
duktur-i
kdmil-i
bi-shavam zirdki hdl mi-tavdnam atjdl rd mu'dluja
kunam
In Mirza Hairat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia occurs an intricate passage to the following effect Just when the key of
' :
victory was in his hand, one of those extraordinary events ..... snatched the tempting morsel from his lips.' This confusion of metaphors is not considered inelegant by Persians.
This
is
scarcely so ludicrous, as
British lion walking
dium
of
an
"We shall never rest until we see the hand in hand with the floodgates of democracy. (Exor2 English Politician)."' Compare the following: *ty^ Jl
:
(H. B., Chap.
XXIV).
is
(h)
Confusion as to the logical subject of discourse
another source of
error.
'"Much
'
cause too have you for thankfulness on account of the
many
temptations from which you are preserved.' of your preservation from many temptations.'
'*
[The true construction is, The relative clause is here
inseparable]." khayli shukr-i
Az a'mal-i qabiha-yi shahr ki shuma mahjuzml-manid bayad Khuda ra bi-jd dvand xL? *xiU ^x> î./o U^ Aî ÂXJ JU^t Jt
oj^f (su
[Read Jt oXlfi^ â.^^ bi-mahz-i hifdzat az\ t; t*i.y^> ^^. " 'The skirt of her .' dress, which was on fire, was put out by Mrs. [Read the fire which had caught the shirt of her dress, etc.' ']. Daman-i qabd,
yiura, ki atashgiti/ta bud, khdmush kardand(J*j*te>- ^y A^j^^jiJt **\)$ o^* c^ ^ In Persian this is said to be no mistake, as daman is considered >sj$ z 'the use of the tp be a Jla. ^-t Jlacvxi jUiô majaz-i mahall bi-ism-i hdl
'.
place for what
is
in
it.'
This Persian sentence has been submitted to the judgment of many Persians, whom prided themselves on their proficiency in Arabic. All of them failed to see the incongruity, even when it was
several of
carefully explained.
"All along the untrodden path of the future we can see the hidden footprints of an unseen hand." A Eurasian father was heard to say to his son " You have buttered your bread and now you must lie on it." 8 Example ^ ^fÛ navdan jarl shud "the gutter in the roof began to
bull is:
:
Another
^^
flow,"
i.e.
the water flowed.
668
143 (6), force and point are derived from (1) (I) As already stated in the skilful use of the same word in different senses. 1 Persians are fond of
this figure.
(Tr.
Example:
<^^
ai&x? clap 31
'
**Jj>
*}&# J*J j&

' '
\)
in
is
H. B., Chap. XXXVII), " (when she came to her senses) and saw herself the arms of a stranger she became greatly upset this use of bigdna 3 Rakht-i khwdb na-ddshtan zahmat-i na-ddsht 3 Tajnis-i tarn |*U ^ôiso.
:
^^
<>>*-
^M^J+^j 8^,^ v ,^
Remark.
(i)
'
^^
(Trans. H. B. p. ra).
The
unskilful use of the
same word
in the
same sentence
with different meanings, or (ii) as different parts of speech, is an awkwardness to be carefully avoided in English.' Examples: (i) 'The terrible War of Succession had now arrived at such a point that the royal authority
seemed on the point of being destroyed.' better filled than the half-guinea, and not a
adverb and adjective in the same sentence.)
(2)
is
(ii)
'The guinea places were

1
jot, better.
('Better' used as
But the
repetition of the
same meaning
in slightly different
words
a fault even worse than the repetition of the same word. To say the same thing twice over in different ways in the same context, or to repeat unnecessarily the same word several times (that is the useless repetition
of the
same
thing), is Tautology*
if
-xwf^^).
In Persian,
Persian ear,
(
it is
tautology adds to the jingling sound or is pleasing to the considered a branch of Ornament. Examples of tautology
&* J** *)
1
are
"By
j.xU *j
ruy-i
the
Portuguese law, every person

/oli
is
legally obliged to join the
battalions arranged in defence of the country."

i-k*
Compare
&*&
erf^jf
vg?JlJ )&
hukm-ndma
bl*> dar qdnun-i Iran hama-yi ra'dyd bdyad az 31 muti'-i shar* bdshand.
<5jb
*at ^j)
"In
*&
'
indelible source of discord."

ot/J
was superadded a still more fatal and u>*J ^y <J*>y^ ^tâj j> j&c Compare &*> aldva bar nuqsdn-i tijdrat-ash fawt-i pidar-ash ham mazld bar an shud.
addition to these, there
"He always communicated his directions with clearness

concise terms, yet without obscurity'"
and
in the
most
J+*J| jy**,} &*A ; ^Lola.b ^ lûilj f; ' u Tchud rd vdzih an ra amal-i 'ldastur &J&* hama-yi y*l*3 Aa.yfc ^\ bi-ikhtisdr-i harchi tamdmtar bi-dun-i 6 ibhdm baydn mi-kard.
^^
^x*
^lo
(j)
It
dancy.
not always easy to distinguish between Tautology and Redun" the reason In, why Socrates was condemned to death was on account
is
*
3
The Figure Place or Antanaclasis. Did and gardld is Tajnls-i za*id.

Tajnis-i ishtiqaq.
*
&
For the three kinds
of
Hashv
or
'
'
stuffing
in Persian, vide
142 Rhetoric.
bidun-i ibhain is f*Lj| cJj^J
^-joJi
â. hashv-i qablh.

of his unpopularity," the error is
669
due to thoughtlessness, and would be Redun* ' than rather dancy Tautology. [Delete either on account of or the reason why and the second was']." Compare p&c ^b jt _j| J1S ^ty^' JLef C*S **+*) dar asl jihat-i fatvd-yi qatl-i u az bdb -i adam-i rizdyat-i
< '
*
&
o^
'
mardum
bud.
'
English redundancies sanctioned by good usage are, from hence ', from ' thence In modern Persian a preposition is as a rule prefixed from whence.
* * ' ,
to the adverbs injd {***),
and dnjd Uof, while some prepositions are now
dom
used singly as, az bardy

is fe~jl>e jZ*A>.
^j
A+A
jf,
bi-cfcayr,
sel-
bi-juzjxu.
This redun-
dancy
Emphasis sometimes assumes the appearance

without exception" Ulut
of
;
redundancy, as: "all
&
hama
bi-ld istisnd
" not one
single
man
of
you" U&jt
no-yak nafar-i vdhid az shumd\ "there is none " hich kas nlkukdr mst that doeth good, no not one yak-l ham na #& i Pleonasm is -xlx^-i^. This o*~^ }X)# p& ^j not be introduced without cause. Write (k) A new construction should " " or "on or on horseback ", but not "on foot or or foot walking riding
*.\jjSi>
.JL>
AJ
riding."
Compare:
darvish
khud
riiz
dar taqaddus-jarushi
va
zdhir-sdzi az qabil-i bi-zamin nigaristan, dh-i sard kashidan, va blhuda labjumbdm, va sukut-i sdkhta, va tursh-ru*i, va kaj-khulqi, va bi-mazagi, va pdrsd*i
bi-gard-am nami-rasid.
(Trans. "HajiBaba," Chap. 45) "No face wore a more mortified appearance than mine: even the dervish, who was the best mimic possible, could not beat me in the downcast eye, the hypocritical man of ejaculations, the affected taciturnity of the sour, proud, and bigoted
the law."
Compare
also the Figure Saji'-i Mutavdzin,
cJJL***
C^-" 'vide'
'/Zm
'l-Adab, Vol. I, Beyrout edition 1902, p. 150.

of subject in:
Note the change
*-*&*)& $3 j
Û <^^ )& ^
e>ljf
***.
Substitute
is
modern Persian, but is The detectives were baffled by the many complicaIn the following would not have tions, and had it not been for outside help, the murders been solved to this day", though there is no actual fault, the change
in
' '
:
common
Such a change of subject to be condemned.

teli^'.
of subject is unnecessary
and the
style therefore loose

;
(âx>c).
Detectives
'
should be the subject throughout also the co-ordination is slovenly. Reconstructed: "The Detectives were so baffled by the many complications that
had
they not obtained outside help, they
would not
have".
(Tr.
Compare: H. B.
In Persian Hashv-i qablh, but in English Redundancy..
670
Chap.
XXXII,
*j+>
p. 259)
the subject to
oj
1
girift
is
^j>
Farangi, but the
subject to
(1)
bi-murd
is
Â^ nasaqchi.
may
life
(1)
An
"
'
Antithesis
2
be faulty or
it
may
be incomplete.
An
antithesis
is
faulty
" when the balanced terms present no actual contrast."

attest his familiarity with the least,
'
Example
c
His speeches in after

'
as well as with the best, read
Roman
rd. B
'
writers.'
Least
'
'
requires
t
most
',
as
best
'
would require worst

'
*
']."
rji
mi-nigdrim va shumd zdhir

zafo'r
jAlt
requires
(j^lj
;
bdtin
jl|
Compare f^ j*Uo U*j (**/&** [' Darun ^^ requires birun cv- J ano eS/f JS* y ^ ]. îlJ Jix> ^xj maw misl-i insdn'
'
U m d darun ; ^,^
9 >
am
va u misl-i ulagh
for
ii?a^ read
v^l^p- hayvdri].
An
antithesis is incomplete*
"when much
of its possible effect
is
lost
through non-preservation of consonance of the terminations," i.e. when it "'The idea which under.' is unbalanced ( &$*> #* ghayr-i mutavdzin).
lies
most
of his plays is
temptations.'
[This should be
a struggle of virtue assailed by external or inward 'outward or inward', or 'external or
internal.']"
6 (m) (1) Climax (a ladder) "is
an ascending scale",
is
i.e.
a rhetorical
arrangement of clauses in which there

' '
a graduated increase in emphasis.

;
We glory in tribulations also,

;
patience experience
and
knowing that tribulation worketh patience and ' experience hope and hope maketh not ashamed
'
;
(Rom.
v. 3,
\)j** o~jjj-a/o Ar^jJiaux
A>^-
ÂixA)ysx* Â lfUÂ<op
*L
lîj
^&
^^l ^ 1;^*' ^laslxi^ |j ^jlaaJxj) ^f^ j AXÂ>O t^jj va na tanhd balki dar musibathd ham fakhr mi-kumm chunki mi-ddnim ki musibat sabr rd paydd mi-kunad vd sabr imtihdn rd va imtihdn ummld rd va ummid
*>"* C5*^
^c)^-*/"* ^**^
bd*is-i
sharmsdri naml-shavad?
Halnb-i
man qamar
lust
ast balki
shams (j**^ A^J ow.|
^J ô
(
>-*&*.
(Example
in Arabic Gram.).
it is
hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin: and sin, when " finished, bringeth forth death (James i. 15) U? *x& ^-jf &^ ^j^j &S ^x> ^Jy i; d>j./o JJAA^; flsutj U? j ^^^ L> pas shahvat dbistan shuda gundh rd mi-zdyad va gundh bi-anjdm rasida mawt rd taulid mi-kunad. 6
opposed to Climax and is, unless used for a special purpose, a fault in style; it consists in an abrupt descent from stronger b to weaker expressions. Examples: J-o b
(2)
"Then when
Anti 7 -climax
is
Both in English and

2
3
4J blchara nasaqchi, or in m.c. ^^.a-J in Urdu such a change of subject is bad.
l^f^
bl-chara-yi nasaqchi.
Faulty Antithesis might be called

Tazadd-i: g-a&Â
_xA5 ÛaJ.
ûu
*
6 6
7
No
Incomplete Antithesis might be called regular name in Persian but taraqql or Trans, revised by Rev. R. Bruce, D.D. TanazzwZ or inhifM coined term.
;
iadri;
might be coined
for this.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
671
shumd shakhs-i buzurg-i hastid, ba 'Urn, ba fazl, p* o*f) art** ^ ba tadayyun rags ham khub mi-kunid j&> ^Jo (J>\ ^ ^lix^lli 9 ^)\? ;> jt u dar savarl va shikar va munshi-gari va dsh-pazi nazir na-ddrad:
;
:
)* *'
/VH*
&^
i^l
j^
AJ"
i*J
**"'
V>^
js^
c$*"^ c$k
^ o.x5jj^t^L
|j
^c***
V U' U
id
?
j^
îiiîj
cu~.xi
;
jyo
shumd
kitdb-i Sa'di rd
khwdnda
khayll khub ast bi-nazir ast gumdn mi-baram ki dar Kirmdn dah mard mst ki bi-tavdnand %n jur kitdb bi-nawsand (m.c.).
He was eminently truthful in all things. I do not believe he would have told a falsehood, even on his oath '" /*j>j^ ??-*-* Ouw0 * A >* ^^ ) &*** j\ *J.j- ^vsj^ *y^ c$)~> )* ^y^ &f ^*+> u hamisha rdst-gu buda ast va hich
*'
'
'
'
M<<
bdvar-am nami-shavad ki hatta dar sawgand-i khud
riiz
darugh-l bi-guyad.
"'Where
'
is
the
is
man
if
or minister either
who has
not read
Guy Man'
nering ? [This a minister.'] "

(or
as
a minister were not a man.
It should
be
man, even
Kuja
ast
an ddam yd mullah
ki in kitdb rd na- khwdnda ast
bdshad) ? (<vb or) cu^l >>tîo ^ V U' ^Jt &&&A Ij^^f ^f o*i l.f. This should be kujd ast an ddam ki in kitdb rd na-khwdnda ast agarchi mulld ham
bdshad
" to introduce a violation of the " Rule of Suspence unexpectedof a short and some end clause the at sentence, long unemphatic (unless ly, such a clause is purposely so introduced for the sake of effect). In, ji
(n) It is
(Tr.
H. B. Chap. XXIII), the sentence

ill-constructed
)
*
logically
ends at
(o)
tf kunam.
It
is
an
lj
loose sentence.'
Coherence
A^t
(
^)
is
).
partly a matter of Syntax
j-*u
and
partly a matter of Logic
(jj^v
Avoid
illogical
compound
sentences.
complex sentence must have
one main part, and that part must be expressed as the main clause. The folio wing therefore are both illogical: (i) "Avoid danger. Keep your seats
till
the car stops

(ii)
and
*<j^ *i~^ " Avoid danger and keep your seats
"
^ C5^ ^ ^'^
till
*~**
vt
the car stops
"
"This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness." Corrected: " and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us, not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence and frugality." * The same illogicalness exists in the Urdu
^
An
English
example of
this
error is:
(i)
(ii)
^ ez&^ji *t^
Sr^
*&
^^
f*^
j
b,
**
^ "^ ^
672

The sentence should
logically be:
"To
Al~J
till
the car stops
" CJK tf
^^
15
<Jb\*
^ ^(+ j ^ y
avoid danger, keep your seats
Connecting, by the co-ordinating conjunction and, two statements that not Other are co-ordinate, is one common instance of incoherence (Jalujt^&e )
.
reasons of
reference
phrases
of unity and lack of coherence are, undue ellipsis, the faulty pronouns, and the faulty placing of qualifying words and &&*> ). Note the ambiguity in: <j:>i*
want
of
Reconstructed as follows there

,
is
no ambiguity
In Urdu
>&*
^^
Study
*/
^^^
and Urdu sentences:
also the following English
(a) Illogical:
"
I turned to reply,
\y
when
the platform on which I was standing gave
way with a crash"

IJJ
&Xjt LT^ t/^- V^ LH^ *t^

is
& ^^
will
vt?"^
&*
*.
Â^
Lg-3.
This sentence
is
logically upside
down, both
versa.
in English
and Urdu:
the main thought

position
expressed as subordinate and

'
vice,
means
then and then only and stands for tab
^.jJ.
In Urdu 706 y^y in such a If ki i be substituted

be correct
(as it
for jab -*^, it will denote simultaneous action
and the Urdu idiom

IgJ
would be
in Persian)
though the Pluperfect phera tha
instead of the Preterite, f^j^j
would be more idiomatic.

(6)
Logical:
"
When
I turned to reply, the platform on
which I was standing gave
way
with a crash" fjT
^/o ^j
^^
jy^to.
f^j
&^S>
jJ
J^ vt^ L
&**>
(c)
If
you
write,
"When
9
a crash, I turned to reply " vj|^. L. ()* (V

UA-^J
the platform on which I was standing gave
way with
*^
midst of
/&
fi
^3uJ
^ &&
C^*
X3
&
tj0
(j*"
A ^9^-
the idea
is
that the writer remained
unmoved
in the
the crash.
2
f*^'
or
*H^*-*.
THE END.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
PART
I.
I.
ACCIDENCE.
. .
.
II.
III.
Arabic Forms and Measures On the Stems of the Verb, etc. . The Fourteen 'Conjugations' (Stems, Participles, and
.
.
Page 677 682

685 696 698 699
Infinitives)
IV. V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Quadriliteral Verbs
Irregular and Weak Verbs Indeclinable Verbs
.
Verbal Nouns of Action formed with
&**J\ jjiUJf
* *
.
700
.
IX. X.
XI.
Noun of Time and Place Noun of Instrument

Other Verbal Nouns
701
703 704
705
S^/o
The Noun
(o!iJt
p[* Concrete Noun)

.
XII. XIII.
Noun of Unity Some Forms of Nouns
derived from Verbs
706 706
708
XIV.
Verbal Adjectives, Degrees of Comparison,

Intensive Adjective or Intensive Agent
etc.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
(&JWJ J^lM*~t). 712

its
. .
The Relative (Denominative) Adjective, and Noun and Collective Plural ,

.
.
Abstract
.
714 718
The
<>**' O Diminutive (j**^#\ ft
XIX.
XX.
XXI. XXII. XXIII.
.. .. .. Gender .. Formation of the Feminine from the Masculine Note on final * Declension of Nouns, and Regular Plurals
.
.
..720
.
.
723 724 726
Diptotes
..
..
..
..732
of
Broken, Inner, or Irregular Plurals, and Plurals and Multitude

.
Paucity
. .
734
'
<,*
9o
" <*'<
and Class Nouns {&*)) a*i) 745
746
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns (&*J\
-l),
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
Conjugation of the Simple Regular Triliteral Verb, Active and Passive (Tenses and Moods)
.
.
Pronouns
..
..
..
..
..750
.
Numerals
^\
of
p\
Cardinals
..
759
The Ordinals..
Other Classes
of the
..
.
..
.
-.763
.
.
XXIX.
Numerals
..
766
XXX. Days
Week
..
..
-.768
676
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
Page 768
769
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
The Year
S5 W
Prepositions (j*J\
o^
),
Exceptive Particles,
.. ..
etc.
..
Conjunctions
..
..774
. .
XXXIV.
Adverbs (and the Approximate Verb &}

Interjections..
..
..
779
XXXV.
..
..785
PART
II.
SYNTAX.
XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII.
.. .. Nouns Definite and Indefinite .. .. The Copula "Is," etc. .. The Adjective and the Demonstrative Pronouns
..788 ..789
.
790
797 798
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
Order of Sentence
..
..
..
.
.
..796
.
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns Cases of Nouns, and Kan a and its Sisters.'
*
Government
of
U
a
and
i),
and Particles that Govern

. .
like
. .
Verbs (or Inn and its Sisters) The Negatives and Interrogative Negatives, and
Incitement and Reproof Tenses .. ..
Indicative, Subjunctive, etc.,
. .
805
Particles of
.
809
XLIV.
..
..
..810
&'
'
\'
<S
XLV.
Moods
..
(after
&i\
u i*-J -j -jl
..
-J*3)
..
..
..815
..818
819
822
823 826 826
XL VI.
XLVII. XLVIII.
Optative
Mood
..
. .
..
.
.
.
.
XLIX.
L. LI. LII. LIII.
Government of Verb The Passive The Impersonal Verb

Participles
..
.
.
..
. .
..
..820
. .
(and
Aorist)
.
.
and
the
. .
Infinitive,
. .
.
and
their
. .
Concord
Government of Verb
Prepositions
To Have..
..
..
..
..832
LIV.
LV.
LVI. LVII.
LVIII.
Exceptive, Adversative, Restrictive, and Sentences .. .. Relative Clauses Conditional and Concessional Sentences Temporal Clauses Copulative Sentences, and State or Condition
.
Interrogative
,.
.
..832
.
. . .
836 841
844
,847
LIX.
LX.
.. .. Asyndeton .. Forms of Wonder, Surprise, or Admiration
..
. .
..849
.
849
LXI
Verbs of Praise and Blame
f^Jf )
^
.
.
Ji Jl**
) ,
Approximate
. .
(and Inceptive) Verbs, and Potentials

>^, c *
851
LXII.
LXIII.
Apposition
J.xx/f
etc..
853
857
Emphasis or Corroboration
Paradigms
xx*UJ? or
^^\
LXIV.
..
859
ERRATA, ETC.
Page 694, Active
Participle.
For J*AA> mufall,

Participle.
read,
cU^ muf ill un

(
Page 697, II Stem, Passive
*'?'* For " None." read <Jl*flI*
Page 702, footnote
2.
Por J*i^,
rearZ J*fix3.
Page 131 (XIII).

Page 788.
For
>"
(a) (5),
To
XXXVI
A
odW :indefinite
*
REMARK.
is
noun governing an
'
noun
in the genitive,
indefinite in Arabic.
Thus
in
-&
t '
^w
"
bint*
malik in the word 6iw^"

}
is indefinite,
though by a peculiarity
of English
idiom
it
may
be made
definite in English.
Page 820.
<y
To
XLVII
(e), ocfcZ
1^
" to like," but
^ ^*j
if
" to dislike."
Page 843,
line 14.
For "
" you have done/' read
if
you do."
APPENDIX
I.
A.
Arabic Forms and Measures.
(a)
while Arabic phrases
Arabic words abound in even the daily vocabulary of the Persians, and quotations are not uncommon in their writings.
1
Not only is a knowledge of Arabic roots indispensable for the advanced student of Persian, but also some acquaintance, at least, with the elements of Arabic grammar.
(6)
*
U<
**
Nearly every
o ' to'\j*
Arabic word can

9
be
o S ^S^s
traced
3
to
triliteral
root
^ J^^*
W
Quadriliteral roots
f
g^^c
(<f
U^Ju.
<4*t
are rare.
few nouns 4
:
are primitive, that
is
they cannot be referred to any verbal root, as

;
"horse";
two
,**)*
"a dirhem "

,*'
"quince."
Some words have but

particles.
is
letters, as for instance
some
of the
pronouns and
,</
;
The verb
tion
(root) cU* signifies

/
*
" " he accepted
JUi
virtually a preposi-
"before";
Jbl*
is
the active participle or agent "accepter;

s<s<*'
is
able
8
;
to
*
receive; capable,
* >
is
fit": Jj*&o
the passive
'&<*
is
participle
"accepted
of
aJb&c
"confronting, opposition"; JU&*f S f

to
all
"going out
the
city
some
distance,
meet a friend
or
receive a great person."
It will
from aw, the three radical letters occur somewhere in the word, and that the idea "accept or receive"
be seen that, in
these derivatives
is
more or
less
concealed in each.
er,
Supposing laugh to be an English root, the agent is formed by adding the participle or the gerund by adding ing, and the past participle by
ed.
adding
letters,
Such modifications are obtained in Arabic, not only by

;
suffixing
but by prefixing them combination of these methods.
by inserting
letters in the middle, or
by a
Some knowledge
jj
of Arabic roots
is
also necessary for a proper
knowledge of Urdu.
In Persian,
In Persian,
tions,
Under Nouns Adverbs, and

*
*
,
Arabs include Adjectives and Pronouns, and
also certain Preposi-
Interjections.
Nouns
are either primitive
j,xU>
or derived
f
There are only a few quinqueliteral primitive nouns. Hence " acceptable to the heart ", and in Modern Persian, " pretty."
678
ARABIC FORMS AND MEASURES.

9*
(c)
* /
9 ox
*5>
The
seven servile letters
**$]>'
cJ^sJt, or aSlî
used to expand a
word, are contained in the Arabic word

fat."
[yi*
...'*'..;
yatasammanu "they become
tained in the
this phrase,
According to Arab grammarians there are ten *5tjij, zawa*id conArabic words Ifxi^L. "you asked me about her." In
}
hamzah and
alif are
both given
as it is
added to some
;
infinitives,
to
prefixed to the
of unity, etc., and to form the feminine and J,as it is and third persons of the Aorist Active (and in the Passive to the second persons also) to form the Imperative, "Let me, let them, etc."
first
G"
form the noun
(d)
The
radical letters
(^JUf
JjJ'
),
always found in primitive roots,
are twenty-one.
(e)
At
first
sight
it
may
appear that to find the root of a word,
all
is
;
that
is
necessary is to strip it of all servile letters. This, however, the case, for the servile letters are not used for augmentation only
roots themselves contain one
not
some
serviles eliminated
and even three servile letters: so, were all from the derivatives of such roots, the whole root as well
It is therefore necessary
i.e.
as the letters of
augmentation might disappear.

in
to
of
know
the form of a word,
what order
or position the letters
augmentation occur in each form of derivative.
action is considered as the (/) The noun that expresses the simple masdar or "source" from which all derivatives are derived. It supplies
the place of the Infinitive, which

ever, variable in form.
is
wanting in Arabic.
it
This noun
is,
how-
The Arabs have

as
therefore found
a convenient fiction to treat
all
words
though derived from the third person singular masculine Tense, Indicative Mood, Active Voice so, in Arabic dictionaries,
;
of the Preterite
all
deriva-
tives (except
such roots as contain weak letters

for under, this root.
),
are grouped under,

<*.
and
must be looked
(g)
Arab grammarians have taken,
as a typical root, the
word CM*
/!
and have expanded the root cU* in every possible way to form paradigms of every part of speech that could possibly be derived from a root, and the formulae so obtained are called "forms, or measures, of words." Just as all the tenses of the Greek verb tupto do not exist in
signifying acto'cw,
any one Greek verb, so no
single Arabic root affords all the
forms and
roots, for
measures assigned by grammarians to the root JU.
From some
These must be looked
for
under the pure root,
i.e.
the form of the triliteral
infinitive.

instance, only
679
is
two or three verb-derivatives
exist.
Also, the root-meaning
not always traceable in every derivative.

properly denotes the outward appearance of the model on which a word is formed, i.e. the model unpointed by vowels,
'
(h)
The term
'
Form
'
while
'
Measure
properly denotes the
Form
fully pointed.
The
distinction is
often ignored.
() In grammatical language, the three root-letters of any word are not Each derived form styled the first, second, or third but the fa, 'ayn, lam.
;
"
The symbols X, Y, Z could be substituted as a root-paradigm, and expanded for each form by the serviles suitable for that form.
of cUiis in fact a formula.
(j) As an English beginner usually experiences much difficulty in " or wazn of an Arabic word means, grasping what the "measure cyj ) ( for him the following unscientific explanation is given $ *o ' The measure of the passive participle is Jyui* maf ul un and of this
:
measure are
(jl*'
it
measure Jyui*,
written above the (Vt^- If, for instance, fjA** be will be seen that the words have certain letters in common
-
J>*a*>
that occur in corresponding positions, and that these letters are also from ' the 'servile list. Each of the two words commences with the same servile
letter
:
(^ m),
and each word has the same
servile letter as a fourth letter (^

.
todw) both words have the same number of letters (and the same short vowels) In other words, every Arabic derivative of five letters that has m for the first
letter
and u for the fourth,

]
will
be of the
'
measure
'
/ f^s J^*** and will be a
passive
participle.
Conversely,
M
+
qatil
"killer"
its
is
an active
It
participle
or
agent.
Now, what
by the same
is
its
root and
measure?
has one servile

J*i).
letter,
the
second, alif: the
triliteral
root therefore
(alif),
must be Jtf (=
Expand
:
cW
the
of
servile
letter
and you get the Form

*
J*\*
'.
point the
form with the same short vowels, and you get the Measure
principle to be adopted with all derivatives
J*l*.
This
is
and
all roots.
A knowledge
the correct measure of
word
is
guard
against
mispronunciation
Persians and Indians, for example, usually say munhasar and muttaham, but the Arabic measures are munhasir and muttahim.
Some
' '
passive or past participles are also used as nouns, as
wy&
"written, also,
a letter
tftJLc
**' "
in three parts, a triangle."
680
(k)
ABABIC FOBMS AND MEASUBES.

Euphonic
difficulties arise
when the
9
)
t
root contains any of the
weak
& G~ /
consonants or semi- vowels
(xl*J|
oâ.
or
when a
dental and
palatal come together; or when two identical or similar letters come together without the intervention of a long vowel. The three weak consonants are homogeneous to the three short vowels
weak consonant would in pronunciation follow a short vowel that is not homogeneous to it, euphony requires that the weak consonant should change into the letter of
(
o(<^
but subordinate to them.
When,
in a measure, a
prolongation for that short vowel; or, in other words, the short vowel changes the weak consonant into that weak consonant that is analogous to itself. These changes are called the Permutations of Weak Consonants
J
').
Example:
^l**
*
"place or time of promise; trysting and trysting-
place; promised limit
of
time,"*
is
from **j
'*f
is
"he promised"; but

un
the
measure for the Noun of Instrument 8

f
,
Jl*A*
mifal
and
this
would give
*\*y*
miw'ad un
which
is
uneuphonic
(5
hence, according to rule, the kasrdh
f
)
, o
conquers the
is
waw
and changes
^).
of
it
into ya
So, too,
"
/ ,0
depositing"
for
t^} (v. n. 4 of
(1)
As regards the second kind

cs
euphonic change called JtvJ,

x
;
if
the soft
follows
dental
IB, it
follows
^
,
v^
or
Jr, it
changes into the hard palatal i
if it
changes into
or else both letters
become J;
if it
i, x
follows the soft dental
it
changes into
^
;
a;
and
it
if i, it
either changes into

t>.
or else both letters be<*
*
;
come
if it
follows},
becomes
Examples
*>
from JL*
" he became
fit,"
f ' ^
'
on the measure
pronouncing
f'
et>
Jl*i*f
we would
get
^JG,
%Lc[
but, as Arabs find difficulty in
immediately after
the word, according to the rule given,
becomes
-îu^t
"idiom "
' '
,
"&
;
"
fcLbl
to overlook, look
' '
down upon,
x
' '
' '
(and hence)
' '
,
to know, be informed &

or
fJtf
from Ûs
to rise (of sun)
^JLfe
to oppress
p&\
x
" to be oppressed ": from the root
^tj
"he married," we
get
on
Arab grammarians give many complicated rules to meet various

:
cases.
of
Though formed on the measure of the Noun of Instrument, a Noun of Time and Place vide VIII (6). 8 And from a few verbs, of the Noun of Time and Place also.
*
it
has the meaning

s
<s
681
X X *O
^"O
the measure JUSJJ (infinitive of J***l, VIII Stem) jtyjt, which in an Arab's
mouth changes
(w)
to
letters are a real difficulty,
The weak
and sometimes the Arabs even

J&<>
have mistaken the root

dictionaries
of a word.
+ *
For instance,
"
place "is in some
said to be from
<
oK "it was":
bub by a mistake Arabs have

this non-existing
^<
t
taken the root to be

$
i*
and so have derived words from

well-fixed
root,
as:
&* " dweller,

*
"
:
*"*'<".
the broken plural of
J<*
is
*i4, *
whereas grammatically nouns of time and place have broken plurals on

the measure
* '<
.
(n)
Another euphonic change

letters,
is
ASSIMILATION
fU$J
X
).
When two
is
identical
or
two
letters
is
of a similar kind,
come
together, one
taahfiid]
assimilated by the other, which
then pronounced with a
thus,
the root â^- " he became special" was originally

!, In the 8th Conjugation of verbs beginning with ^ & that of characteristic these weak letters are assimilated to the conjugation,
(o)
f
as
:
'j*t
* S ' f
JjUu]
from
&)
f '*> ;UJJ
S *S
f
;
>J
from^
cliof
from AL|.
X^^
Remark.
(
ci>
one t In extracting the root of a word with a doubled t ( e should be considered servile and eliminated, while the other should be
) ,
converted into either a hamzah, or else a radical waw, as: <3&J "accident,
S S,
f
-P
+>
' ' '
chance," root Jij "it

united
happened";
cMJ
"junction",
root
uU>
<4
he
"
;
^W}
" to take to oneself
as, to
take possession of ", from <*M

a,
t,
A
root
servile
coming afterj
is
changed into a
as:
"crowd," j^^;l x
x
*j^3
" he forced his
way
after
through (a crowd, or forest)."
A
mind,
servile c#
coming
us is
changed into
Js,
as
' ' :
viAî
agitation (of
sea, air, etc.)," root
" he beat "

'
^11 " g reat

X X
necessity, compul-
sion ," root
^"
1
he harmed.'
is
There
a root
ti>Cc,
bub with a different
signification.
682
(p)
ON THE STEMS OF THE VERB.

POSITIONS OF THE SERVILE LETTERS.
the following facts, that:
serviles
i
study of the various forms

or
will reveal
(1)
The
and
-
o may
-
occur at the beginning, middle,
end
of a
word, as
Jlut
ft/]
lfv
and
xO O
(2)
is
The
servile letter
^ always occupies the second place in a word

>
I
preceded by the serviles
or
and followed by a
servile
o, as:
(3)
The The
..
servile
^ occurs only as a
first letter,
as
Ûax
)&*
(4)
serviles
^ and
.Pxo
stem, as:
1
^ occur$ either in
-
the middle or at the end of a
JU&t
(5)
The
" servile^ occurs only in the middle, as: fji**

f<< *
oc'
known"
placing
"very forgiving" (of God); forehead on the ground."

II.
^=F.~>
"prostrating
oneself,
one's
On the Stems
of the Verb, etc.
(a) The simple triliteral root or ground-form of the verb is by some grammarians called the 'First Stem.' Its meaning may be extended or modified by the addition of one or more letters, and the fresh stems thus
obtained
are usually referred to

etc.,
etc.).
by
their
numbers, thus "Fifth Stem,"
"Tenth Stem,"
figure
(V
X.,
which in dictionaries are indicated by a simple Roman By some writers, these derived stems are termed
Conjugations.
(6)
There are
in all
fourteen derived Stems, which Palmer divides into

to the simple stem: this
four groups, formed

(1)
by the four methods:

letter
Adding one
Prefixing a
makes a neuter stem
transitive, or a transitive
(2) (3)
stem strong or intense in
action.
this implies a consequence or effect.
Adding two
or
more
letters: this modifies the
meaning.
:
Distorting the original form as well as adding letters to it implies distortion of meaning and indicates colour, defect, or intensity.
(4)
this
Stem XI is rare even in Arabic, while stems XII to XV are rarer still and may be ignored. The stems up to XI only, are given below. For Persian, the verbal nouns
l
But
and
^ can occur as the
first letters in
the Aorist,
for the 1st pers. pi.,
and
for the 3rd per.
masc. sing, dual, and plural, and 3rd pers.
pi. fern.

and the
participles only, of Nos. I to VIII,
of the derived
<
683
and
' '
of
No. X, are really necessary.
study
(c)
Conjugations
l ' '
',
however, simplifies matters.

or gerunds) are abstract
The verbal nouns
(or
infinitives
nouns
expressing the action or state of that Stem from which they are derived. -0V/ t , f^yy Some have always a neuter sense, as o>^j "existence " [trans. ey*^j] pj+
: ;
"being common"; but others are both active and passive

>0"
in sense,
thus
^ means "helping another "

The verbal nouns and
Participles of the First
or
"
being helped.'*
participles of the derived forms are fixed
on measures.
measure
The
in
Stem
or Triliteral are also regular, but the
of its
verbal nouns
use.
are numerous,
though
only four or five forms are
common
(d)
The following
are
the Stems.
Their order must be noted.*
The
force of the derived forms and the measure of their infinitives or verbal
nouns, and of their participles, will be given later:

I.
L
Ja'al*.
IV.
cUtf
af'cd*.
* &*'
VII.
dUiit
infa'al".
s*'(j
X.
istaf'al".
3>*<,
,*
II.
tV
fa"l*.
V.
J*&
tafa"al*.
VIII.
JSft
+
ifta'al*.
XI.
Jkfl
'
if'all".
III.
JÛ
fa'al*.
VI.
JUi3
tafa'al".
[IX.
J^(3
+
[XII to XV.
].
t'/a'aW*].
Remark
killed
/.Stem
^ ^
I is usually of the
measure JU>, as
is
- >f
J^
S X
qatal*
4
"he
"
;
but J*?* (generally intransitive)

..
also found, as
ci>^
"he was
'*
'
sad'Mintr.);
J**" he did"
4 as: (trans.); also J*j, in intransitive* only,
&~^ *
s" " to
"it was beautiful."

inhabit
as Occasionally, a form has varying Measures,
j+*
";^c s
to
grow old";
^
"
"to be
'
flourishing,
according to the
vowel of the 2nd Radical.
Masdar u* ^^ô
Because
in
(p\ m ^^lâxj), lit.
placse of issuing," i.e.
"source.
is
,,
European
in Persian.
dictionaries the serial
number only
quoted.
The Arabs
arrange these forms differently.

8
Not found
it,
while Kasrah under the second radical often indicates temporary condition,
zammah over
continuous condition.
684

. ,'
Remark
II.
Verbs on the measure J**
making
its
Aorist
,
always the second or third radical one of the gutturals, hamzah,

(e)
^,
or
a.
The Arabic
6
,
participles
'
do not in themselves convey any suggestion

one who has killed
'
of
time
hence Jtf^
.ox
may mean
'one
as
well as
'
one who
is
killing';
Jjiflx>
who ought
to be killed' as well as 'one killed.'
The Passive
Participles (with the exception of the simple triliteral) are formed regularly by changing the kasrah ("") of the last syllable of r / / the Active Participle into fathah ( _?_), as cU** mursil"* "sender,"
:
mursal
f '
sent
"
(JUA
and cU^>
of
Stem
IV).
(/) The Infinitive of Stem I is of varying form, and is therefore specially noted in the dictionaries, under each verb. The same verb has often more
than one infinitive, 2 so mefeimes with variety in meaning, as

f
'<*'
i
' '
f o<XA5
* '
intention"
(*<,'
' '
' '
and
**oft/o
object
*->j
most common forms
*c :
is
'
'.
J*',
is
nearness f .' as Jui "

:
' '
and
f Af^J
'
'
'
'
relationship.'
One of the
killing."
f ' '
'
f
:
'
\
The
infinitive of
J**
generally J**, as
*-^* " being angry."
Other
measures, from usually intransitive verbs, are: Jyu, and JU*, as:
/-
/ / 9
"sitting,"
(*1U
"being
in a perfect state, health,"
Jjô "entering."
<*
Note that
Infinitive
all
the stems that begin
with hamzah
or
form the
by inserting an dlif before their last radical. In the longer forms, too, the second consonant after the hamzah takes a kasrah.
Remark I.
unchanged; the
able letters
There
is
by changing the short vowels

last
a passive voice of all transitive verbs, which is formed of the active. The last short vowel remains
but one must be kasrah ("7");

"
'
and
J**'
all
other move-
must have
*
zammah
(_L_),
as: cU* Act.,
"f
Pass.;
(SiS istaf'al" Act., JUfii^f ustufil* Pass.

X
~"
;
,9
Act.,
cUU
tUy '
Pass.
are
also
Remark
II.
The
active
and
passive
participles
used as
Adjectives and Nouns.
/XO'
maktab (place of writing) " a primary or preparatory school." * The same verb may have different meanings, and then has a different noun of
l
The same measure
as the
noun
of place, as:
wJ&o
ttn
action for each.
THE FOURTEEN CONJUGATIONS.

III.
685
The Fourteen Conjugations.

d** (orcUi, or J*j*).
1
STEM (i.e.
the
triliteral)
Ex.:
^^ " he swore";
"he appeared"; J*L "he
experienced, tested":
^ "he knew";
3
"he rejoiced"; cLc "he performed, worked";

"
it
&y>.
" he was sad "
was handsome "

1 Jxl*
'
^* " to be bright
*
un
.
,?'
(of
the face), be blooming."

*
;
Active. Part.
fa'il
Ex.
x>U.
" hearer" "
'
Û
"
adviser ";
JU
"
knowing, learned
Passive Part.
/
>
fi
"
;
tftiPif*
*<"
(for
layiq)
fnf
having capacity
fit."
(,,
Jytix maf'ul*".
Ex.
r>^c "blessed, late

/ /ox
(i.e.
dead, of
O'
//*
Muslims)"; )yoU "ordered, appointed "; {*&* "understood"; &j*** mad" (lit. possessed by a Jinn). 5 ** $ <,' / *** * *'. * " * " f -o , c> 7 - U*3 s . JUi 6 Infinitives J** J^*j and JUj and <&UJ 7 cJlA s or
t
t
î
A*JU
(and
many
"
other forms).
j5
Ex.:
vre
;
*"
"striking"; -** "opening":
"
being kind
d*c " working, doing "

,''
'<-"-. " be
^
>
A
' ' ;
to
forbearing
JU:
"to know,
*
knowledge";^ "to
accept,
accepting";
;^^
"being
Transitive or intransitive.
x
.
Always intransitive.
"*'
An adjective on the measure JU*j can be formed from all such

/^'
S ^ -*** "ugly," from ^yâ.
/o"
verbs
"/**/*
.
(cU?), as: t^*-^ ^beautiful," ^,y "kind,"
^y
wc?e
*
XV (4).
X
'
But Â.
' * +
'*
tr-
to grieve, sadden (some one)." 9

X
' ' J*
Also
For Passive,
**'
vide
Remark
I to
II
(/),
and
XXV (a)
*
and
(6),
and Table
II, foot-
ndte 2 of Paradigms.
* ** +
s
fs*
* *
JU
abstract
$,,
noun from
transitives
JU*
aiid JUi.
JUJ
generally from JUJ

s
when
intransitive.
*'
is
from
*,
$,f?
<xJyi>
J^*i from J*i when intransitive.

^*x
f*^
'*
x/x f',* and ^JU from U*^

also the
intransitive.
Ox
mo/'aZ"",
(J*flwo
x
uncommon
as an Infin.,
is
measure of the noun of place,
/x
*'
a primary or preparatory school.
' '
686

" p*S "to speak, speech"; JUT to be perfect,
/
'
present, presence";
ff
perfec' -
"G
'
tion"; rj*^
die,
"going out,
e>U,
(also
place
of
going out, exit)";
oU* "to
becomes
death,"
); Ajju^c
(from
<
we
get oj+*,
which by permutation
oUx>
preaching";
&uU*>
"
to be benefited, benefit."
Examples of less common forms are

have power,
regret"
II
;
"
:
' '
&(*j*>
*
being deprived
*
cyliJu
to
also
one having power,
*.e.
sovereign "; &c(xi
"to
regret,
c^
is
"
being sorry, sorry," etc., etc.

derived form) <J*i fa"l.
letter of the
it
STEM
of
(i.e. first
This
formed by doubling the second
primary
the original
4
;
meaning
which
it (1) intensifies
it is
8
;
or (2)
makes a neuter
it is
transitive, or a
transitive causal; or (3)

it signifies
declarative; or (4)
;
denominative
;
or (5)
to turn into, convert
or
(6)
it indicates a phrase
or (7)
it
indicates
(
movement towards.
Ex.
(1)
<Jx5
" he
killed ")
(fcL*
c&
" he massacred "
^>^>
"he
struck")
*.;'*
' '
"he
beat violently";
"-he cut")^k5
'
"he
cut in
' '
i
"
pieces
:
(2)
(J>
' '
he descended
"
)
J>i
" he brought down'
Ul* " he knew
'
he taught
^ " he entered*') J^t

many ")
him
(wJ^ , &
' '
he wrote
tl
' '
^f
v^
him
' '
he taught to or caused to write
' '
,,
he caused to enter, introduced"
f ' ;
(jtf "it
' '
was
&
)
tr.
" he increased "
(3)
he told a lie
"
)
v^
;
he believed
to be lying, took
him
or declared
to be a liar
"
(
($*
(4)
" he was " an
truthful"
Jo*
" he beUeved, or he declared to be truthful

collected
4<
"
;
J^
army") 4.^ "he

bind books *
an army"
<xL.
"a
skin"
),
J^. "to skin,
"
:
"3*^
(5)^-i
to turn in to a Christian, convert "
^C"
;
^r^
" to con vert
maf'al**,
uncommon
as an Infin.,
is
also the
measure of the noun
of place,
maktdb un " a primary or preparatory school."

dJUi ) ; incorrectly amongst Indians and Persians nidamat. ( Doubling a letter in Arabic has generally an intensive effect. * The Denominative forms of II Stem correspond to the English verb formed from " "to water " noun, as " to skin
&
;
Nadamatun
etc.

to tamjis or
687
fire-
worshipping ";
v_y*
"to make
>
'
a foreign word) Arabic, to

&,
;
Arabicize
'
:
(6)
^"
to
say^f
"he
f,(,~fl' ' *U\
&
to say
(Infin.
j&&) JJ^
said
^'
\
)
:
a^l
"
i(
'3ix^^
(Infin. cUl^> );
fJU
a^JU
greeted
him"
(i.e.
XOxx^^^J^ uJÛ j*XJf
xjJ^
(7)
^^
" to go East."
Active Part.
jL*a*
'
mufa
ll
il
un .
J^x.
*k**>
'
' '
teacher
' '
;
'
'
jf***<A*
correcter,
"
proof-reader
;
"
J*A**>
having a deep insight into."
Passive Part.
$z>,y
J*A* mufa"al un .lx.:
v^/
"
compounded; a mixture;
ink"
"
g*j*>
bejewelled, inlaid with gold."

MM
, ( or Alll3 taf ilat un .'E Ji.
l
Infinitive
Ju*#, to/^
p*M
"
teaching"
' ox
"affecting,
f
effect
of":
*j*&
trial,
"reminding; memoir; testimonial; passessay."

/ xO
X
*'
port"
"
*>j*3
experience;
Remark /.Rare forms

(speech)
are
JU& and
.,
^ Ô JUi>,as
-^
:
'O'
ÎjXifrom
'
'x rf "to
repeat
to do a thing again
' '
:
oLj*>
from er^ " to explain.'
Remark
plurals in e|
also the
II.
The verbal nouns

fern, pi.),
9
of all the
Derived Conjugations form their

of II
(= sound
though those
and IV Stems have

f
o'x
/c^
as:
^x-ji>
,'
broken plural
f
^ &'
cLctitf,
"a commentary etc.,"
pi.
"
*(;f
-
(= oUjf )
"false news.
"
X ' X
III
i.e.
STEM
JUli /a'oZa ,
first
is
formed by inserting an
alif after
the
first
radical
by lengthening the
vowel of the primary.

XX X
This stem adds to the primary, the sense of striving, thus: (JX "to
kill") but Jili
"to
try to
kill,
to fight
with";
of
(^
the
"to
write),
^
";
"to
correspond
with"
(with
the
accusative
person);
v^* "to
is
... overcome ") wJ 1* "to try to overcome."
Hence a sense
of reciprocity
688
X

XX
XXX
often
implied,
as: (^j**
"he
struck")
^(^ "he
with";
struck
and
he
fought
the
with";
(^
"he
sat
') (jJU*
"he
sat
(C^
was
U> (with accusative of person) partner of So-and-so) vJ;
"he went
partners
with."
This stem
or thing, as
:
may
XX
also
mean
to exercise
'
some abstract quality on a person

X
e$ " to be
:
XX
soft, gentle
')
^^1 "to exercise gentleness, to treat

:
" he journeyed alone ")^ * " or the he either (with journeyed alone, preposition *) with some one else.*
someone kindly"
^V " to caress, etc."

x x
*
' '
(yL
'
xX x
Note too the following

to (frequently)
--Jib
to
demand
' '
repeatedly
/C"
;
Û
-ftjL
' *
to return
"
;
',
>*l
" to
ô *
hire
" by the month (from^)
" to hire
lip
for the
(\
" summer " (from *-&>*) **L " to speak with fff '* " to embrace " neck "). (from
;
** *
" (from &&>
")
f *9
Active,
Part.
cJUUu> mufa'il**.
Ex.
f -9 " JLli opposing, confronting
'
'
ÛJ|
"contradictory
"
;
fM>*
5
.
hindering."
/X'/
Passive Part.
/XX/
mufa'al**
JpUU
Ex.
ujUx>
"
blesssed, auspicious."
jj,,^
Jf^'>
Infinitive.
/x
*.
lm* mufa'alat*", and Jl*> ^'aZ""

"
/x x
;
Ex.
*b(z*>
,
"
opposition
<
' '
^
discussing wi th, argument
"dialogue
/,xx/
(
^.U*
quarrel."
"
:
^-
JUi
slaughter
';
Jf,
also
Al3lax>);
IV
STEM
cUJf af'al*,
is
ing the vowel of the first radical
formed by prefixing f to the root and suppressWith a few exceptions, it is transi( o ).
tive (taking the object in the accusative),
and gives a causal
signification to
X ' XX
1
But Stem VI
JUlflj
(formed by prefixing
to this stem) always clearly indi-
cates reciprocity.
/xxx
2
't
So too
A/
^.iT becomes
is
*}(,
and
A*>c
,JjUx becomes
This Passive Part,
rare in Persian.
Some
concrete nouns are also found in this measure, as: ^ll/
"book"; ^\
* "stirrup-iron"; v-jl~^
"
account,"
etc., etc.

" he caused to descend "
'x
cx
.
689
the primary, as
xx Ox
f
J>?
^j-Jkf
;
" he bid to
sit
down "
fit
"he caused
"to bring
to write";
" " to do J~^1 good to

x
:
t,
" ( JLo
xxx
to be
' ' ;
for"
into good
" condition
^&>\
" to cause to appear

xx,
;
x-
x C*
cU.*f
" to
x - O x
cause to enter
"
;
"<J
"
g^f
" to cause to exit
bf
j-*^
"to expose
r
for sale
"
;
" he
"
worthy.
found the matter important";
"he found him
praise-
It of ten
forms verbs from nouns, as:
^cf "to do
^-
in the
morning";
as
' " to receive Islam, become a Muslism.' Frequently it has the sense of beginning a gradual movement
(intr.),
'
XÔ'
f
he went to
Sham
' '
xx O"
t(
(Syria)
V^T
to go westwards
on,
' '
;
o^f'
((*U>
to reach
the top, be high; to look

x xx
downwards
with
;
overlook":
"to stand,
to rise
up ")
pW
xf
" to
halt, dwell
also to
make
to stand."
Remark.
xî *
:
;From some roots, the Stems II and IV are both used as causals,
i,
thus ^^- and^^.! both

x35*
mean
9 {,^c,'
'
'
to inform."
x*" x
Sometimes there
is
a difference
in meaning; thus ^JU
" to teach", but

x
,
jjU;f
"to inform."
^xc,'xÔx
;
" >U| " Other examples are: u*)^' *a*^f the land became desolate î ?*>-<> xxo, " *&\ "the crop became fit for harvest"the water became putrid ^;^(
;
o*
**
*
o f
'
Ex.:
oÛ
Jf
;
"overlooking"
-(ô
poly-
O /
theist,
implying partriership
O^
1
(to
God)"
Ex.
^.^^/o
benefactor."
Passive Part. J*iu
muf
al un .
Û
"
"
"
inspired
;
f***
" made am-
biguous, ambiguous"; p***>

Infinitive JU?t
^
" forced into another, assimilated."

Ex. fiUj
f
if'al
un
.
(intr.)
yielding obedience,
otaSf
Islam";
;^JB!
(tr.)
"making apparent, declaration":
"dividing into halves
(two equal parts), justice."

1
When
the
IV Stem
is
intransitive,
as
J-wf "to come towards," there

is
is
no
passive participle; the active participial form only Stems.
used, vide notes to VII and VIII
44
690

Remark.
The broken
^&
xx
plural (vide
Remark
II,
Stem
is
II)
is
rarely
JP
"
i,
^ "
as: ftfM, pi.
i A ^f.
The regular feminine

a
,
plural
commoner.
xx x
V STEM J*>
may
reflect
tafa"al
is
formed by prefixing a
xxx
:
o to No. II,
"
beget
of
which it
x"
the consequence, as
aJj
"to give birth
to, to
" to
he was born." extract a child (doctor); also fig. being the cause of ) It also converts it into a reflexive, or gives the idea of doing a thing by degrees,
"
x55xx
"
and hence
&
+*
is
also passive, as
x-
^^
" to drink"
y^
" to make to drink ")

x^J x
jJ
"to sip"
xSi
(<*+^
"to become frozen, or hard"

xxx;
*<**-
"to cause to
freeze*
')
4*3 " he hardened himself by degrees

x3'x
;
X"
(^
;
"
xx
it
was cold
' '
"to
x3'
make cold ")

i(
^ "he
'&"
^y-^3
still
;
xx<-
cooled himself by degrees"
(j~~$
" he broke "

X
X
(
j~$
he shattered ")
x^Jx
"it was shattered in pieces, etc.";

'd5*-x
^JU
" he
knew"
^Xc xxx
(
"he
taught, he caused to
know")
fi*3
" to be made to know, to learn ";

"i^
uiifj
" to stand
to be acquainted
"
vjL5j
" to make to stand
still,
to
stop") cJ^f" he hesitated, he delayed."
Sometimes,
pretending,
1
it signifies
x/'x
to give oneself out as, or think oneself something,

xtfxx
as:
(j
JJSxx
"he became
great ")
jj
j&
)
he thought himself great, he

oneself out as a pro*fr>3
became proud;"
Ui3 (or less
common Uo
ill,
"to give
phet"
; o^+> "to pretend to be to zuhd or monastic life."
to feign sickness";
"to pretend
It also means, derived

etc. of, to
1
from a concrete noun, "to adopt the tenets,
become,"
as:
J*AU
"to become a Nasraniyy

<i*tf
(Christian)";
or fierce as a
'to become a Yahudiyy un (Jew);

/xx
(
"to become bold

^
-
lion
"
xtfxx
;
**!)
<J-y
" to be propped, to lean on a

t(
$ak*j.
Present Part.
J^ mutafa
X
il
utt
.
Ex.ijZ&o X
to be
"
thinking within oneself, be-
f*,,?
ing anxious";
1st person in
f*,s
a prophet"; fl&*
jÛ^ "pretending
** :'
;
"
speaker, the
grammar"*
li
a student."
But
in this sense, No.
VI Stem
is
more common.
691
&' 9
Passive Part. (JUaLc mutafa"al un
9
ji>*
.
Ex.
ja&c " being deeply
f& ',?
versed in
"
;
"expected."
S$~
Infinitive J*ft3 tafa"ul*.
:
Ex. jft3
&S
<
<
"
thinking
;
>,
Mi3
<
taking warning
"
;
''reflecting."
VI STEM, J*&
taja'al*, is
formed by prefixing
o to No.
to
Ill, to
which
it
gives a reflexive, or a reciprocal meaning, and the subject in the latter case
must be
dual, plural, or a collective noun, as
l
:
/^ty
"
throw oneself down

all
at full length
"
;
/J
*l/l
^Jb
God made Himself
exalted above
"
:
" he struck, gave blows to ")

he wrote to")
*-Jt<3
v;LaJ
" to give and receive blows from, to
"
fight
;
" to write to and receive letters from, to cor-
respond with."
This form has sometimes a sense of feigning * and the subject
may
then be singular, as
(j~*>
" to be bold
"
j(*>
" to make another bold ")

1
^~UJ
s s
<e
to
show
or
pretend to be
bold"; u^
sr
*3
"feigning sickness";
to be a Christian."
J "pretending to have fever

s>
"
; t
"
"to pretend
'* *. Ex. o^fyô
:
**>li3
,f
9
il
Active Participle J*(&>cmutafa
un .
<c
' '
being synonymous
x>
being close to each other
"
;
AcULo " being distant."
Ex.: Passive Participle J*(fa*mutafa al* n panion." This form is not used in Persian.
c
.
wÛî*
taken as a com-
Infinitive
tl
JUi3
tafa' ul
un
.Ex.
'
o^
"being contradictory";
' '
;
; <jc>U3 clashing together " (but in Persian bravery ").
"
feigning sickness
j*^
' '
feigning bravery
VIISTEM,
is formed by prefixing e)ftw jj, * ^
to No. I, of which it
10
as: always a neuter or passive (without any agent being mentioned),
In No. in, a second party is possible A meaning sometimes given by No. V.
in
No. VI the reciprocity
is
necesary.
692

-&tf " to expose, reveal ")
" "he broke " ) j~&\ " it was broken *

" he showed
VA&J
x
himself openly, was revealed or discovered."

as
this
The original sense was a reflexive of No. I, and other derivative forms have become
"
it
broke itself"
but
x x xO
so habitually
used in a
passive sense, that the true passives of those verbs in which the form cUfi.il 1 One of the meanings of this form is is in use, have fallen into disuse.
^
'
accepting the action of the primary,' as

X xxG x
,
Ôj-Xb* l&j-f
"
broke
it
and so
' fO
? O '
'
was broken "; jJ&k* open."

it
c-U){
o.A5 "I opened
the door and so
it
became
It
S3 x
sometimes implies that a person allows an act to be done to him, as

*
"^
Jt
"to
let oneself
be dragged"
&\
" to
let oneself
be put to
flight, to
Remark. I.
This Stem
is
distinguished from VIII in that the reflexive
pronoun contained in it is never the indirect, but always the direct, object, and also in that this Stem never has a reciprocal signification.
Remark
this
II.
When
the
first
radical
' 'S
<J
is
{*
ei-
^-J
; or
hamzah,
form
is
not used: form VIII (cU*!) takes
its place.
(Active
&
)
"
Participle J*ftix> * ,, , "
munfa'U.
Ex.
<J&&*>
" revealed 8 "
,>yiJ
being lonely
*+su>*>
being congealed.
Passive Participle 8 , None.

/
x
.o
$
un .
Infinitive Jl*&[infi'al
Ex
G.
ftî]
"being thrown down, demolition ";

"admitting wrong doing, hence
i
"turning
aside, deflection"; Jl**i]
x-
xx
shame."
In some cases for euphony, in other cases to avoid ambiguity.

3x0
JS^
Supposing from
xxxo
.
**
the stem
jj,
îj]
were in use, the root might be ^> "to backbite", on the form cUv>
2 Fa-nkasarat.
S
The
of the Infinitive in
a hamzatu 'l wasl.
The form
meaning.
of the Passive Participle is not found in stems with a neuter or passive Vide notes to Stems IV and VIII.

VIII
of
693
STEM, J**i
*
ifta'al*, is
formed by prefixing
to the
*
first
radical
and by inserting ta ( A ) before the This form resembles No. VII in expressing the result of second radical. the action of the primary, and it also expresses the idea of such result after
No.
I,
which then
loses its vowel,
effort.
It has generally
:
a reflexive,
less
frequently a reciprocal or passive,

one's
signification, as
*-*-&]
*
" to acquire
for oneself, earn
living"; *&*>[
*
" he busied himself, he tried"; Jti&l "he engaged

in
,,' o
himself,
was busy
*r* O
"
f's &
(work for himself or another)

* S *
;
*-ALLf
s
he borrowed
(a
thing")
cUiit
s
" * '
" to take fire "

he touched
"".S*
'
+ + , o
)
V-r* * +b
v^9**! s
" " ne was exerting himself violently

** +
felt
(<j~*>
")
^N^Jt
" he sought to touch, he
for";
(^
;
he helped)
*it was
^^x>t ^
full
he was victorious (by God's help), he was reinforced"

*+*
^"o
JILcJ
+
"
;
(3^
" he passed by on the road, he excelled ")
+++ O
(3^*t
if
" he beat in a
9,,*
race,
< xx o
'
etc."
\j+ete*\
*
"they contended
' s*&
;
or litigated
with one another";
i^J
to be collected"
j*l
/ xo
>>
"
to be or get
mixed with."
f '<,? xiawo
-^xO
9
Active,
Participle*
JUj&c
mufta'il.
Ex.
"striving";
*'
managing, manager"; ^feiU "waiting for";

4
*,<* t
V-AUSLX?
"shunning."
Passive
S>"<j
Participle
JUiAx>
mufta'al*".
Ex.: C^;x
'
^'/o /
"elevated, high";
*-jik "shared, in
common "
un
$,'<,?
;
j*&*s>
:
"
abridged.'
^xO
Infinitive JU^'f ifti'al
.PxG
^X .
*'
XX
.Ex. u*^J X
objecting to, objection"
jly^J
'
"
avoiding
Jf'<*
' ' ;
"
fly^t
honouring, honour.'
'
Verbs with
I
(o).
as & first radical, do not appear to
have
this form.
Vide Assimila-
tion,
2
When
this
VIII Stem
is
intransitive,
as: A$J|
"to be accused,"
the
' '
Active
Participle form only is used, with a passive sense, as : muttahim (not multaham) Vide also note 1 to IV Stem and note 3 to VII Stem.
accused.
694
tfxo
IX STEM
suppressing the
JUit if all".
'
This
is
formed from the
triliteral
by prefixing];
+
first
vowel, and doubling the third radical.
It expresses the
s *
:
becoming a conspicuous quality, such as colour or bodily defect, as

? f O*
(^Lo
" he
&'
adj.,
t,
had a
bilious
complexion" j&*t
;
"yellow ") yUj

*
"
to be or
become
'
yellow, to yellow
"
;
v*^ " to be hunchbacked ", v<f * " hunch-backed

;
')
&' O
V*=4
" to become " hump-backed
f,f " to be 0>* one-eyed ", >*f,

' '
&><,
adj.)
}^[
"to become one-eyed."

are found in Persian.
'C *
Of
this form,
one or two of the verbal nouns only
$is<*f
Active Participle JU&* muf'all.
Ex.^+*
/
*'
becoming very red."
Passive Participle.
*
Infinitive
*
None.
Ex.
J**jJ if'ilal.
<
^^
<,
'
f^
"becoming crooked";
J^t
-
'
"becoming
squint-eyed.'
X STEM cU&wt
*
istaf'al".
It implies inquiry, desire, opinion, or tendency,

**Q+ O
with regard to the matter predicated by the simple verb, as
JU*t " he
*
wanted to know, he inquired

thought
it
' '
;
'Ô'-O
j*&>\
*
" he asked
xxO'C
for
' '
pardon
^r-suUo]
x
he
beautiful"; j&iiit
"he thought him contemptible."

xxox-O
* '
:
Sometimes it
is
* merely causal, as uiUa*j
to make to swear, to adminis-
'$*
teranoath" = Ul^.
xxO *
XX&..0
This form is also a reflexive
of No. IV, as
(^JUf
"he taught ")

xx (, x o
;
^JULof "<he
X
taught himself
"
:
x x c,x </
J^^yL-J
"
to feel oneself lonely
"
" to surrender." ^JULcj
This form
This word
is
merely the 'adjective (noun) of

;
colour or defect*
with the final
radical doubled, etc.

2
3 * 6
vide
XIV
(6).
is
This word
is
used in Persian. not used in Persian.

'
Originally also
to ask or
command
to be sworn."
is
And sometimes,
therefore, the
meaning
apparently neuter.

It
is
695
frequently denominative
and
may
<xOx
o
signify
summoning
for
a purpose and also becoming like, a

'"
as: fdîo^t
"to
call
one to act as
ÛL
and hence "to engage as a servant"; <*$-!]

as a witness" (tr.),
(tr.
and
intr.)
"to produce
<*(,/
(intr.)
;
and "to
* x
testify to, to
become a Muslim"
j^sS^>\
" to
become like^wj^, to petrify."

Ex.
:
Active Participle <*s&~* mitstafil.

*
<**
c.
c*Al~x> (" wanting to be in a +
e*G^
hurry",
i.e.)
"hastening";
;
JUfti-ô
"coming towards, future";

;
"wishing to resign"
rents, a lessee."
*-^jL~* "deserving of"
^.UL** "one who hires or
Passive Participle
<J*fti~
muslaf'al"*.
Ex: JU**~*
brought into use,

' ' ;
used
' ' ;
^~:sJ~x>
"
thought to be good, appreciated, liked
ÛL^c
hired,
rented."
Infinitive
J(*s&l
^
<
isti/'al
un .
Ex.
JU*x-of
X
'
"using"; j&*L[ '
''asking for
'
pardon
" **.<* *Ui.f 2 "

;
tendering one's resignation from office."

if'SU*, is
x<>
[XI STEM, JUfJ

the second radical.
formed from No.

No. IX, as
:
IX by
inserting
an
alif after
&'^<,
It intensifies
;&J
" to become very yellow."
According to some Grammarians No. IX indicates permanent colours or those that are transitory or mutable. qualities, No.
This form
is
not used in Persian at

*0
all,
and
is
very rare in Arabic even.
St '<*
&'
muf'all
un
.
 (the definite form) also means "resigner,

^
i.e.
one who has
resigned."
The
Past. Part. ^jiUl-A) mustafqP" (note the absence
of the dots
under
^c)
signifies
* It is
in Arabic
"pardoned";
in Persian it
is
not used.
a rule in ofji, that when a hamzah follows a weak letter that is sakin, the has a maddah (written or understood) ; or in other words the long vowel is * ' ' ' ** fun (measure prolonged in sound thus ij^ ghant} "he sang," but S\A& ghinaa
weak
letter
"singing"
(verbal noun), in Persian Ixp.
696
"
QUADRILITERAL VERBS.
p
Infinitive
J^lif'ilal.
"
Ex
"
:
jj**>l
becoming very red."]
't^b
e
[XII
STEM,
d*j*9[ if'aw'al".
This form
is
not used in Persian and

,
is
rare in Arabic even.
It does
not occur in the Quran.]
[XIII
STEM
is
Jytit ii
r
awwala
This form
not used in Persian, and
is
rare in Arabic even.
It does
not
occur in the Quran].
[XIV STEM,
iu
if'anlal" is practically
not used.]
[XV STEM,
Û*jf if'anlq
is
practically not used.]
*,,>
IV.
Quadriliteral Verbs
( <jsl>j ). **
Quadriliteral verbs are
formed as follows
(1)
A biliteral
root expressing
sound or movement
cause to shake, to
may
make
(2)
be repeated to indicate repetition, as: ciyj"to

to quiver'*
(
Jj to slip); <j*-rJ
" to
whisper ";
triliteral,
pa+*>
to neigh"
letter,
To
the beginning, end, or middle of the
a fourth
usually a liquid or a sibilant,
may be
added, as:Î*j
"to
raise
*
up
(dust,
or from the dead; from jfc);

(3)
^+
"to be proud
of
(from
"to be high"):
letters,
They may be formed from nouns

foreign, as
:
more
than three
some
form
of
them
vA*^
"
P u ^ socks on a person
(from vj^j
Ar.
of Pers.
vJ^)
>
^*fo"to become a
^^
(4)
They
may be the prominent

3
1\
st>9
parts of a well-known formula, as
JLsf^
to say JU-o
to
s*,* ,
^j
*y
Jy^
"
;
" to say
l-o
*Ut /*-J
"
;
"*,-
J-^^
" to say praise be
God."
There
*
,
Remark.
are
A few derivatives
numerous onomatopoetic
' '
of quadriliterals are found in Persian. ** <,' ' ' " to <Xc ; gargle quadriliterals as
:
s-
whisper.
QUADRILITERAL VERBS.
697
STEM JU?
;
fa'lal*:
in formation
and conjugation corresponds to II
it is both transitive and intransitive. of the Triliteral " to cause to swing to and fro."
Example
vî
t,
f
Active,
<.'^9
e
Participle
JUiU mufa
lil
un
.
f <s>9 Ex.: Jjt> "quivering";
'9
v <io*<.
Passive Participle Jl*i/o mufa'lal"". 1

'
Ex.:
v <**/o
Ex.
:
dangled, dangling,
hesitating.'
Infinitive *U*J
un
fa'lalat
.0
or J1U* fi'lal.
* G
"
#>.!)
quivering,
an
earthquake
II
"
;
xO
:
$ * ** b*
also J]>Jj
Lyj
or
^-^j
"
whispering of the Tempter."
STEM
Jl*>
tafa'lal": in
formation and signification agrees with

*
Vof
the Triliteral.
Example
^*j&
to hesitate
' '
;
J>!>3
" " to quiver
Â^
" to act like a eAkfck."

Active Participle
volatile
JU*ALo mutafa
X
lil
un .
Ex.:
J^^ X
"shaking, fanciful,
"
;
^ OX '^ ' ' * CJ^JÂJ hesitating.

'
Passive Participle, None.

Infinitive,
JlA> tafa'M**.
J**jf if'a'all".
x
Ex.:
J>J>3
"quivering; an earthquake.
is
"
III
STEM
This form
intransitive,
as:
^*
"to
creep with terror (of a person, the skin, or the heart)." to VII of the triliteral.
l
It corresponds
xo^
&
Ex.
:
<0
o^
'
4cft*ve Participle,
JUi>c mufa'iU?*.
^.Ûia/o
being at rest in mind
[from
*
e>Ul>
" he
leant
back
(in
a chair or on a pillow)]
J=*+<^ "withering."
Passive Participle, None.

Infinitive,
J^*o]
if'i'lal.
Ex.:
e>
i*kj
"being
at
rest
in
mind";
"withering, vanishing."
[IV
STEM
iyanlal". JiUfj *
This form
is
very rare in Arabic and
is
not
found in Persian.]
This
is
also the only
form of the masdar^l-mlmiyy
of the quadriliteral verb.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
VI.
Irregular Verbs.
Verbs vide Paradigms at the end
xxx
(
For the conjugation
of all Irregular
They
are classed as
* x 9
&*
as
:
&
)
1.
Doubled
(UcUw>),
xc
f or
^^
"to extend,
to
help";
"to
flee."
2.
Hamzaled (>^>), as: j*\

^ ^ O
"to order";
JU
" to
ask"
(Im-
CÔ
or
<xx
;
perative
cU and JUj
I.
JW)
fy
" to read."
xRemark
the III and
familiar,
If
,*
-
the
first
radical
is
hamzah, as in o^f
*
o^
J
" to be social,"
IV Stems
become at
will
be identical in form, as
^f
(III)
" to become
familiar ,
to
one's
ease" and J-rf
(IV)
"to make
seta person at his ease."

?,<,*
','
Remark
'
II.
xx
If the last radical is
hamzah
f
(or
orj) as in
)
fjftj-
fy
" to
read
,
;
^^..^
"to become
blind
";
f'
$ <" ** (3rd radical ^ JA*J

<j,
"togobe-
yond," the
3.
Infinitive of its II
Stem
is
&*&.
Fa*
Jlx> b
JU*x>
Assimilated or
Weak
of the
*liJf
),
as: **> " to
promise
"
;
^j^
" to be dry."
Remark
f
/.A
e
word cannot begin with

'
alif.
verb beginning with
is
mahmuz,
vide
2.
Remark
tive, as
:
II.
Verbs with the
first
radical
waw, drop the j in the Impera<s
** " promise
"
:
the measure of the Imperative
is
Jk
Such verbs
may have one

unite, reach
of
;
Infinitive of
Stem
&,
as:
<*JLo
or cXo?, from Jb>j,
"to join,
" <&^
or
-A*OJ, f
rom
-ft-^,
"to
(
praise, describe."
In the Infinitive
IV, the j changes to

in the
<.$,
as: ^l-j|
from
^j
);
while in VIII, thej, as

is
also
this
case of
:
^,
(
is
assimilated to the e, that

),
characteristics of
Stem, as
JUft5}
from JLej
and
;LJt
from^
The
Infinitive of III
is
Uo
and of IV
INDECLINABLE VERBS.
699
4.
Hollow, or TFea& o/ê 'Ayn
o^f
<s
L>
(irjjJ|
<JU*x>), i.e.
which have
in their triliteral infinitive, either of the

' x
weak
Jyi
letters ^ or
W*
as the second
xx
? ,
-
radical,
as:
j-\j>&i "to say" (from
"saying");
etj
^-
jo*
" to
sell"
(*" selling").
.
The measure
sell";
of the
Imperative
is
cb, or cb, or cb, as
cU>
"say";
The verbal nouns

,-
of
Stems IV and
add
after the third radical, as:
fs s O
]
and
AxloLot
from
fl* ).
JT
x
LJ
xo*
îUf
wxO^
x-'
-Ôx -
5.
Defective, or
weak of
the
Lam
oajU
JXnx), as:
J>P
^JJ
"to raid" (from^J*);
^^
^t;
).
"to call";
t'tJ"
to throw;
tl
yarzq
to be pleased."
These have,? or
^ for their
3rd radical.
,as:
4
In the Active Participles, the terminations are changed into
for^fi
and
for
For the
Infinitive of II, vide
Remark
into
II
to (2)
above.
In the Infinitive of III, the

of
).
^ ^
is
is
changed
alif,
as:
(Inf.
In the
Infinitives of
alif,
IV, VII, VIII,
and X,
where the third radical follows an

O
the
changed into hamzah,
as
*laJj
from ^SJf
*U*H
from
jÂAJ-ol
etc.
(&)
Combinations of these
may
occur.
Verbs with weak
letters follow
the usual euphonic changes.
Remark
I.
If the 1st as well as the
3rd radical
are dropped in the Imperative (vide 3,
weak, both weak letters as: Remark II); the measure is

is
^- 15^
"x
tr.
"to save," Imperative

II.
(3 q*. x
1
Remark
jfo
)
:
The "Doubled" verb
is
a
(3)
"Strong
to (5)
or
(6)
Sound"
are "
verb
the remainder, especially classes
and
Weak "
VI.
Indeclinable Verbs.
These are:
only.
(a)
" he is
not," and <y~*" perhaps," which have a Preterite

in
all
Both are conjugated
persons, numbers and genders.
(From
700
J>^
NOUNS OF ACTION WITH

9
<
fty
*a*-Jf
"am
I not
your Lord?" comes the Persian expression c
J(
j^
"the day of God's covenant with man").

(&)
The
following are found in the 2nd persons masculine and feminine

*
*
+ *
of the Imperative only,
singular,
dual,
and plural: olA

*
"give"; JUS
"come."
(c)
To
s
singular
* *
these may be added '(S& "bring" (Imperative); found in the and plural masculine, and the singular feminine. The expression
' '
tj^.
fU =
prolong
it
"=
99</'
1
*j*j, etc.
is
In the same numbers and genders haste." This occurs in the Azan.
VII.
(a)
found
$*
(Imperative) ''come on,
Verbal Nouns of Action formed with

'
(^*W>"^Jf
*).
Besides the simple
Infinitives
'
or Verbal Nouns, there are
some
verbal nouns beginning with p, which have exactly the same meaning.
They
are of the
form of the nouns

or
' +<**
of time
and place 4
Ex.
*
;
:
J*JU and *l*i* or

; '
s'UftA>.
^j**
* '
' '
striking
' '
sitting
A+ayo*
doing kindness
*
'^'
"
* '
o*
<*>&x.*
9
'
The broken
?
'
plural of
, ,
' ,
these
is
regular,
<>
on the measure
S&,9
Ex.:
Jtcla*, as: ^
<Û*; s
,
*a>[s<>; s
v-^Lflx. *
"$>'
f&,9
j
(
II.
Jx). JUfixj.
(
v^y
:
= v^P)
s
"mixing."
III.
f,*f cUl*)- cUli.

*
*
'<j;
*i,
f.*9
Ex.
(JLllfixj
*"' *
(ordinary Infinitive &13&c
c ' '
).
f ,<,*
Ex.
:
IV.
V.
( *
cUJ!
<v
cUiu>.
r^&
$&, ,
9
honouring.
(
î"x f
(cW). J*AJ^.
, -
Ex.: ÂlLo
= i3^J)
(
f&, ,
"being tight."
f, ,*
long-suffering"
t
^^
-
,*,?
)
VI.
( cisUii
elcU&c.
Ex.
*,9 cUlaeox
*
= LUUu) "being
In Persian and Urdu, pronounced as the accusative case, waghayr

These
infinitives in
a-li u .
In Arabic,
the word has the three cases.

2
M, and the noun of time and place, are always identical in form
is
the passive participle too,

f>
the same, except in the simple
triliteral.
But
&j*oxi
"a
-"
time or place of striking," as the Aor. has
~3~ as
its
second
vowel.
C."
c:
' .6-
In Persian
"**a^x and
NOUN OF TIME AND PLACE.

VII.
701
(J*&l)-J*aLc.
Ex.:
wJU( = v
:
iftJ!)
"change.''
VIII.
J*2l
J-ii*.
'
.
Ex.
J&Lc = aOf)
(
"complaining
"
;
= v yj
' O
{
|)
drawing near
'
IX.
J*) ^
-xoxo
JA>=
.6
for
i*ax
).
Ex:
^RX
(= ; j^t) "being red."

"
' b'<j*
*<**<* 9
X.
XI.
J*Ai/ 'c
(
J*fti~e.
Ex
< <
:
yiu~A>
the deducing.
used.
' '
JUit)
^
~ALMasdar u 'l-Mimiyy u not

begins with
'
(6)
If
the
' '
triliteral
waw
the measure
is
$ * lU&x, as
<>
Also from a few roots that do not inheriting.' &jr* begin. "promising ^ O' f tff ++* ' " with ww^, the noun is formed on this measure, as fca^* returning ';
;
:
"
"
to be easy
"
)
' '
' '
being easy
' '
being an orphan.
also,
' '
(c)
In the case of verbs with four radicals
the al-masdar u 'l-mimiyy u

*'<>'
f
is
:
+<*9
on the measure of the passive participle; as J>!>^=*i>Jj

(d)
etc., etc.
The al-masadiru 'l-mimiyyah, and the nouns
of time
and place
of all
derived forms from verbs of three or of four radicals, as also of the simple root, have no plural; but when these forms are past participles
quadriliteral
they have a plural.

VIII.
(a)
Noun
of
Time and Place
e)U)
je
the
%' ?
'
:
*U-f
).
The measure from the simple

f f o
'
triliteral is
same as
**>*
for
the
f
*
<j*
*,
al.masdar u 'l mimiyy",
i.e.
J*a* or J**
and
%,"*!' Ai*Ax>
or &***, as
Jlfc*
"a
place
of slaughter,
a vital spot"; cU>> "place of
alighting,
~
stage,
place"*;
*"' "
4* *
l&o
'
maqam
un
"place
of standing,
place", from
ftf
"to stand";
The second vowel
maqburah.
these forms
not constant, thus mahlakah or mahlikah maqbarah or In a few cases only are two such measures found for one word. The pi. of
is
:
,'
is
jUUx
as
.*3tCc pi. of k-jJ&c
and
&&,
vide
IX
(d).
In Persian also " a palace
' '
*ii^
Ar. Pers.,
,
and Urdu,
the quarter of a town."
702
<?Q'
NOUN OF TIME AND PLACE.

J*XCX
,0>rc
/"xx
"graveyard"
ti
(also ^xa/o,
" g^Lo and *,**>); Z&#Q or A&$A: place of destruc-
/x OX
on
"
or
c '
place of execution
";
&^>>>/o
xla
place of study, a college"; A

?.'
Pst, *
*"
"place of giving decision, court";

addition of the
*
or
<x*Ja/o
"printing-office."
The
often gives the idea of " abounding in, as
Sx.U
a place
* .'
abounding in lions."
For verbs commencing with j or ^ ox /XO " sometimes JUax, 1 as *sjx* place or time
(6)
(1)
^
of
the measure
' '
is
J*jU and
3
'
promise
/
;
and
^fxG
,51*4x5
x*
" time
or place of fulfilment
of promise,
rendezvous
<*s
' ' ;
"
îU>o X
for &}*>
X
"place or f
(/
time of birth, anniversary of birth
^^
"
s
<
watering-place," etc.
^~i>o
betting
(2)
game
at archery
"
x'
(from^j
^ o*
;
"
to cast lots with arrows ").
This measure is also formed from some roots that do not

rc
commence with
ô~
5,
as
<*=F-~/O
mosque
"
*JT*
"
west, sunset
"
;
$ O"
*-*^*
"
place of striking
"
;
ix)
place of alighting, a stage."
4W ê
a&ove can be Infinitives
(3)
When the third

:
radieal
"I,
is S
)
weak, the second syllable
is
with fathah, as
^^
t,'
for
i^j*
from
^
'
l*S
'*
to graze
"
;
always pointed S s i=X ) tS>^ (for
Û
from ^^f " to look for shelter."

the derived stems and from quadriliterals, these nouns are as the Passive Participle (and consequently of the measure the same
(c)
From
of
al-masdar'l-mimiyy
also), as:
II.
(Jâ- (for ^***
"prayer carpet";
is
one of the measures
fop the
noun
of instrument, as
cjl/fc*
(for
f xO
?rt
"scales";
Uftx
"key."
Plural
c[yo.
>*
From Stem
I,
on the measure JUjto.

xo on the measure JUiU.
j<T
xx
Plural
^f^xj.
From Stem
I,
NOUN OF INSTRUMENT.
V.
703
U>vo "place of ablution"; VII. ;**0x> "place of descent": VIII.

$,& 9
(
for
y*
"
)
pillow."
110 passive /.Though (only the active) u u participle form, yet for the al-masdar l-mimiyy , and the noun of time and place, the theoretical measure of their past participles is observed.
j
Remark
neuter verbs have
Remark
II.
It will thus
be seen that a word
'?.
like
have four meanings, (1) " treated kindly " (pastpartic.) (2) " kindly", or being treated kindly" (al-masdar l-mimiyy); or (3) "place of- "; or (4) time of kind treatment (i.e. noun of place or of time) while
;
'
j*yô
from pf* ) mav "treating another

(
' '
&o being from a neuter verb will have but " time of infin.); (2) change "; and (3) "place
there
three, (1)
of
change."
"changing" (intr. From Stem I,
can be
:
four
active
measure)
i.e.
meanings (the passive participle having a different and passive infinitive and time or place of killing.
;
IX.
Noun
of Instrument.
(a) (1)
There
is
no fixed form for primitive nouns, as

Vide also
&***
" a knife
' '
rjd/
"a hatchet, adze."

(2)
XI
(a).
The following forms

Examples:
j^fo
are from triliterals (I Stem) only
JUlc ; aJLo;
JUix>.
*
"file";feax>
"butcher's
chopper"; jJsx><a
packing needle"; <^JUw>
" a strainer (metal)":
*~J&o
"broom";
)
<*Iô
1
"fan"
(from
"blowing pleasantly");
*(&**>
Sfj* *
(f or
(for
&fjx>
*
a mirror
';
AftkLo {t girdle,
zone of the earth";

1
&Juu>
strainer
"( = the
commoner form
(3)
C5iax).
When
weak
this
noun is derived from verbs with ^

remains unchanged, as
:
or
^ as the medial
(from
radi-
cal,
the
letter
f,t,
^5*
*
" halter "
*)&*
" to lead ")
b&*
"needle " (from JbU
* ^
la^ " to sew
").
These nouns are readily distinguishable from the Nouns of Time and Place by the Jcasrah with which the prefixed mim is pointed.
1
704
OTHER VERBAL NOUNS.

,<,
(6)
The two measures
JWu
x
f~^ and JUiU

x
of the
noun
of
of instrument are
like
also rarely used as adjectives. 1
They convey the idea

/xc
as: Jl*~*>
doing a thing
machine and hence sometimes habitually,

f xo
Cf Aft-o
"
coughing habitually";
"
coming towards one with boldness."
Vide also
XV
(5)
Remark
III.
Remark.
-0"xo
In Persian, perhaps the only word found
of this last
measure and
meaning
is
;U*x
x
"a builder; an architect."

instrument sometimes indicates the vessel in which
/
x
(f
(c)
The noun
is
of
'' O
'
something
pail."
contained, as: >*
or s^-suo " a brazier"; *-*Utx> " a milk-
/ 'O
(d)
jxxo
The measure
of the
broken plural for

J^xc
it
is
Jkft/o
and
Al*fix> is
>* "' cUla^, as
*
:
'
/x
files
, ,
/xo
",<>i^
"girdles": of JUA*
JUlLo, as:
U^^> "arch",
pi.
X.
Other Verbal Nouns.

35 'x.
/o
3- ^
^x o x
).
(a)
THE NOUN OF THE NUMBER OF TIMES

is
or (*/J| f-J x x
S^Jt ;<^^^
This signifies the number of times an action

suffixing a I to all Infinitives that
done.
I.
It is formed
It is a
by
of
do not already end in

'
form
the
Noun
The
of Unity, vide
XII.
/*(/ x
/xo
/x o x
;
measure, for I
Stem
is &**',
as:
<&^ "one blow"

" one
&>*>
*>5
"one
"one
promise"; "
standing.
Xf^
"one
draught"; xJU.
sitting";
Examples
A^-C
^Hr*
c-J^
"they
sat
ô
sittings "( = t^JU);
oUjjl t^lS
is
e^x: "they stood up several times."
The
plural of this
measure
times."
the
regular feminine plural, a plural of paucity,
and
= " several
Make no change
for gender.
NOUN OF KIND OR MANNER.

Steins II
'
CONCRETE NOUN.
705
and the simple Quadri literal, 8 have two forms of each one of Infinitive, ending in *; consequently for forming this noun,
-and III,
that form that does not end in 1
is selected.
When
is
the ordinary verbal

t,
*
it,
noun ends
tsss
>/C.>^
in
8,
a word to limit
its
meaning
Vide
placed after
as
*^j x
&>tfl **+*(
"
1 raised
him up once only."
also Adverbial Numerals.
(b)
NOUN OF KIND OR MANNER

manner
of
a j.i'f
^t
or
* yJi ;*-A>C
).
This
indi'**
cates the
%'<,
doing an act.
From
the
triliteral, it is of
x 9 f
xxc,
the measure <&*, x

Cx x
as:
u^"mode
^
of
writing,
handwriting":
is
(<-*->!
&&
x
ooiT
"I
wrote like
^ x&
/'O
Yusuf)."
If
the
verbal
noun
already of the measure *JU* (as *<*&\

+
*
),
manner must be expressed by a paraphrase.
From
number
does."
the derived forms, this noun

"**
('
is
X
'
the same as the noun indicating the

'C O^
r 5>r
of times
vide' a), as
vi^^
&
%j*
vO
" ne mixed
it
as a doctor
~ô
XI.
The Noun
(^t*H
î
Concrete Noun).
(a)
PRIMITIVE NOUNS
be
referred
ôl.Ji ^J|f;. " XX

to
Primitive nouns are those that canroot.

' '
;
not properly
any verbal
/*
They may be
triliteral,
' ' ;
quadrihteral. or quinqueliteral
as
JbJ
" camel
f^ <,? JSUA* "saffron in flower
quince." They exist in varying measures of all three forms. They have no fixed forms or measures. They are always concrete and are not derived from verbs. Still, in dictionaries, they must be looked for under the form that might be that of their root.
xx
"
From
primitive nouns, however, derivatives
may
be formed, as:
<
*.'
'"
Infinitives (JU*Jl>.
and
<XJUAj.
* Infinitives
JUj and
o
.
d'JLcllta.
Infinitives
JiU* and
45
706
/
-
NOUN OF UNITY.
"
>*xx
x x
" horse or mare," "

Petrify
;
<j*;t*
horseman, good rider'*; j?u*.

J*x ^ 6 '
;
" a " to stone, "^t*u

'
>V
*~f
" a lion "
S^*
(
'
'
a place
full of lions.'
(b)
DERIVATIVE NOUNS
<3J&/c ^*i
ma y
be derived
from nouns or
from verbs.
XII.
<
Noun
9 o
of Unity.
c x *
NOUNS OP UNITY
ii&^yf
/*-*] )
indicate
one individual form out of

X
.
" a a species, as: "doves," x'xU^ pigeon or fUa* "pigeon-kind" or *' r ' j*, " a cock dove," (but fU*> used as singular is the masculine of A'-*UA> and=
pigeon"): **A^
The
"a piece of gold," from gold coin" or is a plural of paucity. the feminine plural, plural, regular
$*,*
e *'
"a
v*^ "gold,"
XIII.
Some Forms
of Verbal Nouns.
f'
fi'alat**,
The
1.
principal are
J^X^
TRADES AND OFFICES
(abstract)
#U>
X
as:
;l^ *
"
trading,"
*illk
"
tailoring
I.
;
&f
"clerkship."
is
Remark Remark
under
The
plural
the regular feminine plural.

or carrying of the
II.
The person professing

Adjectives (vide
/x/
on a trade
measure
is,
,'
as stated
Intensive
XV),
f Jto,
f &
as:
vLo*
"bufrcher."
PAINS AND DISEASES are JUw fu'al u * (which is also one of the measures e ,* f -./ fxf $ ,? for sound), as: |A* "headache"; f(# "catarrh"; JU-* "cough"; jU^
2.
*'
quinsy."
3.
(i)
* f
CONTINUOUS OB UNBROKEN SOUNDS are JUi

/o
i
/u'oZ** (also
used
for
some pains
etc.), as
of the body), or
'
cix** fa'il** (also
one of the measures for

r
motion,
t^*
"a cry
f
' '
,
'*
' '
j&*
whistling
*' .' 8;**^
'
one whistle ")
jtJL* "the sound of running-water, snoring, etc."

X
For these, the regular
feminine plural in
l
ei>
is
used.
Vide end of
VIII
(a), p. 652.
tt*
5
But
L
or .k (from the
jj}&*
same
root) generally
means
*'
prostration (in worship).'
SOME FORMS OF VERBAL NOUNS.

f
707
*
(ii)
BROKEN SOUNDS
sound
f*'*
AlaJLf
are Ml**,
and sometimes
/xx
f,f
' '
All**,
as:
*^
'
" cachinna
f'
-
O '
tion, the ha-ha-ha
of loud laughter
"
;
*
;
'ij*j*
gurgling
<*<A*AA>
" rin-
sing the
mouth
' '
;
' '
gurgling of liquid poured from a bottle."

* *'
is
For these
'
,.
>
' '
either the regular feminine plural, or else J/Uu
used, as
>&\*A+A* or
4.
MOTION, COMMOTION, EMOTION,

ttw
c>^** fa'alan**
and
less
commonly
/a'i/
(which
is
also
one of the measures for sound), as: &kj*> " running

"palpitation
;
/xx
fast: 0^50
flowing": d**L
of
heart":
;
J^
"marching,
departure
"
:
f<, X
J*aJ
a torrent
fast-galloper (horse)
traveller."
*'
5.
rii
FLIGHT OR AVOIDANCE, JU*

/x
<
' '
:
fi'al**
(which
is
one form of the
trilateral
^x
' '
Infinitive),
as
)\j*
flight
;Ub
"
drawing back
aversion
"
:
^
t(
iLA
bolt-
ing,
running
away ":
*Uj
for
^t
"refusal":
v^~-
"veiling," and
hence "modesty ",

ly," o/50
<f
Zo a "
:
veil or screen
"
:
wlii
'
encountering unexpected-
veil
"
Mi
" a sheath.
Remark.
f
1
Most nouns of the measure JU, make
their plural in J<u, as
f
pi.
99
v ^, X
v^
(i)
6.
A SMALL BIT &*>

' '
'*.
un
fi'lat
,
^ xo
as
:
>^
" a broken crust

"a rag
' '
piece of anything
**W
^
a fragment
' J
AJ^
^ra<
or vertebrae of the back."
XX
;
also a
broken
|â>
" one of the
>x
^
:
^XX
^
/X
Fide
X
These take the regular feminine plural or else JUi, as x

also Collective
e>l*lM or ^1J.
Nouns
(e).
/,x
(ii)
f ,,9
fu'alat"*,
f,*
SMALL PIECES, REFUSE #Uf
as:
i^
"filings";
;lAi
"saw-dust"; A^y "clippings, potsherds'*; AÛ^ take the regular feminine plural.
"sweepings."
These
708
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
*'<**
(iii)
SMALL QUANTITY, &** fu 'Ia1, u n

' '
;
(also the
' '
;
measure for colour), as:

***>
"a draught of liquid

small drink
A-iwJ
" a handful
" a small quantity

s
' '
"
(this
may
also be the Infinitive with the
of
unity).
pi.
>x f
These take the regular feminine plural, or

/XX
1
else cUj, as
&w
'
0/
" a copy,"
or
>>.
/***
i'JUj
7.
COLOUR IN THE ABSTRACT

,
fu'lat
un
(also the
measure for a small

"
sun-burntness,
quantity)
as
ty*.
;
" redness
"; ^-a^ "greenness";

f
x
*'
S^*JT>^
iS[^*
brunetteness
8.
"
but exceptions are

x
o^^
. l
whiteness ";
as:
" blackness."
VESSEL OR IMPLEMENT JU*
fi
al un ,
wJU>
"milk-pail";
"
throng."
9.
AN
OFFICE
" " -01*^
fi
alat
un
>
as
" ^ &iU
"
office of
Khalifah."
10.
fs-Z'
MACHINE, OR PLACE WHERE SOMETHING

"
fireship
is
OBTAINED
Hi
(i
fa
alat un y
as: 93\j^
11.
"
;
/// " *? chalk- pit."

Nouns
vide
For
Participles used as
XIV
(a) (2).
XIV.
Verbal Adjectives.
(a) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES denoting an inherent quality are derived from the simple triliteral (generally of neuter verbs), but are irregular in form and
measure, as
i(
' '
^^^ " handsome

' S
' '
(&>**>
" to be handsome ")

$
;
*
' {
'
happy
(from
~js ^^
" to be happy ")
j*a*
X
cautious
' '
(from ;AX
<c
" to be
cautious ")
&&&
"thirsty
"
(Jwti
f
" to be thirsty ")
^1^
naked
"
(from
" to be a naked"); ji*
"empty" (from^>);
v^
{<
8
good"
(from
if
maqaurah
^,
for
or
is
written without the dots.
But^JUa
" to whistle."
Also -A^
*'
zero."
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
709
(2)
The
participles
are also
used as adjectives and nouns, as: cUb' "accomplished

'
"temperate"
also to
j~Lo "humble";
r
1
cU* "to
excel;
/
remain over"): /JU "learned"

' ' ;
' '
(from
' ' ;
/*JU
'
"to know");
"
' '
"
of
writing, a scribe
<->)&o
-
written, a letter
^^y
existing
(a
/G'o
*+j
'
to find");
&y>*^
" mad."
.
Remark.
is
The measure cU * when formed from

1
cl**
and the
transitive u**,
not only a real participle indicating temporary state, but also a substantive
t
/
or adjective denoting habitual state or continuous action, as

'
f^
'
/s
and from tU* (always
as:
;lj r Vx
fJU
etc.
But from the
intransitive <J*,
intransitive),
the measure has the participle sense only,
"rejoicing";
(from
"being cowardly" (from e^^
tJ^J
:
.
"being
narrow"
/d-x
,
the corresponding adjectives of these are

(6)
/<
,
//x
e;^-
^-x-
t^. X
of the
9
)
;
ADJECTIVES (MASCULINE) DENOTING COLOUR OR DEFECT are

f
'ts
:
9 + b*
measure cUif, as
^^\
;
^x
"to be yellow ")
^f "green" (^L "

-
" red " ^^G*
+ f
(
/>
j+=*>
" he was red "
'
<j'
J*+\
"
{,
yellow'
</x
to be green ")
:
;>^f "black-
eyed"; J^f*" squint-eyed "( Jll

eyed");
"
-ftjjAf
J^J
to be changed, etc., to be squint

(also In
" to be thin in the

-*
stomach"
" deaf "
;
good sense of a man,

9 '<*'
to be lean. in
the flank ")
^f
^c,'
ma
(for
This form undergoes no permutation of weak letters
^f) blind." *" u^f (and not u*^ )1
"
Remark
is
/.The
feminine of this measure,

? ~' '
when
it signifies
cofow or defect,
y *
<"
f~ * 9 ^'* 8 >iU^ , as:
&'
AAU
white"; *il^ "squint-eyed";
*U*
deaf";
JL*
2
to whistle."
of
Also^>JU> "zero."
(q.v.)
is
Stem
IX
the Verb
merely this adjective with the

vide Declension,
final
radica
mushaddad.
8
The
servile
hamzah changes
to
in the dual
XXI
(").
710
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
'
*
"blind."
"desert.'
1
The termination Vide XVIII (6)
is
also
found
in
substantives
as
3.
Remark //.The measure

or
defect (not
elative),
of the broken plural for the adjective of colour *G/ /O ' f ' masculine or feminine, is cU*, as _^+^ J^> and
:
and
(c)
THE ELATIVB
(i.e.
Jx-aftUi
^-.j
).
The same measure cUf

y ,
gives
the
*,
masculine elative
\U
comparative and superlative), as:

$
'
<j-*^f
"better or
or
' <"
best"
J*f
<{
more or most majestic" (JUU
positive);
J*f "more
most
high"; jJJ^t
"more
is
or
most thirsty"; <j^f " more or most

*'<,'
naked."
When
tive
the positive
already of this form, as in o*#f "white," the compara;?
i --
and superlative are thus expressed

*'
Uajj
<*f
<c
more intense
as to white-
<ê
most intense as to black."

followed by the preposition
(d)
When
the elative
is
"than "
it is
comparative and always remains masculine singular in form, as
t+
*ix)
"she
is
is
greater than
(of
he";
all)
otherwise
it
is
superlative, as:
-?xo'
"this
Ae grandest
(of all
1
";
^ ^^
'
^JL-
ill
"the greatest";^!
of
Al^f
"God
is
most Great
**
)";
J^ -f
"the noblest
men";
the largest
(fern.) of
I.
the cities."
is
Remark
If
the latter part of the comparison

etc.,
not
simple
noun but a sentence

{^
an appropriate pronoun
2 s c-^ f
s-s-bs
is
suffixed to
a's
'&
s '
&
U>o
stosbs
or)
M&
^f
uiklf >f^Jf
"the weather
is
better to-day than
it
was yesterday "
^^f^wj ^x) aU| J^j ^t^F^
f**^
^J "and verily I was
O-"
1
i.e,
gj*
^<
" than any other being."
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
more concerned about the wounds own wounds. "
of the Apostle of
711
God than
was about
my
Remark
9
as:
II.
The
)
article Ji
is
not a necessary adjunct of the superlative,

the
Elative
is
Ô*l )
(J
^\
*M\jS't.
When, however,
defined by
it is
the article, or by a following genitive, or a suffixed pronoun,

superlative.
(e)
always
The masculine
elative can
be
formed from most

:
a comparative, the elative has only the one form
it
As has no feminine and

Triliterals.
no plural.
Remark.
Elatives are naturally not used from roots which express ideas
that do not admit of comparison, such as
**
to die."
Adjectives that express colour or defect do not admit of comparison on

this measure, as they are already of the
(/)
measure
<J*Jf.
is
For the elative
of the participles of the

UloXij
Derived Forms, a paraphrase

or better
resorted to, as: tal$x*!y^f
<x|
^ ^f,
it
jj^ Âi ==>*!.
(g)
The feminine
is
jk
fu'lq, of the elative, is only
when
when
of
it
a qualifying epithet or
when
governs
used for the superlative a genitive (and not
it
is
a predicate), as:
cP*J|
ÛadT
larg est
*)?
of
tlie
"the Most Excellent names

cities": but
God"
is
1
;
o;^
" the
,V^
"
is
" she
the handsomest of
my
"
daughters
;
(and
WU &~*j
9'
(jf
v^3
<*'
Zaynab
handsomer than she is").

formed from every
feminine
:
Unlike the masculine, the feminine cannot be

?,
(_,*
9, o-
9 *
-
triliteral
thus
^f
f/f
j$\
d+*
etc.
have
no
the masculine form
is
used, or else a paraphrase.

superlative
is dUtif,
The
plural of the masculine
and
of
the feminine
dU, or
(rarely) oUA*>, as
jtf\
pi.
jfc\
tej*
pi.
J&\
or
*fy&* Vê XXIII
(r) (15).
ie. the Attributes of

o
t
God
ifrtiU>UUf
"
).
.
The
^"*
?
<*
essential
'
is
name
*
of
God
is
"
'
9
).
The exalted Name
of
God
^Vt
knowrl
*-u
^-ill
magic power.
712
VERBAL INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES OB INTENSIVE AGENTS.

<v,
Remark.
^t.9
^Jl**
may be
the fern, of adjectives that are not superlatives,
'->
as: ^JL^
"pregnant,"
br. pi.
o-^;^^
"f
"hermaphrodite,"
br. pi.
and &U&..
i.
"evil," are substantives or adjectives: they form the elative in the usual manner. However, their positives are often used
(h)
j^L "good," and

f*.
jZ*
for their elatives, as:
^
x
9,<.*
(
j*M
or
^
ff
f&*
"this
is
better than that";
/G " the best of jA
man."
XV.
Verbal Intensive Adjectives or Intensive Agents,

** x "c
x
-=
9 o
their force from, the triliteral.
These are adjectives or substantives, and are derived from, The commoner forms are
:
i.e.
take
(1)
Jt*j an intensive form
of J^tf.
Ex.: JU*
"
killer
of
many";
" a great
liar
"
;
f &,
^^
" a great helper."

:
Remark.
tor,
Professions are generally of this form, as
( 5" <Jl&
"a
great imita-
a professional story-teller
traveller (especially
"
;
"&
fl?^
;
"a
f
" barber
"
/
;
JKf
* '
glutton
"
;
jf
35
x-
^^
"a great
z>s
by sea)"
)\**
very treacherous."
(2)
cU3.
X '
Ex.:
&** '
x
"very
truthful"
&l* X
"
"
truthful";
"
friend")
"
:
CH^
very silent
"
:
jj^
"
very holy
(of
men
but
/g-
of God):
Â^ "very drunken."

/
' *
t
9*
&,
(3)
J^.
*.
Ex.
"
);**( =;U^>)
"
very patient
"
;
f ff
^^
"
very forgiving
(of
God)";
very thankful; aho a great appreciator" (said of
God with
This form
J^w
is
very rare;
"very great";
aUa..
"great
collector
+>
=rUA., W?6
(5).
VERBAL INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES OR INTENSIVE AGENTS.

reference to
713
/ J^Tf = J!<|
f
man's few good deeds)
u-J^
'
'
&'
"a
"
glutton
;
9,
VJ *r = v !tf
$ &'
" a great
very frowning, looking angry f 9*

liar
"
;
"
J^
,
'
'
very ignorant."
= J>**X3 (but J^y " accepRarely, this form has a passive sense, as: f f * $,^9 tance"): J^-; ( McUê "sent" i e.) "Prophet": here it has lost its intensive force.
J^
(4) LU**.
Ex.:
fx^'very
merciful"
*
".
(of
God);
"very learned" "

*
:
(of
God
or
man; but
^
"
'
of
man
only)
<**&
''very intelligent
"
pJl
very
painful."
This form
*.
'
'
is
not always intensive, as: uetyo "sick"; p**>

f
;
"a
;
philo-
"
sopher
a
*
;
f " dear <~*&*
vJj^fi
"noble, of good family";

is
&+&
deep."
In
J^j
"
very stingy, miserly," the intensive meaning
contained in the
root.
This form,
$ 9v
,
when not
f
'
intensive, has often the signification of the passive
participle
/
^
JywU,
-
as
cUi
"
"slain
"
(
f'9^,*
/
;
J^
x)
f * *
' '
wounded
"
f 9 o
^
;
(=
^j^}
^
:
-xji
/ 9o
'
>JA>C.
It
,
has sometimes, though rarely, an active meaning, as

' '
****
' '
witness
' ' ;
*^
quarrelsome
" = ^=^), and

(
if
:9
also
' '
enemy."
There are other rare forms.

(5)
To a few
$&
intensive adjectives, the addition of * gives

1
still
greater
intensity, as:
(*3U
learned
(of
man
"the very very learned (of God or man)"; ? * 3>' b ~(j f ^* n cc very intelligent"; but j*Al\ **lf "the only)": fW*
'
rt
tj$' *-=^
most
intelligent
f'
'
of
the age
"
:
'
jfj
e
c*!jJf
'
a relator of something that

$<>&,
$>,
:
happened"
*,+>+
^j
f
"a
professional story-teller
# &
;
= M\j$
Jfy "talkative," but

collector
t+
f
'
*M = **>J ^^
ferring favours
(
&
" " a collector

?f
)
Ûa. " an habitual

FiWe
"
:
e^ ix
" con-
<iix
On
"
;
-^'W X
Ai>x intensive.
XIX
(/).
No
epithet ending in a
(which resembles the feminine), or in
(which resem-
bles the ya* H 'n-ni8bah), can refer to the Deity.
714
THE RELATIVE ADJECTIVE, AND
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN, ETC.
In Persian, of this intensive form, perhaps the only words used are x^x ^&, **JU and &*\&.
f
There are other rare forms of the intensive not found in ' f&,> " an immoderate &a*e as: but Persian, laugher"; JjÛ "a great disI.
'
Remark
criminator
"
(epithet of the Khallfah
'Umar) and
t
{*^5
ssS
"Everlasting" are
xx-*
+>f
/OX
'*
occasionally used in Persian.
In the Qor an occurs *>J

'
if)** 4
JkJ Jjj
xx
woe to
every backbiter and defamer.'
xxxJo
<j
Remark
regularly in
s
//.The Ism u 'l-Mubalaghah

x
&JUJ| f*t
',
forms the plural

Ex.
/
;
^
f
3>
except the form with added

fs"&s
which has no
plural.
f&s
pi. of
s
;
eyoAc,
ffc
but
*JU has no plural.
Remark II L
f
-C
As stated in
$
'
IX
(b),
the two measures of the noun of
in-
strument, JUjU and Jl*A^, are also used as intensive adjectives:

of the intensive g
these admit
for
mentioned
in (5),
but they
9
;
make no change
.?
gender;
x ,
and JxcU/o. they admit of the usual broken plural JUUu ^ x

(7)
For the Infinitive used as an intensive adjective vide
LXII
(d).
XVI.
The Relative (Denominative) Adjective, and Noun, and Collective Plural.

A.XD
ITS
its
Abstract
THE RELATIVE ADJECTIVE

I
suffixing
ABSTRACT NOUN
is
formed by
and rejecting the
of the dual J of the feminine or the endings

is
and
or plural, and denotes that a person or thing belongs to,
connected with,
the word from which
it is
derived, as:
K,
*^
;
"
LS**b
"XX
paternal, maternal, or parental
^ô "belonging Z " "
to
Mekkah," from
4*^
"
belonging to Hasan,
(the
or to
the
Haaanan* ";
;
^^
&
^relating to the
Haramaw"
sacred
precincts of the two mosques in
Mekkah and Medinah,
or according to
some
Mekkah and
I
Jerusalem).
Masculine and Feminine.
defaming behind a person's back,'
'
but j^J " defaming to a person's
*"f
face.
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN, ETC.
715
(a) If
the
noun
itself
ends in a
,>
C;
preceded by more than two
letters,
there
is
no change, as
If the
t$*>*
a Sufiyy."
(b)
of the
noun
is
preceded by only one

j
letter,
the
first
^ is
of
marked with
fathah,
and the second changed to

I
as: t5^
t,
Hayy
(name
an Arab tribe and a village),

(c)
^
1
-
L$S**>
If
a noun of three or of four letters ends in

is
^
:
or
or
(as
adj
^
*
ta*)
the final letter
changed
to j before the suffix, as
l^*,
' *
t
rel.
x
& "
I
"youth," c?^ 5';
^ name
&
of a hill in
Mekkah, <_*&*;
t
;
^^
.
"John,"
rel.
^
If
'
" Moses ";
1.9
adj.
u#~* "
the
^^c^
rel. adj.
(d)
the short final alif

(chosen),
rel.
is
fifth letter,
it is
dropped, as
Mustafa"
adj.
ifcôS.
^^
-*
<'
I .9
the hubara bustard/'
Ua.
(for ^yji, for
^^
),
rel.
adj.
But
radical
in
nouns ending
in
^ with
^5-
has a vowel,
the
is
only three letters besides it, if the 2nd rejected; but if the 2nd radical is sakin,
preferably rejected, as
rel.
:
the
may
rel.
be changed into j but
is
(^g)-**.
"a
swift
.*
g
ass,"
adj.
c>^
rel.
<jr->y;
" the Barada River,"

<*>
adj.
"
2
relationship,"
adj.
^y.
or
x
*
U
-
Such forms
as
<jÛ^
^JÂJ and
tjb^t
though used by the Arabs of
^^
Baghdad, are incorrect, and are borrowed In Baghdad "Chinese", say
from the Persians.
Modern Persians,
for
Û^.
^^
era,
" Chinese chlnawi (m.c.) means " a Christian."

In
silk.**
2
In
India
is
and
Persia
^y~*c
for
the
and
~**
Baghdad, there
*
an Arab Christian family
known
as
Incorrectly,
amongst Indians and Persians
4
^
In Persia 8^yk.
Incorrectly in
modern Arabic and
in Persian
te& and
716
(e)
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN, ETC.

(
Nouns that end

f^ x
in alif
mamdiidah
change the
final
hamzah
but
$ MS*
into j,
,,
as
*U~>
"sky,"
s:
rel.
*
'
adj.
<_$jU~
''belonging to
the sky,"
*U&
'
winter
" becomes
\M
From
(/)
l~i>*
or Uii^j " France," are formed cr^y>

is
*~*j*->
an(i
vJJ^j* e ^ c
Aj
)
that has been dropped,

T
restored in the relative adjective, as:
v?
J?f
"father," ^Tl
(>Lf
"brother," <^lf
"blood,"
; </?*> X f^
la
(^b X
"
)
missionary," ^j*^. "XX
(<7)
Occasionally there are certain changes in the short vowels, as: &**/?
rel.
"Medinah,"
tribe)
adj.
â*
madaniyy**',
J^J$ "Quraysh**"
(the Prophet's
^jS
Qurashiyy"*.
in the measures JU*
-^
The kasrah
*'*". and <&*

X
*
is
changed to fathah, as
JUtx>
X*
"a king,"
(h)
rel.
adj.
</
is
In the case of a proper noun compounded of two words, one

:
usually dropped, as
<^p from ^%4 and

,
^^ from
(
*-**!*>
(t)
The following
are irregular:
Û-j ^
**
from c^M^
of
^5*^ w x
" a follower
of
"a Abu Hanlfah," but ^***L ~ > X

:
follower
Hanif""
"
^
(an epithet of
Abraham)
before Islam, the Arab tribes styled themselves (j*&*.
(j)
Another form
"
of the suffix is
used in technical terms, ^1, principally
as:
]yde>
corporeal"
i^^jj
spiritual
";
Ûao "lower"
;
(of letters
dotted underneath
also of a storey in a building)
<yUy.
,9
In modern Arabic, as well as in India and Persia,
^g^jf. x
**
Xx
special kind of shoe without heel that
comes from Yemen,
is
now
called
^^
~
it therefore
" Yamant." un annoys a Yamaniyy to be called

(k)
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN. ETC.

is
717
The feminine
J.
of the relative adjective
formed
in the usual
way by
adding
Persians however distinguish the and the abstract noun [vide (1)] by a long t ( e> y
Remark.
fern. adj.
1
by a
silent h
),
Remark.
Besides the regular
masc.
pi.
[vide
XXI
.
(p)],
broken
t-~
plurals are found, as
:
^j**
"a Moor,"
pi.
&; Ux>
*./.
i
;
ôj^
a Damascene,"
/pi.
>
;
.o.
<x&iU^
^^taw
" a Bagdad!,"
pi.
x^fo.
(I)
THE ABSTRACT NOUN.

noun
1 ,
The feminine
"
of the Relative Adjective serves
as an abstract
as:
^f ^
pertaining to
God ";
dx^ft
"divinity":
^^
"foolish
"
;
AjJlAU "state of ignorance, the time before Islam
"
:
vixT
"how?
",
rel.
adj.
^^,
;
and abstract noun

1
*^^
- Pers.
^^-
" the
howness, state, etc."
c^ *,
Ar.,
"what
is
that? ", abstract noun
UAU
in-
trinsic worth, qualities, nature/''
Remark.
instead, as
:
c^V
;
In theological terms, the termination ' / 9 * " f <j9'

'
ut un
oj
9 ,,
is
found
'
tence of
God "
divinity / ^ '
o>Û
kingdom
of
God "
"
CIÂ*.
omnipo-
oj*.U
"
humanity."
So, too, a collective plural is formed from the relative adjective (and also to
(^)
COLLECTIVE PLURAL.
words by adding the

singulars) as: ^j**,
6
' '
fern. 5. to
some some
of
relative adjective, "materialist," Jyy^
"the
sect
&s
singular noun.
* '
dahriyy
(Jl**>,
camel-leader, or a
man who lets
out camels
on hire,"
pi.
t'3" " a body of camel-leaders "). #U^
As
stated elsewhere, Persians have imitated this form and added the termination to
:
some Persian words, as

Indians
*'
o*JL " dog-naturedness

*
is
(in
a bad sense)."
*
even write ON.ÛJ ("everything
nature ") and in slang say
being a native."
718
THE DIMINUTIVE.
XVII.
The Diminutive
(a)
The Arabic diminutive, which

triliteral
formed from the
is very rarely used in Persian, is a by inserting quiescent ya after the second letter
and pointing the
first
with
zammah (_
);
4 9' fv the measure is JU*5, as: cJW>

t
"a
man",
f ,9 dim. uua^> rujayl un
(used in contempt
= Pers. ^Xy
ft,'
)
:
*>>*
slave,
dim. HAC
"a humble
slave; also a slave-boy, or a little son
of a
slave."
[The diminutive also expresses endearment
tf> ^jV),
and even enhancement

* <"'
f^ 9
(s&*
" the very best")].

f
<,'!
,b -
From
(c)
quadriliterals the
form
is
JJU*, as:
*->*
vide "scorpion," dimin. w^fc, *
(2).
For more
letters, the
form
is
f ^? J*L^, *
f Stst
as
:
"
f f b'*
j>fca*
sparrow," dimin. J*B&A, vide
(c) (3).
be formed from substantives, adjectives, participles, , , $, s &, f demonstrative pronouns (e.g. bi from t^, and <*&&*& from *-^t^; note that
Diminutives
may
the initial vowel

35x
is
here
&
),
&'
and not -
relative
pronouns
xCx^
(
(taWi
xfrx
from
and
<Â)f
),
from certain prepositions that ore substantives

of
AJ^ from
O' 9
x
*>*? ),
^x
'
from some of the verbs

he
is!
surprise
and wonder
AAHS*-'
I*
" how good
"),
and the numerals.
Diminutives cannot be formed from nouns that are already f**9 " of the measure, such as o**? a bay horse."
Remark.
(6) There are rules for the euphonic changes in short vowels they are not given here, but are illustrated in the following examples. (It must be recollected that the characteristic or dominant vowels of the diminutive
:
measure, are
1
zammah
-) at the beginning,
and kasrah
of
--
at the end
"a
f
1
date," dimin.
*,*+>',
dimin.
JÛ
" sughayrq dear
little
&,** (fern, * x one "

(j ;
masc.^f)
' '
'
'
*fj*. (fern.)
of
red,
''smaller," f ,^ 9 dimin. *1/4**
/'C,'
"dear rosy-cheeked"; Jl*^f
(pi.
paucity)
'loads," dimin.
If the
noun has a feminine termination,
it is
suffixed to the diminutive.
THE DIMINUTIVE.
9
un
719
uhaymal
"little
" Salman"" loads"; eAJL. (prop- name),

9
,
,
diraiu.
Sulayman"
9 'b ' 9
"(dear)
Solomon "; rfjL,
^)\)^t sukayran" "slightly drunk; also dear little
"drunk," dimin. > drunkard "

raasc.,
9, f ^
'<,~
9^J*
%'
(the fern. <j$j~ / , f,^,9

:
expresses endearment
of a mistress that
has S;îvJt
triliterals)
^^jJf)
)\&
5/J^
f<<s9
and 4Û^ = JL*
'*'*'*
(from
certain
fern,
;
Jj
"hill" = JLJ5
(c)
(f or
With weak
fi
letters:
(1)
vMfor v^) "door,"
dimin.
v^y buiwyb**:
/ô
;
'.
)
f o*^
v^
"eye-tooth, tush, tusk", dimin.
V-AXO
nuyayb**
cyt>^>
(for
jj,*
X
"balance, scales," dimin. efcLH** muivay&n** "small scale"; $** X
'
"
opulence
/
^
(
/xox >
from
^j
dimin.
SXAUX
^ 0< 9
(2)
/
1^ "striker," dimin. v; ^
^j*
x
"
zuwayrib*"
' *<**
;
f,^ +
jâ. "lion," dimin.

u
^^ '
hmvaydir*"; -*->i "Joseph," dimin. wJu.?^
Yuwaysuf
"dear
>
little
Joseph
dimin.
"
;
j*^ "boy, also slave," dimin. ^jJU gbulayyim** (for Â*); u^ 1*,
-^
^^^
wx/
(
/^/
for
(>;
^
^ o
j**, dimin. c5Ac
Ac
).
/ox/
"key,"
dimin.
9 o ^
(3)
UAXS
#&&*
f
%
mujaytih"*;
JÂC
"sparrow"
(often
b s 9
applied to any
little bird),
dimin. j***** 'usayfir.
(4)
The following should be noted

'
f''
(for ^jf
" father "
%>9
;
^f ubayy.
;
^f (forj^f f tj9
" brother"
($>, 9
^lf ukhayy.
Lf "'sister";
.
%U ukhayyat"*.
;
,*
ijjj
(for^
"son"
^v bunayy.
"
;
*'<
*<. " &j] or oJu daughter
9 f ?*: *jii
bunayyat"*.
"
a thing"
or
AJ^, shuwayy
or shuwayyat
720
' '
.f
GENDER.
&*1 "slave girl

f *
"
;
*A/O|
umayyat
do.
un
.
ff
(5)
" mother"
in the
do.
As
formation of broken plurals, so too those nouns that have

f*
c- '
more than four

f
* 9
radicals, reject all after the fourth, as:

un
.
J^yu
"
quince",
dimin.
(6)
j**
sufaynj
Compound nouns
as:
take the diminutive in the

slave of
first
part only of the

;
compound,
"fifteen",
X ^/
tM\*ip
"humble
God"
(as
a name)
j&*
*'
yu
"a
&**> "a mere
fifteen";
v>^
<-&
"before
sunset":
Jjg*
little
before sunset."
be formed from regular plurals, masculine or * 9 * 9 o ,9 s f x " feminine, and also from plurals of paucity," as: e^-^^ dim. ijj+l>> J cl> ^,
(7)
Diminutives
may
*&>*
pi.
dimin. olMJ.
(8)
few diminutives are very irregular,

dim.
/ &x as: u*^*
"sunset," dim.
(;UJ(
ttjU-*^!
XVIII.
(a)
Gender.
There are two genders

is
masculine and feminine.

the feminine.
r'
The place
of the
neuter
generally supplied are of
by
Some nouns
A.
common
gender, as
^y
" a horse or a mare"
" a wing."
(b)
The following
are Feminine
by form
as
A J;
'
1.
Nouns ending
'
in servile
$,
U
'*
"striker
"
[unless the sense
is
fa " a masculine, as in <&U. Caliph
"
>
(pi. *tAU.)].
o *
2.
* f
Nouns ending
in servile
&
',
as:
^Jl^
"
Salma "
'O
;
(a
woman's name)
-A.
" most beautiful "
[vide Elative,
XIV
(g)]
^f*
"remembrance "
-^*
are feminine, without the tantvin,
and make no change
for case.
GENDER.
<j?
721
^, for^y^, from
and
to be near ") " the world.

\
^
^
*'
/ox
-
yy "to
be low, also to be mean

t
however the
x
^
t
is
radical,
)
it
may be
x
)
masculine, as
J^\
(<^& for
^&)
);
/
(
"youth"; ^^^f
'
c**^
"morning"
(from sunrise
*
till
about 9 o'clock
/xx>
Ô*
but
tsjftlf
as a fern, (broken plural of AJ^J
"towns
' '
^y
for ^sjS
).
3.
Nouns ending in #T,

x
1
as
*UiiJf " Khansa " (a woman's name)
o'
"a
plain
"; ^fîiJf "the sky";
/OX *f^ "red"
/^,
(wde
Adjective);
sama**"
**sky";
*V^
"grandeur,
magnificence,
haughtiness";
"desert."
(c)
The
following are Feminine
by
signification
1.
1 Proper names of women, towns, and countries, and nouns that denote
females, and participles on the measure
JUU
that are applicable to females
only, as
o^f
)
;
" a sister
{
"
;
*'
j*o*
Egypt
"
;
J/oU.
"
"
pregnant
(vide also
XIX
2.
'(/)
yu
*barren
"
;
" menstruous.
The name
' '
:
of winds, fire, wine, as

' '
+>j
"a
n
strong or stormy wind,
also flatulence
j
/x
North Wind
"fire":
(but Shimal
jr
hand
f*
side
-
"):
^
and
/c x
x 9
" the North, or the leftf,,9 /tfxx

**&<>
"wine": ^f^
or
"wine": p**
and>->etc.,
3.
etc.,
"Hell."
" hand
The
double parts of the body, as:
"
;
J&
"eye
"
;
-&
" shoulder"
cj; X
foot"
also
^X
" tooth" (there are an evew num-
ber) are feminine.
Remark.
//Cx
"feet
These, besides the dual,
make
their plural
cM
/x>o"
>f x<>x
or Jl^l, as
"
;
/x
îf
<
>*G>>
ears"
(sing.
&&\
).
Because
(j^jf
- iijjô ^fj^J
are all feminine.
x^
In Persian, and in colloquial Arabic, the feminines are used. f b' The principal direction is the East or j&*.
46
722
GENDER.
4. Collective Nouns that denote living objects destitute of reason and that do not admit of the $ of unity to indicate an individual, are generally
feminine, as:
J*^ "
horse- kind,"
cU " camels."
sr
Those that do take the

tribe
'*
*,
are either masculine or feminine,
"
as: fU^.
"the dove or pigeon

is
"
;
4/cU^
"a
single
dove or pigeon": p* "people"
^:
masc. and
fern.
Vide
also under Collective nouns.
broken plurals are collective nouns (while regular plurals are not), and are therefore grammatically feminine (though in some cases they may be
5.
All
qualified
(d)
by a masculine
considerable
adjective).
I
number
are Feminine
by usage, as: Uac

etc., etc.
"a
staff,
/o
fs
>\*
*'
rod";^ "a well";

Remark.
"a house"
;li
"fire"
or that are injurious, they have
Some grammarians state, that things that the Arabs dislike, made feminine; while things they love they
f
<j
&*
have made masculine.
Hence
^^\
is
"the sun "
f"
is
feminine, while j+*
"a
moon "is
masculine.
f '
Firdaws <j*i/ " sky
"Heaven"
masculine
*t" but &*.
'
Heaven," and*U-
**
"
are feminine by form.
(e)
Of
Common Gender
are:
chiefly denoting animals
1.
Those collective nouns,
and plants, from

x^
S~
which a 'noun of unity' can be formed, as:
/x-
jfc "cattle
"; ai^ "grass-
hoppers or locusts
' '
;
j*~
"
trees
"
;
ÔX
j
,,<?
* '
dates."
'
These are masculine by

').
^
form but feminine by Nouns.
2.
signification (AcUsJI
"
totality
Vide also Collective
The names
of
the letters of the

/0."
alphabet.
(These are usually

*.
feminine).
3.
is
Words regarded merely
as such:
JaftJ
is
masculine, while
*s* &K or***j
' "
feminine.
4.
/Ox
fJLo
considerable / f
number
of
nouns incapable
*<jt
of
classification,
as:
f
"peace";
^
4<
**
a ladder ";
Qr
;
"bazaar, market,
"
path, road."
street
"
;
"
barley ";
^;f
a hare
"
(gen. fern.)
JÂ*.
But *Lh. used
for a single pigeon, is masculine.
FORMATION OF THE FEMININE FROM THE MASCUUNE.
723
XIX,
(a)
Formation
of the
Feminine from the Masculine,

suffixing J (plural e,f), as: vj 1^ masc.,
The ordinary method

'
is
by
9 c *
' <
striker ,'
&;U
fern.
A/ojAswc
fern.
< '
served
' '
**Lc
+
muttahimat**
"accused."
#
Remark.
girl."
(6)
s
$"
a youth," ilu " a young
before I becomes
t,
as: Jti
(1)
1j
Adjectives of the measure ij&u become

9 '
<t
<^l*j,
as
s
(f
1 1
:
&\j~>
drunk,"
fern.
'
(f
f
;
fern.
i$j~\
&\*j^
"an
old dotard," fern.
^*^
vyL^L "timid,"
(2)
But
$
*
&{*><
ci>il*
<t*
(with
toiiM^Ti)
and &$** make

' <j?
their feminines in the usual

' '<?
f'*ii'
way, as:
(c)
"
repentant," &(**> fern.;
e) 1
^*
"
naked,"
*ikj* fern.
^xcx
(1) t-Uif
as a superlative (when defined

/o
:
by the
article or
a following
fern.
xof genitive) becomes ^5!**,* as * f f s 9,l>s

l
'
(^j^
"
9't,'
small-")
J^
fern.
masc. " smallest,"

?
" greatest," great") ^"f masc.
(2)
But
iA**f
denoting colour or defect has for
its
feminine *JU',
fern.
as
<,'
"white,"
fern.
f^.^y.Q, *^^ â&f

;
"chestnut,
red-haired,"
/.
ex
Aj&
^
"lame,"
^
(d)
O'
;
^'
ustft
fern.
^
x
.
*M^*
it
" a white
^
'.
leper," fern.
or intr.),
*^.
is
J^> when
equals JLcU
(tr.
and
a predicate to or
attached to a substantive singular, makes no change for the feminine, as:

/
>, *'<>
<ix)
" a contented
girl."
It
is
incorrect in Arabic to write this y as
v"
though even
in the
Quran such
orthography occurs.
f*f
'
.
Broken plural
3
JUfiJf
Fê
also
XIV
(d)
and
(^).
Plural for both genders cUt?.
/of
The feminine
of the
dual
changes hamzah into
j, vide
XXI (i)
Remark.
724
f
/x
it
NOTE ON FINAL
*<*
$.
'
But Jyu when
equals Jj*&*>, or
f **
if
no substantive
(or
pronoun)
is
expressed, takes the feminine

'-
as
" a v>0 masc.
riding animal, camel
"
;
AJ^J fern.
Remark.
(e)
The
plurals are the regular feminine

s
'.
and masculine
is
plurals.
'
.'
Vice versa, Ji**,

9'
when
it
equals Jj***, and
under the same condift* '
lions as
Jyu makes no change

<JU>
x
a*i>
for the feminine, as
^."^
*!r*J
" a wounded
woman";
6
"a
it
murdered daughter."
is
But J**i " when

usual
$ s equals <JcU, or
an ordinary adjective, takes the
XX
a,
as
&
"
intercessor," fern. &*dl;

*
o^y*
x
"
sick ", fern. &*A>j*. 1
Eemark.
(/)
These take the regular feminine and masculine

of the
plurals.
Those adjectives or participles

[vide
measure JUb* that apply to females

they indicate some permanency,
)
;
only,
make no change
XVIII
(but
(c) 1],
when
as: <3JU>
"divorcee"
fern.,
*&&*
J^lt
elc^ "pregnant";
"giving suck
"
*'
etc.
But
|&*j
' ' 2' &)lfc
Â
*'
she will be divorced to-morrow."

as
Remark.
These form the plural regularly in ef
XX.
(a)
Note on
it
final
g.
In derived and primitive nouns
often forms a feminine *, as
boy,"fem. a&"girl."
When
Noun
f *'
the
the
of
Instrument
'
*t
is
an intensive adjective
IX
(6)] it is
governed by
same
a
rules as Jyfc
and JUiu.
as:
In verbs,
is
it is ei>,
ooe
O'
' x
"she struck."
;
In Persian, the
are
final servile s of
ci>
Arabic nouns
generally written e>

,
some words
written with
only, and
some
is
either with e* or
indiscriminately.
Occasionally, in Persian (and Urdu), there

as-,
a difference in meaning between the two,

;
Jiîc 'aqida
;
"
religious belief (gener'
ally)"
eb
'aqldat
"
belief in
a particular saint, etc."
*JJJU ta'ziya
the representa-
tion of the shrine of
Hasan and Husayn," and
O*J_)MJ ta'ziyat
condolence."
NOTE ON FINAL
/"ox
*.
726
(6)
It
forms the noun of unity, as:
^"
dates," ZjJ" a date."

:
(c)
It
sometimes distinguishes a singular from a broken plural, as
a she-cat,"
S>
;>fc x
pl.
*A~*
"a
x>
copy, recipe,"
pi.
x
*~i;
&y
x-
"village,"
(specially a f '<t,
'
f* c 9
pi.
;
***
"a
fi ^ rarity," -**o or UtfUu pi.
"
Jf &|* " an animal
"
5'"
beast of burden), v'j^ pl
;
f,
***-
" a volume,"
f f 9 6 -ft5Uuo or -ftud pi.

r '
"
garden," u^>; and

<
u^jj)
and eU^>;
pis.
(rf)
F^ce versa,
/
it
X
>
sometimes distinguishes a plural noun from a singular

/^ ^
or JUj,
or else
a feminine
collective,
as:
<*V~
"travellers";
*?
' '
dwellers on the banks and drinkers of the waters of the
same stream
;
' ' ;
"a
dealer,"
*x
;
camel- leader (driver),"

pi.
pi.
xJU^
*
X
<{
camel-leaders"
&(***.
"horsepi.
&l&+> ''horse-dealers";
/xx
<c
fl*!
a leader in prayer, etc.,"
&
JA
"a
tom-cat,"
4<
pi. j>k
tom-cats
"
;
&^
^Jv o 9
" the " Sufis. 1
(e)
It forms substantives
from
participles, as:
fLi "water-channel"
"a
(/)
claim;
summoning; missionary work."

as: &jU*> or cUl**
X
^
It corroborates a plural,
/-o
-
"
metal-polishers," pi.
tS
of Jla^
and Jfl^; e^*/' " a Pharoah,"

It
x c
'* pi.
&*ty.
***, AJ^ etc.
(g)
emphasizes intensive adjectives or nouns, as
Vide
XV
(5).
(h) It is
used as a compensation for a letter dropped, radical or servile,
as: &j
cjjj
"a weight";
' '
AJU
uu>j; Z+jxJ for *tr^ "taking out";
A3U (for
*
>l>t
+
giving help."
Vide Relative Adjective.
726
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
XXI.
(a)
Declension of Nouns.
Arabic nouns have usually three cases, Nominative, Genitive and

'" o'ox
35,,
),
Accusative.
Plural
They have three numbers, Singular
tjitJI
Dual
ûjf
),
and
The ( e+*Jf ). the definite noun, as
tanwn marks
the indefinite, and the short final vowel
The Singular OyuJf

Indefinite
).i
Definite
s,
(
Definite.
<
,
)
(>*)
*j**
with Pronouns.
The book. "*ltf "His

kitdb.
al-kitdb
u
.
book."^ltf "My book."

kitdb-i
kitdbuh".
t
'
^
kitdb in
.
-;
al-kitdb 1
' ' <"
.
kitdbih*.
s' '
kitdb-i.
*
(j
'
kitdb an
al-kitdb".
kitdbah".
kitdb-i.
A word
(jej&xvo
(b)
:
in
the Nominative
is
called
j*j*; in the Genitive jj^w> or
and
in the Accusative WÂX*.
noun with three cases

' '
as
above
is
called a Triptote, or
*
by Arab
nomina-
grammarians, o^^Lc
tive
tive
is
declinable."
Every noun that has
in the
/ in the nominaEvery noun (undefined) that has ^ <*p 9^ vide (/). is a Diptote (oî^^-j^ # * f' , " words "father"; -f (c) The brother"; ji "possessor", f
a triptote.
S>
"mouth " [y ];
with long
" ^ vowels when
father-in-law
thing, vagina," are declined in construction with a noun or with an affixed
"; and
^"
9
'"*
1
Indians and Persians generally say *^t>M.

*
2 i.e.
when
9 s
defined
by the
**
Article,
o
by Suffixed Pronouns,
or
by a following Genitive,
flS-o
9$
-
as
Jl^.J\ v-jU^
(J^/^l <*J*
(z>* t
e ^c. etc.
99 x
727
pronoun other than

of
^
x
"
my,"
as
jjf
" his father"
^3 <^f '
#
" of the father
Zayd."
(d)
This
is
a survival of the ancient declension.

of the son
The noun ^1 " son," between the name

hamzah, and the proper name preceding
u
and the father,

:
drops
its
it loses its
tanwn, as
if
*JJ
Zayd
*
'bn
'Amr in "Zayd the Son

line,
of
'Amr."
But
the word
*J
happens to begin a
ft,
the hamzah
,
:
is
c,
not dropped.
9
jf
It is also
is
not dropped
when
<jJt is
used predicatively as
the hamzah of f*t
)j+*
^j
jjj
Zayd
the son of 'Amr.'*
In'Alfl
f~o,
is
always dropped.
#
A weak
radical,
with or without
(k).
tanwn
at the
end
) ^' ul5 *
-
of
course affects the case-ending, vide

4'
Remark.
The word
is
also used for
"one
of a pair, a fellow to," as
(/)
IMPERFECTLY DECLINED NOUNS

i.e.
(<Jj*a\*
j*
).
Some nouns
are im-
perfectly declined,
*
(
they do not admit of the tanmn. These take zammah in both the genitive and the in the nominative, and fathah ( '
.
.)
accusative, singular or plural.
Such are
called Diptotes. 1
All Diptotes when rendered definite by the Article, or a Possessive Suffix , or a following Genitive, are treated as Triptotes, i.e. they take kasrah instead of
fathah, as
^^
xx
(def.
with
al)
" for the very great persons," (but
yfcil indef.)
*
x
tjJt
^jV
(^)
(def.
without
al)
"
for the very great ones o/ the people."
Some proper names

Some
are triptotes, as
.
A+st/o
'
^
others, diptotes, as
again always require the article, as

in alif
' ,
fc^wf,
x
]
(h)
Nouns ending
9
(fern,
maqsurah have only the one
case, as
Musq; bjtf
of^f
).
,
l
Words that have only one
case like
Î
Or
&)*, or
"
;
an y noun
ined to
"
my,"
are not considered ghayr* munsari/
nor are the regular masculine and feminine plurals considered diptotes, nor the plural of ^J>,nor words likeÛ, though
i
or " indeclinable
they have two cases.
728
*<
(t)
The Dual
jJuJ
).
Masculine (y<*
).
X
Feminine
X
^Jy
).
Nom.
Gen.)
-P.
\
c/jltf
x x
kitaban 1
" two books.
Nom.
Gen.
1 i*)U&U malikatan
" two queens.

1
.
xx
kitabayn
1
.
(&#*& * * -L)at*
malikatayn
Dat.
In construction, or when followed by an affixed pronoun, the
o>
is
" the two books of dropped, as: VJ Utf

" in
his
Zayd"
*#&
^9
fl
kitabay-h
two books."
If
Remark.
(
a noun ends in
alif
mamdudah followed by a
servile
hamzah
*f
),
the hamzah becomes j in the dual, as: ^jfjtûo X
"two deserts"
Ox
(from *f/R-);
xXOx
x^t,
^l.^
u^f^]
X
two black women."
'
(^')
Regular, or Sane, Plural
Nom.
Gen.^x
Ace. 3
re>
729
for
both
cases,
1
with the tanwin (Jtf

is
qaz**,
and without
is
it
(^laJf al-qazi.
As fathah
over a yd that
preceded by a kasrah
#
not considered un-
euphonious, the accusative
is
an regular, viz. 1^15 qaziy X
and
x
^^l
X
aLqaziy*.
With the
**
^
affixed
pronouns, the Nom. and Gen. become

.
*JÛi qazi-h*;
x
and the
Ace.
<8U*0U
**
a u qaziy -h
Only the
definite
form
of such
words (without the

is
article) is X *
found in Persian and Urdu.

'
The
regular masculine plural
Nom.
oj-tftf,
and Gen. ^rt^-
(1)
Similarly,
*'
fata*
a youth
"
(from
un
î&iîJ
.
,
"
to be
young"),
.*
is
on the measure
u
.
<JU*,
standing for
J*
all
fatay
and
^SJtJf al-fatq is for
^^J&f
al-fatay
Consequently, according to the rules of permutation or Arab

is
euphony, there
<
no change
for case
three cases in the singular are

o.
),
^
The
and
&
Their declension
^" o
't>
.
%
not expressed
(
c/
(^J&l'.
is
virtual
<^J*&>
(J&).
broken plurals *** and

^
^^ are regularly declined.

^
" (m) So too U> usury or interest" (from

^
xx
>*c,-
^-^
" to increase,"
^
intr.),
x
and Uj "satisfaction with" (from

/x
J>'
xx ^^
;
XCx-
4.5^), are on the measure cU> and
stand forjjj ribawun and j./; rizaw un
they, too,
make no change
rule.
for case.
(w)
Words
like
and &^\* - c^^, while the passive participle will be
/x x
The
ike^^û
XX
^jj^.
The broken
plural of words like &jjU

/
and <^j& make ^!>^ and
sS
S'
SS
UJ in the
Nom. and Gen.

the
Sing.,
and
<^>f>^
and <^j& in the Ace. Sing.
But
if
(or
a j
were preceded by a fathah, the

-^
(or
would become
.x
)
aZ*/.
2
Arabs say that fathah
is
the most euphonious
<JUfi^
of the short vowels.
Note the absence
of the dots
under
to indicate alif maqsurah.
In the Quran
alif
however, the dots are omitted under every ya.
With the affixed pronoun,
maqsurah
becomes
alif tawllah for all cases, as
'":
:
Uj.
730
REGULAR MASCULINE PLURAL.

Remark.
Nouns
like
o^LJ and
*
&j*>
are called
"declined but with the

(p)
(i)
final
vowels understood."
is
The REGULAR MASCULINE PLURAL

Participles
used for:
making
their feminine in I
and signifying rational beings.
(ii)
Proper names of men, provided they consist of one word (and are
JU*f
not compound as &Uf **c x
),
and do not end in
*:
and also diminutives
of such
names.
(iii)
(iv)
Diminutives of masculines that denote rational beings. i Relative adjectives in (qualifying a masculine plural).
(v)
The
9 ,9,S* '<{ dative J**f with comp. or sup. meaning, as: ojySIU for v
Remark
I.
It
cannot be used for adjectives of the measures Jy* and
when these
feminine
are of
common
gender
(i.e.
when they do not admit

(4)].
of the
i; [vide
Intensive Adjectives
(3)
and
Remark //.Adjectives admit
of the
sound masc.
pi.
only when they
qualify substantives denoting rational beings.
s&*
(vi)
s&
it
'
JUj when
denotes profession, as: jUo "carpenter,"
pi.
(vii)
There are a few exceptions to the above

"
(also
fit
rule,
viz.:
&&
"
sons";
cJUf
jJjf
;
" " members of a family

^/U "world," &jj(*
")
ji
;
"
possessed of,"
pi.
^ and
" the universe

)
;
"
cj^;f
"land earth," ctf^f and

8
el->f (more
others.
commonly
u^ljf
AJU
"a year,"
pi. u^Ju
"
years," and come
The
plural forms a)jj&6,
ijy^,
etc., are
not the plural of JL* and
,&3
(which
is
)Ukcf
2
and
peculiar form.
In Persian
x
is
The oblique
case ^jJJm
used in Persian
(of
course without the final vowel).
REGULAR FEMININE PLURAL.

Remark.
731
As with the dual,
vide
(), the
c*
of the regular plural dis-
appears in construction.
(q)
(i)
The REGULAR FEMININE PLURAL

Feminine proper names.
is
used for
(ii)
Masculine proper names ending in

All feminines
S.
(iii)
ending in
$,
'
as: olfcUi.
o * t
(
'
tailoresses"
f
*<**
).
x-kt^ sing.
fern,
).
(iv)
The feminine
p
plural is cUiJi
(v)
superlative
^*
of
masc.
<JU*f
(The
broken
).
/o-;
The feminine *&*
(of
JU*f
when
it
expresses colour or defect).
*X
(Plural,
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
both genders cU>.)
Names
of the
months.
Letters of the Alphabet.
Verbal nouns of the derived forms when used in a concrete sense

>><,
"
and Stem IV
<*
"
and
all fern. vl.
nouns.
(Stem II has also a
pi. JUctiv,
ckck'f).
(ix)
Diminutives for things, or for irrational animals.

Foreign words
(x)
even when they denote males as: efj^T
UfT.);
>A (P.)
(xi)
(xii)
"
nightingales
"
;
ol*!>* * *
of
Feminine adjectives, the masculine
which has a sound
plural.
Verbal adjectives that are used in the plural as substantives,
as
(xiii)
Feminine nouns in (^
<*
and
9
"'<*
9
;
eUUa.
etc.).
^yi
"
f ,<,
memory ", pi. elî;
as: u&*> "pregnant," pi. ' ' " / , *o' br. <^r>*^ pi. (also *fj-o, pi. c^fjauo
*f
,
* b
(xiv) It is often
f $
ead in
' '
as:
fU*>
/
used for neuter nouns 8 even when the singular does not + f~ t masc. a "Turkish bath," pi. *aUUa>; *U (com.)
,
heaven "pi. e!jU~>, vide

1
(xiii).
These have no broken plural.
In Persian
In Persian
(jlf.
2 3
J|^Xt>.
Imitated by Persians in such Persian words
as:
c*U^
oj^JjT'A***'^
ci>lX.
Indians even say ctilx^ (vulg.) ''letters"
(for
the plural of the Hindi
^t^
),
and
"
>ljx0?,
*
ruins.'
'
Vide
XXII
(a) (x).
732
(xv)
DIPTOTES.
few masculine nouns that have no broken plural take the regular
f^ *
f
*
'
' '$>
feminine plural, as
c>t>^,
an animal, a living thing,"

is
pi.
Remark.
The Regular Feminine Plural

A'UA.
sometimes accompanied by
charge, attack",
pi.
a change in the short vowels, as:

'<<
" a
9
..
" a room,"
f , , 9
pi.
j ,? t
CD^SU^ and
XXII.
(a)
(i)
Diptotes.
:
The following
Proper names
,
classes are Diptotes

of
more than three

/*
<
(
letters that are feminine, or that

* ,?
end in
masc. or
fern., as:
w-*fj_3
woman's name)
&jl*x> (a
man's name)
**
" Mecca "; w^* "a scorpion," but

(ii)
^^ " 'Aqrab "

* * *
%
:
(a
man's name).
Foreign proper names of more than three

letter
letters, or foreign triliteral

-
names with the second

(iii)
moveable, as
Ju^
?r#" *4/j
triliteral
Feminine Arabic proper names that are
and have the

'*.
:
second letter sakin,
may
or
may
not be fully declined, as
*** or
*U
*.
(a
woman's name); butÂ*
**
Egypt," and^-A*
:
"
acity."
*'
But such
as
have
the 2nd radical mutaharrik are diptotes, as

9
^ft*
Hell."
*
Remark.
is
frj*
is
the same in
all
cases
vide
XXI
*'.'
'.
(/)
to (n).
^y
declinable, although foreign; because the second letter is sakin.

(iv)
Any
un .
proper names that are corruptions, as
Âfe Zufar",
corruption of
^
*
Zdfir
^(v)
Proper names that are on the form of any part of a verb, as:
f
*
(
(oncUif "I do");

(vi) All
<f
,
c
^35^
AJJJ
**>>
he increases");
" Jerusalem."
proper names ending in of
as
e>Ui*;
and compound proper
>**
names
of
one word, as
u^jJUj.
9 '*'
(vii)
All adjectives of the measure of

C^
is
*'
cWf
f<*
;
f '<( (but not eUil
).
[The feminine
9 G'
*' f
of
cUif as a superlative
.0^ Ox
i
^**, plural cUa^l
but the
pi.
^\ is an exception].
But JU;
widower,"
fern
DIPTOTES.
733
(viii)
Those adjectives
of the
measure îUo that have as a feminine

;
G '
x C x
as:
f
'
olAk* "thirsty/'
fern,
^ke
(but cAf>>,
"naked"
fern.
AiL
and
"table companion,"
(ix)
fern, <xjtcjj).
1
Distributive or collective numerals from

X
to 4, as
*\t*\
or
"
by ones,"
(x)
etc. (but
aW
*T in
units").
All
nouns in
which the
final
hamzah
>
:
is
zan'd
[i.e.
*f
not changed
^
from
4.5
'
Ox
of
or j as in
*U*, and not radical, as

declinable because its
;
*U*kj (name
is
district)].
But
*U "water"
the
*
is
hamzah
fern,
not za*id
it
and
in
has been changed from j
it
is
when
;
means "sky," but

was
originally jU^>
;
figuratively
when
*
it
means "rain"
etc. it
ismasc.
it
^
so too *L*i
X
was jUo.
X
'
'
'
In such broken plurals as

^rô x
Û=^l
"friends," and
*!*
"martyrs," the
hamzah
is za^'d,
but in *U~f "names," the hamzah
is
not 3a*id.
Remark.
(xi)
9
,
^jUs*
"pregnant
" has no masculine form.

letters after
Broken plurals that have two or more
a servile
alif,
as
(pi. Of
u>&*"
(pi.
of IÛH^
).
If ,x
however a
/;J5
X
& is
added to such a plural form, the
/x
noun
is
declined, as:
jl*
(pi. of
o|^)
"
money-changers."
(xii)
'
The numerals ending

/o
^-^x
in 5
when they stand
also as pure numbers,
x35
as
ii-. wAâi
3^ "
three
is
the half of six."

9,9
f&'
(xiii)
The broken
plurals J^
(from Jjf
"first") and
9,9
(from
"other").
(6)
All Diptotes
that have
Jf,
or a possessive suffix, or are a muzdf,
become Triptotes.
The regular masculine and feminine plural, and the dual, have two cases, but are not diptotes; they never become tripotes; also the only
(c)
734
feminine plural takes tanmn.
BROKEN PLURALS.
The
plural
ofîs not
dip tote nor such
words as u&* or
(d)
Feminine nouns and broken plurals that end
in
&
or
are the same
in all cases
xr '
and have no tanwn, as

' *
"
:
<^j&*
good news
"
;
Lit**
"
presents
sick
men";
"
jl*e
virgins."
Remark:
Those in which the
alif
maqsurah
is
radical
(as
in
"guidance"
f ,9 for <^*A ), are exceptions.
XXIII.
(a)
Broken, Inner,
or Irregular Plurals.
that no rules can greatly some measures are more common
These
are so irregular
and
various
assist the memory.
than others.
Only the tables of forms

As a
rule, the
after
for
Though some
irregular,
proficiency in Arabic has been attained should
broken plurals given in the grammars, be studied.

*x)
are given in the dictionaries
:
Broken Plurals (^-^xJf *

it is
when omitted,
to be
presumed that the word either has no plural or has a

;
Some nouns have more than one broken plural in this case regular plural. the plurals have usually different meanings i.e. when a noun has several
;
meanings
each, as:
in the singular, it usually has a different

*Jj
form
of
broken plural for

" sons or descen(which resembles
" a boy, a son,
"
pis.
t*Aj
"
boys," and
atyf
Ô'
dants"
^^
pis.
"
eye, chief, spring of water, the letter f *f f9t** f ' <,*

*
"
an eye), " letters
^f
"eyes"; e>W "chiefs";
&&
"springs";
." to be derived from obsolete singulars and not from
Many forms seem

those in use.
(6)
Some words have
the regular masculine or feminine plural as well as
one or more broken plurals.

(c)
The
irregular plurals are collective nouns
and are therefore usually

:
feminine, even
when they
are
the plural of masculine words
they
are
declined like the singular, triptote or diptote.

distinct individuals.
The sound
plurals indicate
So called by German scholars as the change for the plural takes place within the
of the word.
body
2
//Ox This form J^'f
is
generally used for limbs, etc.
BROKEN PLURALS.
(d) Arabs <<?(*'
PLURALS OF PAUCITY AND OF MULTITUDE.
735
count two kinds of broken plurals, "the PLURAL OF PAUCITY
)," and "the
PLURAL OF MULTITUDE "
sb't+9<j'
(
jl)\ g>*> )."
The former has four measures, mentioned

couplet
:
in
the following Persian

jw
<jf
$ *<j
Sb"
& ?b*
it"
AJUif
j J*jf ) JaJf
a'jjuf
o^l jl^
All other broken plurals are Plurals of Multitude.
PLURALS OF PAUCITY
(i)
are
*
JaJf,
1
as: cX^)f "feet," sing.
^)
+
the dual could also be used
"a letter";
J
o^f
x
-^
" some few
letters
"; (but
^
'
J^ " many
^
"
4<
*'
letters ").
f*
fc
.
(ii)
*W,
/' O'
as: *-J*
fs
"some boys,"
<*'
sing. (*Û (but
oUU
many boys
f
fj
").
'
(iii)
*JUJf,
as: &j>f "medicines," sing. *fj5
"medicine":
*^f "a
few
" " a drinkable" (but *->j~ many drinks"). This form the letter a long vowel. in occurs words that have penultimate only
drinks" from
^j
(iv)
JW,
as: (*^.f "orders," sing.
^.
This form
may
be
either
plural of paucity or
a plural
of multitude.
Remark.
'
literals
(i.e.
JUif
'f
and J
*
**!
'
can have, on the ordinary measure of quadria second plural formed, which
is
Jrl^f
^
and
cljÛf),
x
then a plural
of multitude.
a any number from three to ten incluThe plural of multitude sive; it cannot, for instance, express 2 nor 11. 8 denotes any number from ten to infinity. (e)
The Plural
of Paucity expresses
Some nouns have

cannot be
(/)
DOUBLE PLURAL
'
+-Jt
**. )
and such a plural
less
than 9
(or 10).
Vide' (m).
is
(1)
The REGULAR MASCULINE PLURAL

definite things,
a PLURAL OF MULTITUDE
:
when it denotes
whether Jf
is
prefixed or not, as
c^^f
s c/ cA.-
* s <S
Jbf
^ ^
This form
(JjtJf is
generally used for limbs, etc.
Or according Or according
to
to
some grammarians 'nine.' some grammarians from eleven.
736
PLURAL OF MULTITUDE AND OF PAUCITY.

'<j
I
BROKEN PLURALS.
happy who humbled
is
,9
(jf
S(j
&j*(
pjL*
^ p* ^Jf
^'
certainly the Believers are
themselve in their prayers

tude, while
"
:
here
x 9 9^ c^^Jf,
being definite,
a plural of multi-
&j*M- though without
Jf agrees with
a definite subject and
is
therefore also definite.
(2)
The REGULAR FEMININE PLURAL
is
a PLURAL OF PAUCITY, unless it * ' ' 's

:
happens that a noun has only one form

f
11
of plural, as
'
'
1
j^
"
tree-kind,
' ' '
a tree," &\j?J
9
;
"some few
XX
trees," jl-&l
" trees: &c3U " a sign," e
f' +
" " few signs

(g)
^Û
"
many
signs."
plurals
The
regular feminine
and the plural
of
paucity denote
several individuals, while the

(h) If
broken plurals denote a

it
class.
a noun has only one form of plural
has no restriction as to
paucity or multitude.
(t)
Broken
plurals are, for neuters in variably,
treated as singular feminine (collective) adjectives in the singular feminine. They may, however, be qualified by a
and for masculines usually, nouns, and usually take their
/x broken plural, as: fty
x/oxjr^
(or \3y*l
J^
J^>) )*' noble
men,"
as well as
by
the regular plural, especially

'-ftfix
,
the noun denotes rational beings, as f s or nj^JlUl u>7$0f: Û?Jf e*UJt^jf "the good horses";
if
x
tf-x/xcx/x
^
/xCx
{<
fat
cows "
"
)j* j)b
shining pearls."
An
noun, as
(j)
adjective in the broken plural cannot, however, qualify an abstract f' *',$,<*, s f '(,' ,S**>?,^
:
*+**>'&
JUuf (and not f5U

of
JU>|
),
but we can say <3^Vl

:
p$l*&.
There are three forms *

to the
/
singular,
x
c,"
broken plural
cÛ.)
(i)
Those that add a

pi.
letter
or letters
as:
"man,"
"men";
as:
property,"
a book,"
pi.
Jf>*l:
,
(ii)
x
those that reject a letter or letters,

f9 9
pi.
^
*
'
99
pi.
v^r
f &** " a ship,"
^ft-
(iii)
those that change the
Many, or few, as this measure is common to paucity and multitude, vide There is no special feminine form for broken plurals of adjectives.
(d) (iv).
BROKEN, INNER, OR IRREGULAR PLURALS.

/x
'
737
/
;
vowels only, as:

/
pl.
x
*f
).
" a lion/'
f 99
pi.
99
**1 (also
^f) "lions"
^^
"
great,"
$9
* (also lJb r
(k)
BROKEN PLURAL OF QUADRILITERALS AND QUINQUELITERALS

Examples
:
(not
J^
primitive).
^^ " jewels/'
f$i
'
9s*
pi. j*>\f
(pi.
$ of pi.
x x
)
:
xo *
out^t^ "
"
any conveyance,
ship, riding animal, etc.," pi. *-\j*
v^
^.
letter," pi.
&\UL "emperor," VUJ&; *x

9
pi.
j^C;
<
ru
"
'
key,"
pi.
**>&; '
e)^
(Per-
sian
^garden,"
pi.
e^^;
^,9
$,<,,
9,,
<*
(>*vo
magazine,"
pi.
c>3'-
i^*.
(1)
BROKEN PLURAL OF PRIMITIVE QUINQUELITERALS,

As
in the case of the
first
ETC. (exclusive of
[vide
and the long vowels).

(5)], all letters
Diminutive
as
:
XVII
(c)
beyond the fourth are

/
cut
off,
u,*JjIr
"
nightingale,"
9
pl.
x
XX
/xox
,x
:
Jil^c; csÂCi*
last.
"spider,"
lie pi. v.Af
the
rejected
radical
is
generally
the
But foreign words,
quadriliteral
/^x
or quinqueliteral
/x xx
:
xx
with a^7, are on the measure

/
xC/x
j'f ,
*Us'f, X
otherwise AiJW, as
f,
XX
/X xx
pl. *^l*l
;
"<>
/"/
<*
;
XXX
,
if
they begin
^"x
/ CÔ
x x
e^y,
pl.
^M;
</
^lJuf , pl.
**M
ÂJJ, pl.
/x xx
X^
pl. of
*l)f
Remark.
Note, too, such plurals as #aUc,
(7/1)
PLURALS OF PLURALS
j+*d\
x
u*&*
).
(1)
These are formed on the measure of quadriliterals and quinque-
liteTals,
& x *0* ' x "the dogs and indicate a large number, as: K^J\ ^^f x X
,.
of the
xxO-*
'
"x
of
Ô'
quarter,"
but
f
xt/x
v-y^>
v-^^ "the dogs
Arabia."
>>
Examples: Jy "sayxx
ing";
/0>
pl.
Jlyf
"some few sayings";
pl.
xx
of pl. /x
tfe*
X"
"
many
dual
sayings
":
^"x
;
ô
pl.
"
'*
pl.
^f;
of
pl.
^1;!: M "a hand";
urfA*
two
47
738
<,x

GÔx
l
* )
"
l
Xxxl
hands";
pi.
*>J
^*itf
"some few hands";
pi.
of pi.
a*if
(o&Jtf)
f 9 9
f
"many
hands,
9
also
, ,
assistance,
benefits":
/x
x
*******
" a book "
pi.
CA*L**
/ x/
"books";
<^|lc'.
pi.
uoJl*-*
"
many books ":
&**"a
city"; pl.ej**;
pi. of pi.
'Vide'
(e).
(2)
Sometimes the regular feminine plural

:
is
suffixed to the broken
as plural of a neuter noun,

^r
j*j*
-j*>\j*>
*>\j*\j+
^J=
" road "
8
;
pi. (^fc
,99
pi. of pi. *a*l5;J5.
(n)
IRREGULAR PLURALS.
:
The
following are
quite
irregular,
or are
formed from obsolete singulars

f
"mother,"
*'
pi.
^<"
mouth,"
water,"
pi.
|yf
" mouths
rumour."
$,
x>
"
pi.
^ or
/
x
/x &
C^
woman,"
"
aj
pi. *l~i
or S>-S or &\j~*
" women.
man,"
pi.
^JJ or <Ûf (and
pi. of pi.
&W
).
(0)
EXAMPLES OF BROKEN PLURALS FORMED BY ADDING A LETTER

JUa. jabal
P
x
(1)
un "a,
mountain,"
pi.
Jk*jibal
^
un
.
cU^
f
*
rajul
un
* *
man "
' '
^
\ pi.
Ja.!;
m^7
r^
MW
ttw
' *
a footman
J^ rijal un
r ty riyah
-j;
"a
strong wind,"
pi.
un
.
In Persian always
<^-ojf
and
No* a plural of paucity.
But &jJs met. " road," has a

Also
pi.
^J
cU;
other plurals of " footman" are JL.^
ilU.;
JUx,
JU.;
e)^>

' <
739
; rifl**
a foot
"
,
pi.
jl;f arjul.
(2)
^
v^
f
o-
malik
un
a king,"
d^Lc
f
,,
muluk.
.
Ô-M
qalb
" a heart,"
*9
^JS qulub un
dars un
"a
<4
lesson,"
,,
^^ durus.
jr
//
z+# bayt
un
a house,"
""
O " i
v^ju
buyut.
river,"
,,
jlit
anhar.
afzal.
^ O-
fad
un
a "kindness,"
un" *-c^
^^
e>y lawn
"
<f
colour,"
,,
^f alwan.
f
xc,'
>
ri*A MM
^j;
soul,"
,,
*' M JUo maZ"
^f anwih. ^
X <,'
4<
property,"
state, condition,"
,,
*'
JU.M
W<<
,,
Jf^f amwal. f X X Jt>^f ah
"
door,"
(4)
-ixr>
m ^/MW " loaf,"

janah
ttn
&*/f argbifat.
Ua.
"a wing,"
<(
,,
Aaxi^f ajnihat.
^^
usan un
f *
a horse,"
^
,,
o*
A'JL^^f ahsinat"*.
&*
x
sildh
''weapons,"
,,
*' *' AsJLf aslihatun

*^
EXAMPLES OP BROKEN PLURALS THAT REJECT A LETTER OR LETTERS

'
'(1)
V UT
kitab
"a book,'
ff*
'
pi.
v^ kutub.
Plural of paucity.
In Persian shajara.
tree-kind.'
Shajarat
u*
^lâu*,
the reg. fern,
pi., is
a plural of paucity.
*
6
But o^la. haffit"*, plural of In Persian arghija, ajniha, etc.
These
are, in Arabic, all plurals of paucity.
740
/X
X

f*?
&J*A> mad/inat un
'
"a
city,"
pi.
eJ**
mu4un un
un .
'
' '
*
-f
juJU safinat un
a ship,"
JÂ^ sufun
*V
,<,
qaryat
un
"a
"
village,"
etc.,
,,
<^y> qura". f ,9
#M
birkat un
pool,"
,,
<J> burak.
&lcmillat un
*
"nation,"
etc.,
,,
Jl* milal un
*
(q)
EXAMPLES OF BROKEN PLURALS THAT CHANGE A VOWEL

karim
"
kind,"
pi.
ft/ kiram.
^&x
fcj*
sawt un " lash,
whip
for
.^x % un kk** siyat .
flogging,"
,,
<**f
asad ttn " lion,"
,,
x*f
*)j
usudun . wuld un .*
un " son, boy," dj walad
,,
ii
khashab
!<
"
wood,"
,,
vJU. khushub.
f 99
-Xb*
sky,"
,,
fuluk
un . s
(r)
THE FOLLOWING MAY BE CONSIDERED REGULAR

The
j^xo/
ff'?
(1)
singular &A5*
^"
may always have

ô/
as one of its plurals cU>, as:

^xx"
^35^
<?
<&*3 **a rarity,"
pi.
JbJ;
<xJU<x"a sentence," pi. cUa-J f*9
**f
"followers of
a particular prophet,"
^r
pi. ^*f.
x
^ 99
:
'
1**'
(2)
The
singular JUj' generally has as one plural J**, as
" "a book,
pl. -**^;
j>^ "a
wall,"
pi. ;<v^
;Ua.
"a donkey,"
is
pi.
7+^.
t
But the
99
plural of
v l.vo
sahab
"cloud,"
also of the
form cU*, W2.
Also qaryatu*= plural of paucity, vide

<*9
(/).
x
<
The
plurals dJj or. e^tdJ)= 'boys
"
;
/ôx
but
"
.iiljf
offspring, descendants."
Also
tj''
plural of paucity.
741
(3)
The
f
5
plural Jl*> has always its singular
<J*b',
X
as
x
&X*
x
"a
trader,"
W
pl.
jUJ
Ûx
Governor,"
pi.
^
1
&9
r
;
$tf
$
1 ;
JU*,
pi.
JUc
JUu
&9 "ignorant," J&*.

of
However, the singular cUl*
may have
(4)]:
other
forms
plural, as:
cUU,
pl.
,41^ [a s well
asjl^
vide
^Jb
" learned" has *U* and ÂU,
and the regular masculine plural

(4)
e^^.
When
<Jcl%
without a weak
letter,
is
an
irrational
or
a neuter
substantive, one of
its
plurals
may always be
but cUl*
cUfj*, as: <-UU

X
X
<e
a governing
word
(in
grammar),"
pl.
JLci^*,
"a
Viceroy,"
pl.
JU*
v^ u
pl.
"eye-brow,"
*t^H* (and
pl.
v^>^5
x
)
cr) 15 "Cavalier," pl. t>;!^;

x-
oukU " witness,"
x
<{
and ^Âf
but AAU
X
a proof, sign,"
pl. <xMy&.
^
(5)
The measure
x/>
*JUL> *
Ji
has, without restriction of
meaning
x
1
etc.,
J^'
always one
fx
x
plural
CxUf^',
as: 5Û>
a rule, a capital city,"

'
pl.
^ty*; *J^^ "margin,
'
xx
xx
marginal note,"
pl.
^[^ "x
^
*
"
(Nom. and Gen. hawasJiiy, Ace. hawashiy*);

{
Jj^
8
).
or
JÂ.
gut,"
pl.
t^jf^ or bfj^
AJ^J
angle,"
pl. csjljt)
(and
lj|>3
zawaya
(6)
The
plural &*>
must have
^r
as its singular a verbal adjective cUU, as ^
/^^
"seektwgr," but
*Û>
"schoolboys,"
{<
sing.
wJ^
X
v^
tuttab
and
rarely
V*
j[*o6-
seekers
"
;
also adult students).*
x
1
x
:
Also
^JLeU x
the reg. masc. and fern. pis. of

'
all participles
may
be used.
Also the plural of
^(S " a woman
an oldish past the age of child-bearing,
All three cases the same.
x>>>
*
Incorrectly amongst Indians and Persians *Ulfc

x
this
measure does not exist
in
Arabic from
742

Remark.
But
<xJU>
may
be a singular, as
is
Xj*>&
of
*;&.
(7)
The measure
&^
always a plural
rational
nouns derived
from verbs with the third radical weak, as: c>^ qdz in ,
pi. SUi' (for
&*&
);
fa
"missionary
(of
any religion),"
pi.
*k>
"shepherd,"
pi.
*Uj; jij
"narrator,"
pi.
S^
jU
*
"raiding, a
warrior,"
]>*
(for
fy*
Jtj
*
"
Governor,"
pi. ift, (for
AJ^
).
(8)
Prom
the feminine singular

f^
*
t{
&***'
^
from strong radicals, a plural

^
can always be formed, as:

'
&>*
"
fern.,
great,"
pi. f$Lfe*.
'
x"
XX
"
*?
city,"
'
pi.
',$,<,' ^J|^; *^
f
^
^
'
'
*
*
wife,"
^t^';
But
<i'JU*3'
rom a
root with the last radical
J^3i
x
^
xx/o^
Uw -^*J
), pi.
xxx
^^** *;
jfSix'
has one plural Vl*
fa'ala,
as: *ji^ (from
^
,x
"calamity,"
(9)
pi.
UM
letter
Singular rational nouns that end in a weak

f
x
and are
of the
^
their
OX
g^
\J^
measure
Jx* have
plural *^*>f, as:
waliyy
un
"
patron, friend,
In Urdu and Persian, compounds of the form of
^jc($
are
incorrectly written
and
pronounced with
with crt<t
*
as: SLcAJt
Û
*
u qaziy 'l-quzat, for SLAaJt <jeti gaz*
'Z-gMzo*.
so too
e)
and-^,|
^^xl^
etc., etc.
In India, Persia, and Turkey also a "religious warrior," being a contraction of the
phrase &Uf
J^
/x,/
Remark.
/*/
In
|>J and 5)+A the
final
ii
AAJUjj
*13
is
an
addition
to
the
measure
8
JU^',
and the words are correct without

is
it.
In Urdu and Persian *ij^3

(of
not
'*
wife or companion," but "likelihood; context;
and good order

*
many
things), or seemly attitude (of one person)."
All three cases the
same.
743
saint 1 ," pi.

'-
^jf;
^&A
"miserable,
hard-hearted,
black-guard,"
'
pL
*l*W.
-*"
Also rational muza'af nouns of the measure J**>, or adjectives congenerally have one plural of this form, as
:
fined to rational beings,
v-M^
"physician,"
pi. *i*lf (for X
Auif
xx
' '
).
Remark
/.
^^ " wicked
x
(pis.
;t
/if and j\j&)

x
is
an exception.
O ^
The pi.
so too
*^>f is confined to rational beings,
though the singular
JUljl is
not
with &&*>.
Remark
*
II,
-
There are three

/
X
common measures
//
as
:
for the pi. of the verbal
/ x<^
.
X'.XX/
/X
(sing. j*tf)
i
;
X OX
;
>
~{
adjective CxW>, wz. JU*- jUff

x
$!&**,
Ûs"
J(^f
*t^ft.
Other
measures
exist, as
Jj^ "
x-
slain," pi. ^îiJ
*u!
^-
"
prisoner of war,"
pi. c^r*f
and <^>U| (and

(10)
also *fôl).
(fern, î*^)
The verbal adjective &%*>

^yUAc
has the plurals <yi** and
4,5!**',
as
"
wrathful,"
pi.
^ÂC and
(^t^c (and also v-â^). x

letter is a long
x
(11)
Those feminine quadriliterals in which the third

9 -xx
X
Jfx x
quiescent
vowel,
servile,
have
plural
J5Ui,
as: ijlsuo
"cloud,"
pi.
^Gsuo
dJLsj
a pamphlet, etc.,"
pi.
<J5l*j,
JUA "the
north
wind" and
JUA
,
the left hand,"
pi.
cUU
X
j^*u:
" an old woman," pl.Ûpu:. x

/
X
:
Remark.
This
pi. is also
rare in a few other cases, as
j*** X
"
pronoun,"
pi.
'a need, a thing,"

'
pi.
J\f*\
*j*>
"afree woman,"
/ox
J
xx
>
x ,
cV "
night/'
pi.
JU^ (also JtflJ
).
In the meaning of 'saint',
it is
a contraction of
'
AjJf
^j.
The root meaning

^
' 2
is
o'<,~
11
to
come
after, follow ";
hence AîJf /J
" heir apparent."
But
<-: ^'o; AJU/, pi. e>jul
744

(12) Quadriliterals
(
not counted), the consonants
all radicals,
have
JJUu, as:
v&"fox,"
pi.
*-M;
pl.
*%;
pi.
*)]*;
*>
"a bridge, "
pl.j-fcU*;
"gems," pl.^lA"
The same measure
counted
i(
)
vV " a star,"
is
v !/.
?
used for the
pi. of
those quadriliterals
I
not
that are formed from the triliterals by prefixing

9
cs
or f, as
?
^^
:
fe*\
*' f*
;
<s
, ,
li
;
finger," pi.
&Ul *^^,
pi.
vj
^ J^. pi- J3
ft,'
"
li/0
;
' o
,
,,*&,,
v^*
pi.
(13) Quinqueliterals (i
not included) not primitive or foreign, with the

e)Ual*
penultimate a long vowel, have a plural JxJl*^ as:

f s* e^JsÛ;
<
"an
f
o
emperor
"
f 9 Qs
{<
*+
*
pl.
c5;xLc
9
a large box
f
'<,
or chest,"
9
*
pi.
+
;
Jj^li^;
<>^3 ' +
"infidel,
"
hypocrite,"
9
, ,
pl.
(J-^j;
Ûftx"akey," *
pl. ^Jlfix> ^ *
^^
*
<,
**poor quiet,"
pl.
.,
(14)
The broken
plural of di*.a} is
*
(J**lAii,
viê I
Stem
but the regular
f feminine plural in et
can also be used.
Remark.
The
Infinitive of all other derived
forms (with the exception

,
f of the al-masadir u 'l-mimiyyah) is the regular feminine in et
vide I Stem.
9,^
(15)
9
,
When
J**f
is
superlative,
it
has,
when used
as a noun, its plural
in the masculine, vide

<,9
XIV
(g).
f ,9
optionally
cU*'
f
or
,,<.9
Its
feminine
9
,<,'
^** has
signifies
is
eUU*.
(fern.
Vide
XIV
(g).
When
J**'!
colour or defect
AM
red,
9~b'
),
the plural for both

pl. J+A*
masculine and feminine

^ G*
/ C^
J** or c^^, as f '<* 9
^^
"
"
or
"
!
blind,"
pl.
^** and
of
J^.
Jxcli/o, i;tê *
(16)
The'noun
instrument has optionally uUliu or *

9
',
IX
(d).
(17)
The noun
of
time and place has J*&o.
Vide also
VII
(a) I.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS, AND CLASS NOUNS.
745
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns
^1*1
),
and Class Nouns

like the
(<u*J| **&).
There are a large number of words that,

a collective signification, as
(a)
:
broken plurals, have
?c
Simple collectives
fr*J\
~[
*~
that cannot take the
of
unity to
indicate a single individual, as:

/* C
>
^s
well as individuals
^~*
" an
.
masc., which denotes a whole people, as " and also " the soldiers " ^ Ox " a ; army w*0
less
band
for
horsemen," [but *^ a small band, a small piece vide XIII (d]\.

of
than ten; on the measure
From such nouns, broken plurals

O ' C* f O (b)
are formed.
Vide
(e)
and
&
XVII.
Collective
nouns
+Jf p\
),
formed by adding
*
to the singular,
XX (d).
G " 0*
(c)
(t
?b *,<*'
Inhabitants of a country
is
gfr^'l
^1), as:
^Wf
" the Jews."
Such
or
a noun
the
often identical with the

;
\
name
of the country, as
^Vl " India,
" s$, Indians
"Rum,
is
also the people of
Rum."
single individual
formed by the relative ^.

" the restricted to
f
However the plur

(not
{<
(the plural of
^Â
*
) is
is
Hindus"
the Indians").
&
$,<,'
The
plural of
f\\ or
is
c,*c
(d)
Class nouns
+?Jf AX&
from which a
single individual is expressed

<c
by the feminine
There are
(e)
\ of
unity, as:
U^ "dove-kind"; f*&
tree-kind.
"
abstract collectives.
differ
Arabs
as regards the gender of such nouns.
f f'*<' In the Quran, is always masculine plural, while cteu is found both masculine and feminine. The general practice seems to be to
<J
'
Hijaz generally
make them
feminine, while the people of
The people of Najd make them

\
masculine.
make
those collective and
class
nouns masculine that primarily suggest

<s
the masculine (unless they end in the feminine

feminine, as
it is
* ):
L^
"horse-kind"
f
* s
'
is
'
the mares that Arabs esteem.
In practice
last is feminine.
are usually masculine, but in the
Quran the
Vide also
under Gender.
l
In India,
call
Bum
means Turkey.
The
desert Arabs call
Turkey Rum, while the town
Arabs
Greece Rum.
746
CONJUGATION OF THE SIMPLE REGULAR TRILITERAL VERB.
XXV.
Conjugation of the Simple Regular Triliteral Verb.
THE ACTIVE VOICE

There are three tenses
:
o^*Jf
).
9,^$^ f
the Preterite
,<S
(JWt <Lj| ),
*
,
the Aorist
and the Imperative

(a)
(^\
).
,,,
is
,
f
The
9f
Preterite Active
i.e.
JU*
cW, ^
or eU*
according to the verb.

*
All three are declined alike,

in the Preterite,
they
all
have the same tense endings or cases

prefixes in the Aorist
:
'
and the same endings or

'*'.
these are
virtually affixed pronouns.
The forms J** and J*
are generally intransitive
and denote a
state or
'''
quality: the former denotes permanent condition, as
:
^-^
" to be beauti-
ful," the latter temporary condition, as

*
cJ>^
s
"
to be sad."
t
is
The Passive
is
always J*> and

*
declined in the same

O
way
'O'
Preterite
**tf
).
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
fa'aln"
fa'alu
fa'alatd
fa'ala
"They
did."
"They two did."
"She did." "Hedid.'

O<x
"
'
O"
fa'altunn"
fa'altum
did.
"
Ye
"
Ye two
fa'altumd did
Thou
9
didst."
t*,,
fa'alna
"We
(b)
did."
Jft&>, or JUij.
*
did
The Aorist may be JUj
Usually verbs whose 2nd or 3rd radical
is
a guttural, and verbs of the

.
form J*>, take
while those of the form
J* take
Note that
this final
oM/
is
JeftUÎ
P or otiose.
In a word like
t&f "they
appreciated," were this oK/ not introduced, the final j might be mistaken for the conjunction "and." Consequently, before the affixed pronouns the alif is dropped, as it
fulfils
no useful purpose.
747
Aorist
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
yaf'uln"
yaf'ulun"
or will do.
"
taf'ulan*
yaf'ulaw
taf'ul*
They do
"
They two do or will do.
" She does
yaf'ul"
"He
does or
or will do."
will
do."
taf'uln
taf'ulun"
will
taf'ulan*
'
a taf utin
<
u taf ul
l
"Ye
do or
do."
Ye two do
or will
" Thou doest or wilt do." do."
JU*
"
We
do or
will
do."
,
"I do
is
or will
do."
The Aorist Passive

ing unchanged.
(c)
JUi
yuf'al*
and so on, the
first
two vowels remain-
The Aorist
viz.
:
is
susceptible
of
certain
inflexions
to
express
five
Moods,
(i)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
In this the Aorist ends in
(ii)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
the Aorist changes to fathah ( certain particles ), i.e. when it is preceded by in such a case the final n, when preceded by a long vowel, is dropped. In the 2nd and 3rd pi., an otiose is added, except when a suffix is attached,
!
but
(
To
express the Subjunctive, the final vowel of

;
as:
\j*&>
"they
or.
write,"
C x
J^#.
C/x &\ $
)
The
"it
particles
are:
^f
"that"
(with Pret.
Aor.)
'
ilf
(
^
X
=
'
)
will certainly
not"
<;
(for future
time only),
or
^
=
xV
in
order that
not"; oif
O'oxc, =
(
uf
(for
any
<M )
time);
^
of
in
order that"; 0*
e)V
x
&1
"then
course";
li*an
^/ =
^
is
SsJ Italia
e#
4|b
" "in order that not

sense
of
jf in
the
sense of " except that, unless"
(not in the
"or"); J when
j
it
There
often an ellipse of ^f, especially after
J -^^
-j
o and y
&\ may take
the Indicative, vide under Syntax.
748

or so that
means " otherwise,

4^1
/5I
"
x
l
;
x x
*> l
;
when
it is
equivalent to &\
J ^
(called
"the /am that equals ta/
in order that"); î*.* "until, so
much
so that."
(iii)
JUSSIVE MOOD OR APOCOPATED AORIST.

C,"
When the Aorist is preceded

yet" (which give the
of the
&'
by the particles^ "not, never" and

Aorist a past sense);
UJ
"not
CÔô^x
J"let" &~*
*SJ
(jtfftfl
tt
"the /am
or
Imperative ");
51
prohibitive (called jîlt
Za*'
'n-nahy)
when
it is
used as an Imperaa condition),

it loses
tive, or follows
its final
an Imperative (and expresses the jaza

$'
(,
:
of
vowel, as in
U^
tl
' '
'<S $.
<*'
U* 8
^j x
'
visit
me
less often
and you
will in-
crease
my
affection for
you
(said
by the Prophet to a too-frequent
XX
visitor) /x
The verb &K

/ ,
loses its j
when the
last radical is vowel-less, as: ^^|.

it
In
those forms in which there are no inflexional suffixes,

as
;
can also reject the n,
^j yak*.
Remark.
The following
particles
:
and pronouns apocopate the final vowel

O
of two Aorist s (protasis and apodosis)
"
e>J
if
"
;
O x
' *
er*
he who "etc.;
U " that
;
which, what
' '
U#**
( '
whatever "
;
^f
* *
whoever
' '
etc.
(declined)
'
" wherever ";
t^J
" when "
^\* " whenever that ";
^
xx-x
when, if
"
(only
Uijf
6 apocopates when conditional, not when temporal or interrogative);
*Ml
xÔx
" where
"
;
^
is
Xfc
x
c<
where
"
;
isW
" when "
UixT " however."
Vide
XLV.
For past time

.
j^^
followed
by the
Preterite.
Vide
XLV<
1^0
at intervals, occasionally."
Ujx
and
are never joined to
but the rest
may be
joined or not.
After an indefinite noun, Uo

8
" a certain," or " any whatever."
/Ox AOA. and
fe
it
x
do not apocopate unless joined with
Lo^
U ^jLc
x"
^ ^
t(
whenever " (temporal) does not apocopate.

(iv)
749
ENERGETIC MOOD.
The Jussive may be rendered more emphatic

first),
Ox
by adding
Ox^c*'
<,t
and
vi>
o,n
and ann a (the second being stronger than the
Cx*&x
as
ii>A*i
and
^P^
is
:
These forms have always a future sense and are used

imperative or prohibitive-imperative, and in assevera**
when
the
tense
tions or oaths
they
may
be strengthened by prefixing J.
shortened to
(
the long vowels 5 and

a
^ are
and
Before the
),
suffix,
as
(Ûi
ter-
"
la-yaf'alunn
mination,
(v)
all
With the single n (for (&1*&J ) they will certainly do the dual and the feminine plural terminations are wanting.
"
THE IMPERATIVE is formed by
persons of the
cutting off the prefix e> from the second u and Aorist substituting 8,hamzat 'l-wasl, and, if the Apocopated
(
second radical has

(
)
,
pointing
it
with
-9
) ,
pointing
:
it
also with
and
if
or
Imperative.
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
99^,9
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
uf'uln"
uf'ulu
"Do
ye."
"Do ye
are formed
ufula two."
uf'uU
uf'ul*
"Do
I1
thou."
The remaining persons

Aorist with or without the
a
by prefixing J
to the
Apocopated
;
or ^, as
J*^
If
"
It-yaf'al
let
him do "
e>i*^
"
li-yaf'alann
let
him
certainly do."
^ or
precedes these forms, the
generally loses its vowel.

(d)
The Prohibitive Imperative

itself
is
formed by prefixing
il
to the Apo-
copated Aorist.
The Imperative
cannot be used in the prohibitive.
&
1
9
)
This
J
(j
I*
"
'
certainly
O'G
(called
has no governing power.
Or JUI or JUJI.
O
G
'</
Or .JUit
or
The vowels may change
as in the singular.
750
PRONOUNS (SEPARATE).
XXVI.
(a)
Pronouns.
ctaiLo
Some pronouns
are
"
separate"
),
others" affixed
"
(
The SEPARATE PERSONAL PRONOUNS expressing the nominative

are:
Sing.
case
M.
F.
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(6)
751
(1)
The AFFIXED PRONOUNS
are Possessive
they also express the
oblique cases (Genitive, Dative, Accusative, etc.) of the Personal
Pronoun:
Sing.
752
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(2) If
a hamzat"' l-wasl
(j
follows
hum
or
him p* " they or them," kum *f

,
c,'
o>
"
you," or antum
"
p&\
you," or
9
'
-turn (the verbal

9
~,
ending) then the vmm must

u
.
'
be pointed with zammah, as: f^-Ji
^.$U.c
alayhim 's-saldm
;
If
is
preceded
hy a long vowel,
long.
(e)
its
zammah
is
pronounced short
if
by a short vowel,
As the
affixed
pronouns make the noun

* is
Consequently the termination

is
of course
pronounced
t,
as
it is
definite, its tanwm disappears. written e> before the affixed pronouns it before all vowels, even when written
:
(/)
(1)
The preposition J
lak a
I*
becomes J
before the pronouns, except the
, ,
first,
as:
i&
(6).
^
s
9'
laic 1 , *'
lah u etc., but
^
^
II
" to or
for
me."
Vide also
XXXII
(2)
But
***
"near, with, in the opinion of," makes no change except

o
before the
first
person,
when
it
becomes
c$-***,
* +
'ind-i
" near me, etc."
(g)
(1)
The
final letters e> of
the dual cases, and of the regular masculine

:
as plural cases, are dropped before the affixed pronouns,
9, * Uli^ kitabah"
lt
his
two books
(2)
"
;
99
+
<
X>^
zaribu-h u
" his strikers
(i.e.
those
who beat him)."

pi. of
Similarly the
mute
alif* of the 3rd pers.

9
*':
is
masc.
the Preterite,
it
or of the apocopated Aorist,

? *
<,<>
dropped, as
'
iy&
katabu-h u " they wrote
";
"
they did
not write
it.'
'<,'
,*.+
*'
(h)
Note the force
of the
pronouns in (ÂJ cu>JU
prayed the whole
of
i.e.
the hamzah in the article J(

-"o"
the initial hamzah of

<,
all
derived forms of the
fi
tt
f * f
ijfê} -
verb
fern.
except
,
Stem IV (JU>f
hamzah
a af'al ),
of
^] *
^^ *
fyct,
<
and
^
(>ljj!
masc. arid
and
also the
of the triliteral Imperative.
Though not here a

it
letter of prolongation, it is called alif.

it is
The
letter
is
hamzah when
guttural sound
has a harakat, or when being sakin
marked with a
only styled and has a
-o-'ô^
(
t>'
)
ÛdJf <xl^
+ *
as in
Û
"
despair."
With the
Aorist,
gives the sense of the Preterite.
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
?"
that
'
7f>3
night";
all
iJLJ
^ "he
'-V
'
"
9, *
wept the whole
of
that night ";
*1>J
^ "he
joined
,,
wept
those nights."
(I)
(i)
Two
Accusative Pronouns.
Two
affixed
pronouns
may be
to one verb, as: A&jjkrf a'tayt u -k a-h u

also be written separately
'
if
"I
gave thee it."
The second may

Ut
suffixed to the meaningless particle
iyya
$
L
thus
If the
pronouns are joined as in the

observed,
i.e. 1st,
first case,
the natural order of the
persons
is
2nd, 3rd
but in the second case you could also
say
(2)
When
is
for emphasis, a
*
pronoun precedes the verb

9 <,'<*' s
:
of
which
it is
the
object, it
also suffixed to
b, as
i^*~J
^J j ***> ^L>t " Thee we
&
'
f^'
"
&
serve and
from Thee do we seek aid."

(;')
When
an affixed pronoun follows the pronouns kum, hum, or the

is
,<,,
verbal termination -turn, a long j (u)

9 99 ?(,
inserted for euphony, as:

<
^Cij
a'tayV-kum
"I gave you," but
u u " I ^+Safe*f a tayt -kumu-h
gave you it";
^6
tt*
??</
'
'
(,
a taytum
(
"you gave," but

lt
j+xxfe*f
a'tay-tumu-h"
"you gave it"
a'tayP-humU'h"
gave them it."

are used in Persian:
s
'
Remark.
The following
',
C5 <i
0,
my
lord,"
(and
tijj^
our lord"),; <j+*

<*,
W
*j*
"my
u
master";
" that
a
qurrat
'ayn-i*
which refreshes
wife or child)
my
"
eyes
+
**
99
s
(a son); t5^'jiir s
"gladness of
my
heart
"
(to
cHrf^ ^
" oh my
friend."
'
After verbs of giving, the receiver comes
first
and then the
direct object.
The pronoun
is,
should not be suffixed to Persian nouns.
Nurchashmi
in
modern Persian, used

(ya-yi
as well as the classical Persian nur-i chashm, as an affection-
ate epithet for a child.
Originally this
it
may have
"my"
"'
mutakallim), or
may" be
father.
the ya-yi tawaifi.
been the Arabic suffixed pronoun Similarly with qibla-gahl
*i>J,
modern Persian, =$(f &lu a

your father
?
Such expressions as
|
o
common
in
where
is
"
and +i$ U. ^HJ
U*> ^5*-^- jj^ > are
modern
Persian and show that the
is
not now, at least, regarded as a pronoun.
48
754
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
"
(k)
THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

its
is
expressed by
^^
or)
self
"
(agreeing in
number with
noun) joined to the affixed pronouns, as:

fc
"
i
V or)
"I went
"
myself
;
(~Ail
they
went themselves
themselves."
"
;
**& cU* he "
killed himself
"
;
f$~ii? fjUl
"they
killed
"
<t&* (pi. eHi*f)
eye, essence > o"
' '
and e|i
(pi. e^fji)^
are also used for
'
self,'
in the
same way
as
j&.
(1)
(1)
I
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

X
I
are
iS
" this
"
(or
more emphati-
cally !iA),
and
î
" that."
Plural.
Singular.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND )
i.
755
(2)
The words
for " that,

)
those" are formed by adding

:
J^ (in
some cases
with interpolated J
to the simple forms, thus
gr.
masc. cfli or uJi

masc. nom. ^J[
AJ
fern. c5l> or
x J) x
;
c^> or usually
x Cx
<*&
for all cases.

j<x
XX
x
or t^li
Gx
gen.
x *>&-
and
ace.
&i* or u&#.
x
;
XX
x-
Fern.
nom.
U or -JO
gen.
and
ace.
JW
^
or
>"
cjUx). X
x x
xx'
)
(and rarely ^tyt or ^Jljl

(3)
for
,
both genders and

is
all
cases.
In the Qur*an, the
^
'
I
of
J^<i
*
and cXU
*
changed into the 2nd
person of the affixed pronoun, singular, dual, and plural, with correct gender,
x'
,
!
when addressing people,
as
/)i
U& etc.
masc. and
is,
(m) For the Singular and Plural of

vide
e*fi fern.,
"
possessor,"
117 (VII, p. 445) on the

;
izdfat.
The Dual
N.
tj<i
masc., and Utâ (or

fern.
Ufa) fern.
G. and A. ^ji zaway masc., and ^tji zawatay (or <y|i zdtay)
final
In pronunciation, the long

shortened before the article Jf
.
vowels of ji -<^^
a.
''beautiful (of a
woman)
JLaftlf
*
"
;
JU^
f,
" handsome
'
(of
man ");
f
Oxo/o.?
' '
' '
l ( ;
pardoning
(of
God)
gracious (of God)'

:
There appears to be
9 9
noirule for the use or omission of the article

in 'the
it is
usually used after ^jf, but

x
>,
f
* 9
Quran several instances occur without the
article, as
* '
*>*& <j*^ ^jf *

f
"
great warriors
"
&J>
9 9
(speaking of extinct races)
Sy ^)\
powerful."
Remark.
Persians ignore case and number, and even prefix
^
"
to a
few Persian words, as:
jÂ.
''wise."
flf
(n)
The RELATIVE (CONJUNCTIVE) PRONOUNS.
^-^f
allazt
" who
is
an
756
Adjective and
3x
is
is
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
used for
cases).
definite
antecedents
x is
allati ^\ X
(all
The Plural
(all
&i*W
x.six
alUati*
or
^^\
feminine
-
cases): used
XX
l
only
its
feminine singular
,+.
&s
allazin* masculine,
and
<y4IJ(
for rational beings only.

X^Gx
The
&'
1
Dual
is,
Nominative ejt^f X
alllazan*
XX
JJ
masc.,
and
ejUJJf
X
alllatan*
X 53
'
fern.'-
and Genitive and Accusative (^*Mf

"&'
alllazayn* masculine,
and
<jjJUf attlatayn*
feminine.
^Wf
is
always definite, even when used substantively.

the INTERROGATIVES) are
(1)
(o)
OTHER RELATIVES (and

it is
^
(j
(as
a Con-
junctive ever (of living things)"; also Interr.

8 singular masc. verb);
without inflexion)
**
he who, whoever, such
"who?"
as, those who, whatusually (followed by a
and (2) (without inflexion) "that which, what, a thing that, whatever (of neuter things; also Interr. " what ? "). These ar e used substantively and are either definite or indefinite.
Remark.
I.
U is
also
an
X
;
indefinite
" day", also" some day

did not see any
/ /X
JU,
^ l^ "on a certain & 9 /X f XX X a certain man "; U )U; o^fj U " I

pronoun
,
c,
as:
*
man
6
whatever
UL>
"
;
x x
ji x
Q.
jJ^ ^cf
'
a?/2/
qalam
in
" which pen (do
you want)
"
A.
U
is
"
any pen you like/
If the
antecedent
indefinite, the Relative is omitted.
Colloquially
however (not
**
classically) the
*
antecedent to îJf may be indefinite. Only two of the J can be pronounced. The sukun over the
JL
first
lam
is
never
written.
Compare
aJDf.
The
i
f
*;
pron.
îJf x
is
compounded
of the Article Jf, the
Particle
J, and the demonstrative

8
î
When
the feminine
is
definitely stated,
man
fô takes a feminine verb.
Also the
plural verb
*
may
be used to remove doubt.
Vide also
XL
:
(6).
sakin nun before

'
mim
is
is
pronounced mlm, as
X f ?x Lo
(J^j
//
rajul
u -mma
;
(Ja.
vn u rajul -m-maqtul ,
which
sometimes written Jjiax
(Jlakj.
Similarly before
r,
l~
a sakin nun becomes in pronunciation
Before
6
/+>
r,
as
Al/f
^
6,
Jj*;
tX*aa./o
Muhammad u -r-rasul 'Hah*
a sakin nun becomes mlm.
^x
Tatlab" ^JJaJ understood.
^xC6
4#a&
JLtf understood.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
3*
757
Remark
that
//.
<^&f
is
an Adjective
as:
when
^*)\
I
it
follows
and
"
I
qualifies a
noun
noun must be
definite,
*U
0^1
saw
:
o$fj
saw the man who
" the man whom

are
",
*U>
l
Zitf.
" the
a
man wAo I saw
Aim."
But e>* and U Vide (Aim wAo) came."

(3)
Substantives, as
cujf;
"I saw who
LV.
of
and &f ayyat un iQm. " the one who " (also which ?, what kind, what?, what!.) whatever," is definite and is declined like
^f
ayy"*, masc.,
a triptote noun, usually in the sing. only.

t
Compounded with the

f
relative
nouns
&*>
and
U>, this
substantive forms
I*jf
8
ayyuman "whosoever"
(a?so
aô "which
these?"), the
of
these?";
(or
"
U* ^f
whatever,"
"what
The
of
first
portion of the
compound
^.y*
X"
being declinable.
first
of
these
two must be followed by
rnin
and a
definite
noun, dual or plural; and the second by a definite noun in the

Vide also
->
genitive, dual or plural.
XL
(b).
Followed by the Genitive, ^1 also expresses admiration and is then it in the If follows an indefinite noun it agrees with it masc. always sing.
9
/
3>
/Ox
X|j
incase, but after a definite noun

1 '
it is
in the ace., as:
J^) ^f
(V*^
Zayd came
(4)
to
UK
&
me
what a man
all
(he
"
is)
!
"all that,
/
which."
o x
(5) (.y*
J^ " every one who,
all
who."
refer to
(p)
Those relative clauses that do not

35x
',
an antecedent, are
(6).
intro-
duced either by ^JJf or by
^ and
o f
'
U.
Vide
XL
Man ^x may
be declined but practically never
is
lx
is
indeclinable.
After some
prepositions Co becomes 1, as
2 8
"for what
why
"
Ra*dyt
note transliteration.
of
The addition
mo
is
emphatic.
' ^f
A sakin nun
/x
before
m*m
is
pronounced mlm, as
is
Lo
(Jl^-j
/.
^ "
rajul
u-mma
J^>
u un rajul -m-maqtul
which
sometimes written Jy&c JLs^.

r,
Similarly
before r,
i
.
a sakin nun becomes in pronounciation
as
&jj\
J**J &+&LA
Muhammadu -r-rasiil'llah
Before
6,
sakin
nun becomes mlm.
758
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC.

INTERROGATIVES.
?
(g)
(1)
^
is
"
who
that
?
"
;
masc. and fern.;

as an Interrogative
e.g.
&* >-&
be
;
" whose book

inflected,
"
;
[i
^
it
who
"
; :
^ may
iM
but only when
stands absolutely
as
:
xxx
S>
(2)
Co
" what
"
;
indeclinable
x
often strengthened by the demons.
|<i,
fiô
what then
"
:
(3)
^1,
o
fern.
f.x
<fy'
/;
,
[declinable, vide (o) (3)

o
with the following noun in the gen., as: oJj &f

O
'
* w
,
together with
its
compounds ^jf and
U#l, w'de (o)
" how many,

O x
:
how much?," with many boys ?

J '
the following noun in the ace. sing., as
\*)j
^ "how
is
Note the following constructions

tfx*
for
"I know which

33^,
of
them
o xx
in the
x9
<*&, 9 o
)
x ^
$x
)
house"
first
(1) jt*Jf
iW
(yk
^\
^^ and
(2) ;lxl|
3*
^f
o^
In the
X
is
case,
^1
treated as an interrogative, and in the second as a relative.
Vide,
XL"(b).
Remark.
sertory
The
interrogative
1?
must be distinguished
from
the as-
^ "many a,"
which
latter requires a genitive of the singular or of

^ O
x x
xO
Ox
the broken plural, and also the Preterite tense, as
oJU> d+
this
**many a
is
(or
how many
its
a) slave
have
owned."
is
If
however
xx
:
f
* fx
separated
xx &x
/xX*
from
tc
noun (j*+*
),
the latter
I
in the ace., as
{*
*
^ &A *&* ^li ^

'
'
'
xx
,/&
many
(r)
received from them at the time of want." tb' f ,, 9 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. jj*f " any one, some one, u**^ (^- a P
a bounty have
r-
-" -.xc,**'^
tion "one,
some"
(sing,
or
pi.),
as: *yJ*Jt
u^? "a
certain poet or
some
to
(5).
poets
"
(according to the
number
,
of the verb).
Vide also
X.LIX.
' '
(3)
(s)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
x
*
" Each other, one another

o- o
is
expressed
t>y
xx
;
/ 9 cx
the
Stem
JcliJ
also
by L^*J
^ Ox La*u
^^^ etc.
^
u^ ex* ft&^*? j ^^ tA^ " take revenge

1
-^
ô x
55
//
* x* c,x
Ox
from each other"

(<)
U*AJ
GA- "we
~
helped each other."
i^
OTHER PRONOUNS
**>\j t '
Jf
:
t(
each
A*J
"
;
^
>"ox
" other than

/
'
,'
before a geni-
*?<,' >"xOX
x
1
xx-
x^
x
<:
tive
noun or affixed pronoun,

1
as
8^*
^jJU*
uOJf
eU
the king died and
Preposition
but
s X ox AJ
adverb.
CARDINALS.
x^ x another then reigned in his stead''; UT^*
thee
?
'
759
^^\
"I
love none other but

of a def.
"
;
^^ masc.,
and aWf,
fern.
" both " (with a gen. dual
noun
not inflected except in connection with a pron. suffix; vide
LXIII).
NUMERALS
XXVII.
x*
xo"<?
Cardinals
Masc.
/
Fern.
f
"
*
The numerals and 2 are AdThe numeral 2
(a)
<**f
jectives.
is
*
f
seldom used with a noun the dual of the noun

;
is
used.
When
used noun,
a before it loses its

]
final o and governs the gen.sing. It is declined as Ian ordinary dual.
or
or
The numerals
3 to 10 are Sub-
stantives
govern
the
and
geni-
tive br. plural, pre-
^G,
ferably a plural of paucity: they
have the feminine form for the
masculine
vice
and
/O
versa: rarely they follow the noun in Apposition but vide also (m).
CL
If it follows its (dual)
noun
in apposition,
it
does not lose the ^.
It loses its
'"
in compounds, as: jiLe
'* Ujt
"twelve."
As
^& JU, or JU
760
CARDINALS.
Gen. and Ace.

jjjojmasc.,
If
^
and Âp
fern.;
^jjoji
declinable
fr
<jS
*S<J*
AM
The nu1
merals 1 1 to 99 go-
Indeclinable
(1
x
ve
an
V
I
a c cusative
singular.
If
is
IV
an adj.
IA
it
append-
ed,
may
ei-
agree,
m a t i cally with the

noun,
1
ther gram-
n
x /
c,
masc. and
ri
fern.
or
o g i c a lly
with the Cardinal

(11 to 99).
rr
masc. and
fern.
The numerals
20, 30 etc. to 90 are declined as
sound
plurals.
In compounding with units,
the unit
s
pre-
cedes, the t,wo are connected by

j,
and both are
declined.
'
"
L
t--
or
From 100 on (i.e. up to 1000) the numerals are substantives, and govern a genitive singular.
CARDINALS.
761
Such compounds may optionally

o
(
be written as one word.
...
oilf
it
X
*
/
'
JiJt ^5UilS (
#
<
^ n suc h cases the compound of the hundred is always written as one
/o
Remark.
portion," as:
An
undefined number from 3 to 10
is
expressed by u^*?
o^*? XX
"a
Jl*>j
f
IÂ*J
"some, a few, men";

<x*e*j is
ert^*"
XX
{j* -X
" in a few
years."
(6)
In later Arabic
also used.
'
Vide
'
(j)
and
(fc).
The numerals compounded with ten both take fathah in all cases, but the ten of the compound agrees in gender with the object numbered
*
'
(while the units from 3 to 10 reverse
it).
(c)
Twenty,
thirty, etc., etc.
^&
&%&*
are of
common
gender, and
762
are declined like regular plurals.
are both declined, as
'
CARDINALS.
The compounds
***;!
of units
with 20, 30,
etc.,
Û>)
(^j^ j
^t>
gender.
is
xx
hundred
'
A?^,
x
mSfaff**, is
common
(<?)
From
100 to 1000 are substantives, and the object numbered

x a--*
in
the genitive singular, or else the

/<
x-x
number
is
expressed thus
Jlyt xx
(or
cU>
181*
).
(&)
"A
thousand"
Jtff,
is
common
gender.
Its
pis. are
o*f and
9?
,
the latter being used for "thousands " in an indefinite sense.

(i)
The
thousands
compounded with
units, are treated
as
a thing
:
numbered.
from
Thus
for
3000 to 10,000, the genitive broken plural oif is used

t
10,000 to 99,000, the
accusative singular
o
li^f is
used: from 100,000
upwards the genitive singular

Remark.
tJ^f.
r,
The
last
numeral mentioned decides the case of the thing

f
numbered.
*.'
*
(/)
The Indefinite Numeral^

& x o-o '
' ' ;
biz'** (also
ui?)" some, a small
number,"
plural, as
:
indicates a
x/
number between 3 and 10 and governs a broken genitive

'
(j
9 o
*aj
'
<t
9f<j9 x
fbf
f
x
^
+
x
" a few days

x
JxiJt
4
&*
*.<*>.
" a few of the horses

Fwfe
' '
;
c)i^ x
r**
is>K
iî-
^
f,
>
c<
his age
was twenty and odd years."
(a)
Remark.
or
v-*ui *
/Ox
(^)
An
Indefinite
number over 10
is
expressed
by
*-ki
/^
X
it
may
/x x/xx
govern the genitive singular, as ubo j
:
xÔ
SyS*c
upwards of ten
' '
;
u)jj&
This word must not be confused with (JOM ba'z** " some (of any number),
Oiô
X ox
(^^0*0
Xs xx>"
t
' OX*
x xU
one, a portion": '-ftJ^t
culTf
rf 9
<,,
"I
, *
eat a part of the loaf"; *|^*Aff

i,*
^
ÂRJ JU
"
?<*'
(.;
certain poet says
";
*f^S*
AÂJU j
*ljji*T
^4^^'
"some
of
them are
rich,
and some
poor." 2 Excess, surplus.
THE ORDINALS.
/JJX X
763
9 X /x
"
/ >VX /X
twenty and odd

'
' '
;
u*J > cU> &x>, or Jl*) Jj^ &x> " upwards of 100 (and ' ' 4 6
(gr).
10)
men.'
Vide also
XXIX
(I)
Note the following constructions
for
"
the three
men."
, 9 x
jj
(t)
juy
*&,
(M)
juyt
Uallf,
(ni)JUj Ulil?,(ivj
etiltjl
Noun
(apposi-
tion).
(w)
When
the numerals 3 to 10 precede a Collective

c33
indicating
birds
the genus,
is
introduced, as:
^\
X
^
X
6 xôx
^*
&u;l
A.* "then take four

is
(four of the
x-x
genus bird)."
'
Occasionally the Collective

(in
in the gen. sing.,
ssft* <*?
as
^fii
&jjf Â ^
" and they were four persons
number)."
(n)
The numerals 3
ff^*f
to 10 agree in gender with the singular of the
noun
numbered, as:
/xx
iio*,
"seven years," but
(.&**
&*
(sing, flc
masc.,
and ^(o)
fern.).
o
When
the numeral
is
followed by
(.?*>,
vide
(m)
it
agrees in gender
with
its
substantive, even f ** '

as
:
fixing the gender,
j_^^
the substantive be qualified by an epithet /' ' x -<W the word "four males," (^x sheep, CJ)^ fV*Jf p>*
if
xxfc~
being
fern.
If
however the epithet divides the numeral from

:
its
substantive,
x
>*/
xxc,
the numeral agrees with the gender of the epithet, as
^\
ay tf* **(/
^"C"
" three male sheep (three males among the sheep)."
Remark.
The numerals used

$
9o
as
abstract
x
numbers have the masc.

is
>Xx
&+>
9 o
?A-&
gender, as
fiU uLai Aib, or
it-Jl <-ftA) illjJf
" three
the half of six."
XXVIII.
/tx
(a) its
The Ordinals,
-?x
ox
"First"
3 xcx
J^f,
is
on the measure
JUj'f,
and consequently has
for
feminine Jj( ulq. > x
From "second"
/x
x
to
"tenth", the ordinals are on

x
fr
x
#
x
/x x
<*V^x
"the
measure JUU masc., and x

.0
xlc^' fern.,
x
as: uA> and

W
x
" Sixth" however,

,
is
(jÛ, but
al"j
and eU. are
also found.
764
First
THE ORDINALS. and Second are

1
diptotes.
From Third
to Tenth the ordinals are
fully declined.
" Eleventh" j&* <^-^ -
rnasc.,
and \j&*
J
.
&J>*\A. x
fem.
From
Eleventh to
Nineteenth the ordinals are indeclinable
From "Twelfth"
> o^
to "Nineteenth", they
are formed by adding î*j
(or %j2+c) to the ordinals.
Twentieth" and upwards, the Cardinals are used, as tl? 9 xox , /c, C ~ " twenty chapters", but &jjd\ ^d\ "the twentieth chapter."
:
From
"
* x
/i.
The
Ordinals of the units, however, are used before the cardinals, for the inter-
mediate
numbers, as: e^-*^fj
eJtiJf
/
"the twenty-third."
The
article
must be attached to each numeral.

(6)
From
First to Tenth, the ordinals have the

first
regular plural.
From
Eleventh to Nineteenth, the
part of the
compound
JjtjVl
x
has the regular plural.
"
(c)
jFirstf
"
JjUl has also a

>
broken plural
'*
meaning
9
" the
^xx
first
parts,
^xx the beginning," just as^ljill means ^

parts."
(d)
^
X X
5S-e
c '
the end parts," and
fc^fjjlf
" the middle
These terms are also used for the three decades of the month.
,.'
&
The Ordinals
are generally used for the time of day, as: A^Qf

' '
*i)U)t
at three o'clock (at the third hour).*

/X
But predicati vely the cardinals

,
are used,
as:
/x
C?
a'*LJf
that
oUU
^
"
"it
is
three o'clock (the hour

*^ .
is
three)."
Note
'-;
^.-Ib
would mean " three hours, and

?
.....
AÛy^
o^f " eleven hours."
"
What
time
is it
"
>>x
35^:
t,,
/x
<kLJf
^T,
x
or
**U|.
" 7w the " morning,"

accusative, or else
at
midday
"
etc., are
J?
expressed by the adverbial

*
C^
' '
"
by the preposition
<c
:
^ as
f^frle
or^^f^,
"
?
U.!>AO
or
U
" I
(e)
Age
is
-
expressed thus
o
^C.
How
old are
you
**.*
^j+e
am
twenty
"
#x x
O^
#
>
- x
Ai^
^ J*
c&>+c
or
****
All make a change for gender. The hours are counted from sunset.
THE ORDINALS.
(/)
765
of the Cardinals after
(1)
Dates (the year) are expressed by the gen.

*
the words &*- î, but for the year of a *

-*
life
or reign the Ordinals are used.
(2)
The day
' *
of the
c,'
month
9&*
is
expressed as follows
first of
*,
o
e>x>
*
,,<
(i)
()(**&
f>j
?
Jy "the
month
Sha'ban" "
;
_^
# '
(j
&* j**
' * '
35
(tse
'
"the fourteenth
of the
of
Rajab
of
" on Thursday the twenty-second

S'/c,~ or
ft>*-Jf
Muharram
' '
;
/^J| (^ ) X
o-
(^)
cJC),
"the 3rd
of
Muharram," and soon.
(ii)
v^; ^x
&1J jjy, or
v^; Jx
cA ;1JL)
;
t{
the
first of
Rajab"
SJft.
" on one night of Rajab being past ")
w^
#
^
"
IxU.
^xLil' on the 2nd of t x x
Rajab
"
;
-*^j
e^
c^
Jl*J
^J
,&)
'
on the 3rd
of
Rajab," and so on
oLai>l ^*
in the or
up
to the 15th *-xj
^
:
efiAiJf ^y,
or v**;
vA-aii^
^ or
is
<* x>
middle of Rajab."
nights remained,
But after the

xx
(f
15th, the idiom

<j'
" when so many days

(/
t>
"
as
v^>
ux
^
~
'
)
'
'
xxô
#xc/x
^xj,' 'XG^
C-*^J
j^* **^;^> or *-**t> ^^ ^H^
^/o
="on
the
16th Rajab,
lit.
when 14 (days
or nights) were
left
of
Rajab," and so on
(6).
u*~ v^J f
*W^= XXX
" on 30th of Rajab."
Vide also
LII
Remark
L The
'*?
subs.
;*,
lit.
" a blaze on a horse's forehead, a new

of the
moon," may
Remark
ace.
,
be used for the

II.
first
day
month and
/O ' JU for the last day.
On
such and such a date
may
also be expressed
by the
or
by ^j.
" One of two "
t f S(t'<1
'
' iti;
(g)
is
"one
of
f our
"
' '**' ^ X
*~;l ^1;.
(h)
"<,'
"He makes
'
a fifth"
**;(
#
^^
x
j*>
(he
is
fifth
of four), or
S*
(he
is fifth
as to four).
766
XXIX.
(a)
Other Classes of Numerals.
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS
t*
(1)
'iyo
or
&y (or
4
similar words)
f
" once
"
;
&f
'
f&s
V*
Jfii or ***^
"
*&,
twice," or ej*y
(dual);
UJt>
"secondly or a second
time
"
;
l*aL, or A*<iU
S^*, etc., etc.
(2)
The
ii/e
^.J (vide
X) may be used
*ir* *ir^
to express
"once or twice"
of
an action, as
If that
eH&r* A
" ne struck nim on ce or twice."

is
noun be wanting, the verbal noun

' '
used, as
t^lj
illi
'
he fought once or twice*
(6)
DISTRIBUTIVE
These are diptotes, optionally of the measures

,
,
J^ or
, , Q,
t
,
ft*,
or are
expressed by a repetition of the cardinal, as
^\
or ^j*>,
" " one by one

<
#U> or
(îô,
(or
(&>\
eH^J]
"two
by two";
'
&&
by
or
fi*K/o
by threes,"
'*'
(or
^ &" '
<f
ftj>
&Jb)
^tiX^ or
u-x~
(or
sixes
"
:
Aib ^
"S
.^xx*
|*^&j
ei/o
passed by people which were
in groups of
two and threes."

,îu =
(c)
MULTIPLICATIVE
"
single, singular
number, alone and simple.*
' '
f#*>
The measure
Stem, as:
for the others is JUft* the
measure of the passive participle

f &i?
of II
^^
**i\*
"twofold, double, duplicate"; ^Jux>
"threefold,
triple
*&,'
having three, triangular"
'*
;
^jA~>*
sixfold, six-cornered etc."
Once
*'
once upon a time, one day,"
is
tojj
or
/ f
,
/
*
3>,f
The opposite
^
to
"
-*$ô
compound,"
is
" " simple medicines Jwô 5 but ci>|,ij|
^^
as opposed to
767
(d)
ADJECTIVAL
(Û*)
_Ûji^ sunatyy
9$"'
"
'&
x
dual, consisting of
9 x&x
<<
two";
',-./
,3*3
"
'
u/
treble, consisting of three," as:
^^\ ^W\ v Uf
the simple triliteral
root," and so on.
(e)
FRACTIONS:
(1)
vî
a half,"
&tr<2
pi.
o^f
"
f
(but
*JU?J
-dividing
is
into half, justice ").

JAJ.
From "a
"
to
"a
fenfc
the ordinary measure
Other optional measures are,

g>
-
JU*'
and
tXjutJ.
The
PI.
is
JU*f.
Examples
e)UU,
g>,
or gu;
=J
u***,
or
^^^^ = J
etc.
Two-thirds (f )
and three-fourths
(f )
=^f
1
aSJ6.
Above TV, the
fractions are expressed
by a paraphrase, as: !x* ert*;' t^ *t>^^

5
3 parts of 40 parts, -3-th."

"
* t*' 9 * tt*
:
(2)
A whole number and a fraction are coupled

five-sixths
* fs*v
&*>)\
byj, as
^{x-.f
+- j
" four and

(/)
"
(44 = ^5).
Recurring numerals:
^J^\
^
Ub "every third": ^
^f *
"
Uj; *
'
every
fourth
(gr)
"
etc.
Approximate numbers
:
The following and

' '
;
similar expressions preetc.
cede the numeral
^6'
" about
xx/o'x
AJJJ
what exceeds "
The words
<j^>i>! j!
"or they exceed" are sometimes added

Qur*an
:
in imitation
of the following passage in the
e^JJ jf '
J^
^
AStx>
'
*
^j
*UJU>f ^
9 '
XXXVII.
also
> 1
147)
(;)
" and
we
sent
him to a hundred thousand
or more.
Vide
XXVII
A maddah
and
(&).
is
placed over o&/ and pronounced,

follows a^*/,
when a hamzah
This
aZi/,
(
follows alif, or
in the middle,
when a doubled consonant
as in
1
g\&>.
not the beginning, of a word
and
A maddah is also placed over j is lengthened 5-5. and pronounced, when they are aakin and are preceded by their sisterj^f vowels and are followed by "hamzah, as: t-y* 8u-u*u* ^^^ *-* "it was made bad."
But
so
in
have no maddah.
and j^, the weak consonants are not preceded by
their sister-vowels,
and
768
DAYS OF THE WEEK.
XXX. Days
1
of the
Week.
(the
first
(a)
o*Lj| (;Ui
;
) rt>J
The Sabbath, i.e. Saturday

Christians and Jews).
day
of the
week
of
Muslims
but the
9
)
last of
,*~
tf.
Sunday
(lit.
"day
of the
one"
the
first
day
of
Christians
and Jews).
~o
OX o
9 ff
)
(j*
* Monday
"
(ft*.
day
of the
two
'
').
Tuesday.
fj
Ox
Wednesday.
,M
Thursday.
*) fjj
Friday (day of Congregational Prayer).
The word
(6)
^ or ^
6
is
often omitted, as
9
*&$ti
$'
(/
"
x
*
Tuesday."
'
o-^c
In addition to
^ff 3
" a week
' '
there
is
\r*
a period of ten days.'
XXXI.
(a)
The Year,
9$
,(,*> *,5*
'
The
Christian
Year
is
called
by Muslims <uA~Ji &Jf

&-J f
4
the Messiah
Year," and also by Christians

" the Solar Year."
B.C.
is
j,i%Jf
xx
the Birth Year,
' '
and
**
^*-*Jf
,
dy
(*
and
also
'
by Christians
^^-*Jf
XX
JUi
modern ab-
brevia*tion of latter,
Ô
<3 ).
x
O'*
x C*x
Ô**
A.D.
is.
^y^\
ô; and also by Christians aiUJl

*
:
A*J
(modern abbrevia-
tion of latter, f v> or simply
Muslims write
abbreviation of <j>~*).
O*A*
" to
rest."
Muhammad
'*>
3
is
said to
gregational Prayers, so as to be different from the Christians
have fixed on Friday, and Jews.
for the Con-
xo'
2
Also AA+A.
Also
THE YEAR.
9&
o
-o
769
?&5> -
A.H.
isa^Wi
x
&~ff " the Flight Year
"
(16th July, 622 A.D.), [abbre-
/i xxo^tfSix
viation A (butterfly A)]
x G
:
and
also
by Christians
AjjJUl &~Jf
x
" the Lunar Year."
G^
"O'
B.H.
is
Sj*Ji
<-U*
(written in
full).
9
(b)
$~
<,,
Muslim Feasts.
There are two chief festivals
(1) j***)\
***)\
at
the beginning of
Fast.
O
<f
/j
Jtj, the day

is
after
the termination of ujUa*)
and
its
In India this
*<J
known
as
*&, an abreviation
*
of its classical
(,
name
' ^*e 9
,
(,'
xcJO-c^G
AJ.C
(" the festival of breaking the fast
")
(2)
^^f
of
*
*>*S\,
or
"the
festival of sacrifice"
this falls
on the 10th
when the sjf'j3, x
pilgrims offer up sacrifices at Mina, a day's journey from Mekkah.*
,MXG~
XXXII.
Prepositions (^Wf
o^
999
),
Prepositional Nouns, Exceptive
Particles, etc.
(a)
Prepositions govern the genitive.

j7
The noun
XG 9
),
so governed
is
styled
69 o
x
'c.
Prepositions
are 'Separate'
Jîl*
or
'Inseparable'
*->
f cUtLo
&
).
' ' ;
(b)
INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS
[prefixed to the affixed pronouns
999
* -
These are
UA,
it
five
(1)
bi
"
in, by,
with
Â
changes the zammah

months
vide p. 200.
9 xo
-
Every year has 354 days and
consists of 12 lunar
The H. year
9Q
x
1327 began on 23rd Jan. 1909 A.D.

9 xx
1,
o'
The months
of the Christian year are usually in
Egypt
.5Uj
<*9'
lili
$ ,9
-
6''
-
/3i'
/xox
/^x
>
^9<S
9&*>
e;^
(Jan.)
feUi -tif
In India, this
is
generally called Ba^ra
'Jrf
" the Cow
usually sacrificed
in
and not cows.
Poor people
sacrifice
'Id," though goats are cows, as seven houses may share

j>
one cow, whereas a goat cannot be shared.
In Persia, this feast
is
called
49
770
into kasrah
(
PREPOSITIONS, PREPOSITIONAL NOUNS, ETC.
-*
),
as
** *'
**)1
xx
(2)
/'
"
to, for,
is
belonging to,"
[before
'
affixed pronouns, except the 1st pers. sing., this
pointed with fathah,

t
vide
<"'
'
XXVI,
(/)
(1); it
also changes to fathah after the vocative ya
as:
^b
*
..
"come
to the help of
Zayd
"
! ;
but
^.
^
''
li
" to
'
me"]:
(3)
dl*
ka
\
"like"
j
(not used with pron. suffixes): (4) j

i
wa
(a particle of swearing), as: *iJj '

\
"
by
God!" =
ALIb: (5)
X
&
',,
except that
can be prefixed to
if
AlJl
x-
only,
whereas the other can be prefixed to any word;

oath,
a verb
is
used in the
(a) (ii),
must be employed.
For ^ with the
ace.
vide
XXXIII
Remark.
(c)
SEPARATE PREPOSITIONS:
C
'
(1)
L^
"of, from (indicating commenceseparation, substitution),
ment); than; some 4

after, at,
'*:
^ "from,
until'
'
:
off (indicates
about, on the authority of," etc.; (but
t^
'
"from me"): ^J
^-
"to,
towards,
X
up
to,
Jfe* "upon against'*:
er*
" from
J
After
"
fj
see
behold ",
!
w way be used, as
if
"<,'*,,
:
r'
'
?'
In negative sentences, the predicate,
a noun, has often v> as

(
(LÛ
or)
'he
also
is
not a rider":
^j+)b or
^J\fu
*d>
U =
"they
are
not learned."
Vide
XLII
LII (a) (2). (a) (2) and As a Conjunction with the Subjunctive,
(c), etc.
it
denotes " in order that, so that"
vide
XXV
8
sJ cannot precede a pronoun or a verb
it
can precede a noun only:
Jx*
yfc
or
must be substituted before a pronoun, and

" as
it is,
U5" or
UlLo before
+
a verb,
UT means
in the
same
t>
state."
is
really a
noun
;
signifying "similarity."
= "a
certain
merchant"
t^^k
I
^.^
^^y
;
" a chair (made)
oi
wood"
JUJt &*>
{&* x**xx
^
c
X
c>^ ^
" * ne wealth which
have"
(i.e.
" what you have done to us

done to us");
6
in the
<>
way
of kindness
"
" the kindness which you have
c^ x "
'
^X
^!JUf ^.ô
*jf\)\
** " he has already shown you some of his signs."

+,
Before the affixed pronouns, ,J\ and the final ^JLc change
'
(,'
alif
maqsurah into
a
as
' 1 alay-kf ijUJLp
" on thee "
O"
;
ttey-A*
*wj
" towards him ";
&' *
'alayy
" on me
etc.
771
off"; &&*
e>*
>
"from near": Ji* ^x

<*
from on"; ,v *
5*)
*<jf
*
/*
"in";
(but
^J ^
"in me,"
'"
***
"in him"
etc.):
* (rarely
G >
"with, besides";
(
^.
"
;
up
to, until, as far

' '
a as," (also a Conj. )
*/
or
AU
f or
^^
<*9
<,
"since
?S
-
'*'<,"&"
-
*
'
1.^- f*)
(j?*)
o*) (with suffixes uj*J-***f
^dJ etc.) "with,
near,'
wde
LIII
"To Have."
Remark.
a,
To these may be added the noun

it
dM or particle o>* " often,

*
many
but few," as
***<,*> governs the genitive, as: oooJ ^5

I
9,
&
+>
'
J^ 9
"many
a noble
(2)
man have
met."
Q
'
When
and e^ precede the

x,o^
x
article,
they are pronounced
^
is
rw'wa
35 ô
and
4>c 'aw*; as:
*J>ft
^^ min^l-walad^ and
that"
jyo'UJf
^^rk
"it
told
'
uî ô "
in spite of
&1 g* "in
X XX jj*
spite of the fact that, although."
Note the phrase
XXX ^fj X
$
4>5
/ ^
oJtf'f
ia.
*5^Jf
"I
eat the fish even
to
its
head";
here read either raW-ha, a genitive governed by the Preposition
^-^
Sx
is
or else raV-fea an
Ji' ^Â
accusative as the object of the verb, in which latter case <^La. * x - <* ' x //o * " [even etc."] is not used with suffixes: Uuo oif k^JLxJf "I will
indicates
a Conjunction.
kill
even you."
motion towards and arrival
at,
whereas .Jj does not necessarily connote the

X
' f 'c * m <t' ÂXJ only, as in &** iS^l^t,
latter meaning.
3
Before a noun, either
may be used, but
without a noun
"I
have not seen him
since."
It is not used with suffixes.
It
is
construed either with
the gen. or the nom. , the gen. being more particularly used
x
t
when a yet unexpired period
O X O
>"
of time
is
spoken
of, as:
job
G^w
A* AX+K
U>
"I have
not spoken to him since the
beginning of this month."

*
^ &/
on the
interjection
The
ace.
(dependent
of
w)
"multitude."
3 9 .w^ must
begin a sentence;
adjective, or a
the noun it governs must be indefinite and qualified by nominal or verbal clause in Pret. tense in place of such adjective
/ 9 , 95,9
x
an
:
an
it
,3>9
alternative construction
is
H^\
*'many a man."
With
l/o
affixed
l+jj
adv.
)^
An signifies "perhaps, probably, sometimes, frequently," and introduces a sentence. Zt as: indefinite gen. often occurs after the conjunction ^ the particle yj being elided,
9<*
,
o^/w
In
"
(jw^J
&9
many a cup have
I quaffed."
means "a few," and

;
also
"many
a."
Urdu j&l has

18.
the same contradictory meanings
vide
' '
Hindustani Stumbling Blocks,"
Supp. VIII,
772

;
on the authority of Ash-Shafi'iyy"
but before other connective
alifs, <j
becomes i^ min
c*
1
,
as
AJU!
<>*.
x
When
.
prefixed to
c
^
x
or
t/o,
the final
& becomes
by assimilation
#
,
f)
as
(jô
Ux>,
and Uc.
(or
Other separate prepositions are simply nouns in the accusative adverbial) case, but without the tanmn. They, too, govern the genitive,
(d)
and some
''G''
of
them
(originally nouns)
may
also themselves be in the genitive

x GX 9
after a preposition.
x c
)
;
x
l
^J
(dimin.
"after" (time
<JUI
)
;
or place), (dimin. ****
Jbji
"before"
(of
time),
&
"
);
above, over (place or rank), more than (a certain num"
X &X/
ber)," (dimin.
K
*'
<3*>*'
o,J
& "
"
under, underneath; less than
(of
a number)
"
;
under, underneath
' ' ;
"
;
"
p\&3
before, in front of (of place)

' '
"
;
" round about

for
"
*f>^
behind, beyond, besides
*
;
j--J
" about (number),

in possession of, in
example, in the direction of, according to
"
;
' O
^ " with,
;
the opinion of, at the time of

of, in
"
;
xic
^
*
;
from
8
"
u^*
(or
^ U^)
"
<{
instead
place
of
"
;
j& (or
j**>
declinable
);
"except, besides"
&*
"
x o'
"without"
~>j
"in the middle"
&
X
bi-la
"without"; ^j*
X
"except
XX X/
(indeclinable): e$>~>
<c
besides"
^W
"opposite"; *T>^
"opposite"
But
>0'
as adverbs,
i.e.
when not followed by nouns,

is
<>jj
and
JLiJ
^J
"
(
direction, quarter ")
used as a substantive in
all its
cases with a following

"
;
" genitive for "like," or about," as

I
C"
Cx-^&'^^x
:
AJJ^SBU JU.;
^
" a
man
like
Zayd
AlxâRJL
X X
GX/O, C;^ X
passed by about a hundred men."
can be used with
either
?C.x
an
x
J/
indefinite or
x' c/x
a definite substantive, ib
with
x cx
one that
is
indefinite, only.
Af ter j*
]
-J.P
andî
i**J "not otherwise, nothing more,"
xt
uJUjs is
x'x'o-'C/x/x&OO
understood, as:
Fide also
(e)
^)i
"
<y^J /Wk;^ ^^>xc
have a dirham on me, nothing
else."
and
XXXIV
(6) (2).
PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONAL NOUNS, ETC.
773
"placed
t(
opposite");
lu
*(*
or
*tfll)
- tf^
"opposite";
;
fUf
'<,
"
before, opposite
S(jS
x
l*
(of place)
a
,
v-aU.
'
after,
behind " (time and place)

C^
x
l
&#
(sometimes
<^
.
and
^
X Ov
**
I***)
"
"between
or
amongst";
8
,
^ ^ "from
x x
amongst";
u^ "on
this
side of, under,
without
less
than or worse"
(dimin. e^î).
(e)
The following
772
f
'
are
used as wotms and run through

'*
all
the cases:
*'
(vide p.
and
adj.
notel); JA/O* subs, "likeness"

*(,
Jf
;
(=
adj.
" resem-
bling, like")
*#&
as:
and **& subs, "like"

"
like
_,*& adj. "resembling, like,

like
match
for
"
;
<X>j
Ji*
'
Zayd"
a
*&* "
X
him "
**&*>
X
^
^C<
XO
AJ)
^
(^Jj^ x
or
cll
'
or)
"I
saw
man
like
Zayd."
non-Arab
Also
j&
t,^
xxô/j,,.
"alteration, difference, non- etc.", as:
ÂÂ* "a
"
:
"
:
x^x
"
impossible
:
Â^
^5^'
'*
kings and others
^^>
(rarely <^j*
and
except, other than, another (besides so-and-so)."

two substantives depend on i^, the preposition need not be repeated
û^
>
If
(<ijj
j.^)
^ one
or both) of the
words
is
a pronoun, the preposition must be repeated
and LJ& sometimes mean, "both 'Oxx " ,*.*xc/ both rich and poor came to us. j j*pt ,^3 Lo
a
^ && X
and,"
or
"partly "
partly": liÛ
OxXxO'
ajij ^^w =
^
O
^^
m his presence."
x
In the meaning of "without," &)&>, or

c /x /
tJj<>
j^
9
;
y be used
for
^^
but
and
>
/*îji
"beware!"
etc. is
f
*
Mil" n J&c
all
construed as a noun in apposition to the preceding noun and runs
ô
*<*'
.
f'*
-
*
is
through
6
the cases.
Vide
LXII. The usage
of
&V&
)3
xv
^
jtâ* and
j*Jb>
similar.
Aj^
refers to likeness of appearance only
but
X
" " ô
-ô"
^JbJ X
f
and JlLo are general

-
terms.
< o'
j,|
l
After ^j^
J|
and^jj
O i*
"not otherwise, nothing more," ^jji

I
is
understood, as:
"
have a dirham, and nothing more."
Vide also
(d).
774
CONJUNCTIONS.
"
Remark.
all
These govern a genitive, as do

G
-*.
'
Jf and
&'(<
tlie
whole,
"
;
and u**^ " a

f
part, one,
some "
O
;
;** or
jt
JU
measure,
size,
quantity,
Vide
"*
'
worth"; *U)
number, computation" (= "about");
&S
"both."
XXXVIII
(/)
(h)
and
LXI
(k).
uL,
especially,
above all"
(lit.
there
is
not the like
of)
seems to
,
be both adverb and preposition being followed either by the

as:
(AJJ or) ^jj
*
nom.
or the gen.
u
x
i <J*^f cf***^
is
" a^ tne
of
people pleased me, especially
Zayd,"
The word
i.
compounded
the ace. of
^
**
$:
"an equal" and
the negative
(^)
To imply
exception, are used
ill
(particle)
*!*
-
^ (U
***
*
UU
AC
(U
(par-
tides of the nature of verbs)

(indeclinable) vide
and the nouns

t/o
(declinable)
ace.,
*
and
if
LIV.
|i*
and ^L
govern the
*
but
the
is
omitted, they sometimes govern the gen.:

or ace.
UU.
or
Û-*
governs the gen.
oxô 9 t*
XXXIII.
(a)
J>^>^). Conjunctions ^cAbJi X

'
These also are
'
Inseparable
:
and Separate.'
'
INSEPARABLE CONJUNCTIONS are

consequence).
(i)
" and " j w"
+
;
" and so "

j,
(as
a
is
*
The
latter
indicates
a less close connection than

x
-
and
frequently used for the English full stop: j

distinguishes
it.
8
is
irrespective of order, but
With the Subjunctive,

jj *
o =
q.v.,
" so that."
and
Ixj
It also introduces
a Nominal
clause
after
Uof
"as for"
is
is
also used in the apodosis of Condi -
3Lk Ue "
Lit.
what
free
from "
|Ac
" what goes beyond."

x
x C,^^ ,
(
"beexcepted."
JUeJt
^fj
)
Introducing a second nominal sentence, j means "while"

f*
as:
,
' &
'
"
* *
"
Zayd departed, while

be dropped
;
(or
" and) 'Amr. remained
if
the
second clause
is
Verbal,
the j
may
vide also
XLIV (6) (3) Remark
II
and
LVIII.
This
waw
of condition sometimes introduces a

*L*.
nom. sentence that has no Part.

For two verbs
or Aor. ,as:
\_ft^-r
> + *
8xJj
*3jJ
"Zayd came
with a sword in his hand."

etc. vide.
coupled by
for
a verb and an adverbial clause
XXXIV (6)
(7).
CONJUNCTIONS.
55
775
"
tional sentences
q. v.
It is often prefixed to particles:
eii* +
with a following
Nominal clause or a
(ii)
Suffix
means "for."
' '
J with the Subjunctive =

and
(d).
so that,'
and with the Imperative

'
* '
' *
let
t>
9<f<J
vide
XXV
(c)
With the
particle
it loses
its
vowel, as: *r*X$
fa-l-yaktub.
Remark.
Accusative, as
In the meaning of
f *
:
"with",
the Conjunction j takes the
Wj
^ f<>'
"
AJ)
Zayd with
his brother."
For I with the Genitive vide$

(6)
XXXII
:
(6).
SEPARABLE CONJUNCTIONS
next, after a
:
The
following are the most
common
*
e>J
)
*
,
little
while*'* (often followed by
connects
" words and clauses

ed,?
ing order,
follows
o,
indicates a shorter interval of time; also in indicat4 6 / &f * here or as j> could be 3JJ >;+*
^^
o
p*
used in both places, but

V*
^ could not
.
precede
8
.
j?
C*55 -
<< "or", but followed by the Sub junctive =

tf
unless, unless
jrf
that":
^
^
35
CM
^
ij
"
ex ^ fe/
jf
Uj "either
^
it
or," or Uj ^
+
U|
+
Lot
for
and U); fj^^(ôr)^ffxj3Uf al^f

*
s"
"give
either to
Zayd
or
Amr."
,
<
// ''
j*t
*'or"
(in
double interrogative clauses, as:
Jl
ff *A**I
"
shall I
do
it
or not?").
" and not, nor"

nor a
SfôJ x
V^ tU;
U (^^ *
(<
man
did not
come
to
me,
woman
").
With the same meaning

Also a preposition,
35x
2
are
&$
XX
.
^Cf;
and negatively
X
and Jlxf
"so that
not."
w'rfe
XXXU
(6).
tf/
is
The Adverb
If all
^3
connected with
<*i.
came
in quick succession,
should properly be used of both
776
CONJUNCTIONS.
in
x
and
&&
x
lakinn
'
' '
but
* '
the former
is
used before
verb; and sometimes, without governing power, before a noun; the latter is used before pronominal suffixes and nouns, the noun being put
^
in the accusative
:
'
î# and <J^ both used

'.<"
a
^'
s/.j^
b
if
a
where,"
is
used to join clauses; U***

'
= "
wherever."
" at which time, when,

or Verbal clauses
,
8
);
t,
since, because,'
is
used of Past time either with

a sentence
Nominal
as
it
connects clauses (and cannot begin
U can
x
tit
.x
I*
&J*
" whenever " (conditional; with two apocopated Aorists).

as often as
"
when,
"
if,
(originally of time,
but often of condition;
always followed by Pret., but generally in sense of Fut., in which case it introin indirect questions = duces a Verbal clause, vide Temporal Clauses
:
"whether" = cU)
'
'
(for
it
and
tit
"
Behold," vide Interjections).

with Aor. or Pret.).
fit
f
*
if
*
;
ever,
when, as soon as
"
(temporal
o o
l
'&.'<*
Lakinn"
is
one of JLniJU
So too after
fljk?"
or
^(
'*
if
anyone," Uo
"Ox
f
'
if
anything," U$x>
**
"
<
if
even anything,"
"
"how,"
/Ô" l+fUT
^ 6
e
"however,"
"where,"
"when,"
**AJX
"where,"
lx>
" wherever,"
Îjf
" when " and other words implying a condition, the Pret. has a future
The sense, the condition being represented as fulfilled. * ' o' 9 * 4' ' <*' \ " it is all the and after jf or," as J**A&. jf t^J^* Vfj-**
'.
same
applies to the Prets. before

or
'
same whether they are absent

",*
present."
C
&
If
the Pret. after
^|, ^!,
C"
etc.
is
to retain
its
meaning, ^1$ or one
of
its
" sisters"
is
inserted, as:
c^*^' CM!
^x> oJ JUOA+?
Vide
"
e^]
if
ms
(5)
[Joseph's] shirt Kas
been torn in front then hath she spoken truly."

tional Sentences.
XLIV
(a),
and
LVI
Condi-
^t
is
also a particle of denial; vide
XXXIV
t
(6) (3)
Adverbs,
p. 783.
/ //
3
o 9
'
c
j] X
ex "
ft
$''&,'&'
"
ci^>c
For example
it.
^jj Â
A^J
'
e>)*; but
fjjyji fyl^ A^J
UJ
Lj must have a
XJ
vorb after
*
But
f^t
adv. "in that case, then, therefore."
CONJUNCTIONS.
d
o> x
777
"if"
(for
probable
conditions;
followed
by
Pret.
with present
or future sense;
in direct questions
= ji
whether ")
>jj
x
"even
+
i;
if,
although"; sometimes
35
<
= "and
if": ^3J "verily if";

i
as a particle
Si
(^f
"
if
not";
i/J^ x
"and
if
not, otherwise."
ill
of
exception
"except but," twfe
LIV).
jJK'if"
before a verb
of
(for
= " would
purely hypothetical or impossible conditions) (also used that," but before nouns and pronominal suffixes
;
y is
X C ^
used).
With Negative,
O
^
)
:
Uy
C**
fy)
<
if
no t.
"
if
^ " although "

conditions).
o x
(= ^fj
j sometimes
" and
"
(in
impossible
of "that"; with Verbal (and sometimes with Nominal) sentences, the verb being generally in the Subjunctive^ or rarely in the Aor. Indie.
c^
or the
G*
Preterite; also J'

il!
introduces
G
X
direct
quotations:
I
(Jf
"as though";
except that"
;
'
il
"because";
for
^f +
)" that
not
G'tfo''t,' " or ^f^ "; ^

if]
;
" " in spite of

tences and a
*5J
"so
that not
"
o'
" that
" with Nominal
sen-
verb in the Indicative
the noun immediately following of
is in
the accusative (as with o] 8 " verily ")
with the suffixed pronoun of 1st
person
î +
or
^f
s
s
Of
or UJ| etc.
o^ and
Ui
"
just as
if, it is
as
though
"
;
Of
these,
^) may
;
precede a noun, an affixed pronoun, or a verb;
1/oyJ
is
used
before the Preterite

2
and *J
J
is
before the Aorist but with a past meaning.

o "
If
t
more than one verb

is
dependent on of, the Subjunctive
is
used throughout
<.'
but o^
not repeated.
For ^\ with the Indicative vide Syntax.

3
In certain cases either ^f or
may
be used indifferently.
778
CON JU NOTIONS
&V "because
"
;
if
or of
"except that, yet."
Vide
XLII
(c)
and
XLV.
Uf
has J).
amma "as
for," with
a following Nominative (predicate always
Uf', or
Ui#
rarely luj
"
)
while, whilst."
" when " (conditional) followed by Pret. vide p. 776 note 2 "whenever, at the time when" (temporal only, does not apocopate).
;
U
Also
adv.
= "when ?"
\u'
<*'
*
)
;
&*<&*
with a Nominal sentence often
îe*
vide
"until"
(c).
[
c)f <j)j
XLV
t/
or
Vide
XXV
"
(c)
and
XXXII
(c)
and note
and
2, p. 771].
"
in order that
takes Subjunctive
&xCJ
"
in order
that not."
$' UJ
"when,
;
after
"
(
followed by the Preterite, generally with Pluper:
feet meaning
requires a complement, as
").
^3
v^ ^ ^~+*
.
tl
I slept
when,
after,
Zayd had gone

'*'
Vide note 3, p. 776.

' '
(former cannot precede a verb prepositions), vide p. 771, note 3.

A/O
<xU or
?'
since
both also used as
IAJ
"as long as" (followed by Pret. with present or future meaning);
xx
fta
tc
"as long as"

x
(wia
"as long as"

'
',
and dara a "he continued";

f
<,
#'xx
Vide
l*fyl*fÛ>
= "as
(e)
long as he rode";
(13).
U5ti "
ouo>
"as long
as I slept").
x
x<,x
XLI
Often occurs in compound Conjunctions, as:
U **
"after that":
used
to
U Jw
x Ox
"before that"
.*
(always with Aorist),
It is often
generalize,
as
UK "as
;
often
as":
Sx
^JUo
"whenever"
x<
(tem-
poral only, not conditional

x O
does not apocopate as
J^
q.v.
does when condi-
tional)
also
"
j
whenever," and
xx
tit
"if ever
"
Ux>
,?,f
Jx,, vide
XLV
(6).
ADVERBS.
779
* +
(if
Remark
I.
In generalisations,
j|
whenever,"
U>
"if ever,"
"whenever,"
UK "as
often as," are followed
by the
Preterite or the
Jussive, in the sense of the Present.
Remark
II.
In Persian and
life,"
Urdu
f(,i
is
practically a preposition, as:
madam*' l-hayat "for

alive"); the U.
(c)
(but in Arabic U*. f|$

is
"as long
Persian
Conjunction
ma-dam-ki
aC-ofa
as he was U, or ma-dam-i-ki
Vide also
XXV
(c),
Subjunctive Mood.
XXXIV. Adverbs.
(a)
INSEPARABLE :f interrogative prefixed

1
to
the
first
word
of
the
sentence,
"did he beat you?"; but * ^J+*\ * asm u-k* un Zayd "is thy name Zayd ? ": only used when there is no interrogative pronoun,
as:
J^f
ox
xi
e.gr.
xo"x
(
'p
t&A
oJU*
?
LW. or) oJU^f

' '
.T
x
!<
^ xx
'
hast thou done this
", but
(<XA
JU*
c x
'<
who
has done this

.
Ftrfe also
XLIII and
8
LIV.
saw/ (separate), are particles prefixed to the 99,^' APxo^ xox Aorist limiting its action to future time, as (*Uf o^- or ) aJUs'U I shall do it.
(j
(
' ' :
inseparable) and
Jy
/*
"certainly, truly."
a
This
in a
may
be prefixed
to an
l*-'umr ~k
' *
"by
thy
life
"
;
(ii)
complement
' '
;
in oaths, as: * xx o/~= x (f +* iA) Ai^f j t oath, as :

(i)
f
d*3
^>^
by God he has
certainly gone out
(iii)
as an inceptive particle before a

(iv) to
noun, adjective, pronoun, or the Aorist tense;

'<,'
V;
v)
an apodosis after y, or $ to the Predicate of a Nominal sentence beginning with &[.
do
it
^n negative interrogative clauses, >f X xx >>XGX " " hast thou not done it ?." ? AJJU* Lof
;
Jf
Uf
x ,
^f,
as:
AWf
is
Jffj
"shall I nofc
But
Vf,
" look here,"
an interjection.
x
*
>>
~
(with the hamzat 'l-wasl).
is
For the interrogative

is
uJUl
x
A long vowel canno t
precede a letter that
sakin unless the letter
doubled.
Also two sakin letters never
"/
occur together, except in pause.
indicates a
is
For
j*f
in a double question see pf,

a*, of
more remote future than does
which the latter
a contraction,
780
(6)
o ,
>
ADVERBS.
SEPARATE are: *" * *' "

-
(1)
Nouns used
in the
accusative
4'
:
case,
as
or) 5jU j
5)8
.*i
"
fc
one time
at another time
M
"
I**
"
"
together
;
'
*<**'
i^*tf
''often
'
"
;
^&t " by chance"

'x
' '
:
^1
O'O**
al-yawm
to-day"
;
fj
il,
or
^
x
|3j
il
<
undoubtedly
;
^f
aZ-ow
x*
c*
' '
this
" moment, now
^
^
(in
X
Persian often hdla)

or
" at once "
x o*O^
^î',
(or^^f, or
^j*^
# O
^)
"
" " yesterday "; UJla always

f
> ^x
vuij
x
"in that
case, then," as
til
x
^.i
'let us go,
then."
To the same
perhaps"
futurity
[
class belong
c-^
" at the time of
^9
,
when,"
Uj;
"sometimes,
[particle
;
XXXll
(a)],
(c)]
(I) Rern.,
J
[
lit.
"in the end"
of
vide
U*
"il
"especially"
'&
^
wde
XXXII
(/) ]
*i^ "how
alone,"
(interr. orcondit.*), as
"
;
/x osuffixes, as:
<x&.j
,
AAJ (used only with
"he
" p&*j they alone "); and a*J; and Ux^ Remark to (h), XXXVIII.
(2)
"whilst, during."
For J^, vide
Several nouns that are used as prepositions in the accusative without tanwn, ['vide' XXXII (c?)], are used as adverbs also, but in this case
*w^
* <**
O
'
they are pointed with zammah instead of fathah, as

Ô'
x*
*AJ,
or 3 A*J
?
^c x
'
after-
Cx
O'
O
^.ô.)
;
"
'
wards
J '
;
Jf$, or Jx5 ^/o (but as a preposition J*5
***** " where
(not
interrogative);
AJJA.
"whence";
"
;
(>?
taasu
X
"in such a manner

"
that,
so that
"
;
U^
if
"wherever
there
xO
is
j&
(or^
* Ox
;
i/*^J
it,
nothing else
' '
(inflected
for case, only
an affixed pronoun to
*
vide p. 772, note 3)
'
c^f)
xc*"
" like" (becomes Ji before
^ or
o*>* or (^^*, wde IM.
fjj
J^
is
also
a conjunction
"when,
if
since, etc,"
and an interjection " behold !";

xt,
from
an obsolete word
c
for
" time"
the genitive of which
occurs ir
alu^
or
at that time,"
*xo
2
8
and 4>5^j " on that day."

#
x
Vide p. 776.
>*
xox
<J*t jUflJ t^^" as you do, so
will I
do."
in Persian,
The
final
zammah
is
2.
of course
dropped
but not in colloquial Arabic.
Vide
p. 776, note
ADVERBS.
781
(3)
Certain particles,
ftf
as:
J^f "yes, certainly" (confirming a
state-
ment), as: ^3
not."
1
I*
"Zayd
did not stand up." cUf

p*i
is
= "that is so,
he did
[But in reply to a question,
better].
ill
" not "

X
-I-
interrogative
\,
vide
X
(a).
f *
Uf 1
= U "not" +
interrogative
f,
wde
(a).
"
ft
or," in a double question, as
j*f
*l**f
" shall I do
it
or not
?"
fol-
$
e>|
"
truly, certainly"; introduces
Nominal sentences, the subject

is
lowing being in the Accus.

JjiUJ f^j
x
,^1,
the Predicate
often strengthened
by
J, as
or JL5U
x
|<x>3
^ "verily,
^
;
Zayd
*'
is
intelligent."
With pronominal
lit
suffixes,
<*ij
"verily he"
^\ "xx
' '
or
(^xit "x.,
verily
1"
ti|
xx
Or
"
verily we.
"
UJl (for
c;l
--
^
ait
"
)
only
always begins a sentence and qualifies the

*[ÂU X s
e>l5>.wi)t
word
or clause
;
the end,
as:
USj
" the alms are for the
poor only"
often corresponds to the Hindustanti >> to and

in
^?.
^1*
^ 33 '
"
how, where,
x
whatever way, whence? "
(interr. or Conditional).
a
c;lj(
and
i.e.,
^bl
is
"
when, whenever
(
"
(interr. or Conditional),
^f
O
"
that
"
^j**
**
much used by Commentators.

I
c^l^yes, yea; always followed by an oath,

x*
as: *Ui j <^J
"x
?
**
"yea, by
God!"
i
CXOX
' ' ' '
O//* x
*jj|
yes
vulgar form
of
*.Ut
*
^t
x
x
' '
ox O
^f
where, whither
' '
(interr. or condit.^)
&>j
&*
" whence
"
;
"whither? "
Uij|
"wherever."
do
it
2
In negative interrogative clauses /XG'' x' " 4< hast thou not done ? aii*5 U|
;
Jff
*J?
UJ
^
"
^f,
M *W
:
"
i/l
shall I not
it
"
?
;
but
J|?
" look here "
is
an
interjection.
Fide p. 776, note
2.
782
o*
JL*
1
ADVERBS.
"but
rather,
no on the contrary, but."
^"yes,
terrogative, as:
certainly,
why
G^WkX
-
not, of course,"
X*
in reply to a negative in-
XX
x*
OXX
>f
f>Jtf
/&>? X
X
"
Am
not your Lord?
They
said,
" 'Yes.
5
Utxj
"
while, whilst
"
;
connected with the prep. <>#

;
Jl (or in
pause
**>)
"yonder, there"
wde
p. 775,
note
2.
<ij,
often untranslatable
with the Preterite
it signifies
the completion or
certainty of
really,"
the action, and may sometimes be translated "now, already,

'C/"*
^ C'
as:
4^^
A*
"we
have mentioned
(just
now)."
?9
It
o
signifies > <.* >o-
that something uncertain or unexpected has happened, as:
"I ili 4&5
was hoping he would come, and now he has " sometimes." Vide XLIV (a) the Aorist, it means and Ill, (7).
OX* ko*
'
(
really
(6),
come." With and (b) (3) Rem.
<*'
f or
+ IM
always placed after the f

Ml'
) "only (and that noun it modifies.
is all),"
lit.
"and enough";
3b3
"never"
(of
Past time); always follows a negative Preterite or a
negative Jussive, as:

9 GX
>
kj
^
*xif;
U =
K5
'*
jjt^l
jJ
have never seen
him"
</^
Ox
5
or
u^*, o f u^y "never,"

9 ^' X ^
XX X
(of
future
time); always follows

*XX
negative Aorist,
as:
o^
-&>b'f
"
if
will
never leave thee"
f^f
"never
(of either past or future
time
is
used with a negative verb].

;
Sx
&" " not at
all,
" by no means, certainly not
vide also
XXXV
'
(6).
i* "not, no," used with Aorist in Present or Future meaning, as

'
'*'<G A!A*I
'
)(
"
do not do
/ox&x ^ aJUiu V
it,
or I shall not
do
it
"
"
:
or with Jussive in Imperative
meaning, as:
1
"do
not do
it
"
:
51,
followed by an accusative noun,

but in Urdu
In Persian either
;
db
or
^j
can be used for enhansive " but "

(c).
only can be used

2
vide Phillott's Hind. Man., p. 210
Vide also
XLII and XLIH.
ADVERBS.
" there
783
expresses complete Denial, as:
yu
il
is
wo escape at all."
Also
used as representative of the other negatives after j.

ox
f
as
:
"
not,"
used with Jussive, to which
it
imparts a Past meaning
jiftj
JJ
" he did not do it."

followed by Jussive.
o
'
U
t/
&'
"not yet "
>6
x
il)
^(contraction
of
e>l
vj^
"not";
xVx Ox
:
followed
by the Subjunctive,
which then has a future meaning, as
*!**!
^ " I shall not do it."
<,x
"not "
used with either Preterite, or with Aorist as a Definite
Present.
&l a particle of Denial, as
* *
:
&*+c]
"
f^/of
l$L* o*>f; ol
x x
"
have not seen any[For ot as a
thing of her, that I despise"; vide also
LIV
(e)
Exception.
Conjunctive, vide
XXXIII
what time
"
(ft)].
"when
G'X
at
' '
[Also Conjunction vide p. 778].

,
f*>
able "]
*
" [derived from p*i (what you say) x^ affirms any statement or question. Vide cM.
rarely ^**
)
o x
yes
"
,,xx
is
agree-
el*
vide
(a);
introduces more lively questions than the Inseparable particle introduces direct or indirect questions; in indirect questions
as:
tîr&xit
I,
"whether,"*
JA u^* 4 *? "
tel1
me
whether thou hast expected

' '
me "
Vide
not used in alternative questions
8 gives the Aor. a future sense.
LIV.
3X
O x
(
x
)l )
iU
i
= Jk +
" not "
used in Interrogative sentences,
q.v.
Ftde also
XLII and XLIII.

"
Corresponds to the Hindustani (not Persian) use of aya lf .

w x
The
interrogative
particles
and
uU
are
no * used before
&XX
(JLkf.
the
interrogative
pronouns.
Occasionally the two particles are combined, as:

tfi~o
xx
cx
Xx xC'
" wouldst thou
like
Note the idioms: wl JJ|

'xx
^ uJ cU
:
some wine ?"

/'C'
^>f
J^ cU
^
or
&-
" doest thou wish to sleep ?" jUj

supplied.
in these,
some substantive as
&)
iL* must be
784
f UA " here "
'
ADVERBS.
*
;
'
9\
IUU
(or
U*)
"just here, right here, this very place," and
iA
and il&* " there."

x
'*
(4)
Certain adverbial phrases, as
*-*jj
(^
shortlv
"
;
o'a (or Uo#
or
U U*!
b)
" one
day,
" from amongst": JL^ JT <lc, or once"; *U* &* #

*
53
>^
f
'
o*
"
]
' '
^JU,
"any way,
}f
at any rate, in every case'
'
..(
erf
or
) e>f
^c
per
haps" Ux*
wide
^
"especially"
= U
>
"there
' '
is
nothing
like
whatever,"
' '
XXXII
^ -
(/)
U J/or UU * (from
+ *
-
J/,
it
was little or rare "
seldom
' '
,
**
? *
and
U JLL
or
Vide also
ULt^ (from Jib J^ki 8 "it was long") " not XLII (c) Particles that govern like Verbs."
< (
for a long
time."
(5)
The " Approximate Verb

"nearly, almost"
*
"
^
is
tfc
" he was on the
point of,"
as
:
signifies
etc.,
and
followed by the Aorist,

#1
P
i
''*
(
/0
'
xc>x
e^/of
erf )
^^!
(pronounced H/P)
"I almost died"

"
lj&>
&&
A*#cJl
)
"
it is
"he
very likely that poverty may result in infidelity Vide also LXI. nearly did it."
+ & *
*&***
&
& and
&"
or
(6)
c.J
"would that!", and J*

also
J*)*
"perhaps,"
X(,'
govern
(rarely
the
OX
accusative
take the suffixed pronouns,
as
^^
Jk>
By Arab Grammarians
^^
is
considered an
33
"Approximate Verb"
,/
'
and its subject is the clause following

your Lord
<jt
or ^f.
In
iJ|
ef fi*\U'
(said Moses)
will destroy
your enemy
",
+&)
is
considered to be the subject of
(if
~*.
This word usually stands

Vide
first in
the clause.
The
Pers. <X$IA,
"
perhaps,"
is
also a
verb.
2
LXI. By Arab Grammarians, these are considered
to be verbs.
They stand
first
in the
clause.
S
As
lilia.
JU
thou hast seldom come to us"
UJjLw
Jl-fe
" thou hast not
honoured us
*
for a long time."
These are perhaps verbs.
INTERJECTIONS.
785
"would
O
'
(*
that
I- ";
<*'
J^
(rarely
^0)
U
"
perhaps
I"
etc.;
'(.** 'Ci?
>*>
'
would that there were between thee and
me
the distance
of the
East from the West! "
But
if
is
added to JL3, the noun may be

&,
s,x
<J*J,
in
the nominative; while
if it is
(c).
added
*
* S?'
feo
cU or
x
their governing
power
ceases.
Vide also
X.LII
* s +
-^
g^
/*o
x X
**
Note the construction Jlfcb' ASU. ( = i>j.suJ| Jlfef ) "he prostrated himself and made long (his prostration)/' for " he prostrated himself a
(7)
long time."
Compare
LXII
(a) (5)
Remark.
XXXV.
Interjections
e^T.
Lj,
(a) The Vocative is expressed by the particles Vocative, wde Syntax of the cases.
s
G-*
and
U'f or
l$fc|
For
s
,
s
;
sU s
-*
,x
(6)
Some Interjections
far
are
or
or Uf " ah alas !"
&(**> e^lÂ
or
"
alas,
or
*
,
from it!"; J^<J|

vide also
let
"fie^ on thee";
more emphatic
(with prep.
^.ô
(fern.
Ul* "never ,"

Vj as
:
XXXIV
"
!
(6) (3)
&, UA
"make haste "

tl
lij
UA "come
/X C X
us go
p &>
or
or
of
Elative
o *' *
v^f
"
)
hail!
"
(as
*
xx o*
^b>,
<*f
^^
*
&& -xx/
bravo "
!
x^/
"hail to thee! ");
L^J
(with
&
or
&
or
fO^
"beware," =
cJLf
U;
IA
"lo!";
t>
<,
"woe!"
suffixes,
as:
^ "woe
l>
to thee!", viê(c)];
I
"oh!"
or for
(often with the
following noun ending in C^cxx "^ ' O'

in
,
_^_; or
in
pause,
an
alif
maqsurah
t,
as:
!<x3
or
ifo^j fj
" Oh sorrow," and also<yW
"Oh
.
Ij
Zayd!
"
;
C/^^'
t*>x>
xxxx
^
/x
i*>*
Oh Moses ";
!
li*!
Ij
"Oh mi/
" sorrow
!
i>>.
(and
pi. fj+A*)
" come
<j
<j
But
in
pause ol^J^
In Persian,
^
of
expresses pain or disgust.
'
cJDi
also a Preposition.
M*.
|^
^lA.
" take and drag along"=" and so on, and so
forth,
et
cetera"
50
786
INTERJECTIONS.
here!, bring!, give!" (sometimes declined like an Impera.); oiA*
"give,
bring here!", declined as an Impera.; (properly Impera.
IV
of
^M^'to
* of
come)";
^
CAJ
o'o
"come!"
^^JU,
^1
"haste," or
jtpf
"keep
to
to,"
or
jat
"call") (with prep.
as in
*&d\ ^.U
"come
prayers!");
Uj, or
jjt>
or
*\)
(for
admiration or regret) "wonderful! or alas!";

(also A^)
also
**) "silence, hush!"; **
"stop!
let alone!
"
(c)
The substantives
to thee"
;
^ and
<*
JLfj
(formed from
^5^)
/x
are used as follows
O -
"owe
(^)
AJJ) Jbj
" woe to Zayd"
|tjj
/x &
bj
"woe
to
him."
The measure Jl* X

"
ufy3
" take gives an interjectional Imperative, as: jt&^

X
care!";
give
it
up
"
;
J|>|
" come down ";
Jlkj (m.c.)
"
stop work."
(e)
tij x
or
"behold "
often used after lU) or Ui>j

:
the former before
a Nominal sentence and the latter before a Verbal

subject
in the former case the
may have v,
as
<yf
it
" behold a jinn came ";

!
((Â, tit
or)
^?u d
f
/PI ix, or
e>j ''
f
lif
(it
"when
suddenly I found a Jinn by

Y
me":
vide Con-
junctions, for
tit.
#- ox
(/)
Many nouns in the accusative
are interjections, as: Ifa^/o
"
welcome,
are at
"willingly";
\"* j **f
"welcome,
you
home, be easy ";

Vide also
U>
"may'st thou perish";
"slowly, gently!"
XLI
(d).
(g)
Many
this
religious phrases are used, as:

Oil
*M U>^ " God forbid! far be
it
<O
X O f
2
from!,
cannot
be!";
*D|
cjUu-
"praise be to
God"
(used for
Most Arabic verbs denoting " to come " are

*C
x x o '
transitive.
4 aixs e;lsux*o
" how strange
wonder greatly at
it.'*
INTERJECTIONS.
I
787
admiration): &Ml *tUo
" as God
*U/
pleases
"
(to
remove the
' '
!
evil
eye
>).
*D
X X
'
thanks be to God
"
!
*U ^t
i
"if
God will
(often stands for the English
"I
hope so"); *Ub ^*f

JL
or
*
All
Jl*x>
"God
forbid"
(^.
"I
take
"
refuge in
God");
*U) ÂiJUf
>
J^
there
is
no
might and no power save in God the mighty
"
!
(expression of astonishment
or alarm): Jte (IV of J^) " He is exalted!"; and Jk ^ j.* AjJf "God, exalted and magnified (be His name)!" (constantly appended to the name
of
God)
(h)
etc., etc.
There are also numerous
calls to
domestic animals, and imitative

*>
cries
and sounds which may be considered

;
as Interjections, such as A* for

9
driving horses
o
^ or Â
$<.
t
o '
'
' '
or Up^ for driving a dog

o
>\
away
A.
<j*j3
*
for calling
a dog
kneel;
Â. â, - * - '

x
for calling camels to drink

{,
A!*
or #5* for ^
making camels
Ox
<3-b
(jLb
the sound of a blow;

^
;
-*'
the sound of a stroke;
the sound
of a falling stone
(jj-fc
sound of splash.
Also
*
"many", as:
'
aJJ|
*U>U
^^^/|
sJ
c)K
"he had many
children": here
the word
many
is
not stated for fear of the evil eye.
PART
XXXVI. Nouns
(a)
II.
SYNTAX.
and
Indefinite,
f+is
Definite,
Tanunn
*'
;
is
'
equal to the indefinite article, as: v^fe

<
<->(&
*
"
a good
book "
(2)
'
*.'
a'JUl^
*
A'U
*
a glorious queen."
The
loss of
tanwn, with the addition

the case of certain
definite (except in
shows that the noun is proper names, and nouns that

of Jf
,
are imperfectly declined), as:

(3)
v^' s
yU#f *
"the,
good book."
shows that the
The
loss of
both the tanwn and the

is definite
article, usually
noun
(if
not a proper name)

it,
and governs,
in the genitive, the

ojj^jf
f
noun
the
that follows
as: c^JUJf
o '
t,?
;
"the daughter of the king";
father of
Zayd
"
9 ,,
(t
p**^1
one of them."
(4)
"A
daughter of the king

to
"
*.C-
Jf
<j
is
expressed
by
tjJUU o*L (" a daughter,
one of the daughters,

S
,5
the king
'
')
cU> fÛ
#
" the
(or a) slave of
a man "
9?
(,
=
,
*9
:
*&
(,,
S&~
JaÂJ ooj
" a house belonging to the man," or cU^t

' '
:
CÂJ
' '
one of the man's houses
cUÎ
^
"
" the slave
of the
man."
king"
;
(5)
Note the following:

l
x /O *-iJ oJu
"one
of the daughters of a
uU oi.j " a or the

"a cup
of coffee,"
daughter of a king
>JiJ| cjUu*'
'
(according to context)
but
" " ê cup of coffee \j*j^ '

4
'*
vy ~ j* *"
1
"a garment
of silk
"
:
S>9^~ G
*9
^4>l ^
^* U+j *
" "a Hindu, one of the Hindus.

:
(6)
The
definite article often denotes species or class, as
"he
is like
a (the
class)
ass"
^Vt
+<x
_^f
"
(the class) wine is the origin
of the (the
I
whole class
of)
sin."
i.e.
Definite in a generic sense,

(6).
not the daughter of an ordinary person but of the
species king, vide
THE COPULA
(c)
* '
IS
"
ETC.
789
(I)
After the demonstrative pronouns as qualifying adjectives, the noun

Jl, as:
has the definite article

is
V UI|
\*&
"this
book"; but when
a noun
a predicate to a demonstrative, the noun

:
may
1
be either
|d*
definite or
indefinite, as
V U^
is
fa*
" this
is
a book
"
;
v UJiyk
" this
is
the book
"
;
fittf x
ia*
"this
your book," vide
XXVI
(a).
In *UT âJf x
'*
*jjJ|
la*
is?^*y "this
after
is
the day which you were promised,"
>fc
might be inserted
(e).
&
(2)
for emphasis.
FWe
also
XXXVII
(6)
and
XXXVIII
cUJf (adv.)
Note the
definite article in such phrases as,

(c/.
"
this
very
hour": ^Jf "today"
Scotch "the day").
XXXVII.
(a)
The Copula "Is"

are
etc.
The words
for
"
is
" and "

1
"
are omitted, as
" <Jx*^ ,j
' *L'
Bakr
(is)
handsome "
c^JU-*^ or)
^t4^- J ^'
" tne
men
(are)
handsome.
(6) (1) For clearness (to prevent the predicate from being mistaken for an apposition), the third personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, singulai dual, or plural is often used instead but the subject and predicate must be fs x ^ ,/ /JL , 9, & ,
;
fc
definite,
'
*
as:
j
^\
*Ul
4<
God
he
is
the
j
eternal"; '&^+^\
isf/o
ilf
Îx^sJf p* JU^Jf
singular, vide
*'
[in this last
example, after
^ the adjective cannot be feminine

,
.
XXXVIII
In
all
(a)]
til
;
,9
99&+
JL^Jf
JJi
'
that
man am
its
"
;
-/ ,
Ul j*>
&
who am I? "
such cases, both the subject and

o
predicate must
be in the nominative.
(2)
After &\ and

is
iyl
with a definite subject, the
Jâ*J|
j^c is not required,
as the predicate
easily distinguished
by being
etc.
oeparate pronoun of the
same person
may
in the accusative; but a <.&' ;/ Ov* ^' be inserted, as: <^t
^)
"I
(am) thy
(3)
Lord"; v u^t
<1&1
x
"Thou
(art)
the bounteous giver."

it is
When
1
the subject consists of several words,

,9
clear without the

'
This copula (Â)
is
" the pronoun
of separation
"
(
G'C,'**
790
THE ADJECTIVE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

of
"pronoun
>*
separation" that there

"the religion in God's
is
a complete sentence, as:

al-Islam."
1^
o
x
'
*^'o
>*
x x
gift is
(c)
This pronoun must be distinguished from " the emphatic

)
,
as
v^
99
XxC*'>>X lxX
j
l
pronoun"
X
>*
I**
oK "
t,
/O^
this
was (not
is)
the reason
' '
:
ist^tWl
^^
" the
<
Muslims (and not

9,
\jj\g
the
slaves or mercenaries)
formed the
army
Jflilf
*
^^)(Ja)\
^
" x
I
^3
" but
they
were
the
doers
of
wrong"
?
I*A
*x
^/o Uf
x
^^j
x
^/U
*
where then
this
is
my
share of the booty
";
&
,^so
Ill .
^ x G-o x C x u^jj j&fc ^ ^
whose
is
book
Ours "
compare
LXII.
\X
Occasionally the emphatic
J is
prefixed, as
i^sJUJi
^^
"
e>J
if
be the righteous."
(c?)
ail
x
and
Ifif,
etc.,
mean
'
there
is
"
etc.
Ai
i
" there was."
XXXVIII.
The Adjective and the Demonstrative Pronouns.
(a) Adjectives follow their nouns and agree with them in every respect, but sometimes according to the thought in the mind of the writer. Collective nouns (and broken plurals) may be treated as singulars or plurals, according
to the idea,
as:
e^Jt^
f>5
" a tyrannical people"; <xI/o

Occasionally a
<*
" a united
people"; *3Uu
"a
miserly people."
broken
plural
takes an epithet in the regular feminine plural, as: oDijâxj fin "
numbered
days."
(b)
j$*
generally
makes no change
for gender, as
^*
or)
or
(c)
For the
Infinitive used as
an Adjective, wcfe Apposition.
For the
III,
Noun
and
of
Instrument used as an Intensive Adjective, vide

(d).
XV (5)
x^xx
Remark
LXII
(d)
The
adjective
may
refer either to
a preceding noun which

C
:
it qualifies,
iS/x/cxx
or to a following
noun that
is
connected therewith, as
Ja*J| JjJJf iUj 'o^f;
"

saw a man poor
a generous
' '
791
of
understanding
9 fx
*{,
/^GX *
/x
<
:
jJ
# *
alic &JU!
iU;
i*j'j
Uj^
iU.; cujfj
f"
saw
>*
/fc -x
man";
^f
U^ x
Û; 04 1;
"I saw
man whose
father
was
generous." It agrees in case, with the noun preceding it (to which it is, as it were in apposition) but its concord with the noun following is the concord
, ,
of
the
verb
and
its
agent.
Thus
in
' *
*fy
# *
fif d*-j> ej/o

* '
passed by a
man whose
dual noun
parents were generous," eHs*^/ might be substituted, since a
may either
x>"
be preceded by a singular, or followed by a dual, verb.

,
9'
x5 O 'x
Similarly in
UA^JJ
^^JLijUu
d;yo
"I
passed by two
girls
whose father
was generous," the adjective can only be singular masculine, as the verb
<'.*
which could be substituted for
it
would be
pj*.
The adjective may

^G x 3x
*iic
*
also be rendered
by a verb
or a verbal clause, as
>?
u .,
/ /x
cU
ILtj o^jfj,
and
^J|
,9,
t 9,
? Ox'
Û.; c*jf).
() The adjective follows its noun, the demonstrative pronouns precede their noun but if the noun governs a genitive or has the affixed possessive
;
/x
^1
\**>
.o,
pronoun, the demonstratives follow the noun, as: **
^l
" this son ot
mine
is
noble
"
;
\**
^3
#
v?l
X
" tnis son of Zayd's."

>=
x
l
Note the following

a
v^
'
C~
J
i
/ xl " t^ "this book", but v lif t^

X
x
this
is
book" and
l^ I**
this
your book":
JUÎ
'
1^*
"this
man man
(1)
this is the
man
' '
and
^' ^
(c)
|AA
"
this is the
who came
and
(c).
to
me
yesterday."
Fê
XXXVI
and
XXXVII
(6)
is
verb Before a collective noun, the demonstrative will be plural */ the ' *" rl Note that the word u-Wf is always treated as a plural plural.
(2)
it.
requires the plural demonstrative before

(3)
Before broken plurals, or lifeless feminine nouns, the singular either feminine of the demonstratives is used; but before regular feminines,
the singular or plural feminine
(/)
is
used.
its
The
genitive
cannot be separated from
governing word.
In
792
/
xc<*

OxO<*
?^l jt
"the
1 the glorious possessor of the throne,"
zammah
in
^.Jf
If
clearly
shows that
it
is
Nominative, and therefore agrees with J<N

'<'
the phrase were unpointed, the word might stand for d*?uJf the genitive, * X
<^C
in
which case
9
it
would agree with

xt*
u^L*
xcx
x*
" The spacious house
of the
Wazir" =
(g)
Ml
is
"Ox*
9 ox
-^
c'G x
-!!
^# =
->*3
Generally
x
when
several adjectives qualify one noun, the copulative

t
+
ft*
%tt
and" 0)
if
omitted, as: ,+^j
^) ;*
^***" #& ^
*>jS
.**
*"
*&
*>\.
But
as
the
Adjectives are of the measure J*JI
they are coupled by ^
(1)
rf (*
Some Arabic nouns, such as "all," " every one"; "one, some, a
Rem.p. 774"
8 <{
part";
vide
JaU,tjfefc (e),
like
";
" both fern., && masc. and cAUT * s

x
>
"
another than," vide XXXII (d) and (e) lj many A a Arabic in but for stand genitive. govern a," English adjectives,
LXIII (d)
S^
"
peculiar
use of
J^
in
apposition
is:
j'U);
J^
p&*)\
j*
"he
is
a thorough,
real, scholar."
Note, that with a definite noun, J?

indefinite noun,
o
" the whole or all," but with an

oxc"
\*9
^,
it= "each or every," as:

xx
fcjl
'
J* "the whole
of the
day,"
xo~'
x
cif
"all mankind,"
o'
laAit^gaJl' tl
'all
the animals":
<>J^
W> J^ "every
i-^
stratagem,"
fj>
df " every day,"
i9
**-\j
& " each single one," <^ J^ " every
i^
o ^
Sale
Urdu
2
translation of the
and Rodwell both translate this " the possessor of the glorious throne." In the Quran this is Vfj UWT^ ^) J^ which is ambiguous, as u*Jj may
qualify either
^|(j owj*In modern Arabic, the final vowels are omitted in speaking hence, to avoid ambiguity, a word signifying property is inserted in Egypt, to indicate possession, or
; ' '
(jw,
or
in
Baghdad J x
3
K
is
je
before an adjective
privative, as
(^+*> **0 "impossible."

# x
793
b
one who."
as:
Note, too, that J* may follow in apposition to a definite noun, ,& * s **& f &" the Utf <>J V earth, the whole of it"; mankind, all of ÎJJl
them."
%9
Remark.
Note the peculiar use
of
kull un
Jf (followed by a genitive)
xi,-o u,
,9
as an English adverb or adjective of excess, as: <uiW|
JT
u*Jl^jA
" he
is
perfect liar, thoroughly untruthful

<j&f
"St
"
;
^^\
<J
CHS*~
'
"
I tried
my
utmost
"
;
V^2J|
and
ate
Jf ^jj
J'
<<
he beat him as
much
as he could.'
But without
Jt,
v^ ^
<**'&?
i^***
*
= "in
every kind of way,
all
kinds of ", as: J*1

#
cU" v^l>
all sorts of
dishes."
c<
(2)
u^, ^-
%fr
a part, portion,'
'
is
followed by a gen. of a
pi. or
a collective,
G'
G
3x o ô
and means "some one
or more, a certain one,
one," as:
fljjli
u^*^
'
c$*
" one
day";
xxx:3lxJ| s
(JOAJ
"one
of the
pupils";
(j&*>.
4
u^*
'
c^l
'
/kJ| <JA*J
'
some
evils are easier to
* G&^ ^CX ' S <" ' t(j be borne than others"; I^H* uf**V f**^ &*'jr9 "even
though the one

(3)
of
them should
aid the other."
Similar to the use of
etc. is
the use of j*$ or j!*5* and *l^j etc.
vtde
XXXII
(e)
notes 4 and 5, and Remark], as
jj;.
" " he saw in the water a fish, measuring a cubit

<l
I;
the height of the idol

For_j2c^
is
about thirty cubits."
(4)
and the prep. j^J vide
XXXII
(d)
note
2.
9
(i)
An
Adjective
may
govern a genitive, as:
JM
s
J*
little of
understanding."
In such cases the muzaf, contrary to rule,

35'
may
/
;
xx//3ix
have
Jf,
which
is
then considered to be a shortened form of
^^1
JâJf
J^l
Ja*J|
*
JUUjAÂlf
*
J^f
(6).
**
the
man (who
is) little
of understanding."
Ide
Relative Clauses
LV
794
(/)
THE ADJECTIVE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE FRONOUNS.

Note the following constructions:
' '
(i)
l*+>j
er~-^ <*j
Zayd
,
(is)
handsome as
to face
' '
(i.e.
Zayd
is
hand-
99
&
, ,
/<,,
some)
*-s^j
eJ-^ *0 "Zayd,
his
face
(is)
handsome "
"
)
Zayd
(is)
handsome
o/ Jê face."
(ii)
a^yi ^^sJi cU^Jf "the man, the handsome as

'
to the
face'*
(here Jf
îiJf)
(for
other constructions and explanation vide
Relative Clauses
"x
(iii)
LV).
is
/O ' /Ox
X
"^
;^j Jj^J- ^jj
"Zayd
long o/
to
"
sight
(i.e.
Zayd
is
long-
sighted).
<
(iv) ulxJ(
yT|
the most o/ men, most people
"
;
j*
^1
e^.
tc
walked, the quickest of walking

(^)
<*
"
(i.e.
very quickly).
Sometimes an adjective
*' '
is
expressed by a substantive in apposition,

;
&
>
3>f
sjjU '
,
"a
x^
girl
/
[who
is],
a virgin
" $**
x
f5t
,*
o
f
^' x
a number of mosques
"
;
,<S
Ua.
JU| e^su ^ "and they

The material
of
love wealth with a great love."

article
is
(2)
which an
made may
(
also be so treated, or
else
put in the gen., as
v^l
= v^^t
<{
but not
vA ^f
^'
).'
the
golden image
(3)
"
:
y^ vy
= â. vy
a garment of
silk,
a silken garment.
is
The
Infinitive,
without any change for number or gender,

f OX
used
in apposition, as
an adjective, as: JAP <JU; and
J^
siôj,
vide
LXII
(^)
The natural connection

x/
between substantive and

.
adjective
~?
[j*> ]
may
9 C' x
o*
O "
always be broken, the words^* or ^cf being understood, as:

-
.^f
(m)
(1)
tj^l
transitive verbs
x/
COMPARATIVES from
:
of loving,
'
hating, etc.
are followed by J, as
after
*&*
1
*JJ l^-t
^ x
xi| JA, or .îx

'
*U
x x x
wJlJrf Â
he seeks more
God than ye do."
Verbs of knowing take

(2)
795
Comparatives from intransitive verbs take the same preposition as ?' c x '* 3 f(j cx'ox
their verb, as:
^Jb
^xl]
vy>f
J-A
"he
is
nearer to you in affection
(i.e.
you love him the most)."

(3)
When
*
:
the
"
comparison
f,
is
between
i
sentences,
9
f
&*> with
*
'
G'
or
<>>
is
9 G î,
/^.^^
Ô'C,**
used, as
better
' '
WA' ^S3 î ^/o

<â^
^^^f
**U/f J?*A
^x iJ^j^
"
thy quitting this city
is
tffow
thou shouldst remain in it";
^j**\ o*jf; I**

^
^t^
*-
x
1 '
this
c
/-
book
^ X 3i
is
better lAan <â# Âic^ I

C'
saw yesterday.
Ô
X XO^
xX
*<,.
x'O x
'
fe
xcx
-^
^x o x
or
M
indefinite
(w)
(1)
The SUPERLATIVE may govern an

it
noun
;
in the genitive,
x
x C x
x*
,0-
in
which case
makes no change
for gender or
number, as
&>U- <.>~^f
^ x
vÔ
"
Zaynab
its
is
a very pretty girl."
If it is followed
by a dependent
C'
X
definite
noun,
it
may
or
may
not agree
with
noun
- x
<
in gender
x
x
and number,
V
but preferably does not:

they two are the most accomplished of
GX *
(âlif JLsji
x
U*or) (*yf
JL2*| U&,
"
T-LJJ?
their tribe"
J*)\ <^j\s* "

^
oUL~*
or
a -^f
*5Uj
4<
his daughters are the
prettiest girls in the tribe."
Remark.
Note that Jy andy^f, which are

x
really superlatives, take the
same construction.
Either
^ Jy
or JjVl j-^f
is
used for " the
first
day."
(2)
The
+
l/o
highest degree
9
is
expressed by the elative followed by
U or ^ U
J^f
x
f 9
as:
c>
^wxf
is
the very best thing"; e>lu

x
j^
x
o*J
l/o
^^
of
"she
the most beautiful of the daughters of
Hayy
of
"
;
to txWj. -4(3
,11;
^x:
"Zaynab
is
the most
beautiful
the daughters
Note the concord
of the verb,
which follows the regular
rule.
796
ORDER OF SENTENCE,
Remark.
ETC.
X
Note the following methods
of expression:
Aj*#\ jv*\
" the
Amir
of Amirs, the Chief of the

of
Amirs "
and yÛaJt 4**^, or
"the precious
gems,"
is
example, the adjective
"the most precious gems"; (in this latter practically a substantive and need not vary with the
i.e.
gender or number of the thing specified).
XXXIX. Order
(a)
of Sentence, etc.
is,
The usual order
of
a sentence
(1)
verb;
(2)
subject;
(3)
object;
^C
+ s
(4)
extension of qualifying adjuncts.
But when the agent has a pronoun

<
referring to the object, the object immediately follows the verb, as:
9
t*ij
v^
9' 9 *^=iU
*v> 99
Zayd's own slave struck him (Zayd)," while

third
!*j)
^^ vj^ would
' *
9 ,, ,
mean
' '
"his (some
prospective.
person's)
slave
is
struck
Zayd":
&
ill,
pronoun cannot be
&
ill
t (,*
The same order
observed with
as:
Of
IAJJ
u^*
"no one
struck Zayd but

first.
me."
With the verb "to be" (understood),

for
the subject comes
The Predicate
is
placed
first
(i)
emphasis
(ii)
when the
,/
:
subject
s~
j\*)\
comprises a pronoun referring to a word in the predicate, as

(not >f3i <^
is
lA^l*
UÛ) " its owner

by
lit, ^
*
is
in the
>
house"
(iii)
when the
is
subject
in the
i,'
restricted
or UiJ, as: *>j
$[ jf^Jl S *
^
,
I*
"none but Zayd

"
(but
jl*)l
house "
t '
x?)
^\
*
^
'
"
Uij
*
only Zayd
is
in the
hous
^*
**J
^1 =
Zayd
(b)
is
in the house only

of a
"
).
The subject
Nominal Sentence l should be
either a definite
noun
or else one qualified by an adjective, except in certain cases of which the are the most following important: * ' t' (i) When the Predicate is a noun with a preposition, as: u*ltf
+
'
^^
s s
"I have
a book
"
;
f 9f
&
*>
J*j ^ ; f^| ^j s
is
in the house is a
man."
f
,
f>
',
(ii)
When
the subject
introduced by J, as:
*5tf
'
J^f
"certainly,
a man
is
standing."
i.e.
a sentence or clause beginning with a noun.
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

(iii)
33**
797
:
When
/
x x
x
the subject follows a negative or interrogative particle, as

-0
j\)\
x
^9
**>*]
" there
is
no one
*
t
in the
"
house"
;t^(
^ ^ JU> "is there a

man
in the
^x
o ,
youth in the house?

a
"
;
/x^c,**
f 9' r
Si^t ff
x
jf*Jl <J>
-
cU>! "is there a
house or
woman
(iv)
' '
? <.*
,,
/x x
'*
When
' '
!
be upon you
the sentence expresses a wish or prayer, as /C' /*,* woe to Zayd JL j

;
^Jui* fJL
peace
^^
s
* '
' '
(v)
When
the subject
is
adjective), or
a diminutive (and therefore really contains an ^- u /o^^ an adjective qualifying a noun understood, as ^** J^>
is
:
"
/ox
/o-^/^"
(
<**
''there
4 '
is
a
(
mean
fellow at our
house"
'K e/
x
y^^
er*^* ^*>;
er*^
a believer
(vi)
believing
man
is
is
better than
an unbeliever."
&
When
&~
the subject
a noun of general signification, as: JK
i^ =) c^
>x
*a^ (u-^f "all die."

(vii)
If
the subject governs another word by means of a preposition, as

/'xfc^
/Ox
(j
* G~
A^
<c
îJ|
AAP^
a longing for goodness
'
is
good.'
XL.
(a)
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns.

*' x<"
as governs the accusative,
:
" "how many, how much?

t&9 SAc
,
iU;
^
:
"how many men?";
^ "how long?" & ^ d^"howold areyou?

;
*,,<*** *<**
Ijf îl
êî-
V* de also
XXVI
(o)
and
(g).
Remark.
ix
JlA
Before the interrogative pronouns, the interrogative particles,
and
f
f
are not used.
(6)
Jf masc. (and
relative, as:
<*,!
'
fern.)
an interrogative, governs the genitive, both as
and
as a
J->
u?! *
"which man? ";
^^ v
x
lir x
C5
t^
x ^
c|
"gi
^t
lif,
or <&*
cjjj
798
OASES OF NOUNS, AND THE VERB Kan* AND ITS 'SISTERS/
me any (whatever) book you

is
like
"
;
&?
O"
"
O^W /'
J
J^*>
.*/
f&
(^ or, ^M] or) ^f "he who
standing pleases
9,
me" &*
:
or
c^f
might imply that there was only one
person, but
d*j
^
vide also <^\ implies plurality;
XXVI
(o)
and
(g).
XLI.
Cases of Nouns
and the Verb Kan a and
'
its
Sisters
'
^
(a)
)t
etc. /
,t
*ss
(,
ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE.
The subject (JUljinaVerbal, and f!xu*ina

* * ft.,
Nominal, sentence)
>>
%^J\
"Zayd
maybe introduced as an absolute nominative, as: eU <y>j 9 , , 9? 9 $ G- ' ? o" his brother died" = ^j y^f ,U; JUol^dJJ v Zayd's slave
-.
^
*
9'
, ft,'
<(
was beaten
V*
**&
Uf^j
)
the slave of
Bakr
is
standing."
(d).
The Nominative (>

GENITIVE
:
is
sometimes used for the Vocative, vide
(b)
(^
e^"
3
or
oÔ=
)
The
genitive implies
(i)
possession;
(ii)
material, as
(v*^
te
*^^
v*^
6
<*A~U
"a golden
chain
"
;
(iii)
a part,
[vide
as: *>* a>U<^

4
'
a cup of coffee"; ^^J &*b5 " a piece '

.
of
meat"
XXXVI
earth
(a) (5)]; (iv)
cause or effect, as:
o|3
&^ "the
creator of the
"
;
^j^^l
j*>
" the heat of the sun."

o^ 9
'
(2)
Note the Arabic idiom L^x^
U^
a wild ass (an ass
of wildness),"
where a noun takes the place of an adjective.
Note too the use
of
words
like
ji
JUf
t-Ûtf
X
^\
^jj
^*
with a
following gen., where in English a single <," ''
adjective would
be used, as:
^LJ^jf "dissembling" * +
(3)
(lit.
"father of two tongues").
If the genitive refers to
two nouns,
l
:
it
follows the
first,
and the second
muzaf has a possessive pronoun, as
*y^.l j *Ul ^&l
^^
" we are the sons
The j
the
here,
is
is
to indicate the
zammdh
of the nominative.
This j
'o-e ^ ^{,
is
only inserted
when
word
a muzaf and
is
nominative.
The accusative
is
*JD| *lu|
etc., etc.
CASES OF NOUNS AND THE VERB
Kdn a AND
ITS 'SISTERS.'
799
and beloved
of
God"
(said
by the Jews):
*l*;ij JU^f,
c? yij'
''the
man's
hands and feet."

(4)
For
JM d*M "
'
li ttle
'
of( the) understanding

(j),
"=lUb
JUj},
'
and i^*?} '

"
'
JL
x-
"
" empty handed

(c)
vide
XXXVIII
/
o'
and
LV
(6).
ACCUSATIVE CASE 0-~^).

9, c^<- .99
(1)
The Cognate Accusative or absolute

.
^'
)
object (JlfcJf
Jk*Ji
* O
(
may
'
)
be an ****<'
|cx>)
infinitive, the Sc^ ' 4
noun
(tXjj
of
manner, or
of unity,
*<.,*(*'-
or other noun:
tôJi
by*
o^jy*, or l*j*
^,
"
gave Zayd a
:
good beating" (here the direct object fvj

&j*c
is of
course in the acccusative)

(jUj<*
A&y*
"I gave him a

hurt
(one)
blow": î*^! Uy
t5***^
"he
struck
me
blows that
me";
a#f
J^t
" ne
is
walking in the path of

of
his
father"; ÛUJi &&*>

(i.e. of
Û
<he
died
the death
(those
of)
the
time of ignorance
best of riding
'*
a non-believer)";
t^ -'* v^ v^ >
8
"he
rides the
"
(i.e.
"he
is
a good rider")
li~^
^ v^
walked the whole of the
way":
cU^Jf ^y* \jj* x x
j* "he made the sand
into
many
ox
parcels."
is
Sometimes the cognate verb

o
understood, as: ^/o "slowly",
for
?f<j*
^ c-^
J*f
''wait
bit"; *W I>A "thanks for
God"
f or
*w
o ?
Even the Passive can be

violently."
>
so used, as: (f^-A) bj*
^^
he was struck
(2)
The
INSTRUMENT
f
(/
with which an action

**
is
performed
is
in the
^ ^x
l*xj
^C/XX
#X/XXX
I struck
accusative,
as:
IAX*
oo^
Zayd
with a
sword"
l<*Jj
cu^*
But
2
^JjJ^tf cî?**
" ê ^ eat me on two
different occasions.
Note that, grammatically, ^j/ôj

is
is
the accusative, and the cognate or logical
object
in the genitive.
800
(3)
(,'
CASES OP ffOUNS, AND THE VERB
Kan a AND
ITS
SISTERS.'
TIME OF AN ACTION.
ft>'
It expresses details of
Time and Place

" I travelled for
* <j"
#c-
* <" '
(ojle),
as:
\j4
cuJ>f
"I
stayed a
month";
\j%&
ciy'U
month"; U.U*
right
J>\
"he came
left,
(4).
early in the
Uxj morning"; ilU^j X X

<5
^&
'
"he looked
and
he looked around cautiously";
1U*>
$* "he
journeyed a mile."
Vide
this
x G x
Remark.
To
:
class
belong
as Prepositions, as
(4)
i-ftl<k
"
x O'
behind," (Jy
o ^
/0
many words in " above " etc.

abstract,
'
the accusative used
PLACE OF ACTION, when

c,x
definite,
and immediately
(j
'
derived from a verb, as:

seat
*}} c
/^
cu-J^
I sat in
Zayd's sitting-place, his
"
;
(but
AJJ
^^^
^5'
^^^^ "
I sat in Zayd's
assembly ").
. '*
When
vague, indefinite, or abstract, as

is
ti&o o<**
I sat in
a place.'
'
But when the place
X/O-"
;
concrete, a O'
;
preposition
must
I sat
be used, as,
in the chair
<s
.
I sat in a
G'.^Cx'
land."
^
x
mosque"
**)
^~j
^ &&*$ "
as:
of
Zayd
(5)
L>J!
#
^ cÛ
x
.?
I travelled in a
To
;
express
STATE
or
CONDITION
(JU),
^*U
Jfox x^ x
"he came
riding"
*.e.
<&* ^j| lâ^Lcy'U
" he journeyed, turning

9
his face
towards Mecca,"
"he
travelled in the direction of
Mecca":
Jj
Sj4 Uî; jj)
*U "Zayd came
walking, with -his father
who was riding."

of State
Remark
I.
The Accusative
may
be ambiguous: UjU> x
' '
ASuf;
may
mean either, " I saw him while / was standing," or

Remark
*xo'
while he was standing."
II.
*
*'
Occasionally the Infinitive &? ' f

p*>)
is
used for the Participle, as:

false charge,
*W> P&**
(for l+4*'0
he was condemned on a
was
falsely
charged."
Remark ///.The JU>

condition
it
is
generally
x
indefinite,
9
, <..
but where
f
35 .
it
involves a
may
(
be definite, as:
><M
)
~9 ÂUJ} Ai
/ ox
^^^^.f
v*V' ^3 "Zayd when

when walking"
/ox
he
is
' '
riding
^
i^| ).
v^j
looks handsomer than he does
^/o
The more usual construction would be U
^x/o/xo'^x
U *i^
CASES OF NOUNS, AND
Kdna AMD
ITS 'SISTEBS.
(6)
The ACCUSATIVE
OF SPECIFICATION
*
(_>*^), as: 5.>c
v^
" he
is
closer as regards friendship ";
U>&
&~ *l =
" more of a hypocrite.
The accusative
olive oil."
also expresses quantity, as:
&j
&\j**>
" two maunds
of
(7)
The
OBJECT FOR AN ACTION, my

respect to
I
if
indefinite, as
2 UJbJ IuS "I
stood up to show
him";
l*ji,
OO,A "she fled through fear."

as
:
But
if
defined by the article
J a preposition must be used,
oj-iJi
^
&
'
^>>j*
In construction, either the Accusative is used or else a Preposition, as

O '
(j'*-**
O '
^9^.
"*
s he fled
from fear
of
me," and Ji^t '
oji.
^ cwy*
S
(s
'
'
C.xG" C'G'
o "
"'
or J&Ji
" she
fled
from ê fear
of being killed."
Fide
(&).
(8)
The
ACCOMPANIMENT OF AN ACTION,
its
as:
Û?
is
" winter came with

with the sand
(9)
' '
overcoats
"
:
J*yi j
A**l
^j**l
" the water
equal
.
(i.e.
" the water
is
very sandy)."
is
In such cases j
used for the
as: 3U> L
* ma' a
The ACCUSATIVE
(i)
WITH TANWIN
is
VOCATIVE,
man," the
'*'
]
when
The person addressed
imagined,
"O
99,'
'
^.
speaker being in the dark; [but to a stranger in the street LU.;'j,or

a>y>
lj|
(nominative)];
(ii)
In construction, as: vA**ipi
^
^
(iii)
When
it is
a participle governing an accusative, as

a load
&+*>
^^
"
Oh thou
carrying
*
"
;
or
J*J( &>^
^ s
L yd hdmilani 'l-himl a
" oh thou carrying the load."

of the lion
(10)
CAUTIONING: dlj^
lion
3
*JbJ
"take care
!"
(lit.
^thee^
and the
"
!)
;
*~>y\
^Slt
= *>$
;A^j
x
;t^V x
**^ ^
eAj]
*-
" avoid the
society of the wicked."
For a
woman
(,
Lgi>f
>
ayyat*-ha.
X
c-X
But
3
JUJ|
51
" J^ta^ U
Oh
carrier o/ the load."
Vide also
LXIT
(c).
Both are considered to be the accusative.
802
OASES OF NOUNS, AND K<~m a AND ITS
'
SISTERS.'
^/O(11)
*G'
/ w xx
The
DIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB

"
;
(&>
s*
J,**x>), as: !AJ;
o^
t9v
&
c<
"I
beat Zayd
H^ ^!
ee
we
serve."
'*
Remark
the ace.
I.
Most verbs denoting
to
come," are
transitive
and govern
Remark
II.
(to
Many
be
)
verbs take two objects, as
thought Zayd
hakim"
and Active Participles may as nouns govern
'
Remark
III.
The
Infinitive
the genitive, or as verbs the accusative.

(12)
The Predicate
of
Kdna and
its
Sisters
',
vide
(e)
and the subject or
the^Predicate after certain particles, vide

(d)
XLII.
preceded by one
Either the Ac(c)
VOCATIVE.
(1)
The person
called, is generally
is
of
the vocative particles, of which L

or the
the commonest.
cusative
Nominative
may
,9$..
be used for the Vocative, vide
(9).
,The
particles ljf
&,
fern.), or ljf
masc. (and l^f
U,
may
be prefixed to the
NOMINATIVE,
which must however be defined by Jf.

is
Before a compound
word, or an indefinite word, U

'Jtf
prefixed, without tanwin, or
some
particle
other than l^f
In broken plurals however the tanwin

s
lj
is
not dropped after yd, as:
"
"
boys!
(The tanwin
c**f L
s
is
dropped in
collective nouns).
Note the following
"
lj
O my
is
father!"
Uf
"
mother!
"
;
v ; s
"
as
:
my
''
Lord "
!
The
alif of
sometimes not written before another
alif,
" *' oh my brother ^fî

!
*
,
<'*
^j
" welcome
J '
!
After
"
Oh! ", the noun has sometimes

O
added, to prolong the voice,
when
calling to a person at a distance, or for affection.

(for grief), the
I
After
\)
noun has
or
8t
added.
|
(2)
The word
Jjf
Alldh u ), without
a seldom used in the vocative, ^XJ! Alldhumm ( = 7 a voc. particle, being used instead: this is said to be
is
a corruption from Hebrew.

(3)
For a noun
in apposition to
a vocative vide
LXII.
CASES OF NOUNS, AND
Kana AND
x
x
ITS
x x
'
SISTERS.'
,'
803
/ x
(e)
The Verb Kan* AND
ITS SISTERS
ia>>if j
eJ <) etc.
(
The following
fifteen verbs,
however, require the Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun
&> ) to be in the Accusative.

Nos. 3 to 8
' '
Numbers two to thirteen are

is
called
&K
^^
*
.
(It
must be recollected that state or condition

accusative).
usually expressed by the
mean simply was

the exception of
Preterite
1.
:
or
'
retain their proper meaning, but frequently became,' irrespective of the time of day, etc. With
may
^J,
they are regularly conjugated, both in the Aorist and
d* "was"
also
" was and "

*
.
still
<,,<,-*
is," as:
U^
*
UU*
X
aJJi
Jf "God
'
9 9
is
all-knowing and
all- wise
Ulp
^^î
man."
^^
For
' ,
kan a abVl-marhum* 'alim**
"
my
sainted father was a learned
Û
' '
vide
XLTI
(a) (2).
2.
^
*
is
* *
t>*
(conjugated like a Preterite) "is not," which

^
:
may
or
)
also take a
xO x
jj^jJ
/G'
xox
<
'
predicate with v as
U;U AJJ ^^J *
Zayd
is
not a thief."
(^ *
t
J?^xJ^x \^ AA*>
*
" Sa'ld
3.
not a boy."
/o x
1
-&<
x x
jL(Aor. ^^j)
;
"became"
LU
^xa^t
;l/a
"the poor man became
rich
"
^xJUftj^flJ
X
4.
x
" we are getting tired."
<
4-f*f
(or l^c
"he passed
the morning,"
as:
passed the morning thirsty," or <c to do at the dawn, etc.").

5.
"I became*
thirsty."
(So too with
<^-x>?
or
^f>
" he passed the evening," as
U^
yjj
^^1
Zayd
became sorrowful" (not necessarily in the evening).

6.
'
^sJil
to pass the forenoon."
7.
J^ "to
continue (the whole day),"
as:
his anger.
his face
became black and at the same time he suppressed
And
also
^/ ^f
-
>
x
Jjf
^L
!!5
and A*5
"
to become."
For
AS.f ;
and
(J/u*.
in the sense of
" to begin" vide

f
LXI.
x XÔxO'
In such sentences as Uj^)^ ooj~x>| o^-ôf ^ Iso lsu^9

x
Uj^
x/ XX
1
x C x x x{, x^
CUMf
4
the night, to become," as:
cDâi;
^3
otU
"
Zayd
passed the night awake."

9.
9 ., x
Jfj
U\
also
<-
or Jj>j
II,
" he failed or J>; not, ceased not, continued ^J

$
>'
c x
' J
(Aor.
/&"
*.{j
* x
Jl>> H;
may
be followed by another verb, as

to
fjê
x' O'
J'3
"
Zayd
was always an enemy

were
still
me "
(
x
:
C/*
'
s 9
f9 *>
Jl*J| I*A ^1*
;^*>Slt
(Jr^J
or)
xxx " matters uJtjU

1'
in this condition:
U^ri or
VA ^
H)
(^ /^
xxx
U.
J'j
"Zayd
still
goes."
10.
Vide
uw -frô
XLIV
x
(6) (5),
and Approximate Verbs
LXI.
J&!
x -
U
x
m'anfakk"
" he relaxed TOO*"
Jij
xxx
" he ceased not 91 = J
departed wo$"
long as it lasted" (requires a second clause), as: x / ^ ^-** f!,ilxj*
13.
as
0x
w.j
*
f * $,<
4,
or
I
)
H*.^4S s *
sitting."
14.
' '
$U * - dyy " to become again, to return,"

x x
^x//^
^x/'/xx^x/ô^x
as:
IJJ^P
^
a^j^ j U^
x
(*ALif(
fv
' '
;
Islam was a stranger in the beginning, and it will become a stranger again
x
;
'
&
^.ô
-":
j>jA*
jjj îx
when thou
it
-Ox
returnest from thy journey."

^
ô^
i
With a negative
x
i
signifies
"not again",
as-:
l^b e*xc
<j
U
f
'
" I never
xC-o ^x
>"
o^' "
wept again";
.JJiXf
*
J*fc **
"do
not do so again
"
;
IJ^ô
" the journey was no more possible."
XXX
j*d\
sitting."
Ox
**>
>'
15.
c
"
s
'
-"
/4i
âj
"to remain,"
as: LJUoAjAj
.*
"I remained
Ma U
adv.
'
not
x
negative particles to
" that which." The Preterite is used with the JtJ *xx 4,xoxxc/x and the Aorist J^j with V and and with
"; also
pronoun
(Jj*^)
XLIII.
M5 U
3
adv.
as long as."
Vide also
X
'
XXXIII
X X
(6) p. 778.
'*
Some Grammarians do not

is
include ale and âj amongst the

**
Sisters of
they say the accusative
the " Accusative of State or Condition."
GOVERNMENT OF
(/)
AND
J|,
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS. 805

be followed by an Aorist instead of an
The "
Sisters of
/x" X
Accusative,
as:
l&j
31
Kana " may

x
;t
" he became speechless
<.'**<,'*"
";
t^Jj
jJfeij
ÂJ "he
continued looking at her."

" ' '
(g)
f la
to
and
^^fcJ
are used in the Preterite only.
The
others
may be
used in other tenses.
,'J9+
Remark.
fti
- fj*>
without
to
may
also
be used as an ordinary verb.
XLII.
Government of
* and V, etc.,
and the Particles that govern
like Verbs.
(a)
(1)
cases
the
*
when they = ^J, have in certain The particles U and same government as the previous verbs [ XLI (e)], as
II
:
'
'<'(<,'
'
6 i*'
U=
U5U
-J
^.^* U5U 31
(t*
-^cx
U'Ui
A
:
U.i
(2)
'
The above could

Note
#
'
also be expressed
by
' ffj'
il
V
is
/5lo <H)
x
^j or (&** ^ju^^ or "
'
JlSj #' '
ijuj.
this
/ ^9
redundant v, which ^
'
also
used with otf
l^, as:
JUj
','
^c>" x oJ,r
U = UG oir
X
U.
the former
is
better.
Vide,
<*
LIV
'
0t *
(e)
and
p. 783.
(6)
When
H expresses general negation
^j^^l
^
'
'
), it
governs, before
?l~ *
an indefinite noun, the accusative without tanwin, as: *M

is
)/]
^[^ "there
no god but God "

*
*^^J(
^^
A'Jlsv/o
$ ex)
*>
$ la budd" (or /a mahalat*)
min a
sh-shay*
"it
;
is
absolutely necessary
(there is
'
no alternative from
the matter)
(2)
' '
jt ^3li x
* *
there
is
no hawk
is
flying.'
If the subject of
negation
is
connected with any other word (except

,
*O
ox
a governed genitive), the tanwin

is
retained, as:
U*"
<xj
^ tî
is
#0 x
if" there
no one better than Zayd, in our opinion
"
;
Uy brt; V
4 ' '
" there
no rider of
^rXXXX
a horse /
'
$ <j9
;
<*'
ft<t
'
J(
but *J*
#
^l> "
"
^ (ditto)
/^CAXJ A!*J
"
U-*
" no one is blame-worthy
whose deeds aro good."

^
(3) If
the noun
is
either definite, or separated
from
V, there is
no
It is a dispute^ 1 point whether ^| "
not" has governing power, but ^1
has none.
806 GOVERNMENT OF
U>
AND
^,
iff
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS.

not at
government, as:
cu-aJt
XX
^9 ^jil "Zayd
is
home"; J
"X
" there
(4)
is
no
man
in the house."
^
With
are indefinite
is repeated before each, and if the nouns and do not govern a word, the two constructions can be used
several negations,
if
either separately or mixed.
For
(c)
i after j vide
LVIII
The government
C,
of I*
x x
XX
(6).
and
)J
is
extended to e>V
XXX =
(
:
X
)
^jd and the

#
xG
<
x" "
negative
u>J,
as
/*v
*
cL, e>il
"
Cx G^ x X o
s
it
was not an hour for repentance

;
' '
U>i~*> y* ^f
"
he rules over nobody
"
vide
LIV
(e).
S'&sft.* f 9
(d)
i
The
following
PARTICLES RESEMBLING VERBS

of the subject
reverse the
government
and predicate.
The predicate
consists of
of these particles follows the subject, unless the former

*
.'
<
o
**
tf
an adverb or of a noun with

is
its
preposition, as in \&j
3*** of
x
"
verily with you

If
Zayd."
U> is
the pleonastic
added, the particle loses

itself
its
governing power, or
else this indeclinable
be regarded as the subject governed in the / ^x ^cx & f /.x '3i acc. and as meaning " the fact is," as but \& ^j *JJ. iyj,
:
U may
M
ft
(1) ut
tww
"
truly, verily
"
;
introduces with emphasis an independent

f x' 5&f or
/
)
33
nominal sentence, or a direct narration, as:

x
'U>
IAJJ
c^t
"verily,
'
Zayd
X x
*
is
'
standing";
X X X
35
;^l
_>A aJJi
^j Jj "say that 'God
is
"
;
all-powerful
^xÛ a ÂX>
03
^t
x
your friend
is
with you."
ot
X
is
also used at the beginning of a clause connected
with such particles

*o.*
35
'cx
/
x
as if
x
"then,"
f^l
/
"behold," and *Â where, as: ^Jl^
IX[)
oj
x
,G ^^ o^l
^
^
*,
"
sit
where there
is
Zayd
sitting."
*/ * C ' '
1
tf
Named
also
L3[jf j ^f
A transformed nominal sentence.
GOVERNMENT OF
If
U AND
35
i,
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS. 807

it
the subject of cl
is
a suffixed pers. pronoun,

jwt
must be repeated in the
predicate in its detached form, as: vÛyi

Liberal giver.
' '
eij "verily Thou art the
When
the subject immediately follows

x
c>J,
the predicate
may
take the
"
:
#*'
3i
corroborative J, as
^5laJ
1^3 ^|, but
when the
take
subject
is
separated by a porin
tion of the predicate, the subject

If, is
may
vide
example
Remark
O '
to (5).
<
however, the predicate not prefixed to it.
is
either negative or a Preterite without **, the
Remark.
copulative j
If there are
several predicates in a nominal sentence, the

as: *^c
*
is
usually omitted,
&*&**
'
,yj
*,
"I am
attentive (and)
well-informed."
(2) u>t
ann*
"that" and
its
" as compounds, &M "because" and <&

1
though,
i*fli
9 9
J^;
* Nominal' as: clause, just as if," introduce a subordinate < &' 9 &'?,<,' '' " I t^.3aô o;! <X0| testify that Muhammad is the Prophet of God
35
/x^3ii'o
is
-^
x
'
'
(here the clause beginning with
erf
the object)
'*
^^ <~&1 &*>
if
^jacu:
lion.
wonder that thou art writing ":

X
33 CM
*! \^.)^
as
Zayd were a
(i)
Remark.
Either
e;}
or
&*\
may
;-
be used indifferently after
signify-
ing consequence, as:
^C*
/XG>*3/: AJU
Îj
|V*x
^x>
if
anyone comes to me, then he
is
honoured";
f
as:
-
(ii)
JL
after
'
a particle of swearing provided the subject has not J,

''
Jii ) (
#o- 33^
5U|Vje>!
5U>
aj^ f
JJ
affcer
'
<<is
not?", and
?
^ "undoubtedly,"
as
iixj)
^J
Uf
'
is
not Zayd standing
"
;
;^
ifir
^1
' '
^31
undoubtedly
-o
Nominal Sentence
xt*t ^'J->
begins with a
noun
or
pronoun
a Verbal
JZ
Sentence
(
fn.9
^xL*
'JU^
with
a verb.
Of " that" (and Before a verbal clause, ^f an
"but")
3
are used.
its
Here the verb governs
complement with a preposition.
808 GOVERNMENT OF
U AND
after
)f,
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS.

like introducing a direct narration,
'
God
as
:
is
"
forgiving
>,
x
;
*<,?
(iv)
Ox
oJJ and the

first
J,~
*Uf
^>
î] * *>
**
^^f
^y
(
'" Jy the
35
*
thing I say
is,
I praise God.'
"
(3)
^
j>
lakinn*
or
<
"but "
1
introduces a nominal sentence.
(4)
oJ
foyj
" would that "
etc., as
were alive "
i-
.'*
labf
^
C5 ' X
Ut| o.J " oh that her father
..
^f
^ = U^ U^f ^p.
^
'
.,. ;. :
(5)
cW*
'"
* o'
?a'aZ^
''perhaps"
Û
t^j
J^)
<{
perhaps Zayd
is
sleeping."
Remark
I.
Note the emphatic order
in
\^~l e^^t i^
&\ *'some words

&*> \j^<*
have magic power"
(Prov.): the ordinary order
would be,
&
J;[AJf
" there is"
and "the fact is"; vide
XXXVII
Remark
(d)].
II.
All these particles are prefixed to a

<xij*x)
redundant
if
without
it
they would immediately precede a verb, as:

c,
t
'
<J^ ^j *
?
ft
^
C*5
^] Jx^.
*'
In,
fo" *&
ait
<J^* Jôl
it is
verily these are decisive
words," the
after ^J is redundant;
a pronoun referring to " Qur^dn."

O
(e)
(1)
The lightened forms

in a
o '
e>!
^-
>
^ and ^ (which must be used

I
C^'
in a
verbal,
and may be used

,9 e
.
nominal sentence) have no governing power,

that
f
as
:
c ,
f<
(jJiai/o <xij
^f
o-4-Lc
know
Zayd
is
going away."
But
ZoKn (which has no governing power), before ^) *

^
ver&, as
Jl5 *i^J j " but

*
,*
tv
?9 99
' o
he said "; but

(f5
*1J> ju~J
Adverbs
^5
" but
tîe ir
hearts hardened."
also
XXXIV (6)
(6).
s s
3 If
"perhaps" immediately precedes a

perhaps he
will
verb,
a pronoun must follow cUJ, as:
*#~
come."
THE NEGATIVES AND INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVES.
809
(2)
This
e)J
takes
o
J before
f
'
its
x
predicate,
o
a fact that distinguishes

going a way."
*9
,
it
c
c^
'o'
from the negative
&\, as:
*
<jJ&iJ AJJ ^!, *

*
"
verily
,
Zayd
s s*
is
x x
&\
,
* * * 3* '
seldom occurs except before the

(3) If
*iu*l3 JU*| (e.g.
Wj^lj
ofc,
andW>t>^ j (^).
:
a verbal sentence f^ '* C,'

:
is
G*x
introduced by o^, the particles ** or p> must

as
c/'
be inserted, as
/tx
*ij
<' o " ^
va*L|
AJJ
*$
though Zayd had not stood
up";
^J
^
'c.
'
'
as
though Zayd had not come."
(4)
For &t
vide
XLV
(a).
XLIII.
The Negatives, Interrogative Negatives and Incitement and Reproof.

*
Particles of
t,
*
l
(a)
Before the Preterite,
U is
C/
usual, and before the Aorist V:

is
is
used
with the apocopated Aorist (Jussive) in a past sense, and
more
forcible
than
U
(6)
O'O"
with the Preterite; J*AJ
= "he
)
never did."
"not yet"
like
precedes the apocopated Aorist (Jussive),
and gives
it
a past sense.
(c) 9 prohibitive, is used before the apocopated Aorist (Jussive), or the Energetic, as an Imperative (the Imperative proper is affirmative only).
:
In oaths and asseverations,
with the Pret. has a future signification, as
V UJ|
I&A
osoj
it
!
}f
<Of|
<
by God,
I mill not
open
this
door
"
;
but in blessings
and curses
never see evil "

$ precedes
has an optative signification, as: [^ c^f; $ " mayest thou
a
:
Preterite
(in
its
<c
past sense), only
when
there are two
or more verbs, as
lx ,, *~ ,. ^J^> Vj o*<* &*

first
" and he* neither believed nor prayed

x
but in such cases the

31
negative
is
often
I*.
also signifies simple negation,
"no."
is
the negation of JU*', but JUflj
of
The
infidel (generally).
810
PARTICLES OF INCITEMENT AND REPROOF.
Remark.
<*'
Note that the Energetic increases the force of the " Prohibitive.' r
used,
it
(d) If p) is
must be used before every

9*
'
verb
but,
if
followed
by
9 *
ô"
xx
b'
more than one

nor his slave."
G
(e)
ace., y succeeds, as
&*>
&t $ j
IAJ) jf
" I never saw Zayd,
<^
= eJ?
V) precedes the
Subjunctive (Aorist in
),
and gives
it
negative future sense.

(/)
The
interrogative negatives
Vi
and lx>T with the Aorist
or the copula
understood) often mean "truly, verily, certainly" in a present or future & & f> x c-o 9 , --- " sense, &\ being sometimes added, as &~j *l\ JWf JU3 ill certainly thou wilt
:
)|
-*
, x ^C/x X xxx x c ^ not attain learning save through six things"; V fi|<xaJt si{ 5/1 "truly jy*3 .2-0 99 c fZ '' ^, " youth does not last for ever ^' ^' "verily these are the fools."
;
*WM ^
c<
(2)
ill
ijj
O'&
'
U^J
<J
are
O
3^'S5
PARTICLES OF INCITEMENT ANI>

//
REPROOF"
(u*^l
u**'**^'
-W*) and
are used with
ê
*
future tense
in encouragement or with the past tense in reproof, as
AA>
*
"
why
dost (or wilt) thou not compose a book on asceticism

;
" = "pray da
'
" compose one
î^ 1U " why didst thou not inform me

/cA
x
U
(g)
is
also so used, as: ^53
U "why
art thou not
standing
up?"
"pray stand up."

Vide also Adverbs
XXXIV.
XLIV.
Tenses.
PRETERITE.
(a)
The PRETERITE
still
that did exist and
expresses a completed action, and also an action exists the time is not fixed but may be defined
:
by
the context or by a particle.

It is also used of a future act the occurrence of
which
is
regarded as certain^
3as
:
ft.9*
*
I
*
4J
x
o*j>f V
Mj
"
by God
I shall not remain in Mecca.

f G*
"
Hence
^J "if
its
use in
C>
conditions that express a foregone conclusion, as
0*4.5
VSA*J
you
rise,
then I will
risen."
rise, i.e.
supposing you have risen, then consider that I have

its
Hence, too,
use in blessings and cursings.
TENSES
PRETERITE.
811
Examples
(1)
XXX/XO*.,./GXXX cr^ **Jj *j>/* f& " 'Amr

!
stood and after that sat
down";
U*"
x>'c~
x x
_,-AiiJi
J^ "as al-Mutabnabbiyy has

X XX
'Jl X
said."
X
(2)
j^*J
AlJl
"
God âs and

' ' ;
is
Most High "

Jtf
U^ U*Jb
/I
allf
^
;
"
God was
and
is
all-knowing and all- wise
v-^*J|
UT
<
as the Arabs say
"
**
"the learned Aave always disagreed about

I
this point." of the idea of
x >*0'
'
(3) |&*
uAkfif
" I
grit;e
you this" (expresses completion

to wife
?
Ô'c*giving)
;
oU
JA = " dost thou accept this woman

<c
"
;
'o*
oJUS
= " I do."
(4)
*Uf **A.;
Jfay God have mercy on his soul

of
"
;
(also as
a statement
" God preserved him,"
one who has escaped a danger):

his soul
^
if
"May God
God
(i.e.
have no mercy on
^xx
"
:
/OU^ 9s"
<J"
(
0( *
^x-Ox
*U| &*J
ajJb
*JJ|
&J
<4
)
May
ô^^
cu<-^
!
OU^^x
iJD|
curse
him":
"by God!
!
I <wiII
3
not touch his
hand,"
shake him by the hand) stop him, from doing that deed).
" afoo by God
I will
not touch his hand
"
(i.e.
Remark.
the wish
is
In such cases, the speaker assumes the fulfilment of the wish father to the thought. So, in conditions too, the Preterite indi-
cates a foregone conclusion.

(5)
The
Preterite
is
used in Temporal and Conditional Clauses, for time with

I
past,
or future, or present,
particles
S]
"when, if", &* "whoever,

mentioned
in
?
>
if
any
as:
* *
body," and the
(conditional)
LVI
"O' C^'? O
(e),
C*
'
x^x*P"Ox
A.
(jô
/O"^'/O-
"he who
strives,
succeeds";
Or
&*j
is
The tanwin
9,9
*
over the j
.
the
waw
is
merely added as a sign to distinguish the
word from j+c

8
Umar u
If
instead of j were used, the meaning would be Preterite.

*0*
c-
For â^J
tabkay
after ^) the
vowel or the weak radical
is
dropped.
812
TENSES
of
PRETERITE AND PLUPERFECT.
" when the time

individual;
i.e.
death comes, neither ears nor eyes remain

fate).
"
(to
the fated
he rushes blindly on his
Similarly, the Preterites before

>"
and
ox
x x
/
1
'
after jf / xx
"or,"
is
are usually to be the
rendered by the present, as: they are absent or present."
\j>j**> jf
!^ * *iy
"it
all
same whether
S
*
Remark.
its
'
If the Preterite is to
;
sisters
'
must be inserted
& x
vide
have a past signification, LVI and p. 776, note 2.
or one of
(6)
The
it
restricts
" particle *J already, just," prefixed to the Preterite, properly to a time already past, and must usually be rendered by
xox
*
& *
the Perfect in English,
as:
G/i
&$
"we
have just mentioned," or

/
.
"we
x~
have already mentioned," or
"we had
mentioned."
But
'i
"the prayers are just going to begin" (said by the Mukdbbir just before the Imam begins the prayer) here too the commencement of the act
;
is
anticipated; vide also (7) Remark, and
(b) (6),
and
also p. 782.
x x
(7)
The Pluperfect may be expressed by

{,
terite
with or without *,
prefixing &\6 to the Pre' x , x xox s * " Gx x xOx C/' f <j* " as: uxJi Jlw |Â JL*J ^f ^jj df^c! ^ i^ Zayd
\
|
OX
'
h ad told thee to do this before that
' '
(or
^ *j*\ **
x^ ox
Ô"
" x
MJ &K).
Remark.
G'
The Perfect and Pluperfect are, however, more usually expressed

, x
by
iJ
alone with the Preterite.

#0
-
But *'j means "whereas, notwithstanding,

"O
* X
' x
o-?
' -
and yet":
l^jwau
X
oiT
&^
x? 5
^4^!
^y^
'
J "why
X
hast thou raised

will
me up
at
blind whereas I
had sight?" (what the

XX O'
X x'x'off'
*>J
infidels
say to
God
the
Resurrection)
this
^Lo^
*AAJ;
" I had brought him up, but notwithstanding
he has rebelled against me."

<,
(8)
The
o
Preterite
x
I
and Pluperfect are

^ o-^
(
C.
also used in Conditional Clauses,

this, if I
'c/xx
-^C'x
as: o^feiî
e^t
IÂ oJL*i cui/
A?
"
)
^
would have done
had had the
power
"
,
or o^feUj ^l
x
x
\&a>
oiA/.
In the latter example J could not be
omitted.
O-
^X
Ox
If
two
correlative clauses follow the hypothetical

x
x
X
[or
c;f
(with
O'
nominal clause)
-1/P
],
the Preterites in both clauses will usually have the
TENSES
signification of
AORIST.
813
Potential,
an English Pluperfect Subjunctive or Past Conditional, or of a and occasionally of an Imperfect Subjunctive or a Potential,
ÛJi J*sJ
cJo;
AX>I
*uy
if
thy Lord had chosen,

,*
^JLgJ
He would
it
surely
/x^
$..*<,.
have made mankind one people "; j+*

'
JLety "had
not been for
'Ali,
- <"'
^Jb
XX
<*>.
Umar would
' *
-
surely have perished
";
if
ly'U* Ijt*^
" and
let
those fear (God), who,

offspring,
they would leave
(or
X
were
to leave) behind
If
them weak
would be afraid on
their account."
the verb in the protasis be an Aorist and in the apodosis a Preterite,
both must be translated by the English Imperfect Subjunctive or the

Potential, as:
WM
(I
Ul*a.*lJ>y
"
if
we
pleased,
we could make
it salt
water."
Vide also
LVI
(a) (1).
Remark.
It is to
conditional past
be noticed that both the conditional present and would write or I would have written) may equally be
a Preterite.
expressed by
(& with
AORIST.
It may express the the Present, the Future, or Imperfect. Like the Preterite, the context or else particles may define its time. Vide also L (c).
(b)
The AORIST denotes an act not completed.
Remark.
p. 749.
(2)
The Energetic forms have always a future

a
y
sense
vide
XXV,
<j
",
The
particle
Jj~ sawf
Future
:
or its inseparable
shortened form
limits the time to the
it
immediately precedes the verb.
(3) The Aorist expresses an action accompanying a past action, and is then equivalent to the English present participle expressing state or condi-
tion,
and to the English
infinitive
expressing
the
end or object, as
* *U>
=)
^sû f.(^ "he came

after
laughing";
in both these
examples the
words
2
j*) can be added

'-.'
U. for emphasis:
XV
x f
he came to
me
to ask for a dirhem
"
;
<*'
0"Co
<ir*J
-î
' x^x <yj *-**?
" he
Note that
this
changes the clause to a Nominal one, and vide
LV
(e)
and
p. 774, note 3.
814
TENSES
AOEIST, IMPERFECT.
went to the bank to rob

before
it (vide also
' '
it."
A
:
negative verb, however, requires the

uafji
^*
Remark
II), as
j *>)
"
Zayd came
to
me
not
running.
Remark I. The Present Participles, however, have the idea of doing a thing, wanting to do a thing, or having done a thing, according to the
context.
Remark
a sentence
II.
It will be seen
from one or two

:
of the
examples in
'
:
(3),
<*>*
that
*
* *
may
be used as an adverb
further examples are
J* j ^j
/O*
'
s^
Zayd came with a book
in his
hand "
f'
;
9 o
flj'CX
&JU> u*+2J\j
o*j
*U. " Zayd
came while the sun was
rising."
This
waw
is called
*V^f
ji^f
"the waw
that expresses condition or state; vide

If the
LVTII
(e).
nouns have
affixed pronouns, the^j
may
be omitted.
Vide p. 774,
note 3 and
(4)
X
LV
xÔxx
(o).
The
Aorist expressing Condition or State

x
may
stand for an Imperfect,

fighting ", or
9, -xx
*--- x
>
0^0'"
l;
as: ^jtt&J
$3L!;,
or
eâi-!, f* j
fighting."
"I saw them
" I saw
them when they were

The
x x
Imperfect, however,
AJ
is
usually expressed
by prefixing
otf,
as:
c-^xo
"I
passed him when he was buying a slave girl"
&
(this
"we
used to gossip (heedlessly) with the gossips"

careless
will
be
said
by the
\& j
!<yT
at
the
to
Resurrection)
tell
JÂJ *>) &\4
4.5*
Ji**
&K ^3
or)
^j jr
Zayd used
me
^
this every
day."
Remark.
The Imperfect can
also be expressed
by
>K
with a following
present participle.
(5)
The Aorist
indicates dependence on another verb, as:
&&**>.>
fc&
fM'dfej t^ "they (Adam and Eve) began to hide themselves with the
leaves of the
Garden "
^
;
JL.
he began to weep
"
;
>jJ\
;^l
I cannot speak
Arabic"
^^kof oJj
<
I ceased not to walk, I continued

(iii).
to walk."
Fiê also
LXII Approximate Verbs
FUTURE PERFECT, AND INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOODS.

(6)
.
815
The
9
particle <* before

A!
'
the Aorist means "sometimes, perhaps,"
9, o'
as
|i*
vfy
perhaps
x x
it
may
be so."
Vide also
(a) (6),
and
(7)
Remark,
p. 812.
(7)
The Aorist
of
oK
x
has generally a future meaning.

is
"
(8)
The
Future,
X "
'
Perfect
O
'
Preterite,
as: Uv]
X"
tW
X
expressed by the Aorist of x c<* xxx /o^ 9 \*f '<j

&>**)i
J,'/
with the
will
^f
JAJ>
XX
^l
X
J^
0,^3
^yj
Zayd
have
reached Medinah before I can get there."
Note, too, the order.
Remark
x "
I.
When
O'
several Preterites or Aorists are coupled

X O X
by j "and,"
<J6 or the particles *5,
Jr and
^ are prefixed once only.
Remark
in Arabic
The English Present and Past tenses can also be rendered and Past Participles. the Present by
II.
XLV.
(a)
(1)
Indicative and Subjunctive Moods.

^'
its *
When
&\ (and
compounds
time,
it
)/f
and
introduces a fact, i.e. 9'* o' >"ox

:
something in
'present or past
is
takes the Indicative, as

<e
&> e
"
know
that he
"
asleep
;
but in such cases

(2)
J^
erf
fM
know
that he said, did say
"
;
AJ? is
commoner.
After verbs of wishing, ordering, fearing, necessity, permission,

O "
effort, etc., &t is followed
by the Subjunctive, as:

.j>i/o
^^
x>O'
ix
ill
x"
o>
J^f
<îj
"I
fear
he
w hat hath hindered thee from " not worship) him? worshipping (that thou shouldst
will
not leave
me"; *-~J
{<
the Subordinate verb expresses a future after a verb of supposing or doubting, it may be in either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as
(3) If
:
-/xo x
9 <*"
'u&
"I
think he will get up.

these cases the dependent verb with ol
;
Remark
/.In
is
said to take the
place of the masdar

o"
(4) erf
ix
x
vide
(b).
'
can be preceded by the prepositions
^
<
^1
UU
xx''
i
XXX
c
.
4.5*
e^^
'
:
O^ C' O
u)f
AC
il^ t as
*J
J^f
JL
/O"
I seek refuge
AiJb i^sf
*
with God
816
INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD3 -o>',
I*
*-'
U/o, Âa..
from that I might attribute partnership to him "; here

xxj-x>>
could not be omitted.

**
G*
uSI
x
~'s'
In (J*JUf
*
-&î
"
have come
for that I
might salute thee," u! could
be omitted.
OX
The
(5)
ellipse of
erf is
common
of &l
[
after
<J>
**"$>''' and o.
-
J^>
The predicate
must be a sentence, and the subject

^f
]
is
very
seldom expressed, as:

I
Sti
*5
" o^l* " I knew that Zayd was standing

Zayd
is
know
that the fact was thus
standing)."
If the predicate is a verbal clause * '9 9^ f ' o *
with
its
verb declinable and not
precative
J\**j& oâi*
-
), it is better
to insert as a separating
word
-^T
(
cUk'
),
the particles **
'
o>
or (j, or a negative particle, as: *#) *l^

;
we know that Zayd has come "
^&3 o>-
c>f
(*^
" he knows that you
will
stand."
Rem ar k.
vide
'
Indeclinable verbs'
are
those
that have only

c
;
one tense ,
VI.
^
(6)
In the Indicative,
(
can take the place of ^1 after certain verbs,

or) U-o
c;f
or ^f
(^.*
*ox
didst strike
Zayd" =
o^^x
(^/oU^ x
xOxO
l
oa^^ "I XX
^
+
wonder /rom
iAa^,
that thou
|*jj
-^y
f
e^*
^x
V ?^'
1
"I wonder
at
thy striking
Zayd
here
"
;
w^' /&-
//^
=)
^^5^
'
\yoj*& &\ j
" and that ye
fast, is better for
you
"
;
'
':
ô^3
(c)
^f
is
the subject.
'
When î*
mere
until, that, so that, etc."
denotes a simple time limit,

5i
or the
it is
result of
an
act, without
any implied design or expectation,

X
/ X
1
followed by the Preterite or the Aorist Indicative,

-"
as:
CS '
î^
' '
L>;
f^^t-o
uU) " they journeyed
till
the sun rose "
f' 9 Q ,
;
AJ>^J ^
^j^/o
" he
is
*X>J
v-j0 '
(^xs
would be ambiguous, as
G
'
^^
may
be either active or passive in
meaning.
You cannot say
<Xij
^ r^
3
'
G ^
t^*5 &s
two muzaf
ilayh^
cannot come together.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AND o.

S5x
817
so
that they have no hope for him." Bat when î^ expresses the intention of the agent or the object of the act, it is followed of the Subjunctive,
ill
,5
x*
x C^ x
^^
as
by o;^
^^
^
**
^vx'"
""
G'*
uj^JJ-o
<-lw
J/oUtff
^^
&9*
we must meditate
before
we speak,
in order that
words
may
be appropriate"; ^1
ajlj
L$ iaw
"
I will
therefore not quit the land (of Egypt) until
my father give me
leave."
it is
(d)
When J
&
:
introduces a clause expressing the result or effect,

*
equivalent to ^j***- and takes the Subjunctive. contain (i) an Imperative or its equivalent
The preceding
;
clause
must
or
(iv)
(ii)
express a wish or
hope or request;
or
(iii)
ask a question; or
be a negative clause.
Examples
(i)
(^*^lj
or) ^jOcÛ
X
" ^jj *
visit
me and I
x
will
'
honour thee"
'
)
( ' 9
=
'
J|
"
if
'
C*'
thou
visitest
me, I
will
honour thee")
(or lest) I
(jXfc! ^ or
kl*U
^3.^1^3
"do
not punish me, so that

AJÔ (^j-â'Ji
perish."
(ii)
j or)
(jjJâH*
Û
J
"
;
ooJ
4<
would
that
had money,
that I might give part of
it
in alms!
U*&
(jylj or)
Jy
*'0 would I had been with them, that I might have

.
won
great
gain!"
, /'
or)
,' ?' ^3^'
9 '
**'
-r^f
c^
s
"
perhaps I
may
go on pilgrimmage so as to
<c
visit
thee":
\j*p*
C*-*--^
or)
vi**^ ^^^
<-/>* ^'
wilt thou not alight
with us, and thou wilt meet with good treatment": <J.*j&>
" , G' "
lixJ]
Û
iU
j or
"will thou not come to us
we
will
honour thee."
"is Zayd at home, that I
is
(iii)
JjJf ( {tSA*\
} or
c<
^ôUjitxti
jjj ci*
may go
go to
to
him? " (=
").
tell
me
if,
whether, Zayd
at
home
so that I
may
him
(iv)
( ty^+J
j or)
ty^Jj*
x^j.
^1* ^^j
)
" sentence
is
not
passed upon
them that they die"

us to
tell
XXX UlxsJ^ or
x'X.VXX^x'oJf'
UJ^sJ^' liJU
U "
'
thou never comesb to
us something."
Vide also
LVI
0).
52
818
SUBJUNCTIVE
WITH^-jf-cM
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Remark
I.
The Imperative must not be an

like *f
*'
interjection like &*>
"hold
thy peace," nor an adverb
hush."
Remark
II.
Sentences like the above are often equivalent to condi-
tional sentences.
(e)
It will
be noticed from the above, that

as o.
It
is
takes the Subjunctive in the
same circumstances
taneousness
then styled Ax^La+Jf

acfc
" the
waw
of simul-
"
;
it
introduces an
subordinate to, but simultaneous with,

C * *
the act in the preceding clause.

(/)
It is said to
be equivalent to &\
g.
I
when
it is
equivalent to
$[
*
"unless that," or
9
i*
^J,
<
or <y^.
"until that," takes the Subjunctive, as: *l~iy \j&\ vl&V "
the unbeliever unless he turn
till
I will certainly
kill
stick to thee
.
thou givest
me my
case,
Muslim": â^ ^b*-* ^ " due.

well then,"
i^
cJli^SJ
" I will
(00
o^l or
t^J
"in that
i'/
begins
a clause that
expresses
some
future result of a previous statement

if
and
is
not separated
from
its
verb except by
or an oath, takes the Subjunctive.
For example, to
the remark,
v
"I
will
come
AjJij
to see thee to-morrow," the reply might be
il
c;- f,
or tJô/l
u>{ etc.
But
to the
remark "
I will visit
' '
Zayd,
if
the answer were, " Well then

'
(
Zayd
c,
will
treat thee with respect,'* the

is
9 ^9 /ox
Indicative would be used
iJU^J
ojj ^>ij ),
o; as ît
separated from the verb by

wilt assuredly
jjj
so too in the reply f*xiJ

is
AJJ[^
e)^J
" then by God, thou

is
repent it," the Indicative
used, as
interposed.
t
XLVI.
(a)
Optative Mood.
Preterite, or less
Is expressed
by^ with the
commonly with the Aorist.
If negative,
like &j
then
II
precedes these tenses.

etc.
:
It is especially used after verbs

is
and -*W " to like,"

9
^
;
or
ojJ b "
djf.
also used."
I
Examples:
"
would he had come"
(V^V
"
wish he would come
"
;
GOVERNMENT OF VERB.
821
amative,
"and
when they
f"
if
thou couldst see
=
1
couldst thoi7:1)ut see)
are set
before their Loid
"
!
^LLf
^si
y =
^X.,-0
u^f *
(6)
î&Jf
" Oh that this were thy brother."

infinitive
An
without a verb
may
also
be used, as
" God's curse on him
"
!
Vide also
XLIV
(a) (4)
and
LVI and LVII.
XLVII.
(a)
Government of Verb.
is
The object
(I)
of
an action
put in the Accusative.

*&+
(b)
Some
verbs take two accusatives, viz. causals II and
IV
J** or
cWl
);
8
verbs of giving, thinking, knowing, seeing, finding, making into, and

CM
"C,
G"
<*"&'
others,
as
^.^
x
t^j
oJU " I taught Zayd Arabic

t ,
.
"
;
f?^
*
L>jU
*
ix^.
thought
him
(to be)
a thief
"
;
,9 ^ & " I turned the fjU^ cUî cuiu^x)

?
*
man
into an ass
"
;
5U Axjfj
" I saw him asleep."
In the
last
example
U'lJ
+
may be
the ace. of
state or condition.
(2)
Note that
UÛ ^tsj|
cu*4^
" may mean either I

I
heard the Governor
" laughing", or I heard of the Governor laughing, me) that the Governor laughed."
(c)
heard (some one told
Some verbs
of
coming and entering govern the accusative, as
*0
cr>*
*
'
"Zayd came
o '
to
me";
Asu-^Jt
*
Ja.i
"he
entered the
mosque")
but ^^-aJl jy x ^
J^^ "he
$ <j P
f<
closeted himself in the room,
he entered and
"
stayed
\
;
X xC*O
^l>Jf fÛ.^1
enter ye the gate
"
*C**
(v^t ^
c$*
*
could not be said).
Remark,
(d)
But verbs
of going generally require a preposition.
Some
f
intransitive verbs
become
*
transitive with a preposition, as:
y^b '
*
1
" he brought him the
U&b news"; *^&t "he went", but v xxx

:'<
(
w^
Accusative
*'/
( (JHJI ).
Nominative
^^J^l).
o^
S
Verbs of thinking, knowing, finding, seeing, counting, are called
v.
or
Verbs denoting a Mental Process.*
818
THE PASSIVE,
OF INTRANSITIVES.
nt,
.^
away the book."
In the Imperative
to another).
& uî =
-*****
"let us
"
go
(of one, or
more persons speaking
Such
>
'
_*jbi
verb'*
have a passive, always in the masculine singular,
as:
" the book was taken away (by some one
"
)
;
t^
<j
^j*)\
"people from amongst the Arabs were brought to the Prophet."
Vide
XLVIII
Remark.
(b)
and
(g).
is
" takes the ace. of the As <^>( " to come person, ^T (stem IV) the thing. the both and the ace. of takes and person doubly trans.,
(e)
Some
:
transitive verbs
' '
change their meaning with the preposition

'
used, as
(i.e.
UÛ* iJw
in
he sent a servant,' but

;
v^
<
^*t =
' '
he sent the dog
' '
some one
:
charge of the dog)

'*! sent
the direct accusative could
not
be used here
/xL;f
them," but *$J[ oJU;i
"I
"
sent for them,"
and
ith
yX*
him
" viJUy ^J(^
I sent a letter to
9<j
them "
I
& oi*
I busied myself
t,s
'
(or
with it)," but
ai*
oi*
9"
"
put the matter aside"
(i.e.
occupied
s s
myself elsewhere away from

^* **
it):
^ ^* "he
(i.e.
prayed to God
for
him," but
*A!C
Ui "he prayed against him,"

(/)
called
down
L.
curses
on him).
Vide also Participles and the Infinitive
XLVIII.
(a)
The Passive,
is
The Passive
OX
is
employed when the agent

tx
(jf (j9
not known, or cannot be

<j*
J
(,'
mentioned, as: **M (J^ ÂJ
"
/J
" he could not be " but captured,"
(j+
j*aj
*'
o;
jjAaJ
^
(6)
xx ? xodU ÛJUJf,
"He
was
is
killed
by a tiger," must be expressed by the
Active Voice, as the agent
mentioned.
Intransitives that indicate action
and not
taken
state,
may have
XX
;
a passive,
t f
as:
Âi"he
went,"
&> ^-*>J>
"he was
i.e.
away"
jU "he marched,"
t'i^j**,
"a march was marched,"

(d)
"it was marched a march."
XL VII
and
(c)
(iv).
Active Voice.
Adverbial accusative
vide
(c) (iv).
THE PASSIVE,
(c)
(t)
SUBJECT OF ETC.,
if
JU
is
821
in the nominative,
The subject
<
of the Passive verb,
expressed,
ô"
as
:
'
*>)
Ji5
Zayd was
killed
"
;
9 >
' '
f^ &
they were killed
' J ;
'
'
fjUJ
0*3 gt
IM? to " none
was
killed
except Zayd.*'
(ii)
In ^^>J
^ " Zayd was passed by "

is if
[ lit.
"
it
was passed by Zayd,"

noun.
vide
(</)],
the logical subject
a preposition with
its
(Hi)
An
undefined declinable noun

" the fast of
used as a proper
name may be the

(
subject, as: oka*; f**
Ramazan was kept"
e>U^;
^"
he
kept the fast of Ramazan ").

(tv)
declinable
noun used adverbially may be the subject, provided

$
, *
it is
fu*
<
restricted
$<*,
by an
adjective, as:
(^^
j* j~* "a
" he
good march was marched
'
(without an adjective)
in
0,-
would be wrong;
but vide last example
(b).
^
So too, the passive

^ O-^
of
^J 45^ <_r^
sat
by Zayd,
"
or of **<
'
'
"he
is
recited the
'
glory to God,'
" would be wrong
as neither
<^^
nor ul*<ô
*(d) If
declinable.
a transitive verb governs two accusatives, the second remains in ^x < 9 Psf,** & ' the accusative in the Passive, as: la+ax* aJui ^.^ *he named his son
Muhammad";
4
'(,
t^* 3 ^ 40
*Vt
t5--*
"his son was named

ffo
?(*'
Muhammad";
'
<*
t^3 \J-^
I*AJ^
"he gave Zayd a dirham," but

"
;
U<*>p
pjj)
^k^f "Zayd was given
s 9
/ 9
/o'
a dirham
UtaJ
"
^jjjfe/o yjj
Zayd
is
thought brave."
For verbs taking two accusatives vide

(e)
XL VII
(6).
"
say
p
governs only one accusative and when it means to " the direct narration after it ; (but when it means " to order requires
JU!
The verb
"
it
may
take the direct or indirect) ,9 f& 9* , *9 $ , 9

(
o*.sv>
*J
J&j
'he
is
called
Muhammad,"
' ;
stands for *+a**
j* or
aij
aJ Jlftj
* *
it is
said of
him
'
he
is
Muhammad "
note the omission of

(/)
^ in the
:
first
example.
When a verb
in the active governs with a preposition, the construction
is
the same in the passive, as
U^
)
or
*^ "
*JJ*
^l
" he made a claim against
him
"
(or her)
;
XXX
passive
XXX
or
*
(W^
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
(g)
THE IMPERSONAL VERB.

sometimes used impersonally
The Passive (even
of neuter verbs) is
x^
,
9
lit.
(in
the masc. singular),
as: AJ!C
^^3
"it was finished on

' G 'x * <*xU *_î^
him",
fell
i.e.
" he
died
"
;
lÛ
,-niSjf
xO'- f
" the deceased woman "

^<,x
x
" he
under the
wrath of"; lJ*

1 '
V>A
Â = "she
is
cursed by
God";
' ' ;
those cursed by God (the Jews

O /O'x
O
"
)
;
AxL
.*
< <
he fainted
" she has fainted."
',*-?
c
In
f&Jk
oo*
ye have been blinded," the feminine

is
is
used, perhaps because
&*^ " eyes"
understood.
Vide also
XLIX.
Cx
-^
(h)
cdix.
Note the following ways of expressing passive state

at the dates being eaten, at the eating
Jf\
+
&* <^*&*
dates"
;
XX
^^t "I wonder

e
of the
^JJ<A* *>)
"
Zayd's slave
(is)
beaten,"
vide.
(d).
Remark.
take their
or their
All verbs, transitive or intransitive, active or passive,

(infinitives), or their
may
own abstract nouns

or
Noun
of
Number
of Times,
$,
Noun of Kind
Manner
X), as
/
(,,
f*
^^
'
o''
"
He
hath numbered
them with an exact numbering "

pieces": vide
Uj
AxslJap
if
^=
&
" he crushed his bones to
XLI
(c) (1).
XLIX.
(a)
The impersonal
"
it,
one, they,
X
The Impersonal Verb. " is

you
.
expressed as follows
'
9&~
Ox
OX
<;'
,9
(1)
By
the Passive, as: 5>x^J ^Jj ,y ~ X

X
^
>*
^jL^j X X
*
they journey to him in
ex
**)\ X X
the time of necessity";

"x
jP
iy^
cu5j
X
^* " X
"they journeyed to him

say that
"
^
/
l
35
in
....";
iJjj3
jj
iJll'
^J
J*, "they [the Christians]
God has
a son."
'
This impersonal passive must have a complement, such as

etc., as in
*xff
or
cit
"
the examples just given.

x "
35
1
^j]
x*
must precede a Nominal Sentence

r
*'>
it
usually follows the verb Jlj after which
neither ^f nor ^jf can be used.
If a
verb immediately follows
JU
it is
direct narration
without any introductory particle.
PARTICIPLES, THE INFINITIVE
AND VERBAL ADJECTIVES.

9
'
823
9,t
'
(2)
By
>A
the 3rd pers.
pi. active,
as: f^li
"
they say,
it is
said ";
"and they
(the learned, or people) are
agreed about this
question."
9*
(3)
f 9. 9
,9
By the
he
is
second person singular or plural active, as

ball,
&>l ;
J>a3
1^ Jb^ ^ ' '

is as
fc.j
< '
very
you (or one) might say he

9
,
is
a palm-tree
" = " he
tall
it
as a
palm";
1^
*Ut
<-L*j
^yo
^fy "do
J
you (does any one) think

' J
possible that anyone can change water into wine

(4)
By
/
-
a cognate subject, as: J515

x
'6 ^
1
JU, or
-
JW
^
J^ =
<{
someone has
' '
:
said
xx&
' '
;
J3t J
9
" it has been questioned

^*
X ^<x
XX
' ' ;
^ ^^ " it
t
has been related
&
ô
xx o *
l^lLo
*
î^Jf
(jr;j
*A**.^
XX
*AX^
a pretty
girl,
whose
like
has never been seen."
Remark.
-
The cognate
*
J/
participle
is
used in other constructions also as

,
"o * ''<.;
**,!
" I don't listen to the admonition of anyone."

Hio
(5)
By an
intransitive, as
it
(j^v^vjis^tf
*
;
^.yo
e*AA^ or
is
e^Lai "hence
'
the proverb, so
passed into a proverb

.6'
he that ridicules
ridiculed
"
;
the
subject to the feminine verb

(b)
6^9
or &L+*> understood.
/' xo-O' x x
is Afyi/o
Such impersonals as "it rains,"

X*_ 33-0
etc., are
expressed by îaJtysx)
the
is
XXX
Â^-lS
x
9^*3*'.
rain rains"
*UJt
the sky snows."
Sometimes the subject *UJf

X
XC X
omitted and the
fern,
verb only used.

9
*-***!
Remark.
f
In such expressions, as:

*'
is
"
it is
necessary,"
is
"
t5*î.J
it is
necessary,"
^?u "it
c
"
allowed,"
the subject
the following
clause
introduced by ^f (with the Subjunctive).

L.
(a)
Participles, the Infinitive,
and Verbal Adjectives.

indicate time past, present, or
(1)
THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES may

<' 9
.,
future,
as:
jjj
*
*
J^l>
'
<L>
^ = ''who
I
killed
Zayd
"
;
or
"who
1*^
is
going to
kill
Zayd
"
;
$
1
^Xxt/T'jJ
'
/*5U> x
^Jf -
am
fasting, or going to
fast"
J^ s cJUU
^J!
"I am
xj
l
x*
Fide footnote
on
p. 822.
824

x
going to do this to-morrow"

of
{&*
LJ|
am
coming, I
am
on the point
coming, I
(2) If
will
come."
*
they
may
ox
used for past 1 time, they govern the genitive, but in other cases also govern the accusative. They may also govern by a preposition.
x
.
'
Ex.:
*t)
v/^
is
t**
"this
is
the
man who
struck
Zayd
"
;
'o~ ''
J3t&| >*
'
he
going to
* f,
kill
Jf
the
X
,fi
man," but J*yi J^J y* "he
is
the killer
99
f
'
of the
x>
man," and
JU.;
J3U
x
y*>
"he
is
going to
t,
kill
man"
<4
c^
*
^
x
'
->
y-
/
>
Of Ox"
Kdj4*
^ -
"he knows about many

#>
arts, etc."; fl*U

x
^JlUf
the striver
after
x x
knowledge"; ^-.Û ' *

x
U^xx)
*
cuJj
*
have not ceased to love Islam"
" o ne that
or
kills
people," and
i)|
ÛJt x
= "he who
kills"
=
**
a verb governs two or three accusatives, its active participles have the same government, though they may govern the first object usually
(3) If
#
*
in the genitive, as: |^^'
tb?
<j"
"
1^1
f^jj
(^
d&
x
"I
oJt
will dress
Zayd
thou
in a splendid
robe"; ^'U
j+c.
6
*
Ûi or
9
# x
U+*
.^
JA
"dost
think
'Amr
intelligent
"
:
<j
Cx ^ &
lalkU t^p
*j) JUx.
JÂ
this
one informs Zayd that 'Amr
is
going away."
(4)
When
referring to present or future time (but not to past),

o ^
-0
the
^
^
S3^>
active participle as a
muzaf may be defined by

i-o ^
xo'
x
Jl, as:
,<j
^r^t cUU or
33^ 9
'
'
" one
who
kills
people "; <jUJ|
JjlaJf
or
^/.Ix/f
Ji'laJf
he
who
kills
people
"=
Jiftj
^ML
So, too,
when a suffixed pronoun

-5'
is
a genitive, as: ^5}|

/ /30-
î^
"one who reproaches me," and ^^Jf =
^^
2
^jjf "he who reproaches
The governing word cannot then have Jl
The governing word may have Jl

(6)

is
825
(1)
The Subject
of a Verbal
Noun
in the genitive,
and
its Object is
&
either in the accusative or else has the preposition J, as
(the fact of)
*
:
t&
(j*
(*+^J or)
#
l<x*.3*x:
^ JUj
$ t-
"Zayd's
killing
Muhammad";
country."
^V
- ,*
L?*^-
(hubbiy*
'l-watan")
or
e>fcjiJ
^^ " my love of my
When
+i?
(2)
vide
XL VIII
it
a verbal noun governs a genitive, it may have a passive sense, If however such a governed noun is separated from the (h).
in the accusative, as:
muzaf,
must be
y +
<.
Ût] "feeding an orphan,

^f
an orphan's being fed," but
UÎi
*
û/o
^ ^j ^
-
j4ljtfe|
"or
to feed, in a
its
day
of famine,
an orphan," since a
genitive
can never be separated from
governing word.
(3)
Nouns that have a
similar force to the
vl.
noun can
also be construed
s* 55 'O
s * 9 kso 9
with the gen. of the subject, and the ace. of the object, as: jâJ\ <^;UsJt
^j
" the hubara-bustard's threatening the Saker Falcon," where

the Infinitive
***> is
used for
(c)
To
express an act
now
PRESENT PARTICIPLE may

(d)
taking place either the be used.

is
AORIST
or the
THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

(g).
sometimes used impersonally, vide

:
XLVIII
<4
It
may govern
:
the nominative, like its verb, as

Sf'fi
/ /c-c-o
f^
'
Zayd's slave was beaten"

*> $ 9
<*
*x>3U
VJlriji <x3
"by
Zayd
of the beaten slave,
* $<,'
(but *x>3U
Vjjâxj
.
djj
Zayd has been beaten
his slave").
Arabic Pres.
(e)
The English Present and Past and Past Participles.
tenses can be rendered
by the
(I)
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
may
J*c
^
or
PARTICIPLES
their subject
are
sometimes
the
used for verbs; they

Nominative, as:
t&>)
-
be in any case, but

+**
must be in
is
"with a mouth whose
saliva
sweet"
f"*
;
a Prop, hubbl al-watfin
but as the a of al
is
hamzat tt 'l-wael,
al,
it is
dropped, and as the

also sakin.
y of
JJL
is
is
sakin,
it
cannot be joined to the lam of
which
is
is
It
is
rule that to
y) fathah
make a
sakin letter mutaharrik, either fatJiah or kasrah
added.
Here
(after
euphonius.
826
99
CONCORD OF VERB
x/x
'
PREPOSITIONS.
^X G
;
*
f.
x x o '
X
*fljj
v xc X
J*j
X
lj|jjf
&U&/0
$*x
" I îji LU oof;

x"
35 x
..
;/
x </>
saw there animals
of various
xx* xt/""
O X'X O
C x
:
colours"
(2)
= ipf
/
/*
cJJlij
u^ oupf;
like
,
wde Adjectives
or
XXXVIII
(a)
and
(d).
The INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES

the
vl.
INTENSIVE AGENTS
[vide
(6)
(chiefly
#o x
*
/&
and J>*') may govern

one who beats 'Amr
' ' ;
noun
(1)],
' '
as:
t^
v'r*
?*<,*$ 9
*^
LI.
U " a great tyrant to his
tribe
"a
great collector of books."
Concord of Verb.
(a)
The verb
is
Masculine Singular before the regular masculine plural,
and usually before the masculine dual.

(6)
It is
it;
following
Feminine Singular before a feminine singular immediately generally before broken plurals immediately following it; and
,
before the regular feminine plural

(c)
and the feminine dual.

:
It is either Masculine or Feminine Singular a singular feminine not immediately following it: (ii) before before (i) collectives destitute of reason (but for female persons the feminine is preferbut if they denote male persons it is (iii) before all broken plurals able)
:
usually masculine
so too
if
the broken plural does not immediately follow
the verb.
Other verbs following the thought in the writer's mind.

(d)
(e)
first
verb, agree logically, according to the
When
If the
the subject precedes the verb,

is
as
it
usually does in
modern
Arabic, the concord

(/)
natural.
else agree
(g)
verb has several subjects, it may either be put in the plural or with the nearest subject in number and gender. X
x
The verb often
agrees with the logical subject, as
&T
:
& p&*\*> J 5
<<
VJ
9 O^t'V
'
" " even though every sign should come (be shewn) unto them
agrees with the genitive Ajf
(h)
.
here the verb
The verbs
'
o
^
" and " how good LXl.

LII.
u^ " how bad,"

X
generally take the
masculine form, vide
Prepositions.
seize, begin,
(a) (1)
^
vide
Verbs denoting to adhere, attach,

]
hang on,
believe in, swear by,
take
(a).
->
It
may be
used with a predicate in negative
sentences
XLII
and
{Vide
XXXII
(6)]
are used without
any verb.
PREPOSITIONS.
x x>>
;
827
x
(2) It
may
be used with
"see!
behold", as: *~<JJA
|4
"and
suddenly a lion appeared

(6)
"
;
ja* ^JÛsj
c$^ *
*
j^j
â^
&$
Û. fj; -yê
XXXII
and footnote.
^' Îj *
my
"may my
father and mother be sacrificed

art
for thee, at the price of art very dear to

(3)
(6)
father
and mother thou
ransomed (= thou
'
me)."
It is used in dates, for
expresses the Dative.
on
"
:
X'
'
this
f
*
i.e.
happened on the
five
nights that passed
from Ramazan,"
"
;
this
happened on the
5lh night of
Ramazan "
also
iuij Jx
It It
is
^]l
îJ
*
v ide
XXVIII
(/).
used for " by
"
before the
names
of editors or authors.
\,
:
"for the benefit of" as opposed to Îc, as X J^ O G'XO xxôx' " " " I cursed him) (but &d* &*c* fy* prayed for him
signifies
:
9' a)
9^,*
&js*"I
^^ ^
"you owe
me
a dinar."
It denotes the
purpose or cause.
xo/-
Vide also
LIII " To Have."
&
t& means " what a
Remark.
vide
The phrase
^\
man
thy father was!
"
;
LX.
(c)
îc
"
over, on, against."

AJ
Note the following idioms:

AJ
JL*
"
bring him here to
me," but
<*lij
iJ^jjlc
^x
"you must
by God";
stick
to him,
not leave
him";
"
;
-xUie
"Icon-
jure
thee
f*j)
îc
"seize thou Zayd
isH^tP!
^^
^-^
it is
incumbent on thee to obey thy parents";
<**U?Jl?
^*
"you must
as a conjunction
$
x
"
in order that, so that,"
and takes the Subjunctive.
Khalawn* 3rd
of ItL pers. pi. fern, of Pret. X * x x
-îu
" to be empty."
c-
'xG'
In modern Arabic JL*UftJ|
AJUJJf
would be used.
But
<U*4.iJ fem.,
"on
the 5th day''
828
PREPOSITIONS.
never separate yourself from the majority, you must act as others do ";
;*JU
"you must
xx
look after the boy "

x
(&& **A*
x
"he owes me a debt "
*>**
jjAi^Jb * ^
jsA*fl!>
,oi
"if aaif of * ?
you want to train Shahms, then

*/
you must keep the Peregrine species"

" on the supposition or condition that
*
' '
;
^^
"
according
to"
erf
^^
"
;
tf&jtyj&i ^Û
so far as possible
j "according to rank"; i^Ji X

tail
x
^/W X
of"
<J^
"
willingly";
<(
(î*
xx
k"ilf
uv^; "publicly"
^ ^Û "in
spite
/*^J
^ x
J^c
in spite
of their ill-doing."
(d)
^ " away from ",

It is also
(
is
used with verbs denoting to
flee,
avoid, restrain
oneself, forbid, hinder, neglect,
and defend.
With many
of these verbs
^
it is
can also be used.

open, and ask
It also
used with verbs denoting to uncover, reveal, " about concerning ").
the authority of ",
of
= "on
as: Jtf *Ul Jj*;

X
erf
j+*
&*
".
"
related
on the authority
'Umar, that the Prophet of God said
Note the idioms
<u* *Dl
"
"
May God
be pleased with him
"
!
&*
^*
"apart from"; JUi
^
;
'after a little
while"
j&*
dj
^ e,U
he died,
leaving a young child"

X3
JUr^T
tÛ
"they were
slain to the last
man."
be
(e)
(1)
e>
is
used with verbs denoting to go out, to

at, rejoice at,
free, to forbid,
near, approach,
wonder
be pleased with.
#
:
With verbs
x x
of selling
to
or giving in marriage,
it is
used for "to," as
9^ Uy *U
x-
Û
" he sold
him
a horse."
o
ô
>"
c -
(2)
1
^>
" some
of, of,
any ", as:

'
*ix>
loj;^
" I drank some of
it
"
;
'
J*
no
A^t
ÂJ
is
there any
God
"
;
<
*J|
^>
I*
" there
is
not any God, there
is
Min
is
here practically a substantive and the object of the verb.
PREPOSITIONS.
829
"
ye have no backer ";
\'&*
J& &
p***
"there
are
some among them who say thus "

Cxxx o
(3)
^
"
cuiT
G
" thou art one

/
of
them."
Note these idioms:
ÂwU
^=
U
^,-xiU
&
"since two years, two
years
ago":
jl*aJi
^
1
;
>^^l
"O-" x
"a
certain
&
merchant"; vî
all I
I'llll
chain
made
of
gold"
JUl
^x /î* -
possess"
oi>li
" whatever good deeds thou doest."

x
Remark.
(/)
pleonastic
be is
often suffixed to
^ ^ and
.
^.
(1)
t5
"in,
among,"
etc., is
used with verbs of speaking (about),

(after),
thinking (over), desiring

three by seven
' '
(for),
yearning
multiplying (by).
"Multiply
is
&** a
x
(2)
It
sometimes expresses motion into, as: *

^
<*
"he
fell
into a
tank
"
;
*t;*jf
"
^y 5^ "he "
fell
into their hands
"
;
t^f
^^^ ^ a^y
^
<
he set
out with 50,000 men."

*
*J
"
& 3
to)
with, just at, besides, etc.", as
o-^l ^>U ^
sick
' '
"exactly atsun-
"0"''X
rise

^y
X
^x>
" besides (the fact
of)
my being
= l-ajô cuiT^f
"
;
Ox/o^^v^x
.
xx
*
<
in spite of
that"
I**
^x>
spite of this, with all this

$
&1
x/xx
A*x) a
xo"
'*
although, in spite of the fact that"; *3j ^
"compared îj| x
to
him
Elias a is a tent-peg."
'Remark.
with).
(h) (I)
The accusative
Ut*
= "at
the same time," (wo
in
company
The
preposition (.& "amongst,

Ox
between"
(a
noun
to
in the ac-
cusative.
but
&#
O
^
O
genitive
"from amongst") has
be
repeated
X
1
Ox
l/o
But JLo ^>o ^g&ic " * x '

#
"I own no
property."
The wandering Jew
of the Muslims.
830
PREPOSITIONS.
if
one or more of the words governed by
ifc
is
a pronoun, as
jj ^ J^
(
"betwixt me and (betwixt) thee"

9'
'
yU c>#j
" what
is
(j
"between me and thy
brother.'
'
But
'
'
Jj->;
t
^ ^ &*) U
I
<*+>'
'
<;'
?<S(.rOS
4'
the difference between ndbiyy
and rasul
(2)
e>#
and
UAJ are also used for ÂJ. *
0"'O*
(3)
Note the idioms
A^J
to
"before
him";
^
<
^.^
fc
>'
^ ^xa*
is
^
x-
ex
ûT
'
6o$& rich cwtf poor
came
me "
e>^
cUU ^ Û ^yfc
middling, fair
he
between learned
and ignorant,
half
and half
slain
"
;
&X "
"
;
<5
"
'
" the tribe was partly

()
and partly taken captive," vide

)
5
p. 773.
c^
" on this
side of (opp. to *T;^

*.&
*
under,
without, besides, other
than, less than," as:
^\
&)$
<c
on
this side of the
river"
',^,
^^
'
'<,
Jolir
&&
" under your book

kill
is
a paper
"
;
,,b~,
?' 9
^^\ &<
^^
,
$99^,
IAJJ
'
,^1^
'
I will certainly
^ /
Zayd and
all
besides
him
of the
Arabs
"
;
'
JUi
^^
&
x-ju
or,
^V or)
" without that"
Wv Uj S^^l
'
''ten or less," (but
\*A% Uj S^Jf "ten or

&^x
more").
s ' 9
(j9
Remark.
tJoî
s r
and p&i* are interjections and

C
=
,
J'b]
*
f
:
f
and
C/x
^Tljj f
" be+
C/x
9
' '
ware
1 '
' '
!
But
\Jb$ ^
' '
followed by a noun equals

9
^L
take
" as
*jj *-&jt>
<Vj
-^^
,'
seize
Zayd
a&ji
"
seize
him."
(j)
î; preposition
XX
" towards" (and adverb "as for example"), and

C^ X-O "
^
CX
"according to," as:

/
o
*Jji^wJ
?
"as he says"; but

?
'
X
>j
as a substantive
=,
"
'Mike,"
as:
to
xi
C-xX
p
5
*<,'*'
or)
!
Jj^ or
X
^xfei
>so JU;
"a man
like
a lion";
>^x>
"I
passed by a
man
resembling your brother."
is
seldom used for
like
"
as
it is
ambiguous, and
liable to
be mistaken for
so on, such like."
the preposition
but
^) i yso
(which
may be in any case) is used for "
PREPOSITIONS.
831
(of
As a substantive
(k) ij\
x
X
it
also
means " about "
numbers).
is
"up
X
I
to," also shows

9
that one
thing
added to another,
JL
as: |*A ^Jt
!<>d>
f*
"add
this to that."
It
is
used with
atj
"to augment"
:
with adjectives signifying love or hatred used in a passive sense, as

6
9
(j
v^*^ and
v^:su*
etc.
dear
"
;
x -
*-**'
" dearer "
9
;
(jM
Ôj
" more hateful "

O' ^
-
etc.;
and with
x
signifying
"near"
as opposed to
&& ^**
" " far from,
^'
as:
^]
*->j**\
&>\*
"
for this
comes nearer to reverence."

*>^T
XX X
Note the phrases

or
^1
X
(contracted ^\ ^
>
"et
cetera,
and so forth,"
^
-
^x
xx
-xUJt
(
JJ
X'
)
<AJ
" stand
off
"
!
C'
;
"
*J( IA* ''this is entrusted to
him."
(/)
&*
(vide p. 771
and footnote
'
3)
may
"
be construed with either the
nominative or the genitive, the latter being generally used for a yet unexpired
>3ix
<j
9
c '
xlô-o^ ôCJi'
;
'
* {
period of time, as
Jjf
fU
&*>
since last year
IAA bjî
' '
;
iô
4!? to
O'
have
-^
-^
C'O-o O
not spoken to him since (the beginning
of)
this
month
li*yj *">
or ^^t A*
x
"since this morning, to-day."

(m) For the repetition of a preposition after ^ vide
(n)
LV
(k).
Vide also
LIII.
or
(o)
^ and
c
*
^-
/'o^'
*i*>
o ^
may
be directly connected with a following pro'I have not seen
position, as:
(j^ &<*
9*9 ?f^s
*J^!;
him
since he
was born";
prepositions
I
jfljf
jlj
<MX)
"since
the
tribe
-
departed."
But the other

ej* &f (Jl
require the interposition of of
ol or
U, as
is
" till
grew up
"
;
x>
"though
it
easier to destroy
than build";
"that was because they disobeyed"

XX
"as we
sent
an apostle to Pharaoh"; oiU ^^5
"after So-and-so
perished."
The redundant
LXJ
after
fci
is rare.
832
TO HAVE
EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, ETC., SENTENCES.

LIII.
To Have.
l -
" To have "
is
expressed by the prepositions J
<3Ju:-c
orâJ according to
or about, the
I have
the idea of possession.

*'
'
Thus
I
means " in company with

*.'
'
person," as
cU
^*x>
have with me a watch," but
cU ÂXP "
watch."
J
"
also
means actual
possession, as
&U <J
"
own a watch," but

"
;
^c***
have (my own or some one else's property) a watch

'
>JJ-)
'
JUJ)
" the
property that belongs to Zayd.'
f<j
J
after
is
used for immaterial things, as

as
^ ^"
i.e.
know "
it also
' '
of
"
an indefinite noun,
'
^l "
^d differs from && 00^ "

C'
,
\
in being restricted to material objects, as
'Â
this assertion is right, in
my
opinion."
Exceptive, Adversative, Restrictive and Interrogative Sentences.

9t
(a)
(i)
After a positive clause,

1 CX
t{
i} s
except" (not a
preposition), governs
^&'o
ilt
' "& "
the accusative, as
is
lx>j
(*j.a)f
^^f.
After a negative clause, the exception

tf
rarely in the accusative; but generally, the

< H <*-C*5ô it,
same case
*
follows
Hi
-
that
\L-
is
nominative, since
it is
&
3/f
'
,
31
the logical subject, as: *U|
*Jf
" there
is
no god but the God."
"
1
J>
From
jJkfi
comes
AjjJis
"
opinion, intention.
EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, RESTRICTIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 833

*
(**')
"
C4>**'
except"
is
an ordinary preposition and
is
indeclinable.
(Hi) j*e (" besides, except, but*') is a
noun
:
or
pronoun
vide
XXVI
(*),
and
'
is
declinable
j*
is
a preposition
only
both are used in the sense of

if
except.'
5t
jAimust
:
itself
be in the same case as the thing excepted would be
were used, as
x>3 it
ty j**
fjM) f(*
' '
,
and
is
*3
ilt
=
;
^3^*^!
ftf
U.
In ^3 ^juj *U.
AJ) j**?
U
i
'
none came but Zayd

r
jz
a noun
"
so too in c*;^ to
DU ^
^ (j&
J/^ ^^V
cujijAJ
U, the word may be treated either
as a preposition or a noun.
(iv)
IAC, JU.,
and UU. govern either the gen. or the ace.
butxc
("what
goes beyond ") and
Û
is
^ ^
("
what
is free
from
'*)
usually take the accusative.
Rarely
is
lL=^ preceded
^
by U.
Remark.
<*
&U.
also as a Interjection (q.v.)

,
"
far be it from.*'
particle of denial is
(v)
^1
may
precede any part of speech
and as a
frequently followed by an exceptive clause, as
*j> & j> *, 9,t, OJJ/OÂ yi JU.^
f,
^|
" there
is
none amongst men that does not die
' ' ;
&y*j^
Jit
^[9 e^f 'X
Hi ei>*J^ c^J X Xx
"
they
follow naught but doubt, and they do naught but guess."

(6)
Vide p. 783.
ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES
'
/OX x/
'
(i)
51
is
used after an affirmative or a command, as: jj*# K

not
i
yjj
Û
%X
"
Zayd came to me,

&
i
Amr "
#
;
O'
"
^v-*x
|^*c
t*JJ
^ "take Zayd, not 'Amr."

O >
35
() J^ x
or
(^ s
:
(often preceded
by
rectify
or
emend a previous
statement and are more particularly opposed to a negative proposition or a

l/rohibition, as
^^
tj+e
^
=
^3
<y*W
3/
*'
Zayd came
to
me, but 'Amr did
not come.'*
}j**(Jj
or)^!^;^^*
"do
not beat Zayd, but (beat)* Amr.'*
This
o
'
is
better than
*i)
*
j&
c
fjj)
)lf
).
e^J has no governing power.

distinction
It
has the same meaning as in Persian, and the
between
it
(c).
and Jb
is
" Hindustani not drawn as in Urdu, vide Phillott's
Manual," Lesson 60
53
834 EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, RESTRICTIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

o *
(w)
'
(Jj
= " nay,
not so, rather, but
"
)
is
opposed to an affirmative or a
*
<~s
$i,'
'
"
negative proposition, to a command or a prohibition, as

stood up, nay
it
jj+e
JL>
A^ fU "Zayd
was 'Amr "
^
-^^
Jj *j
plS
*
U
o*
"
o
Zayd did not stand up, but

i/
(nay rather)
f
'Amr stood up";

O
^
5)
iif
t/
cb \*
w^t "beat
Zayd, not so
'Amr";
[^c
(^
or) JL i^jj
" do not beat Zayd. but
= nay
rather)
(beat) 'Amr.''
(c)
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES
are introduced
by CS;
vide
XXXIV
(6)
(3), p. 781.
(d)
INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.
&
-
(i)
The
particle
'
may
be prefixed
&
to
e)f
-
and
^>.
It is used
in
direct
or indirect questions and

"
*
j*l
may
:
introduce a clause containing alternative questions connected by

*
l
or jf, as
&*,9'
,9
<,
* 9
(,*
, *(,*
'
>A*~Jf >*>|
cUl^ A
^.^x>
WA^P
wj.5ljkJ| 4.^0
" one of the

whether he
strange things is the self-conceit of him who does not will be saved or damned, or how his life will end."
It is
know
frequently omitted in an alternative question, as

king, whether ye like
it
jf*
f&
"
jjf
am
or not."
is
If
both clauses depend on the same verb, the verb

8
placed between,
f
as: )j&* *jf o(< X
Uic
X
"whether he be
rich or
poor";
vide also
under
XXXIV
(a).
o
1
'
^0
has no governing power.

o
It
has the same meaning as in Persian, and the
distinction between
it
and
cA* is
not drawn as
in
Urdu
vide Phillott's
"Hindustani
Manual," Lesson 60
(c).
For
îLif. ^
For
o-
1x1*1 f.
<*'
f
implies ignorance, in a simple question, as:
c<*
'
<"*
fv*iX)|
It
is
said that
)\
^to
it
'
does either Zayd or 'Amr happen to be with you

is
"
?
;
S
if
+\
were substituted
it is.
should
simply that the questioner knows one
with you and asks which of the two
EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, RESTRICTIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 835

c.
(it)
The
particle
cU may be
.,.**>
preceded
by
>
and
f>,
but
it
cannot be
&
prefixed to these particles, nor to uf.
*
It
cannot introduce a negative nor a

is
conditional .clause, nor, in general, a nominal clause whose predicate

<S
<,'
finite
ox>
verb.
It
may
be followed by f f or jf in alternative clauses, but before

as:
O
fl
it
must be repeated,
"
" v**y **? \& -*~J*

x
$JP&*Mrc.d5*
G*
' Ox
-
did he revile any one, or
was he reviled
"
;
'^'
l^Wf v^
<j***>^f
ojJ&
> c x ' Oxx*!,.? o ^x JU> *f J^f^j tanlS c,U ou^f cJjL

& x
ox
Usayyid whether I have taken have cured my soul of its grief."

(Hi)
my
blood- revenge on Wa*il, or whether I
Vide also
are,
XXXIV
ill
(6), p.
783.
The negative interrogatives

Jll
-
and Uf and
;
(the particles of
incitement and reproof)

(*v)
Û
U*P and $ j)
& '
mte
XLIII
x
(/).
The
interrogative pronouns
x Ox
^ "who?"
,
and
\*>
"what?" may
x ^x
O x
stand in any case, as:

thou, what
is
vs*Jf
^^ '*who art thou?" Xx Ox >

oJf
^.ô
OÔ-^ x
;
(but oJf
<f
what art
art
thy position, etc.");
oJu "whose
daughter
thou ye,"
"
;
- O xx
oJLJjl
Ox
'
whom
hast thou slain
"
Jj^
**
" in what state were
etc., etc.
They may be constructed as nominatives

being in such
O ^
W^
absolute, their proper place

(
a case only, supplied by a pronoun

^ O iXw ( ^.ô * *
*"
Û or
is
*[;
as
J^
^"
*^^
O ^
c^J-* ^^ cir *
^
'
'
=)
jjojjj l .ô
Say, In whose hand
the kingdom over
* * *
everything
More
^
lively
X
forms are
$<<
'
|^
'
:*'."' ^ and
t
i Lo
which
may
occur even before

S
*;
ÂJf
<J
/X
as.
Jyj( liU
'*
or)
5^1
td
to
"what
is
it (that)
thou sayest
";
M) e^
who
is it
(that) has given orders
Though &* and
L<>
are substantives, they cannot govern a
genitive,
nor be used in apposition.
f
'
The
relative adjective
^J\ =
" of what tribe
"
?
836
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
After interrogative &> x o

,
^.yo,
the verb
is
usually
?
masculine
' '
but
may be
"
'
feminine, as
<J^f oafc
(^
is
who was thy mother
The
interrogative
U
c/
rarely used of persons, but the relative
is
not
infrequently used for
(>*>.
Fide also under Relative Sentences
LV.
g'
(c)
() For ^f- vide
XXVI
*
(o) (3), p.
757,
and
XL
and
f
<**
(6), p.
"
797.
*i
/'
be used for
AJI fern,
w'
pi.,'
+ x
"
The
x o^
**
interrogative
^f may
thou
epjT,
ox
as
^f
x
er*
>*
**
99*
<c
ox
(.>;!
+i
c*if iJUjji
of
what
tribe art
"
;
c^*3
^b
*
^^
^^jj
U^
" and no
soul
knows
in
what land
it
shall die
" oJf
;
^M ^1 ^
LX
of
what people
art
thou?"
(it)
When
^/\ expresses
it
astonishment, vide
if
(d), it is
sing. ,
and the noun

is
governs,
undefined
is
in the genitive.
as:
always masc. If the preceding
noun
indefinite,
^1
agrees with
(and)
it in case,
cUj
'
<^f
'
u**?
*
'
^^
"'
'
.*
4<
thou
is
'
hast brought
definite,
me
is
man
what a man! "
But
if
<
the preceding noun

.'
^^ ^!
put in the accusative
of state
f .*' & '>*<" (J^-), as: J*.; ^f *>)

f
^t^
*
"Zayd came
to me,
what a
* ^
man
35
he is!"
The
first
substantive
may be
tor-
^f
[
Cf-o
]
implied by the verb, as: i>K>

#
*
^1
&&
'
lî>
X
"how
they have been
mented!"
LV.
(a)
Relative Sentences.
relative clause qualifying a definite antecedent is introduced

35"
by the
(called
adjective
f
-
<^W, and the

)
relative clause generally contains a
pronoun
f
*
*3U or
?
aj;
referring to the antecedent
this
pronoun
is
either expressed or ,?
t&~?
else
,,9
&, / 9&
^x
<,*
contained in the verb, as
^&\ fjy^^JJf J^\ *V; here >* is expressed,

^"^
&'
s^ *
as there
is
no verb in the relative clause
ÂAJ ôJf
^3}
"
the youth
who
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
837
sings,
f -
came'*
here the pronoun

is
is
contained in the verb: ^jJ
';
*j4 vaU; here the pronoun
expressed, as the pronoun

f
*n'
hidden
in
?&'
4*1
t/Ôxv
3*
x f
cannot refer to the antecedent
*z+*
*&
c5^Jf
Jl *W " the
man whom
father."
x
9&
x,,x
man came
whom you
*
o
'
-
thought dead
"
:
&jj
^ÂJ!
tU.y
" the
saw "
S-
^31
oofc
î
x
"
my
shop which had belonged to
my
(6)
Before adjectives, the article J*
may
stand for cÎ, as
"the man came

-
to
me
the (who
is)
handsome
of the
face"
''<.'$" &' (= U*^ (ir*^ L^Î,

'
or
&*, *?&' OX^/XX^/ ^X A^t ^.y~^ j& ^M] cU.pt tP*^ ^ x
),
vide Adjectives
XXXVIII (rf).
There
long
is
in Arabic
no
' '
possessive
whose
"
'
" the
man whose
beard
is
"
is
x<,**ô ^ ~=//;J>x expressed by <uJJf J^jf cUyf
the
man
the long of the beard
"
;
here J?
^dJi
this
may
also
be expressed by
<*
'xo
>
-c
9 95> ,
Other ways of expressing this are

/.x o
*jjdt|
x-^
Jj^t Jk^l x
& ~
*
" the man, the long

the man, the long as
'
ô
or) <XAJ
x '
as to
Je beard";
^ ^3i ^
*xi>aJ
JL^JJi
*
x
JL^y
/
*
'*
<o
beard (or his beard)
"
;
tfU
(&**$ or
<ksJ
JLi^JWf
cU^f
" the man, the long
of
bread (or of his beard)."

(c)
Also, before a participle that
is
a muzaf, J'
x'
"
' '
who,
as
î^
11
/ /35
'
<e
killer of
ê man
' '
= cU^f
JUI
AJ?
J^
wWe
(a) (4).
But
interrogatively
Jlif
x
(jjfc
" whose book
is this
?"
fiJk iyli
"
x x
Note the following

*'
'
:
am
at the house of the same person as thou art ^

xfex
"
x Ox
xO
X
{
;
oof
^.yc
e bl
^ C" x
passed by
fte
some person Su lay man did "

3-,
Here too the
article
Ji
838
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
9
(d)
The pronoun
/&'x
fl5~
is
occasionally omitted in the accusative, as
/A,xx
(
ii>j*or) cuj^*
<.5*Jf
s
"this
(is)
the
man whom
there
is
beat."
Vide also
(e)
.
,
When the
"
I
antecedent
is indefinite,
no
relative, as
^
+9
*>
+ + 6
k
$<.
jJ
saw a book (which was)
in
thy hand
"
;
,+~9
(
t5+~-
or)
"he had
a son (who was) called
Muhammad"
x
**su
the
J&
cU;
9
>
xox
"a man
(who was) called
Muhammad";
"
J&>
"on
day
(that)
he was killed
"
:
^ /
!
9 e c^
c^^
'
(>*
people believing, people that believe."
Such
a sentence
is
4 called <JU>
>
an adjectival sentence.'
The
J**
relative
9 XGX
-
is
also omitted
when the antecedent has the
generic article,
& x ô
as
î^Jlj
x
*
w^
<J*aJf
^
J^
>
x
4<
like the horse (horse- kind) that drinks
by whist-
ling."
(/)
Relative clauses that do not qualify a noun, are introduced by <&*> or
*&'
,
<,'
*,
.
& &
or
by U,
as:, .oli^
[^Lof
^jJf ^]
"
will verily they that believe
have gardens
"
;
here, either
(^f <^ could be

ox
substituted, or ty
XXVI
(p)
ix
.KemarA;.
When
^<iJf
stands for
that which, whoever, whatever
"
;
^^
or t,
it is
a noun and
it
=
*'
" he who,*
but as an adjective
means
who, which,
that," referring to an antecedent.

generally followed by the singular verb (usually in the Preterite to indicate a general truth) but if the idea is plural, the succeeding verbs are plural
(g)
The
substantive
&*
" he who, those who,"
is
" and from amongst the

not believers
;
people there are some

x
who say
x
-?
(sing.)
^t x
but
these are
ê?/
<X
x oX
Ox
(j^
deceive
God";
<Jî
c^**^
"
;
îôj "and from amongst them are some

^
1
O.
who
listen (plural) to thee
c^'
er'
L
(
^ ^^ tr*
f
" whoever of the Arabs
entered (or
1
may
enter) Syria .....
"
Note the concord.

* 'b'9
(
53x
*a
9 oxx
aw
)o
^jJlj o^>o
"I passed by the same person as Sulayman did."
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
839
Note that ^f and ôJf are always
definite
x
[for
the use of
^f
vide
XXVI (o)
'*.*
**
(3),
'
and
XL (6)], whilst
' *
^ and U
have."
o x
are either definite or indefinite

*
' '
;
thus
*^
<j^>
=
I
o
either
he who comes or one who comes

I
,J
U =
either
"that which
have
"
or
something
Though
^ and
U>
are indeclinable , the pronoun referring to
them must
agree in gender and number, as:
^^ ^
<j
'
O '
*> ~o
*Ux)f
*
*~*'
o*>t>
" I saw a
woman
who did
(h)
O
not please me."

*
<,*
**+
o ^
The accusative
^
C
p*
f
etc. (*$Uff)
can also be omitted after
^^c,
andt*,
xx
Ox
i
"<''>
<^fuf
"shall
fall
down
before
one
whom
thou
hast
made
(i)
of clay
"
;
here
aiais.
could be used.
Vide
(d).
The
'
indeclinable substantive
s
s
U=" that which, all that, "as:
**>*O
<jf*
*Uiif
v .ô
p)
9
^sJlj
cÛs
"marry what
*'
pleases
you from amongst the women ":
?9*f
(*il
or
<,',* 9^ ' U o*^
repent what I said
"
;
*<.,'<,"&*<;*
t^j
o^ U*
x
CUASU:
x
<{
wonder
>*u
for
â^ thou didst strike Zayd
"
;
X 0<*'
^^X^'X
c^Wf crx
x
^^
^>^
'X 'CJXO lak oâJi ^ t5^ x

I shall
i^xxo
S;i Jlalxi
AJ-C
xxo''
^|
"f
^> >
/ / > C'
"
jjijjjf
^x: jj^ji
il
if
thou
fulfillest
my
need,
be
indebted to thee for such a pleasure that the kings of the earth could not repay a grain of it."
(j)
An
(
indefinite antecedent
may
be repeated, especially after J', as
&
<XA>U.A.
%>
)
,,?<,',
oUl+A.
oujf;
i\j***
J^ or
t$J^ <J> *(^)
"
saw some
pigeons, each
of
which was red."

(k)
Further examples of relative sentences

is
" What
past
is
gone, and what
is
hoped
for is hidden,
and thine
is
the
hour
m wfeicA
thou art"
l^ oJt
*^^t JPj
cU^Jij u^b
^^c U
o ^ ,.yc is
here in the genitive.
840
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
.
" That
in
not a thing to be (which
is)
mentioned
"
jfb*
U^
"
*JJ*ur*?
Verily
i
with the measure u*'^ wAtcA you measure
it will
be measured to
you"
cM
/*#
J& *
"
"
J>y*&
" c**^*-^
' '
This is the boy to whom we have given the money

"
"
A
//ox
He whose tongue is
girl smiled,
long has
little
intelligence
ri
<,
x
;
Ala*
JjjJk
ASU
^x>
" The
she in whose hand there was a
flower
"
yk) Uxj ^
^ î
X
* X
ixjî
X
o**-^
X
x>;
"I saw
girls in
whose hands were
x- i x X >OX 2 c' flowers" y*j ^*ix?f jy e>Uj v->iXkU
4<
;
This youth, whose father we know,
is
clever
' '
/ x>W>>o, ^^x'^^xl ^&)\ IÂ ^dJ| jk^ Vf J/u X X

'
' c
;
Mount Lebanon from the summit

,
of
'
you
see the Mediterranean,
is
a high
mountain "
x C <x
^^c
x
e^ 1
e>j>>
c5^
"0^
^<
<-***-
JU
,
JU&. k-oyLjtâiJl
0^ X
' '
AUJ ^/o; 'XXX

x
J&x
* '
((
Those who spend their wealth
(in
alms
&
XO-^
C^
giving)
^|yf
O
*
oîij
&.^
And who
does a greater wrong than he who

in
hinders the temples of

f9
*
X-
God from having His name mentioned

x-
them?"
xxO
x*
fc
gu-e
xX xx, oCS
^xC.
Ufef
^
A
<5x
/x"
^
{<
;
He made known to me aU
he was leaving
'
'
*^l
U g*apu ^j*j
"
;
day
x x
m wîc^ there shall be

x x
no
xx f&f
31
bartering, nor friendship, nor intercession
"
/k<x x /t,x
*j
icli*
$ ii^ ^ ^ &x
^>
"We
were removed to another room, which had been sprinkled with rose-water"
Remark.
relative sentence
is
added to the principal word.

predicate
^x
,
When
merely a nominal or a verbal sentence the relative sentence is nominal, the

&
''
"
is
sometimes co-ordinated with the word qualified, as:

x/ xU
)
O 9 x/ xox
^x
x>
(I)
Vide also under Interrogative Sentences.
CONDITIONAL AND CONCESSIONAL SENTENCES.
841
LVI.
(a) (1)
If
Conditional and Concessional Sentences.

is
a condition
9*
or Conditional
possible or likely,
it is
introduced by one of the

if
Particles
&\
2
orM^t
(before a verbal clause):
impossible or purely hypothetical, by

G
x
y (or
in nominal clauses
After
^ etc.,
the verbs in both clauses have the signification of either an

x
English Pluperfect Subjunctive, or an Imperfect Subjunctive.

of a Present Tense.
After fij or
Either Preterites or Aorists (Jussives) may be used in both clauses, for the English Present or Future, or one in one and one in the other there are
:
thus four ordinary possible combinations. In the Apodosis, the Subjunctive and Indicative form of the Aorist can sometimes be used. Vide (c).
If
'
a Preterite
is
is
to retain a past sense in the Protasis of a likely condition,

'
'
eJ
M>\
used. 8
In impossible conditions, the Preterite, or &fc

After
with the
be intro-
Preterite,
is s
used for the Pluperfect.
the Apodosis
may
duced by
J.
is
After fM conditional, the Jussive

or very rarely the Aorist Indicative,
seldom used.
Withy,
the Preterite,
is
used in both parts.
Vide, also
XLIV
the
<)
(8).
Remark.
present
(2)
is
The Subjunctive Aorist always refers Intended, the Indicative must be used.
(
to future time:
if
The Apodosis
$ *X f ff * tj^ or *->[?*>
*
)
is
generally introduced
by
<J,
or less
often
by
>
<,
'
(b)
If
the Protasis
J^
is
an Aorist, and the Apodosis a

x
Preterite,
'
<j
o"
^ ft**
o^ o
the former must be apocopated (Jussive)

'"
if
as
<-&j**t
or
.J&r* t5^r^ &\
you
(c)
hit
If
me,
I'll hit
you."
Vide
(h)
and
(t).
the Protasis
is
a Preterite and the Apodosis an Aorist, the Aorist

x
>"
(,
S
)
x O
may
1
be apocopated or not, preferably not, as:

|if
x-
<J^-*? or
is
temporal but conditional, vide
LVII(o) and
(b).
is
also used to express

*
a wish (= "
if
only"); vide
"
;
XLVI,
Optative
Mood
XL VII, p.
3
847.
(e) (2)
even
if,
although
vide
examples on
p. 846.
Vide also
and
(3).
842
(d)
After o, the
o
x
first
Aorist
is
usually not apocopated, as:

*GX-X
^>j
'
''
^JTJ'
<-M
ij^l
wVL>*f
"0! God,
hadst thou not
delayed
me
have been
(e)
of fche just
only up to a speedy death, I would have given alms, and would " (said by the Infidel at the time of death).
(1)
Clauses that are introduced

' '
;
by
' '
^f
"
if
",
^c
"if anyone",
I*
"
if
' '
anything
x *
1
U$*
<
<
whatsoever
xx
Jtf
how ? "
U
x
Ca*r
"
,
" howsoever
{,
' '
:
x x x
iw
"
xy,
s> x
îxi
when",
;
" whoever "

'
"whenever"; ^\ "which, if any"; ^f x33-? ox^ ^^ " everyone who " UK " whatsoever (a/so whenever *)"
c5Lo(
or
lx>lix>
where*
' ;
UH^
* '
wherever
' '
;
^l
"
where"
Ux>
'
f
wherever
' '
,
are con-
sidered as Protases,
and the Preterite or Jussive

<JU
is
used with them for the

if
English Present or Future, as:

seeks
Jk>
" whoso seeketh findeth,
anyone
" = he finds
*
O 'x
o ^x
O x
Jlx
is
(2) If
the Preterite
to
have the
signification of the Perfect, &\6 or
one
of its
sisters'
must be inserted between the

x
particle
:
and the verb, and

fl
^xx
0< i*
the Apodosis (Vfj^) must be introduced by o, as

"'
cUJ> (^r* <iJ *-^-*J X X #
tf^^-xo &\4
e>|
os5t>,AA>
"if his shirt
is
(has been) torn in front, she has spoken the truth."

is
(3)
But
if
the Preterite
to have the signification of the English Past

'
(or Preterite)
C,
Tense,
o
^
<
X "
or a
sister
'
introduces
its
clause
and
is
followed
by
/xx
:
x'/x
fytflj
*'
if
c;t,as
tyOb
^] ty
they exerted themselves to attain an object, they
attained it."
Remark.
The temporal clause introduced by

o
;
il
is
often nearly identical

x
in
meaning with a clause introduced by

^>t.
cij
but rarely
is
i|
construed with*
the Jussive like
Ficfe
LVII
(a)
(/)
The
particles
mentioned
in
(e)
(1)
take
two
apocopated Aorists
(JussivesV
Vide Conjunctions
x;>
XXXIII,
of
p. 776,
note
3,
and
LVII
(a).
UIT
:
in the
sense
"whenever" may be used with

apocopate the Aorist.
the
Preterite
in
a past
sense
also it does not in this sense
843
(0r)
The Jussive (without

<*
<J)
may
follow
a Conditional Imperative,
*
<j?
<**
as
l
:
w&oyf ^j)
(h)
"
visit
me
if
you
visit
me), I will honour you.
"
&
The Jussive with

Vide
o may
*
occur in the Protasis, and the Preterite
in the Apodosis.
(b).
(i)
Unlike
cjj,
the other conditional particles and pronouns require the
verbs in both clauses to be in the same tense.
"
(j)
If
not
"
O"*
o
i^t
***
**"
t**
is
or
51
*
with the Jussive: or for past time 3/y with
o" &'
the P'reterite, or
(A)
(i)
^y
with the Jussive.

^
'
The Apodosis
is
introduced by
8
o in
C*
the following cases
In a nominal clause;
(ii)
in
a verbal clause where the Preterite

^
""
expresses past time, especially with
<*>
(were
vJ
omitted the time would

^
'
^
-
be future);
o
"
(iii)
in a verbal clause beginning

(iv) in
with o^*
^*
^
o
o
<4
(
not")
or
o"
*-**
or
^,
;
or
xj;
clause expressing
a command,
prohibition,
c >-
"?
:
9
x
o^
wish
(v) in
final clause after interrogation, as
'& JJr^*^
(vi)
&'>&*'{& * +
"have ye any knowledge

with a defective Preterite
(
that ye can show

^
us?";
in a verbal clause
x
I
x
-
-*0
^^
^^-^
*i etc.).
(1)
for ui is always used in the apodosis
after
a long
If
or
involved
3/
protasis.
With
and
V,
the use
of vJ is optional.
o is inserted,
re-
quires the Aorist Indicative.
Or
tJ'U
+
a a f"-ukrim k
The following may also be considered conditional
Prohibitive sentences
Precative
sentences expressing polite invitation, urgent request, desire;
hope
(as
"
.
perhaps he will
come and we
is
will
honour him ")

I will give
interrogative, as: "

(lit.
U*p
*
ayjllcb'
s
J5L,
S
^
I
"
if
there
any beggar, then

3
him a dirhem
who
is
a beggar so that
f
may
? ).
In this case after a conditional ^J, the interjection
jj
X
" behold! " maybe sub-
stituted for
^_j
844
TEMPORAL. CONDITIONAL, ETC., CLAUSES.

(m) As stated above,
is
followed by the Preterite
rarely, it is followed
o>
^
ji-o/
'* br
by the Aorist
in the sense of an Imperfect Subjunctive
<-M
f
<Vt
,
/^V^
'
t^j*ltitx* "
#
WfrLc
^y
I*
"if
God
were desirous of
calling to
account mankind, he would not be leaving on the earth any moving thing, but he giveth them respite to a named time."
(n)
For further examples LVII.

SS
of Conditional Sentences vide
LVII
(/).
Temporal, Conditional,
is strictly
etc.,
(j
Clauses.
(/
(a)
^f^
" when "

(t e. ^
S <f
O"
SS
conditional,
I
as
v*^ v*^ cr^ "when you

"
go, I'll
go"
*
if
(,
you don't go,

S
won't); but
t^J
when, if",
is
also tern-
*'
' '
<.*,
poral,3H: UJG A>A.jiJjJ]oaAi

s
lij *
t^J'*
when (if) I go
to him, I find
him sleeping "

l
\
always
refers to present or future time,

if
even with the Preterite
it
may
be followed by the Aorist
verb in the apodosis
(if
there
is
the action takes place repeatedly, but the , &~, 2 one) must always be a Preterite, as ij * Jîj
'
V
I
^l$xJf
j ^îju
'
"I swear by
Vide
the night
p.
when
it
covers,
and the
day when it shines

^^vc +
out.'
LVI,
either
842
(e).
and UUx> are followed
by the
Preterite or
by the Jussive,
but
|.M
by the Preterite or by the Aorist Indicative.

f
(6)
Note, in the following, the position pf
fit,
and the use
of the Preterite
instead of the Aorist after &\f in the sense of "used to, to be wont
s
to";
UIU V * '
f s , lN|
s ,
lit
-j^
^ "he
,
used,
when he went
is
out, to meet
him
at the door."
(c)
For past time,
"
when, after,"
used,
and the verb
is
usually
rendered in English by the Pluperfect. For^f, vide XXXIII, p. 776. Sx can be used, either with the Preterite, or with the Aorist Indie. (d) uv
I,
or Subj., vide
**
is 2
"c,
:
XLIV(c).
Note the
^tf
5^, and the order, in the following
also interrogative,
" when
"
If
f^|
begins a clause,
it is
followed by the Preterite.
TEMPORAL, CONDITIONAL,
9fb xox x x
~e x
ETC., CLAUSKS.
845
x x
x
til
jrf
o
the house."
(e)
^^
as
"
followed
him
until I overtook him, as
he entered
I*
"as long
x 9
"
is
XOMI~O
followed by a Preterite, with present or future

I
meaning,
as:
&&+
Jt>
x o-o
*o^^f
*y**A\
^
f
1j*\*
$>
^jJjJf
"men
are
careless as
long as they live in this world"; v Uf *3j*a Vide p. 778. often as (wherever) you call it."
If
^ll
"Care answers,
as
the Preterite
(e) (2)
is
to
have a past
signification,
&[{ is inserted as
in
LV1
and
(3).
The negative "as long

(/)
as not
"
is
expressed by jj
with the Jussive.
Further examples of Conditional, Concessional, Optative and Tem:
poral sentences
"When
(if)
he spoke, he spoke eloquently
' '
l>!
jJO
foj X
#;
"
Accept
my
excuse readily or (at

x 6 xx
ox-
least)
O
be indulgent,
,x-
if
I have committed a fault
' *
jd*J|
*^ x^
s V*
x1
**C^
x
>*^*
' 1
.jui> ^f
xO " O oJks ^t
X
o^)^!
J^
**i>
e>i
^* X^- X
-^ jf
" You are

'
unjust,
if
you have done

if
it
"
p)(& x
c-if
= Ûo
*
x o xx o x o* oolf oJU* ^t);
What
x
will
J
you do
'
we do not allow you

O-Ô xf
C.'
to be in a position (to do)

''
that?"
if
^^ e^ ' ^y^*^
'
-^fix^x-
x
f^J
/xO"
/*^^
oy*JfSL;
If
you wish, send some to see

(j^
1
(whether) one of your people has seen her

O^x
x O
C*^
Uf%'|iCy x
^
e)
9**
X x
-?c/
x
>
x-
oKtit*
JfeLJ IJA,!
JLjU odA^t; x x
^
When two misfortunes befall

"
'O^~x
xx
xj.-.
35-x
x
til
a man, the best thing

r ;
is
to choose the lighter
^yif J**?** -
ÛJillj
Jf
'
fÛiu
"If you remain fixed in your determination,
will
make
fif
you
taste the reward of your rebellion to the
day
of
your death" ojib
" Be not grieved
for
me,
I
dear one,
if
these wretches
die honoured before thine
make me drink the cup of death, for if I die, eyes; and if God allots me a fair portion,
/
x
am
thine and thou art mine
O*^ " *Uflt
x*x
'
o"
^x
s<.~'9&'
&
'
xox
846
" If
TEMPORAL, CONDITIONAL, ETC., CLAUSES.
**f;
it
had not been
for the
number
of officers
who were round him,

x
that crowd would have killed
him on the road
' '
/ôx 35 ^ 9f 9^ , &* ^ AJy* iy< iy^'\ ^Jutoft ijk

\
^j
(JHjfeJl
<y - x
aliii
c;W; "If you had not been worse than the two of jâcJi t^Ji x
" G
x-
x*
x*
g
l^w
them, you would not have entered between them
'
o*U^
U) U*i
^ ^jy
G >V
c^'
G X 0'
Uaijjj
"
;
must consider
my neighbour even
if
" he act unjustly ^jjf
v?^
was
jUyÛJf; "when
refreshed, although I
the light of the morning had dawned,
my
spirit
had despaired
'"
5
of deliverance
"
eu*iit
^l^l
s-r*
^ UJ
him"
ô3UJ|
x
j.yo '
oû '
t>J
ol-" e>j^ fcr^j^ x

x
If
ne prove obstinate, then woe to
*)
Jjy
if
^5-fi*
oj ; "If they
become Muslims, they have come
to the right path
and
pÛJt
they turn away, only the bringing of the message
is laid
" upon thee
(JoJU
UH* t^y
"*
ejl
j I^JiAt
<^6* l^*A-*^ c>!

** x-
" When
'
the Arabs
knew
of our
arrival, they hastened joyfully to

'
meet us and shouted at the top
of their
voices,
Welcome
to the guest,
welcome to the
"
guest,'
U*ja5j
x x
*->>"^ ***
'
^^-
that I had died

0X0
when
I
was swimming in the sea"

to the place of
U51*
cJ^
tf*x)
^îixf
L>
;
ô^t
t**J
x
"When
came
!
my
sojourn, I threw myself on

I
my
couch, but alas
it
was a night
3 isjlJ** w^*
Ô^
in
which
did
not
<-^ 2BLX
taste
sleep
*5I
for a single
^
x
moment" ^^
^xo-^c
c*****
vs*>/i t*^^!
^J *^>;
when
5Aa.fj
XX
^'
affljJi
(jrj^l
^
*"
/*
Ox
"^
J*'^
i3^'
W.Wi &* ^ *^ x ^
(<
How
can
I forget
thee
have seen the tears
of love flow
from thy narcissus eyes?" o?;Af

8
***'
/x
x x
x
;
e Jfeu
steed, it
>J ^ (J^JLcT
" And when he rode

'
t.M
his
x x'x x x x xVxxx was as though he and the saddle were one piece " *i|^ ^f;
As soon
as.
COPULATIVE SENTENCES, AND STATE OB CONDITION.

f't,
1
847
'
(*'&*'
*iw
f*
5^1 j
' '
'^' *fo
"
:
had not
x
finished
my
speech when
heard the
x o
sound
I
of firing
aj; lj
*
(jjJltl " x
&?* CUM-. "

1
J^ ^cJlr ^/o *Sif J

"
x x
'
Had I known
that
should meet thee in this place,
would have done
my
best to receive
thee"
"
:
When
she shows rebellion, he shows hardness of heart

"
"
And
if
thou couldst see * when they are set before their Lord " tj#j
!
Jp>j)j
LVIII.
Copulative Sentences, and State or Condition.

,
*
-
(a)
For the differences between j
&{
-
and ^,
vide
XXXIII
?
(a)
and
(6).
:
Note also the following examples of ordinary copulative constructions

, ,
(i)
<.,
"I and Jacob were present, I was present and Jacob

"
-
' '
v^*O U *ay*ft^,
if
^^xx/'-x^'^C,''
or vJ^! >^*a ^
suffixed
^*^
o>*Aa..
Here
'
lif
could not be omitted
but
there
is
pronoun in the accusative, the subject need not be repeated in a

Ô*
'
^(j
x&x
'
separate form, as
^j j Jj^/f
and Zayd have honoured thee."

Lord "
(,
"
(ii)
-f
\n
f ' lff\U'
Your, and your

here v;
fathers',
5ljf
^) j
&j
in
such cases the
governing word C^ ^G x>:
is
usually repeated.
"Thy book and Zayd's"
rare construction.
(iii)
" The king's sons and daughters
(iv)
" To
me and
his brother
" &**$ " x xxx j ^.
* < o
In such cases the preposition
must be repeated.
(v)
He
killed
him and her " lU* j *&, or UUl j

,
i5.
(vi)
For omission
(d)
of ^
with predicates in a nominal sentence,
vide
XLII
(6)
(1),
Remark,
p. 807.
The negative 5
after y.
Until.
Couldst thou but
see.
848
COPULATIVE SENTENCES, STATE OR CONDITION.

'*
Neither
,
my
father nor
my mother remains alive

repetition.
* * +
"
&9
(^*f
X X
'
(,'
"*
<^f
<j^#
*J:
&" <XX
here
V^
equals ^Jf
an d saves a
' '
In,
UXAJ
"there has been neither

x^
^
,
combat nor dispute between us

omitted.
^
to
&+
$x x Vj JU* $ x
x^ o^ ^ xx
gSj
Uj the
first
il
might be
"It was impossible

-
for
me
do anything or to conclude anything*'

,
U*~ lyf jk?f y>
<-Uc|
ml <^J*t
here the Vj would usually be inserted
and
as in the first example, it saves the repetition of a clause.

(c)
Single verbs
and whole sentences are often connected by j and

O/OX
'
>-<,'
:
where in English more definite particles would be used, as

X/'CX
x
4<
31
/JL;
aJJf
pfy
Û
God knows
?;ê
(e).
6w^ (whilst) ye do not
know."
This
is
practically a
'
A.,
'
Note the use of ^ and

prostrated himself for a long
(5)
o
(
Xp'XXX
in
such sentences as JUtj

^?c-J| Jtbf ); wrfe also
^-. "he
LXII
(a)
time"
Remark.
(e)
nominal or a verbal sentence that

is
is
equivalent to an adverb and

.x
expresses state or condition,

in
XLIV
(6)
if
(3)
construction
shown Such sentences vary slightly in the clause indicating state is nominal or verbal, and negaand Remark
II,
generally introduced by j, as already
and
(4).
tive or affirmative.
The following exemplify

' '
this
(i)
NOMINAL.
Zayd
rose
' '
up weeping
*
*J(*
3*5
x>j jlf
or ^* j
lied
Im
^j&j
the verbal clause

' *
^5%
x
*ij fUl ).
CÔ' x
Ye
'
:
lied wittingly,
ye
knowing
-^'O x
O-Ô *
the while that ye did so

cA; omission of &l j
'
,
e)>JJ f&' j {**$
this could be
made verbal by the
Ox.
or
by the substitution
of **j.
is
Remark.
o-
Occasionally the nominal clause

' '
merely appended, as:

O'
' ' ;
9&
.
<ulc
*
met him wearing a coat of embroidery

hand on
his
*-?>
*
*
^
jj;
xx
x /c^ x x^
sou
^^
*U
*'
Zayd came,
(ii)
his
head."
VERBAL with AORIST.

O
The Aorist alone may be used

"
as:
>
&-* C-'
t
<*
9'
*>x
>"x<>x
^ xx
[vide x >
(i) ],
x7 x
or
' '
it
may be
introduced by
<iJj,
*IJ|
J^-.; îf
eÛI
why do you harm me, knowing " Apostle of God unto you ?
the while (knowing as ye do) that I
am
the
ASYJSDETON
VERBS OF WONDER, SURPRISE, ADMIRATION, ETC.

or by V (without ) '??<.,,* <** ''ft * or in a past sense
9
'
<>
849
It is
.
negatived by ^j
),
-
'
and the Jussive, as:
cJJtT*-**
"
by
^1
or
#~&<
yi
eÂiu Uj 'but
the
deceive
only themselves, without knowing it."

(iii)
VERBAL with PRETERITE.

'
The
clause
is
generally introduced
by
^
$
'
'
'
O <>*,
C''x,-'
or both, are omitted.
or o(^^; but occasionally j or
Ex.
w>
*iJu>F
"such
is
her singing,
now
that she
'"
x
f<
is
" grown old
f&* ^1 &fy
^\ J^
shall I
?
00-x
LI* jiî
ô-'O'"
ooiJb x? j
^'0^0
(^jU
is
^'yof oJ(<5
he [Zacharias] said,
'How
have a son as
It is
my
wife
barren, while I have reached such a great age

'^
^
*
"
s *
<j'
** *
negatived by
L*j or rarely
by
jJo-
l/Oj
as:
-*; Uj
JNJJ
^L^
"
Zayd came
his father
without having ridden" l having stood up."

&*
(/)
*
99-.^
;
+.
'
%?] fLJ
Uj
&>j
*l^
Zayd came without
j^L^ is
sometimes a simple copulative (and not a preposition), as:

Six
^ /c-
^&x.
/o
e^-j
(c),
A^xJt
oJ^d ^-^
= "I
journeyed on and at
(6), p.
last entered
al-Kufah."
Vide also
XXXII
XXXIII
778, and
XLV
(c).
LIX.
Asyndeton.
xcx~
x-
f ,
In narrative, connectives are often dispensed with:
*T&*i/l
(JL
"they attacked and rushed on the enemy";

go forth, and go to him
Imperatives.
&>Jl
v*^
and
' *
f* "rise,
"
;
in these cases
or ^ could be inserted before

c '
two
After several Imperatives without
the conjunction
j
'
is
usually inserted before the last.

xx
x ox
LX.
Verbs of Wonder, Surprise, Admiration,
etc. (v-
(a) (1) xxo" '

(i)
There are two special forms, to express wonder or admiration,

sing. masc. of Pret. Act. of
viz.,
J*l
U (the Srdpers.
9'<j
IV) followed by an accusa-
XXXOXX
ej**]
is
#XX(,X
*'
tive, as
a^
U
!
how quick
is
his
walking
!
";
c-
\*ij
c,'
(
cr*^'
^*
" what a
good
man Zayd
or
how goodly is Zayd "

i
(ii)
v J^'f
III.
tne 2n ^ pers. sing.
Fide also
XLI
(c) (5),
Remark
54
850
ASYNDETON
VERBS OF WONDER, SURPRISE, ADMIRATION, ETC.
masc. Imperat. of IV), as
*& ]*/f
" how generous
is
Zayd
"
!
The thing ad-
mired must immediately follow these forms. No. i) means literally "what has made Zayd
(
(so)
(i.e.
(ii)
"Try your
if
ability of
making good upon Zayd"
good?," and No. "make him more
good
you can)."
is
' *
Past time
f<S
expressed as follows: >^j er-^f &\&

'
lx!
"
how good Zayd
*'<,'"
t>~î I*
was! ", or
*x>3
ofc
= "what
has made good that which Zayd
was?"
(2)
The complement
as
:
of these
forms
may
"
be a clause introduced by &1

fit it is
or I*
fju"*>
^^
' '
^t -*J^ cs*?
s
* *
<^^'
how
for a
man
of intellect
to seem patient.
Verbs of surprise are formed from such verbs only as express something in which one person may surpass another. They cannot
Remark
I.
xx
be formed from verbs
which express an act in which one agent cannot excel, nor from negative verbs, nor from verbs defective in inflection
like
^b',
p*>
eU or
like
and
^k,
or defective in meaning as J&; nor from quadraliterals.
Grammatically, too, they are not formed from derivatives of the triliteral, nor from the passive voice, nor from verbs signifying colours or defects,
though
this rule is occasionally violated.
When
a verb ot surprise cannot be formed from a root, some form of

is
circumlocution
employed.
diminutive of
*JU*A|
Remark
(
//.The
occurs,
" how good, or goodly, he
is
"
!
ju*xa4
U
<
and
it is
also of **JUf
U "how
handsome he
is!
" and
of
U how
(6)
sweet
' '
!
x xc,'
If
the second radical

soft her voice
is
is
3 or <^, there
is
no permutation,
oil
I
as:
!
XX<X?CXXCX'<
U
)
:
^\ ^
I*
"how
is!" (not per mutated as

x
to^j
d^f
how bounteous
(c)
' '
Zayd
(not
#
aUf
I
U
a
).
li
Other forms are
U;
^5x
tya
All
<
what a
fine
horseman he
is
"
!
' '
1
From
The
literal translation
appears to be,
"To God may
his milk be, while
he
is
horseman."
VERBS OP PRAISE AND BLAME

9
APPROXIMATE VERBS, ETC.

s
851
"
(here
his
"
-f
\tt*
<JJ
is
in the genitive case)
^Vjl*
^'
^j
t
aJJ , ,
"
what
!
a good reader
Zayd
is
"
!
f s
:
JUI
er
1 " )* *$
how
exquisitely the poet has said
' '
(d)
A noun
repeated in the genitive

',
'
f
and separated by
,jyf
often ex
presses admiration, as
JU,
&l
" J^; what a man!," vide
ff,
p. 757(3).
LXI.
Verbs of Praise and Blame
j-^fj
^^Ji JUif
and Approxi-
mate (and
(a) **>
'
Inceptive),
-lj
and Potential Verbs.

are generally indeclinable,
<*'
"how good" and
"how bad"
35
ô
"excelthough some grammarians do decline these words: xj v-^Ûilf " lent is the companion Zayd," i.e. Zayd is an excellent companion."
ii*
x o.
This has the same meaning as

is
<xjj
Ua.Ua
^*>
excellent as
a companion
Zayd."
(6)
These require a definite agent.

is
Also indeclinable
t^
is
"bravo!
or
how good!"; which

and
fi
is
said
to be derived
from v^- "it
agreeable"
is
"that":
I*.
it
must be
followed by a nominative, which

J
in apposition to
(c)
#
*
A*
* *
how bad
' '
must agree with the agent

is
in gender
* +
and number
xx,x
\Ju>j3
*U
" what a bad companion he
"
!
1
:
L^***
*
o*U
" how bad an abode
it (Hell, fern.) is
"
!
(d)
to
"that, which, what" can be added to
all
except
r^j
as:
oJU'(Uu
or)
"good
etc.
is
" what thou didst

!
(e)
f*
51
=
has the same constructions as
(/)
^L
(fully declinable)
^.
It
may
also
have the same construction as A^, and often occurs with

x
.
this construe-
tion in the
Quran
for +**.
id
is
also a transitive verb
"
to offend."
852
(g)
APPROXIMATE AND INCEPTIVE VERBS, ETC
APPROXIMATE
all
(and
INCEPTIVE) VERBS.
e)').
These are
of
three
kinds:
(i)
take the Aorist (Indie., or Subj. with
First, those that express that
an action
is
on the point of taking place
('
he nearly or almost, or well nigh

,
"
)
,
as
er]
&
*&.
1st pers. sing. Pret.
o^; Act.
(Act.
Part.
?
M
9
) ;
rarely followed
by
d and the Subjunctive

is
(^ J*y wAy
-
Part.
cJ&j^)
*
rarely used in the Preterite,
personal or impersonal:
and
*--/
use(i
n tne
Preterite only
fc^-j
9
is
rarely followed
by
&\
with the Subfell"

(vide
junctive.
Examples:
9
,
^la))
,
,
&
u
f
"the horseman nearly

9
fc
'
also p. 784)
^j
^'^ /<,-
jjj
uif^j
and
âp-*
AJJ
^Ji (both personal), or ^3

"Zayd
is
xi)
(impersonal, the subject of
**>
being the following clause)
on
the point of coming."

(ii)
Those that express hope, expectation, or

-?
possibility, as:
(J
^^s*
0"
^
),
(1st pers. sing.
OA-P, and rarely U*A-^

its
used personally or impersonally like

or not, with which
it
JA>f
g.i;.
it
may be preceded by
or not
;
noun
may
agree in
;
number and person
it is
usually followed
9
by ^f and the Subjunctive

*
it
may
also be used with
an
ace. suffixed
" " pronoun *U* perhaps he

^jl^t
(rare)
O
etc.
it is
sometimes used with the negative

that
9s
^f
"
'
it is likely,
'
probable,
"
;
may be
9 9*
used personally or impersonally
^ ^^^(rare).
stand up
Examples
;
u~* *j
9 9,
i, '^
f
etc., etc.
;
e;'
"
*
perhaps Zayd, may,

o/c 35/
)
will,
"
stand up
,,
(or
lô^
^--c eyAJ J^'
etc.
"
perhaps the Zayds
will
"
;
15J
>^3
;
"
,jt
j^vc ^f r
perhaps ye
f
may
' ^
be averse from a thing, though

^J ^'
it
* *
9-
s s
be good for
you"
5^ cl~, or
(*â3
^ vU*
(compare (-W
p. 785).
(iii)
Those that express commencement; as

-
A^l
JU.^
*yi,
and v-* "to begin."
These are used as inceptives, in the

/ / ^x
Preterite only (followed
by an Indie. Aor.), as: **jk cl*^
" ne began to
Vide
also
99* C 55, reproach him"; ^xîi C*AA
"she began reproaching me."
APPOSITIVBS.
853
XLIV
(b)
(5),
p. 814.
Rarely these verbs take a verbal noun with the

'C*
prepositions
as ^ or <^-% '
*
_i-^f '
s
c?*
'
^ WL' " we begun
* -
to travel."
[ But
*-
Ak'
11
to call to account, to capture in the act,"
when
*
there
is
no
Jl
].
Remark.
It will
be noticed that
& and uy
excepted,
all
the Approxi-
mate (and Inceptive) Verbs are used in the Preterite only; that, <^~* excepted, all must precede the noun, and the noun must precede the
predicate; that,
if
not followed by ^f, the Indicative
is
used.
(h)
POTENTIAL VERBS.
with the Subjunctive, as
(i)
>&
c^
;**
is
followed by the Aor. Indie.,
9
<*'>
or by
iyf
^^
?' o'
'
>x*'
"
cannot walk
' '
;
cUUi
'&*
'he cannot complete this

*'
<*'
work"; d ^9\
&1
&j*3
I could
not get near
him"
(ii)
^0? "to
enable etc.", with a suffixed pronoun,

>
' '*
<*'
(
t
)
c^
"
followed
by
C
the same constructions,

^
as:
J**''
c^
J^+l
"
cannot
*;
is
do it";
is;'
e,C} "it
possible that
"; *1^ t^*^ "

'
' '
^
to
"
it is
not possible
to do this."
Remark /.Compare the phrase
:^ ^ (> " can you

C,/
t-
'
"
?
Remark
' (^
//.'
,
Can "
in the sense of
'
"
to
'
know how
do,"
is
expressed
,'
-
??(,'*<,'
by oyj
J>j*
as
v-v^J 4^t>
he can write.'
LXII.
Appositives
ej
).
(a)
Words
in Apposition are
as: put in the same case,
there
came Zayd, the generous one."

of Apposition distinguish five kinds
:
The Arabs
(1)
*&'
,
''.*'
The Descriptive or Qualificative Apposition (cÛf or *^l).
The
854
s
APPOSITIVES.
?
idea of fyt J*-;
is
<{
a man, a generous being
" rather than " a generous 2

be in Apposition to their
:
man."
Adjectives are therefore considered to
nouns rather than in concord with them.
Further examples are

99'
>>!
# S t
? '
9^ -?c,x" u^-j <&)j* *

s,
"
fij*
^ '
" and P asse d by a man, a generous being

father
is
"
oi>;^
"
J^-y *>f *
passed
by a man whose
(2)
-
a generous being
"
;
vide
XXXVIII.
(vifec,
Connective Apposition or the Connection of Sequence

*
i.e.
or
?~ f^
<3~JJt
-&*),
where words are joined by the particles (conjunctive or disjunc-
tive)^
tive),
"and,"
f
"and,"
"then,"
J^ " even to," J

"
" not either," V
"or"
(disjunc-
" or "
(after
" whether "),

Jb
U
"
"
(simple negation,
as in
<c
Zayd came, not Amr "),

Explanatory apposition
nay, rather,"
" but."
(3)
u^f
vJt*
or the asyndetic connection

it
of a substantive with a preceding
one which
defines
more
(i.e.)
particularly,
as in *JA*O
# -
*U
*
a~j
* -
he shall be given to drink water
pus."
/
x'f-'
(4)
Permutative Apposition or the Apposition of Substitution

Corroborative Apposition
wdfe
(5)
*tfji\
LXIII.
Remark.
Even two
finite verbs in the
same
f\Z
tense
may
be regarded as in
Apposition, as in:
himself before him
iJ <i^*
' '
;
(for
*
*)
isu*>
" he arose (and) prostrated

' '
er^^f (^^
cS>
'
he sang well
compare
p.
785
(7)
and
9 ^9 ?
p.
848
(d).
In
fJij JU^j,
the second verb
may
first
be an example, either of Appojverb were in the Preterite, and

e
sition or of
State*
Jl^Jf
).
But
if
the
the second in the Aorist, the second could indicate
State
'
only,
and would
p. 800.
be equivalent to a participle in the Accusative

(6)
vide
XLI
:
(c) (5),
There are four kinds of Apposition of Substitution
Concrete idea.
Abstract idea.
APPOSITIVES.
g*
855
X
9 <jrO
^t
fO
9 XX
;
'
f'
t<*'
(1)
x
J#i ty* d)f J*, as

c/^
x
-?
dfyLf
^3
*U
Zayd thy brother came
"
xe, .
V***
(2)
<*>
" * ne e le " P P great and small, came to me.
U0I e^c '
0^1 J<*, as
'
*JT
aJUJ
x
kiss
him, his hand
' ' ;
Aâ]
X
"I
eat the loaf, only half of it."

x
"*
'
'
(3) JUi^SIt
J^,
as;
^''jk^Cx/GXx*jy 1^3 cua.^
>-
may be
in
^ *
the Nominative or Accusative, as: ^Jf*
^*
"Oh! Muhammad,
in
the
Prophet";
>jW
it
x
Lj
;
^f
JLAA'f
U.
If
however the word

the
apposition governs
another word,
/ J,~ x xc, *Uf cixU. /^ A ljj|
must be
in
Accusative (vide
XLl
(c)
(9)
),
as:
x--
^
î.f
1
"x
J.
If
(jjj
*^
occurring between
it is in
two proper
be either
names
in the
loses its
hamzah, the noun to which

Accusative, as:
3
apposition
*'
may
Nominative or
' '
!
^^ v^ s
&*+ j+* ^
Oh *Umar
the
son of Khattab
(c?)
The
Infinitive as
^G x
*
an intensive adjective
may
stand in apposition to
"
<j
"
personification of justice
a noun, as
31**
&1* o^f) "I saw a queen a

ÛJt
X
'*
"
(i.e.
''justice itself "); Jx*J|
cujf;
saw the queen, her who is
justice itsetf."
'
it
One grammarian at least treats such an infinitive as an adjective and makes agree with its noun but such a construction is usually condemned. However
,
such expressions as J^b <jy "a well-schooled mare" are found, though incorrect. This infinitive should be masc. sing. only.
(e)
^x
'
/xx
Note the following examples

/.x
x
of Apposition
>>
- x x
But
j\
c$y=4
*^
"
thy brother, Zayd, came"
'
(i.e.
not thy brother So-and-so or
So-and-so
'), is
ejUJl <Jlkc
856
APPOSITIVES.
(1) Size.
Ictî aJU " " , * ,9
&je X
" " a street 100 yards long

*
(jwU afji ^
" 99 9
"a
yard
of stuff"
cMjj)
Ûj"
C
two yards of stuff."
But
ft*??
&
9&
9,
aJî cU.j
" a man
six feet high
"
;
(here J>fc could not be omitted).

x/ 5f^|
t
(2) Likeness.
JS
'
f*
*\
t>a^
" a
man
like a
woman "
* *'
'*'
;
'
'
Sj^t
t ,
cU
'
'\l
JU.^
o^fy
" I saw
a
CO
man
x
like
woman."
x /
^
is
X>
',
9s
If Ji**' is
substituted,^ c5^'
understood, as:
>k ^^Jt
JU;
vsofj
(3)
Material.
AJ<^ *JUJU
X
a chain
made
of
iron"
= ^<^ X
#
&~A-
).
But when the noun

as:
-**i e>* <*JUL
?
-
is indefinite,
as in the example,
it is
better to use
ûki
#
A'JUl^ )
x
(
"a
gold
<c
chain."
If
definite,
the
/x x O *
genitive alone can be used, as:
v^^f x
,
AJU
un
the golden chain."

> n
(4)
The substantives
1M
Kaffat
and Jami'
Jt
/cx &\t
>
1
and ^-e-, either X

o
ex'"'
govern the genitive or else stand in apposition, as: -HJ| J^, or *

**the whole
house"
" the whole o/the people" ^j^f J^

'
i- i^
x
;
>
^jJi
JT
'*
every
Vide
people";
also
ÛJf
(h).
all
the people" or
XXXVIII
Remark
/.
^^
)
'all
the world."
"
Every person
"= ^^\ &*

(
3J-.0
x w^ *^j J>,
S^
or
u*^
&
t*
Jr.
Note that before a

'
definite noun, J>
means " the whole
or all," as:
"the whole day," and

an indefinite noun,
it
oUi^jsJf J^ "all the
animals"; but that
before
means "each
or every," as:
elf
"
every
day."
(5)
So too with Ba'z un u**s " portion " in the sense of "some, a part / ^ cx x Cx
3
"
;
or
^ " " ^* J^; *U another than he came
(6)
Ghayr
un
"another than.'
'
EMPHASIS OR CORROBORATION.
"
lit.
857
(7)
Ibn un ^j,
son."
*"**
Âj
" ^t JU ; a man
thirty years of age."
(8)
Kunniyyat
**&,
subs.,
the distinguishing part of an Arab's
name
some
(" father or son of So-and-so, mother or daughter of So-and-so"), or
nickname,
(9)
is
put in apposition.
So too with Laqab un
"
title,
nickname," as
5^
jjf, lit.
" father
l
:
of a kitten
"
(a
nickname
for
one of the Companions who was fond
of cats)
LXIII.
(a)
Emphasis or Corroboration
also called
^^\
or **fjW
).
This
is
CORROBORATIVE APPOSITION.
It is either
(i)
s), i.e.
;* *
repetition of
a word or clause, or repetition by a synonym
or
(ii)
^^yi.e. repetition
by
special words, such as
"he himself", "both
of
them," "all
(b)
of
them."
first
:
The following examples illustrate the

/"G'
*,'
'- x
^ " 2ayd,
"
-Za?/cZ
came
to
me."
struck him.
Zayd struck him,
"
"
yes,
yes!"
" he came running, running
o
-
"thou hast
\
struck, thou.'
,-
-'>
or
>"I saw
thee,
Such nicknames are

of
also
given
to
animals and
lifeless
things,
as:
<(
mother
'Amir " (the hyena)

of the
J^T
Jit
" son
of a seeker of shelter
"
(i.e.
the jackal)
-daughter
in
vine"
(i.e.
wine);
4^'
" father of the knees"

"father of safety"
(a fever
which there
is
pain in the knees);
Axil^f
#
(local)
(i.e.
the
/"
till
shark).
2
Nicknames given to animals and lifeless things are styled *-*&. " he ran the whole way But in Hindustani daurta daurta pahurah-gaya =
he
arrived."
3
The pronoun may always be
so repeated separately in
its
nominative form.
858
X
EMPHASIS OR CORROBORATION.
x
cJo
or
x O'
x
"
passed by thee,
% thee."
&[ tH)
x
"
c>l
verily verily
Zayd
' '
x x
Uf
jjL*
lif
"I am
fasting, I
am
fasting."
'
*W
9
(,
/ /
O" f
v^J *L^
Six x x(X
\
" a lion came, a
lion.'
JO
&X
^?^! |^^?<>f
or
CV,.
I
"
" the
army
retreated, retreated.
"
Û
xx
^j^î
x
O**.
>?Af;
j*^ fj
"
yes, certainly."
9
'
(,
"X
the
first
(c)
In the phrase
x^
^SLJ or) Uf
Ûl Uij
" there only stood
up
(or
we),
is
none rose but
me
(or us)
"
,
personal pronouns follow a verb that
3rd pers. sing. masc.

(f?)
By
the use of special words, emphasis

(
or apposition takes place

(pi.
in the sense
^y^f
"
;
atflSJf ).
Such words are
,j*fti
^/iA*f ),
and
^s
(PL
<f
e>i*'
self
" J^, or &+*, or A^ totality, all," with an affixed pronoun

the elative g**Lf (a diptote) " altogether
-"O
agreeing with the noun

*
"
;
and the
pronoun.
all
dual noun u^r masc., and XX

l
ejlitt
x
fern,
"both", with an
affixed
Examples
pHJf, or U.-A**!! or
^lf
}
them 9t ,
o'
or ^j**^!
9>
*
''<<;
$
f ^ ^\ ^
o
î
oof;
"
saw the people
of
f
s$*
,'-
(more emphatic than the previous)
ox x/
<{
or, AXJJ* or)
*Jii^ *U
he
^'rnse//
came."
Remark.
Jf
is
used in the singular only.
Not sj^.
Not
PARADIGMS.
859
LXIV.
Paradigms.
I.
TABLE
(A.)
PARADIGM OF
STEM OF THE SOUND OR STRONG

liy,
(/J
OR
VERB
"HE KILLED."
+
Infinitive JjJ; Participle J3li.
Active Voice
Preterite or Perfect
AOBIST TENSE (OB IMPEBPECT STATE).

Jussive,!
Person.
ImperaEnerg.
1.2
Tense
Indicative.
(or
State).
Subjunc- or Apocotive. pated

Aorist.
Energ.
II. 2
tive.
9
3.
9<<*
masc Sing.
Jii
JLxoj
Jiib
3. fern.
Jj&>
2.
masc
fern.
JUiy
2.
1.
c.
(Jijif
3.
masc. Dual.
fern.
to
lUfl,
ill'
wanting
wanting
**
3.
2.
wanting
masc. Plur.
fern.
3.
3.
wanting
fjliflj
2.
masc.
2. fern.
wanting
jus;
For Derived Forms mWe Table IV.

1
Strengthened by J.
it
it
supplies the missing persons of the Imperative.
After J
" not,"
2
The
expresses prohibition or wish. energetic is used in command, prohibition, affirmation, interrogation.

*'
For
truly, surely ", is usually prefixed. greater emphasis J 8 The Jussive must be used for prohibition, as no negative particle can precede the Imperative.
860
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(concluded).
(B.)
OTHER MEASURES OF SIMPLE STRONG VERB.

Active Voice.
Pre-
AOBIST TENSE (OB IMPEBFECT STATE).

8
Person.
Tense
(or
1
<D
Imperative.
^4i
Infinitive.
Perfect
State).
Energ.
Energ.
II.
li-a
oo^
3.
C,
masc.
Sing
t> ''<..
9 o
o 9
and
3.
If
if
the second vowel of the Preterite

it is
~x
,
is
A_
it
remains A_ in the
it
Aorist; but
it
changes to _-_, except in seven verbs, in which

:
may
be either
'._
or -7-, viz.
/**i
"
it
^
c<
was pleasant ";

<{
tf***," '
few
bethought;
^j^3u
x-
"he despaired," ^HJ

X
x
*'
it
dried
";
<JU>
he excelled"
" he despaired";
C
^*
he appeared.'
'
2nd m.
c:
2nd m.
Q..
PARADIGMS.
861
TABLE
Infinitive Nil
l
;
II.
x
PARADIGM OF SOUND OR STRONG VERB u

Participle
'
.? C,
HE WAS KILLED
xO
Passive Voice
Person.
862
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF THE QUADRILITERAL
1
III.
x/
VERB
^b; J*
jk+S
" TO TIB UP
BE ASSEMBLED.'
Active Voice.
Tense.
PARADIGMS.
863
M
O
i s
II
QJ
I
Pu
I i
i i
3
'43
864
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
V.
STEM OF DOUBLED (utaULo; VERB

Infinitive
y "HE
FLED."
y; Participle
^l?.
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
865
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
VI.
(continued).
STEM DOUBLED VERB

Passive Voice.
866
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VII.
5
x
PARADIGM OF DERIVED STEMS OF
J.
Tense,
etc.
in
IV
VI
VII
VIII
'0
Preterite Active
&
Aorist
Imperative
Participle
,,
t
Infinitive
,
f xO
Preterite Passive
~
>f
'
e ft*
Aorist
Participle
,,
The remaining Stems present no

e
irregularity.
Some
verbs,
/^
as
curly";
^
X
>"
"to be intelligent";
x>>x
<4
to be
bad"; Ô* "to
be in one's dotage," and some others of the measures cUi or cU

occur in uncontracted forms.
may
also
The forms
\lj.jli5,
etc. as well as
jj
(for jj^J),
x
ft r
exceptions to the rule which
prohibits a quiescent letter from following a long vowel.
PARADIGMS.
867
TABLE
9
(,
VIII.
OX
Hamzated
j^^Jf J*aJ|) VERBS, DIFFERENT FORMS.
(A.)
Forms having Hamzah
for the First Radical.
Foice.
Person.
868
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
(BO Forms having Hamzah for
the Second Radical.
Active Voice.
Person.
PARADIGMS.
869
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
(CO Forms having Hamzah

for the Third Radical.
Active Voice.
Person.
3rd raasc.
870
PARADIGMS.
"N
*
Vide
Stems
III,
V or
VIII, or the Passive of
I,
are substituted.
Stem VII, Remarks.
I O
g 3
CL
s * 3
H
CO
H
;<&
?'V
'C
i 4
PARADIGMS.
871
Vo
i '1
i "I
>
l'\
^
\'1
' '1
X
*"
'\
4'
">2
Oj
H
J"^>
a
'
872
PARADIGMS.
--*
*} v
'3V >j
-i
\i
,-i
& :|
3-
^.
IS
11 **
i
?s
,u
i.-a
3-'
."
I
9
f
&
s
03
'
PARADIGMS.
S73
TABLE
X.
/
G
PARADIGM OF ASSIMILATED VERBS (Jto

First Radical
*
J*5, or *w|
and
<c.
874
PAJRADIGMS.
Some with
f
.,
fathah
(1-), have the same

o*>.
peculiarity, as:
*>
is
"to place";
dropped and
Aor.
5
*AJ
Impera.
In the Infinitive of most, the j

9
(
suffixed.
few verbs with zammah

,
and fathah
'9,
-
(-)
in the Aorist, preserve
,<,,
-
the j, as: JA.J
JL^j
" to be afraid." l Jjj

-
>>'<,'
Jjj-! to
be insalubrious.
z,
:
Doubled verbs retain the

-
j,
as
is
^
'*
&~ "
to love."
in the Active,
In the Aorist Passive, the^

*,
-
retained even though lost

to be found."
as
<x&^
ASU
to find
"
;
f
-
9*^
Aa^j
<^j
The changes
in assimilated verbs are,

letter, the
:
that
when a kasrah
letter is
"
( )
or a
zammah
'
( )
precedes a weak
as
weak
changed into the
homogeneous weak consonant,

In Stem VIII, the
'
*
cUul
for ckjj),
s
Imperative of
cU>
*
ss
**
is
assimilated to
its
following o, as:
9
3>,
:
cLj
to
X*
,
-
? '^'
unite," VIII
Jî "to
be continuous," Aor.
JAU
Â;
(j^ "todes-
pair of," VIII
^t
'**
^
" to despair."
x-
XX
The same
rules apply for the formation of
nouns; thus from
A)J
comes
Û* " time
of birth
"
(for
" to
fear
"
:
<*
**
k
to slumber, also to
awake/
PARADIGMS
875
TABLE
(A.)
?
l
XI.
' <*'
PARADIGMS OF HOLLOW VERBS (o^f

I
SECOND RADICAL *>

;
Stem
of
JJ
(for
Jp) "he said";
Inf.
Act. Participle J5 15.
Active, Voice.
Person.
876
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(continued).
(B.)
PARADIGM OF HOLLOW VERB; SECOND RADICAL

I
Stem
of
;U
(forÂ*)
"to march, travel"

Act. Participle
Inf. j*~
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
S77
TABLE XI
(continued).
PARADIGMS OF HOLLOW VERB.

I
Stem.
Second Radical j and ^, Passive Voice.

Passive Voice.
PARTICIPLE.
878
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(D.)
(concluded).
FURTHER PARADIGM OF HOLLOW VERBS, SECOND RADICAL

U
(for
AND ^.
<p)
" to say,"
Jli
"
;
(for
<jp-
" to fear
"
;
yl
(for
JH
" to
travel
Ji
to lead."
PARADIGMS.
(ii)
879
in
Hollow verbs denoting colour or defect always retain their ^ or ^ ^x C u>^0 ^ ^*G** " Stem IX, as *y\ " to be or become black Aor. dj~* oaxi to be or
' '
:
'
>
UJ ^,<-
become white", Aor.

(iii)
UÂ**.
The
0"0'
is
often
retained in
" to Stem, as: v^^î approve,"
**
C ^ O
>
Aor.
vj^flL-o.
x
(iv)
^
Hollow verbs that have j or
^ as a third radical always retain their

or
j,
as: c5^(v)
it
"
'
*"
to be
worth", Aor. cy2-
Hollow verbs that have

,
:
as the third radical, assimilate
with a following ci or & as 'o> 3>f ,' J6 " he was," but Itf (for IxiT
(vi)
oU " he died
4<
" but
,
/
<^**
ô
>
'
(for
ol*)
died"
we were."
''r In the measure J*3|, verbs with the 2nd radical weak, use the strong
9
'
>*
-'
form, as: d^l

(vii)
"black"
(not
'
(M).
t
9'
, ,
;
,9*
(for
J^fc)
;
>
On
the measure J**
is JLfc
Aor.
J^
9,
Impera. masc.
Jt,
fern.
J>.
880
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(A.)
XII.
s *
PARADIGM OF DEFECTIVE VERB (uoJU
cU')
DIFFERENT FORMS.
!>*
= j>) "to
raid
' ' ;
Inf. 3^*.
Last Radical
Fence.
AORIST.
Person.
Number.
Preterite.
Imperative.
Indicative.
Subjunctive.
Jussive.
/o>
3.
masc.
Sing.
!>*
3.
fern.
2.
masc.
/ox
3.
masc.
..
Dual
x /
3. fern.
/O'
2. c.
/OX
3.
/Cx
masc.
Plur
/fcx
3.
fern.
/o'
/OX
2.
masc.
x
/Ox
'
/Ox
2.
fern.
/CX
1.
c.
Or
PARADIGMS.
881
TABLE XII
(continued).
(B.)
PARADIGM OF DEFECTIVE VERB.

^ * f
Last Radical
)
J*j
;
).
,
" to throw "
o'
;
Inf.
<**;
Act. Part, fh m.
#
f.
Active Voice.
882
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XII
(continued)
(C.)

s
s
).
Last Radical j or
J*J
to be pleased
"
;
Inf. ^-*>
and
f.
&\j~>
and
Act.
Part.
*' '
(^tjm.,
*
A^ct;
'
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
883
TABLE
XII
(D.)
(continued).

LAST RADICAL j OR ^5-. f ~'' f ' ..^> Inf. *LoJ and ^^; Pass. Part
Passive Voice.
to decide
"
;
m.,
f.
884
PARADIGMS.
TJ
5-1
.2 no
si
iil
^,
O . ^T
\:5
>
J-^
-> rof
'V
:v^|
nn
*.
'
^
Krt
"\3
v<
;i
CO
^H.5l
PH
T
a x
-x
"
"B
Jrt
1 ^
OH
J U
t>
PARADIGMS.
885
o
.2
*
,
,8
11
eo
"2
"
X X
3
<\
rV
J-s
.
eg
!'
>
<M
^
OL,
CO
'ts
I
1
886
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
PARADIGM OF DOUBLY WEAK VERB.

.
(A.)
(ONE RADICAL ffamzah AND ANOTHER A

I.
WEAK
LETTHR.;
1st
'
Radical hamzah and 2nd j or ^.

,
J\
or
vf
"to return "
Inf.
^ and V
stt
LI
PARADIGMS.
887
TABLE
II.
XIII
(A.)
(continued).
1st
Radical hamzah, 3rd radical j or

*
'
^l "to come"
Inf.
888
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
III.
'
XIII
(&)
(continued).
2nd Radical hamzah and 1st j or

s
" to despair
$<,*'
' '
;
Inf.
^b
and
***(
PARADIGMS.
889
TABLE
XIII
(A)
(continued).
890
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
V.
'
XIII (A)
(continued),
3rd Radical hamzah and 1st ^ or

'
^.
>''
*<"
;
V>
"to tread";
Aor.
Ik,
Inf.
Uy.
VI. 3rd Radical hamzah and 2nd j or ^.
*'',.'
*U
or *L (for
' '*
* '
fj
to be bad
' '
;
f **' Inf. *> .
PARADIGMS.
891
TABLE
* or
* 11
(
XIII (A)
< )
(concluded).
>*
for *Ua.
to
come
' ' ;
Inf.
892
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
(B.)
(Two RADICALS WEAK LETTERS).

I.
~S
1st
.
and 3rd Radicals Weak.

$' +
' ' ;
" to guard
<j'
Inf.
&Mj and
PARADIGMS.
893
TABLE
II.
XIII
(B)
(continued).
2nd and 3rd Radicals Weak.
These retain the 2nd radical,
" to
narrate "; Inf. A
894
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII (B)
(concluded).
or
to live
'
'
;
Inf.
PARADIGMS.
895
TABLE
PARADIGM OF TREBLY
XIV.
WEAK VERB OR VERB WITH THREE WEAK

RADICALS.
A. 1st Radical hamzah.
&i\
"to take refuge"
Inf. <cJ.
896
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XIV
(continued),
B. 2nd Radical hamzah.

S 4
" to promise."
PARADIGMS.
897
TABLE XV.
- o"
The negative substantive verb

Imperative.
It is inflected like verbs
<jNjJ
"he
is
not" has no
Aorist or
(>s .
with the 2nd Radical 3 and
lc.
898
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XVI.
FORMATION OF VERBAL NOUNS FROM
WEAK
VERBS.
Noun
and
of
Time
ciple.
Agent or
Active
Participle.
Place.
"
*#**
>X^
JlflXJ
/ O'
J5li
Jy
/x
APPENDIX
(Continuation of
B.
125.)
:

(1)
of the use of the tenses will repay study
Vaqt-l
the idea
dar sahrd mi-raft did ki hama-yi darakhthd uftada and here the plural verb gives of number, but uftada ast *! ,>&( would also be correct.
ki
Instead of the Preterite

ml-blnad
{
*&
did,
the Historical Present
AXJO
^ ^
chi
might be used by Indians and Afghans, but not by Persians. The Perfect <xi| aa&i uftdda-and shows Indefinite Past time. The Preterite would signify that the
(2)
trees fell while he
was looking on.

uftdd
Vaqt-l ki bachcha
+A.
budam hama-yi danddnhdyam

is
{^
Aaw aCuij
is
^\
The
j*jlfi|xi,3
Here the Preterite
used because the time
defined.
plural o^to'l
(3)
uftadand would not be good.
Khwdhish-i
ma
raftan
bi-Bushahr
bud
llkin
bl
ta'mlr
kardan-i
jahdz raftan naml-shud jL^ &*j$ ^*5 ^j j^> & ^^ (# ^JUI^L 5 *~ to wished to we Bushire but it was impossible to do e^ ; go Dar shab chunln awazha-yi muhlb-l shunldlm so without repairing the ship." x C5^ A Jtjf ki raftan bi-sdhil mumkin no-bud * <^**) * Vs* t5-?it
^J ^
* '
&j*> 1-J&+*
Ja.U " we heard such

Infinitives
terrible
pt^&** noises on the land
(D&$-
J^
that
it
was
impossible for us to go to the shore."
The two
Pers.
(&&) raftan) are nouns

no-bud.
^
rafta
naml-shud in Mod.
&j*> (zjZ*'
mumkin
Vulgarly in Persia <xlxJ
&)
this
J**\~*
bi-sdhil
;
naml shud
is
used.
of
The Afghans frequently use

the Urdu.*
(4)
construction
probably in
imitation
" You ought
to
hove acted on
my
advice
"
JÂ*
6 \j*>
0*4*^ o
IA*J
jb
y ml-bdyist naslhat-i mard qabul karda bdshld.'

(5)
Shighdl harchi paydd ml-kunad duzdlda va ml-ravad &*<>

AJJ>;A
AÂ
Jl*^
'j
"the
jackal
steals
whatever
it
finds."
Here the Aorist
bi-kunad would signify that there was a doubt about the jackal *v** ml-kunad shows that finding is its occupation. finding anything The copula j is wrong or at least a redundancy. Grammarians consider
;
the final
of the past participle a copula conjunction.
Ml-ravad could be used for did, but might be mistaken for the Future. L (Urdu) "it is impossible to Taqdir se lara nahin jata 13U, \ji
^^
J&
fight
against Fate."
8
Or
classically <X;^youi
J^
OM*^
bayist
qabul mi-kardid.
900
l
CONTINUATION OF
(6)
125.
Agar jandb-i dU urd yak nazar bi-farmdyid ummid ast ki bi-zudl ^^ l*A LS&JJI ** Here ***' ^*j'*t j& +. fjjt ÛAj^ j>\. shifd ydbad V^ the Subjunctive shows the doubt after '1 hope.' The Future o'tj **\j. khwahad ydft could be substituted to show certainty but in this case it would be better to substitute ^*i <^& yaqln ast for cu^j JXA/OJ urnmid ast.
(
(7)
&j*
Ndm-i an mulk
ki
jahaz bi-dn ravanda

Jllx
bud
fuldn
of
bud
the
e/f
^
an
&&
for
(Afghan) ty ^; c)U jl^ which the ship was about to sail was So-and-so."
is,
af
"the name
country
Here the noun

It is possibly
of agency
imitation of
bi-ravad iyj
shurf-i
modern Persian at any rate, incorrect. Substitute & jahaz the Urdu construction.
in
<^*>
l
bi-ddnjd mi-bdyis. or
*^,
^^^
?^l^ j t^
l
*^> or r<*>ft<*>m
bud
^ ^^
jt
ki
jahaz da-
hurakat bi-danja bud
ty*
lJtJj
o^*.
J^
3^
or
mushrif
bi-raftan bi-danja
(8)
bud
^ lJ|v ^ji
"he
is
vJî^c.
An-qadr bi-tali' ast ki agar bardy-i ab khurdan biravad jub mikhushkad, or A*C&^ AAf^L khwahad khushkid vf cfl'^ *^ ^-*" ^^*^ ;*SST
1
*&A
it
CÂ.
e>^>^
so unfortunate that were he to go to drink

If
water, the stream would dry up."
^ bud were
and H&ka.
substituted for o~*t asZ,
would be followed by ^^J^

(9)
mi-raft
^v* nii-khushkid.
t$
"I
did not think that he would

)
come to-day " y

ki
^x>f >Afyk or
>J^
jjôt
Mc^
bi-Tchayal-am na-rasid
of
^--y ^^^S î A u imruz bi-ydyad

is
From neither (or khwahad dmad). whether he came or did not come.
(10) In,
the subordinate tenses
it
clear
Shabhd ndlida-am
id
mardin farzandbakhshida ast \^ U

nights
till
^1
^JU
l^x-i
jJjy the Preterite would also be right. The Perfect f! indefinite time, and cu-o! <uAj bakhshida ast because the son
o^t
^xi..j
^t "I wept many
(God) gave
me this son," ndUda am signifies, ^)U

is still
present.
Ndtidam
it
the year or place had been stated, and could be followed either by the Preterite JJ^SLJ bakhshid or by the
if
^^
could be used
The Pluperfect pty **& ndUda budam, followed by the Pluwould mean that he had a long time ago wept and then received the perfect, The Pluperfect followed by the Preterite would signify that a blessing.
Perfect.
long time elapsed between his weeping and receiving the blessing.
(11)
Chi khub ast ki tdrasidan-i
man
bi-zdyad) (**\j>
m.c.
or) *^|3 ^3 3(/4^ both the Pres. and Past Subjunctive are used here
*b
bi-Shirdz zan-am zd*ida* bdshad (or ** In t^ oH**> ^ ** %s^\

5
^^
with the same
signification.
Instead of ^-~t
chi
^^
&*-
chl-khub ast, the Future
^
used.
khub khwdhod bud, or <^
JA^
khwdhad shud, could be

for
Agar J\ "if" could be substituted

1
" that." ki
Better t
^^Xo ^G nam-i mulk-l
ki
the two an sound bad.
In speaking an izafat would often be inserted after mushrif.
CONTINUATION OP
(12)
125.
001
ty ble kardand
^^
<3J|
"Whatever people thought, they thought wrong" mardum har khaydl-l kardand ghalat bud the
:
^^
j*>
Preterite
signifies
'on that particular occasion.'
But
in
]
itjf
o*|
M*
^(^ Â
mardum
har khaydl-i karda-and ghalat
ast,
the Perfect signifies
whatever they have thought in the past or are thinking now. Substitute the Past Subjunctive AiAU *^y karda bdshand and the meaning is " whatever they may have thought (but they may or may not have thought anything)
Similarly a/ ever he did then, he did

ast
."
^^ ^/jt **j* harchi u

wrong."
8i/
ji
kard bi-khud kard " what-
OM!
i&jf
****
A^l?
Harchi u karda bdshad bi-khud karda " whatever he &*j& may have (or have
not) done at any time,

f '
was and
to say I
is
wrong."
fool
(13)
-- that
is
am
3
the story*) ? p&fy* ahmaq-am ki bdvar mi-kardam

told
me
"
enough to have believed

)*&\ e/
c$^M
it (if
you had
dn-qadr
*$
?
(&+**}
ya'ni
man
condition,
or
or rather a condition
&f
p*)js*
future.'
khwdham The lady speaks

*$
a past that cannot be fulfilled; bi-kunam fi& kard would signify that I should believe it in the
signifies
'
Here ftj&* mi-kardam
of her being foolish in the present
time
.
she might
have said
an qadr ahmaq budam ki f&# (J+^f )<&tf In the above instances, the meaning of mi-kardam or practically the same.
(14)
bi-kunam
is
Kujd budi?
^ W.
l*
you)?" Kujabuda-i? " he has U hold murda 8^ j\
^
is
UJ
"where were you (when "where have you been all

just expired (I
called
for
this
time?"
just been brought to
me)"
was present or the news has but u hold murda ast o~t "he is J/la. y
a^
no longer
(15)
living,
he
already dead."
Ai 'ildj karda-i balki mu'jaza karda-l %?**> &k ^&c Sof If the time were a cure you've done but a miracle." "its not by fixed or mentioned (as yesterday, last month, last year) the Preterite would be used.
Na dnki
\^
(16)
"I would
go through
*
" and water to serve you u>* ^(^ Ij man khudrd bardy-i shumd dar db u dtash mi-anddzam
fire
would past i*^!^! ^j*> or were future used and the context showed an adverb denoting present that the clause was the apodosis of a condition), but vaU agar fardd
(not
refer to
mi-anddkhtam
which
time unless
bi-man
ml-guftid khud rd j vf
dar db u dtash mi-anddkhtam

|j
^
=
JavAtM)
means " were you
l>y J*'
to
tell
c5^
me
Not ty
bud.
Ast o~*(
'
is
wrong
still'
o*W 8^J
buda ast=' has been wrong
but
may
2
be right now.'
;
Said by an enraged wife to her husband

to dupe her. Agar mi-gu/tid
she has overheard a story being
made up
by him
3
*y*j|
understood.
902
CONTINUATION OF
fire
125.
to-morrow, I would go through

the second
clause
to serve
you
"
;
transfer
t^
farda to
and
**&*;'*
mi-guftid will give either a past or
a future
frjj& jSj t
In agar diruz mi-guftid mi-anddkhtam sense. the whole supposition becomes past.
(17)
ÎM
^
l5
&#&#t
"I
forgot
it
up
till
"
to-day
fl
**jZ (J>y*\f
?\ $
j.*>
td
imruz fardmush
karda
am
(not f*jf kardam), but fty **/ db**j>
td-diruz
fardmush
karda budam (not f*jS kardam).

(18)
i*j
a.
Khwdb-i dida am.

ib
Guft khayr bad; chi dida-i

'
j
(Gul.)
f!
AJJ>
<^|>^
propitious
"I have had a dream. He ^:L oj Here the one what did you see ?
;
said 'I
hope
is
it
was a
&*.
Perfect
used as the
time
chi
is
indefinite.
mubdrak
Later on the addressee says <_$*$,> *$ va**f khwdb ast ki didi. Here the Preterite signifies
v^
^j *
1
that
the
narrator in telling his

(19)
dream
also
mentioned the date.
brother
Ghanim "
" Would that that young
man
yesterday had proved to be your
<Wf.;^ ^>U
U^j^j
javan-i diruzi barddar-i

:
shumd Ghdnim
** (J& kdsh-ki an ^jgjia &)}* c>f dar dmada bud (or *-*f ^*> dar ml-
dmad) here the Pluperfect without dlruzl shows that the time is past the Imperfect alone (as also the Past Habitual) migh't refer to past or future time, " d/iruzl clearly indicates past time. but the adjective Would that this were brother man Ghanim" your (now present) ;,M/ ert^ ^t <J& young
;
cJ^
^j ^JU IM
kdsh in javdn barddar-i shumd Ghdnim bud
(or
^^j
budl or
mi-bud); here the three tenses are indefinite as to time, but the demonstrative pronoun ^1 In gives the clue; x&t bdshad might be sub-
^xo
stituted
(20)
pt
and would indicate the present or immediate
future.
oJyl/c
" Since the time I was born I have never told a lie"
j)t>
*guj
jl
Aiftî
W*>
(*^*
az vaqt-i mutavallid shudam id hdl darugh na-gufta

effects of the action continue.
am.
Here the Perfect tense ft &.&&, because the

(21) Qd'ida-yi
îtîu
man an
ast
>f
ki
AxU
j^;
jj,^k
I
means "it
har ruz ruz-ndma bi-Miwdnam <&* l^cU is my usual habit to read the Substitute
'
paper daily" (but
may have
omitted to do so occasionally).
is,
rm-khwdnam for ^L*=*v bi-khwdnam and the meaning îf^sBax custom to read and I do read regularly.'
(22)
It
is
my
"You
ought to have sympathized with
*u^l
j$<>y
tâ+A
me
in
my
distress"
lj
ovAxâx cxiiyf
^ o^jt ^5^
U-i
shumd
mi'bdyist (ki) dar
an
vaqt-i
musibat bd
man
ham-dardi karda bdshidj1
Instead of
mi-bdyist, o*-jb bdyist can be substituted, followed by the Imperfect *> In mi-kardid, but this construction is used in writing only.
Buda bud
Bi-kunid
jj^j
is
not used, but would be grammatically correct.

incorrect.
Jjij
might be used but could be
CONTINUATION OF
125.
903
dar haqq-i
Also, as
man
<tf
bi-suzad,
ki
U dar an vaqt-i musibat dil-i tan bud gives to *>?-> bi-suzad the idea of past time. in this second sentence is the of the equivalent Jh
j>y
agar,
its
clause introduced
in reality the protasis of condition can therefore correctly be put in the Imperfect, i.e.
by
it
is
and
verb
instead of *jj~> bi-suzad.
Mi-sukht
be open to the misconstruction

(instead of
oA^ <^*^t
in
."
ing with
(23)
me
o^*, o^-,
"
^ however would
a&j|
o,^
mi-sukht
in this instance
o^su
bi-jihat-i
mki
mi-sukht
agar mi-sukht)
it
was well that you were sympathiz-
Kash mi-amad **1 kash fardd mi-amad (or Ûj

' '
:
^^
would he had come "

' '
^ \^ ^
o.xf ^/o to-morrow " would that he had come yesterday."
^^
would that he would come bi-yayad) ^(^ hash d\ruz mi-amad (or 6> 8<vof amada bud)
!
(24) (7î ^bar

(
kunim
ki ghaflat na-karda
bdshtm
8^
^xb = ya'ni ba'd az kardan-i an kar g&aflat na-karda bashim &$jS )\ Here if îC bi-kumm were substituted after oJ& ^xl î culftp ;f^ ^f
).
ghaflat, there
would be no
real alteration in the
meaning.
(25) Kag&az ra navishta kardt ^s^ ***?> tj <^^ (Afghan) " written the letter (yourself), or have you had it written for you aiiy navishta khwaham kard (Afghan). &f
ftiji*
"have you
?
Similarly
"
(26)
(
How
or
)
did you imagine that I would agree to this

f;
"
;ÂJ
^ ^*L^
p& J^w
îuo ^1 ^/o
X)^
chiguna tasavvur kardld ki

)
w/ ao. man
in sukhan ra qabul bi-kunam (or
a/
p*\j^ Ichwaham kard
<*> <ijlao (27) Hargiz na-shunida-am ki kas-i talib-i Shaytan shavad JÂ Û2* *,JlJ5 ^-^ "I have never heard of any one loving Satan." Here shavad gives the idea of indefinite time, past or present, but o*U x& <5r " I have never heard that sfa#Za bashad would mean any one ever has been
(*t
in love with Satan

(28)
"
(past time only).
ow.t **
" There was an earthquake a few days ago" 4>!3 chand ruz ast ki zalzala shuda ast (not * 5^%^ a ) or
;
*> chand ruz
pish
zalzala
shud
or o**t '^
ua.
Â
H zalzala shud chand ruz ast.

(29)
8I
>5
"I
&at?e
cJ/* pa barahna
*^ ^
rah
WM*
you going about barefooted for a long time" man m>i-Vinam ki tihayti vaqt ast ^^ c^*^ ** {*. ^s* mi-raw (m.c.): here *# rm-binam shows that the
see^
t
The Imperfect with
(J
leash
may
;
refer to future or past time,
but the Aorist

to the past
with
only.
2
kash refers to future only (jfiS
and the Pluperfect with (jl^ kash
Shud
<x
is
m.c., but incorrect.
904
CONTINUATION OF
125.
person addressed is still barefooted. Substitute meaning may be that the person now has shoes.
(30)
ft
x>^
dida
am and
the
" in what In rd chiguna khwdham kusht oJtf p*\j. &>^Ca. t; " but substitute f&& bi-kusham and the meaning manner shall I kill this ? is primarily 'I cant kill it'; and secondarily 'I intend to kill it, but in
,
what manner
(31)
shall I
do so
'
Wa'da mi-kunam ki biydyam fjl# tS îx* j$^ " I promise to "I come," but wa'da mi-kunam ki khwdham dmad **1 f*LA *> f&t* ***) promise that I will (and shall) come."
(32)
must
(I
*A\J> $ jt feel certain) be his footstep", but v*b *>olj y jt U

this
In sadd-yi pd az u khwdhad bud
<^g\**>
&.\
"
this
^fx ^f
in sadd-yi
" pd azu bdyad bdshad

(33)
ought to be (but
may
not be) his footstep."
In jd
kas-i hast ki
Turki bi-ddnad ^lx
is
Here the Aorist there anyone here who knows Turki (to Turki) In m.c. however the Present is often correct as it indicates uncertainty.
?
know
^y "AT OÂ
^^-.^ lapjut
"is
incorrectly substituted,
is
some one here who

(34)
but in this case the meaning might also be " There knows Turki."
1
U f>ljAft*f ''I 'hope you shumd khwdhid dmad UX j*)tj *x) ummidvdr-am may be able to come Umidvdr budam shumd I hope and know that you will come." ôf jsjîyL * " ummldvdr budam I come l*^ hoped you might bi-ydyid >jj5Uj j*^j fo***)
Ummid-vdr-am
shumd
bi-ydyid d*5U?
' '
'
shumd khwdhid dmad come." To express

ummid-vdr budam.
(35)
jjof
<3>*>f
Â(^ U
{1
^jy
<^^\" I felt certain

is
you would
certainty
^*b ^.
yaqin ddshtam
to be preferred to
*iftXi
Had
illdh but they didn't" cu~ol> illdh gufta bdshand, na-gufta-and. b'ism ^-*j mi-bdyist the speaker been present at the occasion, he would have said
"They
should have said B' ism
ji^L
aifif
*U
na-guftand.
(36)
Dar
qad/im injd
darydcha-i buda ast
^>
&*-^t>
l^Jut
"there has been (was) a lake here formerly": bud ty would signify that the writer has, or had, lived near the lake or else that he knew by tradition
that there had been a lake there.
(37)
Mazanna
*$\jc
ki asbdb-i tuy-i 'arrdda ghdrat

' '
shuda
ast
<->IH
&
Axkc
' '
;
the goods in the wagon have probably been stolen here the Perfect, even after the word probably/ signifies it is the conviction
'
o*f x^ o;U
^y
2
3
In Urdu the Dubious Present Tense janta ho should be used and not the Pres. Indie. In neither case is it known whether the person came or not.
Should be
in m.c.
<xb
*o*
shuda bashad;
o~!
*-
shuda
ast is really
wrong though
common
CONTINUATION OF
of the speaker that
125.
905
Shuda bdshad
(38)
<xlj
>,
they have been stolen, that he has no doubt of the matter. would mean they may have been stolen.'
'
'ariza-i
bi-man ddda
ast ki
pas pariruz dar
'arz-i rdh-i Tiflis
j^jj ^J &f o^f 1*1* L^J^ y vi~l *Wf u* Here a*w MA ddda ast signifies cjljyU ^jîiu !; ^^. indefinite time c**) */of mi-dmada ast shows that the speaker was not present. Mi-dmad <vf might be substituted, but would not indicate whether the speaker was present or not.
bd jdnvardn-i khud mi-dmada ast
^
:
lj
^ ^
(39)
(*(
Gush dddam, didam hamdn tawr

*>
Ijfd^"
J^
^~*\ jjJe
oU*
ast ki khaydl karda am u*^ (*jj* " I listened and found out it was even as I had
û
Here the Perfect ft i/ JU^. khaydl karda am signifies 'as had thought previously and still think the Pluperfect would signify I had thought' (but probably do not do so now). Kardam c^ would mean as I had thought on one occasion. Mi-kardam j*^^ as I had thought
thought."
I
'
' :
for
some time, or frequently.

(40)
Ay ndddn
in rd bdd-i tund nami-guyand
va nahr-hd-yi khurd safar-karda mi-bdshi **jfcoik*^
ÎAA*
is
this if(& j^ j jk~ Simpleton ^s^.f*- (Afghan) not called a gale. Your voyages have been confined to streams and
isjf
!
^^
magar
*ti
bi-jubhd-yi kuchak
^
"
\>
^\
î^G
^\
canals,
have they not? "

:
mislead the student
Safar karda mi-bdshi ^5^^-^ t^ j&<* is apt to is a compound safar-karda adjective like j>y j&
is
aiL otax
(41)
najdt-ydfta
and ^y*^* mi-bdshi
simply the Present Tense.
2 dushndm ddda ast e~t ^^ Îx^^ && " So-and-soabused me yesterday." Here the Perfect shows that the speaker was abused behind his back and that the abuse was reported to him. Had he been present and heard the abuse, he would have said ^f^j*liA^ dushndm
Fuldn
diruz
^^
dad.
"he didn't Ndmi-ddnist ki kujd mi-ravad tjjt* ^^ ** o~~if,> " nami-ddnist *^ ki l*^ o know where he was going if^4J kujd mi-raft ^j**> (not so good and more uncommon) has the same signification. Didam ki
(42)
:
mutaghayyir mi-shavad va nasihat-i mard bi-kardhat mi-shinavad î^x) o^ktyj \JM cu^vaJ j tû^x) "I saw that he was getting angry and " here the Present was taking my advice in ill part dj^* mi-shavad might
:
indicate Future time,
'
thought he
would get angry
'
;
but
^x>
mi-shud
would be open to no such interpretation.

(43)
Payg&ambar
gufta ast
^^\
&&
j*"ty
" tne Prophet once said"

present).
(the speaker not being present).
"the Prophet used often
to say
"
Payghambar mi-gufta ast *s* (the speaker might have been
"Has
been coming."
Or fulam.
906
CONTINUATION OF
(44) Ihtimdl mi-ravad ki
125.
u khwahad amad
**ti
â>f^
j\
probably come." Though the Future is often used in such cases after ki, both in speaking and writing, it is incorrect. The Pres. Subj. should be used after &jj* jUia.| ihtimdl mi-ravad, as there is a doubt.
will
'he
However
(45)
**1 *AI_^.
.1
&f
^ ^QJ
yaqin ddram ki u khwahad
amad
<x
is
correct.
Vaqt-l ki ranj ziydda shud (or ast, or bashad} sawdb bishtar

a^lij
khwahad
bud
(or mt-bashad, or ast, or mi-shavad ; but not bashad) ; U **! ^ Ûx* 1J ) ^J AAfyk (d9&fe y^j vty vag$-t (&i ki chiracf.h-1 shumd rm-sukht (or mi-suza
;
5^J^'j
mi-amadam dldam
(46)
Agar nami-tarsidam
.i^,.
ki dir
lacof
This
may
shavad anja mi,~raftam signify either, "Had I not been afraid that
I
it
was too would get

fix
late I
late
would have gone there," or " were I would go there." The adverbs
if
now not
afraid that
it
jj^ja
would
for
the time as past or future; also
miravam were pj**
diruz or t^* farda substituted
the f'jAx> mi-raftam,

(47)
Future would be clearly indicated.
Vaqt-l ki
man
bachcha buda
am
az yak-sdlagi harf mi-zada

^'
ft uâ. t^l*- ^JJf (*t^ *^j ,^x3. Here continuance of the action up to the present.
*^
^>^
o^
mi-zada
am &^j am shows
ast shighdl-i did
ot
ki ruz-i padishdh-i bi-shikdr mi-rafla *$ ouft^x) *ijj* J the what to jbJ Xj,i o^*| >j{* j^; jjjyf ^Jt*^ *&j** j^&J "according used to say ') that Darvish was saying (either on a particular day or
(48)
Az
qardr-l ki darvish mi-guft
an ruz
ruz-i 'Id
buda
ast
^l^b ()
^^
as a certain king was going out hunting, he
saw a
jackal, that
day must
been 'Id." Mi-rafta ast o*t *i^y shows that the Darvish might have been present on the occasion the Imperfect oJ^/o mi-raft could be Instead substituted but would indicate that the darvish was not present.
have
of
o-t ^> buda-ast, buda 'bashad?'

(49)
it
would be equally right to say
-xitj
to>>
bdyad
*' it is not cu-^ *-+*^ *Ajab mst ki ( or agar) bi-ravad &jtf (jt\ or ) " *$ o # khwahad if he but nisi ki 'a raft, jab (not agar) strange go *' it is not strange that he will (or should) go (as he will oJ; AAf^L (^\ not)
;
^^
go).
(50)
(
/*Ujjx>
Muddat-i banda muntazir-i muldqdt-i sharif buda am (or mt-basham) i oU'^l>^Jaii> JJ^ yi^ but muddat-i'st banda muntazir-i or f( toy -ft: r
<
muldqdt-i sharif mi-bdsham (not buda am]
p2>(**>
In Afghan Persian, the perfect participle is prefixed to buda ast to give the sense of " " he must have must, as: rafta buda ast gone" karda buda ast he must have done." But buda buda ast cannot be said, though by analogy it would be the correct form.
1
;
Or ml-bayist bashad.
CONTINUATION OF
(
125.
907
ft
ity not
be written,
(51)
it
" I have long been expecting to meet must be followed by buda am.
you"
if
muddat-l bud
Ba'd az dnki dnjd raftam bi-shumd

j
ittild'mi-diham
Uof
*&f
\\
**j
here
^
(52)
" after I have gone there I will inform you of my going" bi-ravam could be substituted for ^>) raftam also vulgarly fL> *i;
;
:
rafla bdsham.
Kagkaz-l ki dar fuldn tdrikh bi-man navishta budid imruz rasid " the letter ***)) 9j*l *t& Ai *y (j^ &fi o^*;> *^}^*^ you wrofe me on such and such date arrived to-day." Here the Pluperfect is used to indicate a
J
time previous to the Preterite, and the Preterite

just completed.
(53)
is
used to indicate an action
Gumdn mi-kunam
(&>
ki chiz-l az
jt
(^b
or
j*;|c3J
p~3
cs>i^ ^ {&%* ^^
fjf*> is
an qism na-ddram (or na-ddshta bdsham) " I dont think I have anyhere Present Tense, Indicative.
thing of that sort."
Na-ddram
THE END.
itf
INDEX.
A,
interj.=ha, q.v. a or e, vulg. for ast, p. 218 (c), Rem. .465, poet, for 6a, p. 322, footnote 2. Abar, poet, for bar, p. 322, footnote 4. Abbreviations and contractions, p. 38 arts _of, vide Number of Words.
; ;
without izafat, precede nouns to form (g) compounds, p. 151 (h) a series may be connected by izafat, or by conj. av, p.
; ; ;
Abdari, mule with saddle-bags, etc., p. 409 and footnote 2. Abjad, p. 32. Ablative case, p. 464. Able, to be, expressed by Passive, p. 253 (e) ddnistan, p. 254 (g) yaraatan, p. 254 (g) tavanistan, p. 248; shudan, p. 253 (d) paraphrases, p. 254 (i). Abna* with izafat, p. ^Q (/). Accent or stress, p. 45 on verbs, p. 237
; ;
follow in apposition, p. 152 if (i) (3); with affixed pron., p. 152 (/) predicate is a noun qualified by a simple adj., latter may precede or follow its noun, p. 152 (I) adjecs. used as subs, may be pi., p. 152 (m); pi. adjecs., Pers. and Ar., occasionally used to qualify a dual to qualify pi. subs., pp. 153-4 (rc) dual, 154 (10); Ar. fern sing., lifeless noun, how qualified, if ending in o, Ar.
(i)
;
151
may
fern, rational
noun with
of unity
how
qualified (11); sing. Ar. subs, denoting rational being, how qualified (12); summary of rules of concord, p. I ~>4 (o) ; Pers.
adj. treated as subs., may be qualified by another adj., p. 155 (p) a few subs, used as adjecs. in Mod. Pers., p. 155 (q) ; Noun of Agency and Past Part, used as
;
falls
on
last syllable of either
stem or on
prefix, p. 237 (/). Accusative case, p. 451;
has two forms;
ra=def. article, p. 451 (d) (1) and (2); ra must be added to direct obj. of Impera., p. 452 (3); when a phrase is in apposition, p. 452 (4); ra in app. of qualification, p. 453 (5); after the indef. ra art. 2/5, p. 453 (5), Rem. II and (6) usually omitted after cardinals, p. 454 noun in app. to a def noun in the {7) ace. does not take ra, p. 454 (8) ra added to Inf., p. 455 (9); with several nouns, added to last only (10); added to indef. nouns to avoid ambiguity (11) old form omission of ra does of ace., p. 455 (12) not always make noun in def. pp. 455-6 omission of ra, pp. 456-8 (14) to (13) in same clause ra cannot=both dat. <2l) and ace., p. 456 (14) omitted after carafter generic nouns, p. 457 dinals (15) with compound verbs (17) in Clas. (16) Pers. often omitted after affixed pronouns, p. 457 (18); omitted in familiar language, p. 458 ( 19) cognate ace. rare, p. 458 (20) vulgar form of ace., p. 57 (d).
;
mast, dust, plr and adjecs., p. 156 (r) plra, p. 153 () (1); kamina, p. 157 () (2); broken pis. gen. fern., p. 157 (t) (1) and (2) if fern, rational noun is Pers. or
; ;
Ar.
it
or
is
adj is of measure cl*l* or clxxj usually fern, sing., (JUc( ojJ> and
if
.
<5:Lc($
,jA5, p.
157
(t)
(3)
if
Ar. adj.
is
separated from its noun or is predicative, it is preferably in masc. form (4) optional to add 2 to Ar. adj. in mod. Pers., in
;
speaking
% generally omitted, but inserted in uniting (5); za'if and za'ifa (5); advantage of adding *, p. 158 (t) (6); in
m.c., Ar. adj.
and
seldom take
fern. *, p.
part, in common use 158 (7) ; maqbul,
Adam,
indef. pron., p. 103

7.
(c)
(4),
and
p.
u rarely fern. , p. 158 (7) ; guft gu-yi sabiqa, why fern ?, p. 158 (8); musammat, fern., and 'ulya-jah, p. 158 p. 158 (9) ; 'ali-jah with Pers. or Ar. (10); Ar. fern, elative noun, p. 150 (11); Ar. Part, used as noun 159 (11), Rem. ; two subs, used takes
*,
p.
539 and footnote
'Adam, in forming substantives,
p. 167 (13),
Rem.
'Adim, in comp. adj., p. 167 Adlna, p. 210, footnote 1.
;
(13).
Adjectives pp. 141) to 181; Comp. Adjecs., pp. 161-9 Intensive, pp. 169-171 Adjecs. Num., pp. 199-200; adjecs. generally indeclinable, follow their noun with izafat, in old Pers. preceded noun, p. 149 (a) of unity inverted epithet, noun takes
; ;
Ar. adjecs. follow their noun, Turk(6) ish precede their Turkish subs., p. 150 take sing, or pi.; (c); khayll and bisyar, chandan, "much" with sing, or pi., and in m.c., one with neg. verb, p. 150 (/) their subs., p. 150 or two
;
;
for sing. subs, adj., p. 160 (v>) (1) and (3) ; Pers. subs, and Ar. kull, Ar. subs. , kulll husn and M% p. 160 adj., p. 160 (w) (2) m.c. p. 160 (w) (w) (3) ; husn-i kjûbl-yash, class, and sujchan-i (3) ; sukhan-i 'amm, 'umumi, mod., p. 161 (x) ; izafat, after some part, in place of prep., p. 161 (y) ; muhal-i mumkin, vulg., p. 161 (y) pak and saf, p. 161 (z) ; -ana, p. 161 (o o) : COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, p. 161 a phrase of adj. =adj., p. 161 (a); compound 162 (&)(!) and (2), and of noun
; , ; ;
noun,
adjecs. precede
162 (6) (1), Rem. qualifying two nouns, p. noun + II; noun + noun, p. 663 (3); Pers. verbal, p. 163 (4); adj. or adv. + subs. -H Past Pers. verbal, p. 164 (o)
;
p. adj. (6)
(2),
Rem.;
adj.
compound
910
INDEX.
Interrogation expresses denial, p. 293 (e) " emphatic denial Never," p. 293 (/) na for "no," vulg., na-kjiayr, etc., 294 (g) (1); ikjitiyar darld, polite affirmation or negation (2) ; adv. of affirmation, p. 294
,-
Part., Ar. or Pers., p. 164 (6); prep. + subs., p. 164 (7); kam, + subs, or Pers. verbal, p. 165 (8); kam + subs., p. 165 na, + adj., subs., Pers. verbal, or (q) Past Part., p. 165 (10); ghayr-i, prefixed to nouns, p. 166 (11) and footnote 1 ; la,
;
(t)
mana and hamana,
p. 295,
;
Rem.
;
adj. or subs., p. 167(12); la-ubali,^.

;
167 (12), Rem. 'adim and ma'dum, + Ar. subs., p. 167 (13) compound Ar. adj., 167 (14) Ar. pi., p. 167 (15) adj. of
; ; ;
resemblance, and br.pl. qualifying adj., p. 168 (16) words commonly used to form Comp. adj., p. 168 (c) verbal adjec. in a, rare in comp., p. 169 (16) ADJECTIVES, INTENSIVE, pp. 169-171 formed by add; ;
ing -a, p. 169 (a) (2) by adding adj. or adv., pp. 169-170 (6) (I); intensified by ya of unity, p. 170 (&) (2) repetition gives continuative or intensive sense, p. 170 (c)
;
meaningless appos. may be inten140 (a), Rem. shah, kJiar dev, preCOMPARISON of ADJECfixed, p. 170 (e)
(1) (3);
sive,
TIVES and COMPARATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 171-181, vide under Comparison of Adjectives: Adjectives ending in t, compara.
and
super., how incorrectly written, p. 175, footnote 1 : ADJECTIVES, NUMERAL,
in sha* Allah, p. 295 (4) ADVERBS OF INTERROGATION, pp. 296 (;)-299 DOUBT., pp. 299-300; COMPARISON, pp. 300-302; PLACE, pp. 302-5; QUANTITY, 305-8; QUALITY, MANNER, pp. 308-311; TIME, PRESENT, p. 312-3; PAST, p. 313-4; FUTURE, p. 314-5 other methods of expressTIME INing time, p. 315 (4) j'akht (5) DEFINITE, etc., pp. 315-9; ORDER AND NUMBER, p. 319-320; EXCEPTION, p. 3201 QUALIFICATION, p. 321 Adverbs, SYNTAX of, pp. 495-7; adv. qualifying of a noun, p. 495 (a) adv., (6) position substituted for nouns, p. 497 (d) one (c) adv. with 2 or more verbs, p. 497 (e) 2 negatives=an affirmative, p. 497 (/) adv. rejoined to Inf. by izafat, p. 497 (g) garded as part of the Inf. (h) ; a subj. after a prohibition requires a negative (i). Adverbial Clauses, p. 545-573, 128, 129,
; ;
132, 133.
pp. 199-200; VERBAL ADJECTIVES, p. 234: ADJECTIVES in -var, -ana, generally adverbial, p. 414 and footnote 4:
Adverbial Numerals,
dinals
p. 196 (a)
Pers. or-
cardinals, p. 196 (c) Adverbial Participles, p. 528 (2)
and
and (d). and foot*
ADJECTIVES Syntax, pp. 490-495
dimu-
nition of quality, p. 490 (a); 'a little' or 'few' changes negative into positive, kam and Team-tar, as negap. 490 (6) tives (6); adjecs. implying unity or plurality, p 491 (c) ; in comparisons noun
;
should
be
repeated
(d)
some
adjecs.
joined to same subs., p. 493 (?) and footnote; non-repetition of adj., cause of obscurity, Rem. one adj. qualifying two nouns (k) two or more adjecs. with one
; ;
strictly speaking do not admit of superlative, p. 492 (h); inconsistent qualities
note (3). Adverbial Verbs, p. 247 (a). Adversative clauses, p. 582 (c) to p. 584 conjunctions used, afterthought, p. 582; examples, pp. 582-4. Affirmation, polite form of, p. 294 (g) (2); m.c. phrases, p. adverbs of, p. 294 (i) 295 (5) (6).
;
AfkanUan, obs., p. 283 (d) (3). Afrlnama and afrin, p. 368 and footnotes 1 and 2. "After that," followed by Pres. Subj. p.
502
(i).
noun should be coupled by

(I);
izafat, p.
(I);
494
subs,
with
prep.=adj.j
;
some
adjecs. followed by gen. (n) ; adv. used for adj. , p 495 (a) all adjecs. can be used as adverbs, p. 495 (6) VERBAL ADJECTIVES in -a, p. 534, Remark ERRORS in
: :
Afzun, etc., comp., p. 175 Agarchand, p. 361 (7) and note 6.

2; p. 361
(8).
(5).
p.
556 and foot-
Agarchi, correlatives of, p. 345 and footnote
CONCORD, p. 600 (g). Adjunctive Clauses, p. 577

;
(c),
vide under
Co-ordinate Clauses ADJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTION, p. 577 (c). Admiration, Ar. forms, p. 368 and footnote 4. 'Aduv-i a' da 9 and dushman-i dushmanan,
Agar-chunanchi, m.c. = "if," p. 339, footnote 1. Agency, Noun of, p. 156 (r) and p. 534 (p) and footnote 2 and (q); used class, as
r adj. (p) (1) (2); in Mod. Pers. rare, gen. a mere adj., p. 534 (q) ; Afghan
noun or
have
different significations, p. 61, foot-
note 3. Adverbs, with comp. and sup. suffixes, p.

176
(o)
idiom, p. 535 (2). Aghazidan, obs., p. 256 (6) and footnote 4. Aghlab, p. 125 (o) with izafat, p. 444 (1). Ahad-i=Yak-i, p. 101 (c) (2); br. pi. ahad, p. 102 (c) (2). Rem.; ahad-l na, p. 106
;
(2);
ADVERBS and ADVERBIAL

;
(6).
PHRASES, pp. 288-321

;
adjectives and participles as adverbs, p. 289 (6), and p. 414 and footnote 4 subs, with or without preps., with pron. , adj., subs., adv., phrases, p. 290 (3) to (6) Ar. phrases, p. 291 (7) and (8); adv. with prep., p. 291
;
Ahl, p. 435
Ahlfl*
(c).
wa sahl,
559
p. 382,
Rem.
4.
Ahriman, p. 208. Ahsan, interj., p. 368 and footnote

<A*'id. p.
(4).
Ajal-i
mahtum and
ajal-i mu'allaq, p. 577,

(d),
(c)
ADVERB OF NEGATION and WARNING,

;
pp. 292 (2)-293
SCARCFLY,
p.
293
(3)
footnote 4. Ak, dimin. term., p. 397
and
p.
396
(4).
INDEX.
and
atehavl, p. 64 (n)
;
911
in neg
akh and avakh,
Andak and
_ interj., p. 367 and footnote 2. Al, a monster, p. 387 and footnote 4.
andak-l, p. 126 (5); sense, p. 231 (;) and p. 304 (5).

,
Al-an, p. 312 and footnote
2.
Alast. p. 430 (q) and footnote 1. Al-hal, p. 291 (8), and p. 312 and footnote All, every, p. 112 (i) and p. 119 (/).
;
2.
Alia, interj., p. 373 and footnote 3. Alliteration, p. 628 (?) p. 633 (k) and footnote 3. Vide also under Repetition. *Ali, one attribute less than God, p. 190,
Andar=dar, p. 324 (g). Andarun adv. and noun, p. 303 and footnote 1, and p. 331 and footnote 4. Andun or azun, p. 311 (13). Anfiya, Pers. for Ar. anfiyyah, p. 410 and footnote 5.
Ani,
rel. adj. terrain., p. 402, Rem. VJ. Anjuman, p. 569 and footnote 2; p. 653 and footnote 1.
footnote
alif-i
1.
Ant, p. 87
(p).
Alif, significations
and names, pp.
11-3;
and p. (;), 20 and mamduda, alif-i pp. 20-1, and p. 25, footnote 2; names of final alif, p. 169 (a) (1) (2), and footnote 2; added to qualified subs, in old
maqsura,
p. 10 footnote 3 ;
Rem.
II,
Pers., p. 169 (a) (2) alif-i nudba, p. 366, footnote 2 ; abst. nouns and adjecs. formed by, p. 398, footnote 2; FORMATIVE ALIF, p. 147 alif-i rabita, exs. and p. 626 (5) (6) and footnotes 1-2. 'Ali-jah and 'ulya-jah, pp. 158-9 (10). Aliq, p. 503 and footnote 3. Almanacs, two kinds of, p. 11, footnote 2. Alphabet, pp. 1-27; Morphological, p. 2. Alternative Clauses, pp. 579 (d) to 582 joined by ya, etc., (d) (1) (2); other alternative conjs., p. 580 (3); negative
;
; ;
alternation, p. 581
(4).
Although,
Alu balu and
Amadan,
as defec. verb, p. 249 (c), Rem. 'Amala, used as sing., p. 69, footnote 3; 'amalajat ditto; pi. of 'amil, p. 60 (/),
p. 345 and footnote 3. gilas, p. 466 and footnote 6.
Rem.
Ambiguity,
ibham, p. 631 (d) ; examples in adjecs., p. 493 (/), Rem. and (k) (I); in advs., p. 495 (6) (c) and Rem.; p. 497 (e) ; by omission of 'and,' p. 500 (d) ; ta often ambiguous, p. 500 (e) and foot-
Antanaclasis, p. 655 and footnote, and p. 668 (i) and footnote 1. Antecedent, how styled, pp. 559 and i60 (4). Anticlimax, p. 670 (m) (2). Antika, p. 572 (13) and footnote 3. Antiphrasis, p. 633 (/) and footnote 1. Antithesis, p. 631 (e) and footnotes 6 and 7; p. 632 (e); p. 638, Rem.; faulty or incomplete, p. 670 (I). Antonomasia, p. 632 (c) and footnote 1. Anvar-i Suhayll, best portions, criticisms on, pp. 642 (0-4. Aorist and Preterite, in class, and in Mod. Pers., p. 516 and footnotes 5 and 6 ; Aor. both Indie, and Subj., p. 505 in CLASSICAL PERSIAN, pp. 505 (a)-8; as Pres. as Indef. Fut. (a) (2) Indie, (a) (1) as Pres. Subj. or Condit., p. 506 (a) (3); Def Fut. and Aor. in same sentence with same meaning, p. 506 and footnote 2: in MODERN PERSIAN, p. 508 (6) as Pres. tense (6) (1); as Indef. Fut. (6) (2); as takes place of Pres. Subj., p. 509 (3) Eng. infin. p. 509 (4) used optatively (5); for Impera., p. 510 (6); for Pret.
;
Indie,
in
Eng.
(7)
Inf.
;
can be substi-
notes 5-6; p. 503 (6); p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 2; participial, p. 531 and p. 648 (3); ambig. words, p. 653 (a)-654; ' fine writing' ambig. phrases, p. 654 (6) a source of obscurity, p. 655 (4). Vide _also under Obscurity and Incoherence. *Amil pis. of, p. 66, footnote 3. 'Amim, vide' 'Amma. Amir, without izafat, p. 437 (a). 'Amr, p. 450 and footnote 5 and p. 453, footnote 1. * Amu, p. 371 and footnote 2.
; 1 (
p. 675; Appen. B of 125) examples of use of tenses, p. 899. Apodosis, of command and oath, p. 545 (a),
tuted, p. 510, p. 511 Rem.

(contin.
Rem.
II
Aor. of DASHTAN,
Appendix A, Arabic,
Rem., and p. 651 (2) and footnote 4. Apposition, adjecs. following in, p. 152
(3)
; :
(i)
of Qualification, position of ra, p. 453 (5) pp. 614-22; in Ar., p. 674 (a)
;
Pron. and Adj., p. 615 (6) (1) ; Noun and Adj. or Phrase (2) Adj. and two Phrases in, may follow verb (2) indef. nouns in Ace., p. 616 (3); two
Exs.,
;
'Amma,
;
subs., and 'amlm, adj., p. 118-9 'ami, adj., vulg., p. 119 (20) (21). (20) Amma, p. 345, footnote 2. *Am(m}l, vide' 'Amma.
'
Among and
Amukhtan,
p. 503 (d). to learn,' to teach,' in m.c.= former only, p. 244, Rem. and footnote 4. An, as adv. termination, p. 198, footnote 2 ; an-i nisbat, p. 416 and footnote 4 ; ba'z-l baran-and, idiom, p. 83 (d). Anagram, p. 9 (h), footnote 1.
Amidst,
'
Anchi, p. 123
(5).
And=odd, p. 198 (3). And =5, p. 348 and footnote
2.
nouns in Nom. (4) ; SITION, (4) Rem. I in Voc., p. 616 (5) and footnote 3; noun CORROBORATIVE or pron. understood (6) APPOSITION (c) ta*kid-i lafzi, p. 617 (1) ta'kid-i ma'navi, p. 617 (2) tamyiz, etc. 9 Rem. further exs. of exs. of tabi (3) ta'kid-i lafzi, p. 618; ra with def. or words conindef. noun in appos. (d) nected by certain particles considered, by Arabs, to be in appos., p. 619 (e), but not if connected by particles of exception, footnote 6; Pers. app. for Eng. with Ar. vice versd (g) gen. p. 620 (/) interj. ya, correct Ar. construction better, izafat in m.c. often incorrectly in(g)
;
;
EXPLANATORY APPOtabhallus, Rem. II

;
912
serted,
;
INDEX.
Aya,
p. 238 (a) and footnote 3; p. 298 (9) ; p. 354 (14) and footnote 6; whether" in inten. clauses only in direct narration
Rem. qualifying words with numerals or signifying quantity in appos., pron. in appos. to subs, or p. 621 (h) adj. may or may not take izafat (i) and footnotes; not used after pron. u, p. 622; pi. prons. and adj., p. 622; appos. is brief, p. 652 (s). 'Appositive Meaningless,' p. 426 (d) and footnote 6; Appositive Clauses, p. 576
;
="
only, magar takes its place in m.c., p. 579 (2), footnote 4; p. 580 (2) and foot-
note
2.
Ay an
'Ayn,
ki, class voc. of
2nd
i
pers., p. 68 (a).
(a)
and
(6).
'Aqab for
footnote
'
'aqib,
5.
vulg. 'aqqib, p. 303

p. 129,
and
beginning of words, p. 27; 'Ayn-i yakRabi ^l-avval, p. 200 and footnote 4; 'ayn with izafat, p. 310
(5).
letter, p. 16; at
Aqab manda and pas manda,

II.
Rem.
qism
Az, with comparatives,
"one
p.
172
(c)
(1);
of," p. 172
;
(c)
Aqall, with 3rd pers. sing., p. 70 (c). Aqsam, followed by pi., p. 470 (m)
Arabic Noun of Relation, p. 61, Rem. Arasta bash, p. 265 (6), Rem. IV.
by
sing.
(I).
az 275, Rem.; p. 504 (h). Az an-i , denote possession, p 76-77 Az an ja-l ki , p. 357, footnote 1. Az bas pp. 306 (3) and 360
p. 172 (c) (3)
Rem.; ki='az, shahr dar amadan, p.

(2),
(/) (g).
ki,
(6).
Arbab and arbab-ha,

(d).
p. 65 (c), Item.
p. 436 p. 625
Azmarqablaz-zikr, p. 612 (10) and footnote 2. Az vaqt-l ki az an gah ki etc., o. 361

,
,
(11).
Aray balay, at Zardushti marriage, (g) and footnote 1. Arl, p. 294 (i) and p. 295 (2).
'Arl, of prose, p. 638. Article, p. 48.
B.
Ba,
p. 363
p. 322
and footnote
3.
;
Ba and
Arz and 'arlza, kardan and dashtan, and footnote 6.
baray, Babr = "
'As long as,' p. 362 (13). 'As much as,' p. 362 (13). 'As much for' as, in compar. between
clauses, p. 179 (v)
for
(4).
Bach, 395 (3) and footnote 3. Bachcha, dirnin., p. 397 (e)

p. 441 (6) ; bachcha-ha p. 373 and footnote 7.
63, p. 504 (/). p. 331 (3) tiger," vide' Shir. obs. form of bachcha=" sprout,"
;
p.
in
=Urdu
compounds,
ko,l hai,
Ash and shan, these prons.
classically used
;
animates only, but in Mod. Pers. for inanimates also, p. 71 (a) (2) ash substitute for shan, p. 75 (k). Ash'ar-i razm, p. 635. 'Ashiq-baz, player with kuncklebones, p.
441
(6). 2.
Bad, bada, buvad, p. 227 (d). Bad and nlk, frequently precede their subs.,
p. 149 (6).
'Ashiq-kushâdy-killer, etc., p. 441 and

Jtootnote
Ashiira*, p. 192, footnote 5.
Ba'd with izafat or az, p. 331 (5) ba'd az an ki, etc., vide After that. Badal or Apposition, p. 614 (a). Badraqa kardan, in rn.c.=ma8hay'at k., p. 178 (v) (1) and footnote 4; and p. 380,
;
footnote
4.
Aspak, p. 396 and footnote 1. Asses of Bahrayn, p. 467 and footnote 5. Astaghfir* 'Uah, etc., p. 293 (/) (1) and footnote 7. Aste=ast, p. 219 (h} ; 220 (c) p. 546 and footnote 5. Astl, p. 232, VIII, Rem. Asyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Atabaki, variety of pomegranate, p. 377 and footnote 1. 'Atf-i bayan p. 614 and p. 616, Rem. I and (4), footnote 2; 'atf or simple appos., p. 619 (e) 'a&f-i nasaq and f atf-i bi hiiruf (c) and footnote 4. 'Attjar, sells Persian medicines, ginger, paper, etc., p. 459 and footnote 1. Aula or awlq, elative without a positive, not to be confounded with ula fern, of awwal, p. 172, footnote 3. Auxiliary Verbs, pp. 248-9 (e), Rem. Awa'il, p. 193 (g). AwakJiir, p. 193 (g). Awla-tar, how written, p. 21. Awwal, adj. a subs., used in dates, pi. of, as subs, followed by izafat, p. p. 193 (g) 193 (g); p. 193 (h).
;
;
Bah bah, inter j., p. 368 and footnote 1. Bahman (or Pashmadan), p. 107 (2); fulun as adj., fulani not, p. 108 (2); fulan u
bisar, for things, p. 108 (2)
;
639 and footnote
bahman,
p.
2.
Bahrayn and footnote

Bastar, p. 108
Island, cesses of, famous, p. 467

5.
(4).
obs., p. 266, footnote 5. Bajl, p. 371 and footnote. Balagha eloquence, p. 629 (a). Balance in sentences, p. 638, Rem. Balanced sentences, vide under Sentence. Ballyh and fasih, p. 629 (a) and footnote 1. Balki, p. 299 (k) (2) p. 345 (7) p. 582 (e). Ballads, p. 635. Baluchis, p. 393 and footnote 1.
; ;
Ba,Uan,
Banda,
etc., for
(c)
1st
and 3rd
pp. 69 note 1.
and
70,
Rem.
pers. prons., p. 476 and foot-
Banu, p. 50 (e). Baql, p. 129 (s)

Baqiyya,p. 129
baql manda, p. 129,

(2).
Rem.
Bar, in class. Pers. indicates a superlative, p. 176 (n) (6); p. 324 (e) and footnote 1. Barabar, p. 303 and footnote 4.
INDEX
Baray, p. 331 (3). Barbarism, p. 631 and footnote Bard" 'l-'Ajuz, p. 210 (d).
;
;
913
Bina
1.
Barkh-i, p. 126 (7) p. 308 (9). Bas, bas-l, basa, p. 123 (m) bas, etc., and az bas ki, p. 306 (3). Baah=" halt," p. 228 (;) bash bash for afterthought, p. 582 (e), and 584 and footnote 4. Bashad= perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 3. Bast, p. 393 (g). Batar, class, and colloq. for bad-tar, p. 175, footnote 1. Bd vasf-l ki, p. 360, footnote 4; 65 vasf'-i in ki, p. 361 (9). Ba v'ujud-l ki, p. 360 (7). Bayistan (and ba*idan obs.), p. 266, etc.; substitutes for, 272 (r); =should, p. 271 (o) ;=must have, p. 271 (p) .p. 540 (d). better, p. 175 (fc); p. 345, foot.Bas, m.c. note 2 p. 653 and footnote 4. Ba'z and ba'z-i, pp. 127-8 (q) ba'z-i bar an-and, p. 324 (/).
;
bar, p. 358 (2). Bi-nisbat, with compar. adj p. 172 Blrun, p. 331 (6). Blsar or blstar, p. 108 (2) (4).
,
;
(c) (2).
Blsh, as compar., p. 175 (5). Bish-tar, blsh-tarln, p. 125 (o) blsh-tar=ihe greater part, p. 304 (o) with or without
;
izafat, p. 444 (d). Bi-sitan=income, p. 418 and footnote
2.
Bismi'llah, inter j., p. 381 and footnote 1. Bisqumat, sing, or pi., p. 66 (g) and foot-
note 5. Bisyar and kjiayll take not follow its noun

p. 120
(r).
pi.
;
noun,
latter can;
p.
150 (d)
bisyar,
Bazm,
p. 635. Bazu-band, p. 392, footnote 5.

p.
Be, tr,, verb, pp. 217-221. 'Before that' followed by Pres. subj.,
502
(i).
'
Bisyarl and bisyar-l,p. 124 (n) (1); p. 306 (2) and footnote 2. Bisyar-tar, not much used, p. 304 (4). Blue, wards off evil eye p. 392 (/). Blows, three, how expressed, p. 189,|Rem. I. Bombast, p. 630 (c) and footriote 1. Both, and neither of two, p. 108 (/) isnayn, indirect ways of expressing, p. 109 (3) expressed by Ar. dual, p. 109 p. 109 (4) (5) p. 190 (0Brevity, p. 644 (a) (6). Budam, budaml, mi-bud, p. 548 and footnote 2. Sudan, paradigm., p. 2231; Contin. Im; ; ; ; ;
Begam, fern, of beg, p. 50 (d). Belt, zardushti, p. 15, footnote 4.

Besides, including, p. 502 (c). ' Better than the best,' p. 176 (n) (4). Between or betwixt, p. 503 (e). Bezoar stone, p. 180 (w) (4) and footnote 4 p. 657 and footnote 2.
;
pera., its negative, p. 224,

still
Rem.
;
buvam
Bi-, gen. prefixed to
Impera. in Mod. Pers., gen. omitted before shaw and always becan be prefore bash, p. 230, footnote 2 fixed to Past Condit., p. 231, VI Rem. when omitted in verbs, p. 223 (3); with ml-, p. 223 (4) p. 237 (6) ; before tavan, Def. Fut., p. p. 252 (a), Rem.; before sometimes used with sim259, Rem. I
; ; ; ;
bad, bada, harchi bad-a-bad, p. buvad, p. 227 (d) ruz-i 228 227 (d); (e) mabada, p. mabada, p. 228 (e) chi budl, p. 228 and in Mod. Pers. Pret. used footnote 1 for Imperf., p. 228 (i) ; bash=ha\t, p. 228
used by Afghans,
;
p. 224
Bu
ki, p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Bulbul, p. 351, footnote 4. Bulls, Irish, and Incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2). But, p. 345 (9). Buvad, old=bad, p. 227 (d)._ Buz, female goat vide' Chapish.
'
but not with compound verb, p. Vide Ba-, and On. 275 (d). Bibliomancy, Divination, superstitions, pp.
ple,
390 to 394; istikJiara, p. 390 (a) tafa'ul, p. 391 ; geomancers, etc., David, p. 391-2 unlucky days, p. 392 (d); omens (c) (c) evil eye (/) Nau-Ruz, (h) bast, 393 (g) revolution of heavens and misfortunes,
; ; ; ; ; ;
Qaza and Qadar

p.
(i).
;= expenditure, 418 and footnote 2. Bi-farma*id = please, p. 391 and footnote 2. Bi-gard-ash naml-rasad, p. 293 (/) (12) and footnote 8. Begin =giri/tan, pp. 254-6; other verbs, p. 256 (6); Afghan idioms, p. 257 (c) uftadan, m.c., p. 257 (d). Bih, positive for compar., p. 174 (i) (1); as
Bi-di'h, subs., p. 262 (d) (5)
;
Calling, vide Etiquette. Cardinals, p. 182 (a) noun in sing, with, to cardinals and p. 469 (6); predicate noun, p. 469 (h) and footnote 2. 4. Carpets, p. 188, footnote Cases of Nouns, pp. 445 to 464.
; ;
-Vide' also Causal Clauses, p. 574 (c) under Final Clauses. Causal Verbs, pp. 282-4; how formed, p. causal 282 (a); intrans. made trans, by 2i termination, and trans, causal, p. verbs with two roots have two (6); stem endforms, p. 283 (c); verbs with to y, p. 283 (/) in ing in n change it
;
poetry, optative bih, in/terj., p. 36s and footnote 1. Bi-har haV, p. 365 (20). 361 (12). Bi-mujarfad, etc., p. Bin (son) without izafat, p. 437 (a) and 438 (3).
ii]
p. 174 (i) (4).
Bih
p.
m.c. shorter form of causal preferred, p. 283 (/); some verbs have no causal, p. 213 (g) a few causals only used in m.c., examples in use, p. 284 (2) p. 283 (h) 284 (2), Rem.; passive of causals, p. other methods of expressing causation,
;
58
914
p. 284
;
INDEX.
Chihil-var, vide Qamls. Chilla or chitta, p. 205 (6).
*
'
qabulariidan (/) ; simple verb (i) takes place of causal, usually, p. 284 (k) p. 574 (c). Cha, dimin. terrain., p. 396 (5). Ch'akavuk, desert lark, p. 656 and footnote
;
Chlm-i tasghir,
'
5.
Chaman,
Chand, inter, "how many?" for nouns animate or inanimate, p. 96 (w) "how to. chand "how much?" p. 97 (w) " chand-sala " of a few long ?, p. 97 (w)
;
p. 411
and footnote
1.
years or of
how many years
", p. 97 (w),
!
chand ta ab, p. 97 (w), Rem. II. ^Chand and Chand-l "a few, some," page
Rem.
109
I.
followed by sing, subs., p. 110 (2); Afghans use a pi. subs., p. 110 (4); in m.c. cliand-l or yak chand =a little while, p. Ill (5) chand-l in m.c.=chandgah, chand bar, etc., p. Ill (5), Rem. I; yak chand a few, p. Ill (5), Rem. II tan1 chand, class. =a few individuals, p. Ill (6)=m.c. chand nafar yak chand, sing, noun, pi. verb, p. Ill (8) and 5, Rem. II, but with ta sing, verb connected with and and andak, p. Ill (9), Rem. I p. 199 " of a few (c): chand-sala= either years or of how many years ?," p. 97 (w), Rem.
(g)
;
298 (4) and Rem. ' Chi-san, vide under chi. Chist, vide' under chi. Chlz and chlz-l, p. 86 chlz-l qadr-l, p. 86 r footnote 3 chlz or chlz-l with neg. p> C/M cfcfe or chlz- I = what's his 107 (7) name ?, p. 108 (3) chlz-l, p. 125 (1). Chu, p. 347 (11). Chun, p. 98 (6) =ktin, p. 98 and footnote 4 p. 29o and footnote 4, and p. 298 (5) bi chun u chand, p. 345 and footnote 1. Chun and chun ki, p. 345 (8). Chunan, in India and Afghanistan (but not in Persia) followed by the demons. (.5,
'
' ; ; , ;
p. 397, Rem. II ; various of chi, p. 97 (x). Chira, dat. of c/w and cAira ki, p. 94 (Z) p.
names
p. 148
(s);
ham-chunan-l ki correct Per(s).
sian, p. 148
Chunanchi=ii,
p. 339, footnote
; ;
pp. 363
6 p. 364 and 4, (16) and footnotes 5 and footnotes 3 and 4 p. 578 (1) and footnotes 5 and 6.
Chunan
;
ki, p.
363 (16)
344
(6).
Chandan and chandln,
p. 89 (h)
and 90
(2)
Chunln and chunan, p. 88 (a) (1) (2) and (6) k. =to procrastinate (c) chunan u chunln
,
chandan-'i, p. 90 (2); chandln, p. 90 (3); both precede a sing, noun, p. 90 (3), Rem. chandan in India and Afghanistan fol;
p. 89 (d)
pi. of,
not used, p. 89
6.
(e).
lowed by the demons. t_c p. 148 chandan = much, many, followed by sing, noun in Mod. Pers. by negative, p. 150
, ;
(/)
Chandanchi, obs. p. 363 (13), Rem. Chandan-ki, p. 307 (8) chnndan-i ki, Afghan, p 308 chandan-ki=as soon as, p.
;
;
Chuza, obs., p. 379 and footnote Circumlocution, p. 645 (6) and 646 (/). Clauses, comparison between, pp. 178-9 (v) Clearness in style, p. 631 (d). Climax, p. 670 (m) (t). Coherence, ride Incoherence. Collective Nouns and Nouns of Multitude, when pi., p. 470 (k) concord of, p. 586
;
357, footnote 2
p. 362 (12) (13), footnote
Chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Chapish or narl, he-goat; buz she-goat, p. 379 and footnote 2. Chapter, p. 613, Rem. Ill and footnote 1. Charand u par and, p. 156 (n), Rem. Chawush, p. 652 (t) and footnote 3. Chi, what, which etc. ?. p. 93 (k) sing, or
;
Collocation faulty, examples of, in advs. and adjecs., pp. 495 to 497 p. 49'J,Rem. Pers. and footnote 1 p. 498 (5) Rem. errors in, p. 610 (n) ; exs. of, p. 608 (m) follow adjecs. or phrases in appos. may the verb, p 615 (b) (12); faulty collocation, p. 648 (2) and footnote 2. Commentary, p. 646 (/) and footnote 4. how Comparatives, Past Part, of kardan, used by Afghans, p. 280, Rem.
;
;
pi.,
ay
(k); chist, chi-san, p. 94, Rem. I; chi, m.c., Rem. II; dat. chira and
Comparison
not
pi.
of Adjectives
and Comparative
sup.
chira ki, p. 94 (Z);=of course, (I) Rem ; ace. with ra rare, (m) ; in m.c. gen. followed by chlz or harf, etc. (n) ; common colloquialisms with chi (o) ; chi what ?, p. 95 (p) chi how, what (q) ; chi how ? chi budl would to God (a] and 550 (r) (e); chlha, pi., p. 96 (t) ; chi-chi, (u); chi-yi musavat, (u) Rem.; used also for animates, (v) ; various names for chi t p.
!
Clauses, pp. 171-81;
how formed,
much
sup Past Parts., (a) Rem.; Ar. elative, how formed, (6) (1) conap. and min, but sup. and gen (6) (1); s comp., makes no conchange for gen. and num., (b) (2) structions with some Ar. superlatives, after Ar. pp. 171-2 (b) (3) cognate br. pi.
;
,
used in Mod. Pers., comp. has none, p. 171 (a): comp. of some
97 (x); chi-chlz= what's his name?, p. 108 (3); chi chi, p. 218, footnote 4; chi and aya, p. 298 (9) chi <arz mi-kunam, evasive reply, p. 294 (?) (3); chi mishavad, p. 300 (7) p 346 (11) p. 580 (3) and footnotes 5, 7 and 8. Chiasmus, p. 638 and footnote 5. Chiguna, p. 98 (a).
;
; ;
sup., p. 172
(b)
(4);
Ar. adjecs. usually
from degrees
of
com. in Pers. manner,

contracted to
p. 172 (6) (5) ; suffix-torm -In, p. 172 (6) (6) ; double <u*mparatives, Pers. suffix added to Arfej tive, p. 172 P. expressed, (c); 'than' with comp
p. 172 (d)
(2)
;
by
az (d)
(3)
;
(<ud
'
by
ki (d)
s a nisbat, (d) ^"fcmd towed by

,
izafat, p. 173 (d) (41
;e 4.
or Ar.
INDEX.
with gen., gener. pi., p. 173 (e) (I) sup. treated as ordinary adjec. (e) (2); " the nearest village." how rendered, p. 173 (e) "one of the most," p. 174 (4); (3);
;
915
pounds, p. 279 (h); a phrase as a comp. in a verb, p. 280.

Concise Style, p. 644 and footnote 5. Concord, Subject and Verb, pp. 585-91 rational beings in class. Pers. p. 585
; ;
prefixing adv., Pers. comp. p. (/) (g) and sup. of kamil, p. 174; positives bih, mih, kih, kam used as comparatives, (i); bih as optative in poetry (i) (2) positive for compar. (i) (3) ziyad and ziyada (i) are afzfm, blsh, pish (4); comp., p. 175
;
comp. strengthened
by
can stand alone
(a)
irrationals
(6)
two or more
pi.
sing,
(c);
nouns, rational beings, and
verb
;
two or more
sing, irrrational
distinct genera and pi. of multitude and collective

;
nouns of verb (d) nouns
of expressing, p. 175(6); too, p. 175 (/) ; comp. between person and thing and rest of the class, either pos. or sup. is used (I) comp. followed by positive, m.c. vulgarism (m) other methods of expressing sup., pp. 175-6 (n) sup. followed by comp. p. 176 (n) (4) sup. expressed by pos. (n) (5); bar, class., indicates sup. (n) (6); and comp. super, suffixes added to partics., preps., subs, (o) (1) (2) (3); -tarln
(5);
;
"more," methods
nouns, p. 586 (e) and footnote 1 of noun preceded by cardinal (/) (g) pi. neu. nouns, material things, with sing, verb, p. 587 with pi. verb (2) and p. 588 (3) (h) (1)
; ;
several abstract nouns and sing, verb, p. 588 (4),; pi. of respect () exs. of mood, slovenly concords, p. 589 (/) and footnotes: ERRORS in CONCORD, p. 591, vide under Errors: NOUNS of MULTITUDE, p. 464 (a), vide under Generic Nouns. Conditional Clauses, pp. 545 (a) to 552 (h) ; three classes (b); tense most used clas;
stranger still," how rendered, p. 178(r); progressive Jbuble positive, how rendered, p. 178 (s); two or more comparatives or superlatives, suffixes where added, p. 178 (t) (1) (2); the quicker the better, (u) ; COMPARI(<?)
seldom added to Pers. particips., (o) (1) -tar, where added to compound of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) comp. sometimes gives meaning of sup. (q) (1) comp. with az hama used in Mod Pers. for sup.
Rem.
sically
(c)
;
for
"IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS"
(3);
"what was
time past or future (c) and footnote 4, and p. 547 and footnotes 3 and 4 Imperf. Indie, substituted for Past time past or fut., Habit., p. 54H (2)
; ;
SONS between CLAUSES, how rendered,

pp. 178-9
545-62.
(u).
Complex and Compound
Sentences, pp.
Composition and Rhetoric, notes on. pp. Vide under Rhetoric. 629-44. Compound Adjectives, p. 161, vide under
Adjectives.
Compound and Complex

545-62.
Sentences, pp.
;
Compound Substantives,
pp. 425-30 of two subs., p. 425 (6) (c) (d) pi. of, p. 475 (w). Two Ar. nouns, p. 427, Rem. II contracted Infs., or Inf. and Irnpera (e)
;
;
numeral and adj. with subs,

Impera. root
:
Pres. 428 (/) Pers. noun of II ; contrac. Inf. or Pret. with subs, or adv., p. 428 (?) ; prep, or adv. 4-subs. (k) ;
(h)
;
noun and Part, and noun, p. instrument, Rem.

(g)
;
+ Impera. root (k) (2); prep.+contrac. Inf. (3); adj .+ Impera. root (I) ; na with an Inf., p. 429 (m) ; comp. adjecs. as nouns, (n) ; phrase as subs, (o) ; Turkish Compounds (p) ; Ar. phrases as subs.,
prep.
p. p.
548 and footnote 3 and Rem. I ; pp. 548-9 and footnotes 1 and 2 Plup. can take place of Imperf. in protasis Optative Clauses, p 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5, and p. 53 (/) and footnotes 1 and 2; Conditional changed into Predicative Clauses, p. 551 (g); apodosis sometimes placed first, p. 552 (h) POSSIBLE CONDITIONS, p. 552 (a) to 556 (g); tense most used Pres. "Subj.; gen. supposes the condition may be fulfilled whereas the Imperf. Indie, for a fut. condition does the reverse, p. 552 (a) and footnote 3 Indie, can take place of Subj.-if there is no doubt, examples, p. Pres. and not 552 (a) and p. 553 (b) A or. of khwastan used after agar, p. 554 in conditions, the past tense in m.c. (b) other used for the Pres., p. 550, Rem.; construction in unrealized alternative conditions, p. 554 (c) Fut. Indie, used use of for Pres. Subj. classically (d) Pret., p. 555 (e) similar construction in temporal clauses (/) and p. 556 (g), Rem. ; Clause may be converted into a Rel. Clause (g) Conditional Particles, p. 545 and footnote 3. Conditional Pluperfect, p. 527, Rem. Conjunctions, Adjunctive, p. 577 (c) Alternate, p. 579 (d); Adversative, p. 582
p.
; ;
;
492
(g).
(e).
Compound Verbs, pp.

;
274-80
examples
of,
274(6) (1) faru (2); fara (3); faraz, 275 (4); prep, incorporated with verb, loses its meaning (6) no ra after nounprefix, p. 276 (e) prefix separated from verb,(ei; sometimes two constructions admissible, p. 277, Rem. II examples tr. of compounds, p. 277 (g) to 279 verbs in compounds may give tr. and intr.
p.
; ; ; ;
Conjunction [add], pp. 497-502. Conjunctive Participle, called mazi-yi

t.ufi,
ma
p.
229
(b)
and footnote
*9.
Vide
under Participle Past.

Continuative Tenses, formed from Present Part,, p. 533; Contin. Perfects, p. 536 (t) and Rem.; Conti Plup., not used, p. 536 (u) Contin. Impera., p. 537. Continuative Verbs, p. 257 (e). Consonants, Weak, p. 22 (d).
.
meaning,
p.
279,
Rem.
vulg.
com-
916
INDEX.
datives in two clauses should balance, Rem. for locality, dative in bi used, (4); when ra cannot be substituted for bi- (5) duration of time expressed by ra, p. 450 (6); ra added at end ot several nouns in the dative, p. 450 affixed pronouns take place of dat. (7) in ra, p. 450 (8) ra of dat. and noun or phrase in appos. pp. 450-1 (9) dat. in ra with mar, dat. as logical subj., p. 451 (10) and Rem.; ra=prep. baray, p. 451
6
;
Construction louche or 'Squinting Construction,' p. 660 and footnote 4. Construction, new not to be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k).
p. 449,
Contractions and Abbreviations, p. 38. Contrast or Tazadd, p. 631 (d). Coins, current in Persia, p. 212 (a) to (d). how Co-ordinate Clauses, pp. 576-84; classed, p. 576 (a); examples of APPOSITIVE CLAUSES (b); Adjunctive ConjuncADJUNCTIVE CLAUSES tions, p. 577 (c) if adjoined clause implies a (c) (1), etc. logical sequence of thought, pas may be substituted for va, p. 578 (2) apparently * therefore,' adj. clauses introduced by
;
; ;
(1).
Dava
farush, seller of Ear. 459, footnote 1.

false, p.
medicines, p.
are really principal clauses, p. 579,
Rem.
Corroborative Apposition, p. 616 (c), vide Apposition. Crow, Royston, p. 556 and footnote 3. Crowding of Circumstances, p. 607 (;').
313 and footnote 1. Dawr= re volution of the heavens and circulation of the wine cap, p. 367 and footnote 4; dawr-i sar-at, etc., p. 385 (/) and footnote 4. Day, name of month or of day, pp. 207-8
Dawn,
(c).
Days
of
of
month,
(6)
days
solar, pp. 207-8 of the week, 210 (a) ;

;
(c)
names
day begins
at sunset,
ruz or nahar, shab or layl,
Indian, p. 261 (c) m.c. exs. of dadan, p. 262 (d); dih interj., p. 262 (d) (3) bi dih, subs., p. 262 (d) (5). Dah u du, =12 in Shah-Nama, p. 182, footnote 3. Dalija malija, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. Dam, prep., p. 328 (4); dam-i dar m.c.,= threshold of the door, p. 176, footnote 7. Dam-rahiior sar-rahi, p. 392 and footnote 5. Dana, in 'counting, p. 188, and p. 189
;
;
Dadan,= permit, Afghan and
(d).
Decimals, p. 196 (/). Declension of Pers. noun, pp. 51 and 56. Defective Verbs, p. 249 (e) Rem. Defirftte Article, etc., p. 130; expressed by ra, p. 130 (a) proper names, certain pronouns, etc., and interrog. ki, are de;
Rem.
II.
Dananidan, obs., p. 283, footnote 2. Dancing, vide Music. Dang, =the 6th part of anything, p. 216 (d). Daniel, discoverer of geomancy, p. 392 (c). Danistanto be able, p. 254 (h). Dar, p. 324 (e) dar sfirat-i ki, p. 365 (19). Dard-i sar and sar-dard, p. 438 and foot;
and require ra (b), so also yak-i Gulistan, ra may be owing to exigencies of rhythm, footnote 4; certain other def. words, pp. 130-1 (c), Rem.; expressed by the pi., p. 131 (d) demons. ,. with ki makes nouns def. (c) demons.
finite
;
in
pron.=def. Demonstrative Pronouns, Simple, pp. 827; im old for In, as in imruz, etc., p. 82 (6) pis. in -an, anha ki and anha*-i ki
;
article, p. 131 (g).
note
2.
(not ishan ki (b) pi. in -ha, p. 83 (c) azan-i man and ba'z-i bar an-and, (d)
;
;
;
Darzhan
dozen, p. 189 (h). Dashtan, pp. 263-6; Aor. used for Pres.
Indie.,
m=latter and an former

; ;
(c)
azan for
and
Perf. Subj. for Pres. Subj.,

;
; ;
pp. 263-4 (a) dashta bash, p. 264 (a) and 265 (b), Rem. IV Imperf. rare, p. 265 (d) contin. signification, p. 265 (e) =hold, consider, p. 265 (/) Afghan colloquialdarad=. there are, pp. ism, p. 265 (g) 265-6 (h) lazim dashtan, p. 266 (c) ; Aor.
;
that purpose (/) anan (but not man) ki used in Mod. (g) in mystic Pers. writings, footnote 1 in u an poetry an is a subs. p. 84 (h) c.= various things (i), na In u na in In an, In man-am ki, inak ust, etc. (i) ast=he*Te I am, p. 85 (?) In Tcuja va an chun ay in ki dar in-am, At., kuja (k)
; , ;
idiomatic uses of an
Rem. p. 543 Dast andar kdr shudan=to

of, p. 511,
;
(h).
footnote 2;
p. 256 (b)
;
dast
help, p. 271 and bi-kar ah.=sto begin,

p.
dast-i
shuma dard nakunad,

3.
38 * and footnote 4. Dast-kash, p. 188, footnote 2. Dast-pacha, p. 309 and footnote Dastur, p. 508 and footnote 1.
Dative case,
p.
448
(c)
two forms
(c) (1);
;
m=in spite of (n) (1) ow=' phasis (m) he over there (n) (2) bi-dm rasid matters reached such a pitch, (n) (3); other idioms, pp. 85-6 (to 13); Inak, p. 87 (o) ; DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, ant (p); EMPHATIC, pp. 87-8; &aman=when, as soon as, p. 87 (a); hamln=ihe same, p. 87 (b) hamin, as soon as, p. 88 (c) ;
; ; ;
;
(I)
demons, follows
its
noun
for
em-
in m.c. dative with bi- used
(c) (2)
two
;
forms not always interchangeable (c) (3) either form used after dadan, p. 448, footnote 2 not necessary with impersonal
;
hamin=only (d) =such, (/) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, COMPOUND, pp. 8890; chunin, p. 88 (a) (2), Rem. and (c) ham=chunin, etc., p. 89 (/); hamchu,
;
;
verbs, footnote 3; sa ir "remainder" used for the "whole," p. 448, footnote
chandln, chandan, p. 89 (h). Dentist, Persian, p. 510 and footnote
5.
INDEX.
Dervish, cries of, p. 375 (c) and p. 376, footnotes 1 and 2. Dev, khar, shah, give idea of size, p. 170
(e) (\).
917
'Vide'Div.
Dialects, Persian, p. 639. Dlda khwuhad shud or dida mi-shavad, m.c. , dida shud in m.c. used instead p. 287 (5) of Act. Voice, p. 286 (d) (2) and footnote
;
4.
Diffuseness, p. 644
(a)
and
(6)
and
foot-
498 (6) (4) and Rem to (5). Elegy, p. 635. Ellipsis, examples of, p. 526
p. 119 (/) ; with sing, or pi verb, p. 597 (e). Earnest, in, p. 295, footnote 4. Either or Neither, distributive pronouns concord of, p. 599 (/) either or,' p'
:
Each, every,
(k)
ex.
from
;
note
5.
Digar,dlqar-l, digar-gun, p. 99 (1); adv. otherwise, etc., p. 99 (1), Rem. I yak-lthe other," p. 101 (k) dlgar-l "the one 138 (p) (c) (1); digar and digar-i, p. dlgar. vulg. used for forming ordinals, p. 4. 193 (/) 206 (d) and footnote Digression, p. 646 (/). Dih, interj., p. 262 (d) (3). Dihlavi, relative termination, p. 402, Rem.
; ;
Gulistan, p. 595, Rem., and p. 596 (d)
p.
Else=varna, etc., and introduces a condit. clause in a contracted form, p. 581 (4) Emphasis, p. 645 (d) (2) p. 669 (;). Enallage, Figure of Syntax, p. 495 (a) and
;
'
y.
Dimagh=nose
3.
in m.c., p. 385
and footnote
Diminutive Nouns, pp. 394-98;
k, ka, h, p. 394 (b); pisaru, etc., p. 395, Rem. II, and 398 (c) and p. 50 (e) and p. 57 (d) -cha or -za, p. 396 (5) -zha -cha, p. 397
; ;
pisar and bachcha dimin. dimin. of ju and jav. (c) Rem. I; (c) mak -icha and -isha* p. 397 (b), Rem. and -anak, p. 398, Rem. kuchulu and Icuchuli, m.c. (e) gak (/) mashkula (g). Diminutive wav, p. 50 (e) p. 57 (d) ; p.
(b) (5),
;
Rem.
footnote 3. Epic, p. 635. Errors in Concords, pp. 591-600 Error of proximity,' p. 591 (a) and footnotes, apparent violations of concord in Gulistan, p. 592 and footnote 3; several nouns with the disjunctive " or" or "nor," p. 593 (6) (1) to (5) and footnotes when the nom. is a relative, the antecedent determines the number of verb, errors, p. 595 a demons, or pers. pron. used that (c) does not refer to the true antecedent, p. 596 (2) one predicate has two or more
; ;
subjects,
ellipsis,
(d)
"each" and
pi.
"Every"
(e);
verb, p. 597 distributive pronouns "either" and

;
with sing, or
398 (e). Dina-ruz and dina-shab, p. 313 and footnote 5. at beginning of Diphthongs, p. 22 (e) words, p. 25 (e). Diqgat-i 'ibarat or Abstruseness p. 631 (d). Dlranda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Direct Narration, vide Narration.
;
CONCORD OF AD"neither," p. 599 (/) JECTIVES and PRONOUN with noun. p. 600 antecedent of pi. pronoun should (g) not be a singular or collective noun (i) GOVERNMENT of VERBS and PREPOSITIONS, errors, p. 600, vide under Govern;
;
ment
der
errors
in
;
COLLOCATION
in
vide un-
Collocation errors vide under Rhetoric.
RHETORIC
(h)
Dirge, p. 635. Distance, vide Measure of Length. Distributive Numerals, p. 198. Vide' Dw, etc., pi. of, p. 59, footnote 2. Dev. Divination, vide Bibliomancy. Dlwanl or Siyaq figures, p. 34 diwarii hand writing, p. 36 and footnote 2. Diyanldan, caus. of didan, doubtful form, p. 283, footnote 3.
;
Etiquette of calling, etc., p. 383 footnote 4.
and
Etymology, p. Eulogy (poet),
48.
p. 635.
(e),
Euphemism
p.
or husn-i ta'bir, p. 631

; ;
and
632 (e) and footnote 1 p. 632 (/) and footnote 4 p 646 (/). Euphonic rules and accents in verbs, p.
237.
Ever,
Never, Scarcely Ever,
misplaced,
Drinking Songs, p. 635. Drum, p 297, footnote 3. Du'a-gu, da'i, with 3rd pers. of verb,
(c).
;
p. 496, Rem. Every, All, Each,
Whatever,
p. 119 (?)
and
p. 70
;
and p. 112(i); every pi. verb, p. 597 (e).

p.
each with sing, or
Dual, Ar., p. 63 (m) in speaking, p. 66 (t) dual of some Pers. words, p. 67 (i) Turkish pi., p. 67 (/). Du char shudan, p. 189 (/). Dukh tar = unmarried girl, p. 395, footnote 1. Dukhtaru, p 50 (e) p. 395, Rem. II. Du-rilya, p. 405 (4) and footnote 3. dushman-i Dushman, sing., p. 46i (c) dushmanan and 'aduv-i a' da have different significations, p. 61, footnote 3. Dust and mast, once Past Parts., p. 156 (r)
;
;
Evil eye,
392
(/).
of Concessional Clauses, p. 558. Excellence, affectation of, p. 655 (4).
Examples
'
Excessively,'
(3).
how
expressed, p. 176 (n)
(15).
Duvlst, or class, du sad, p. 183.
Faces, lucky, p. 392 (c). Faghtur, p. 489 and footnote 3. Fakayf*, rarely used in Pers. p. 180 3. (3) and footnote Fakk-i iza/at, p. 437 (a).
(iv).
918
Fal
giriftan, p. 390, etc.
p.
I.
INDEX.
Pers., Fut. Perf. and Past Subj. are identical (/) (1) and footnotes 1 and 2 in Mod. Pers. preceded by bayad (2) and footnotes 5 and 7 ; expressed by Past Part, and Def. Fut., p. 522 (3) and footnote 1 and Rem. ; certain m.c. idioms PRESUMPTIVE PAST in Mod. Pers. (4)
;
;
Fara, p. 274 (6) (3) and note 5; p. 322, Rem.

;
287
(/)
and
foot-
Faraham, p. 311 (7). Faraz, p. 275 (4) p. 305 (6) p. 322, Rem. I. Farda, p. 383 and footnote 3. Farld-tar, m.c. but yakta-tar not used, p. 174 (h). Farkhunda, p. 156 (r), Rem.
;
(5)
and
(e).
p.
523 and
Rem.
in
Future Indie, for Pres.

575
Causal clauses, p.
Farmudan,
Faru,
p. 282 (/). Farrash, definition, p. 187, footnote 3.

p. 274 (6) (2) and footnote bi-gu, p. 309, footnote 1.
'
4.
Fash
Faslh, vide' Baliyh. Fate, p. 288, footnote 4. Fates, the, p. 288, footnote
Gah,
4.
'
vide
'
Hargah.
Gah
(g)
, ;
na-gah-l, A^sh&n,=vaqt-i az awqat, p.
Feminine of Ar. Past Part., p. 51 certain compounds with ghayr-i

(11),
of
p. 166
Rem.
m,
p. 322(11).
627 v33) and footnote 6. Oak, dim-in, termination, p. 398 (/). Oal-i mikh, etc., and gul-mikh, p. 309, footnote 4.
Gardarildan, p. 281 (e). Gardldan, p. 282 (g). Gashtan. p. 282 (g).
1
Figurative language, p. 658 (c). Figures, rhetorical, p. 631 (e). Fi'l-misl, not correct Ar., p. 364 and footnote 6. Final and Causal Clauses, pp. 573-6 deal with end or reason, p. 573 .(a) examples final clause that of Final Clauses, (6) can be converted into predicative, p. 573 (6)(l)and footnote 3; CAUSAL CLAUSES usually precede the prin. clause, correlaFut. examples (r/) tives, p. 574 (c) Indie, for Pres., p. 575 (c) conj. omitted of causal clause precedes the prin., p. 576 (/). Fine writing,' p. 655 (4). Fiqra-yi tabi'a, p. 636 (n). Fir'aun, 135, footnote 1. Fold, p. 197 (a).
;
Gave no more than

(9).
(I)
could help,' p. 501
'
Foxes, eaten by Baluchis of Bampur, p. 393 and footnote 1. Fractions, p. 194 (a) and footnote 1 for f etc., the Ar. fractions must be used, p. followed by the izafat, p. 194, Rem. I 194, Rem. II; si-yak not used, p. 194, Rem. II Ar. fractions in speaking, p.
; ;
General terms, brief, p. 651 (n) and footnote 1. Generic nouns, p. 457 (16) and footnote 1 denoting rational beings preferably in the pi., p. 465 (d) (1) unqualified by an with nouns adj. usually sing, (d) (2) 1 concord qualified by much,' footnote of generic noun, p. 586 (c) and Rem. Genitive, absolute, expressed by mat, p. 55 subjective and objective, p. 445 (/) ; (/) (4) and p. 448 (6) gen. case, p. 446 (6) two subs, coupled by izafat used for subs, and adj., p. 447 gen. of material, p. 447 and footnote 2 gen. for subs, and prep. used with a governing Inf., pp. 447-8; vide also Izafat, pp. special exs., p. 448
; : ;
433-5.
Geomancy,
GJtalat,
p. 391
(c).
195 (6); duals and pis. rarely used, p. 195 (6) a quarter to, p. 195, Rem. ; per cent., p. 196 (c) : DECIMALS, 196 (/) other method of expressing fractions, p. 196 (g). Fuhsh-i madar u pidar, p. 388 and foot; ;
p. 355, footnote 2. Ghalba, p. 323, footnote 1 * GJtamazat, obscurity,' p. 631 (d). Ghayn,' found in Ar. and Pers. words, p. 9
kardan=balki,
(/),
Rem.
;
Gharabat,p. 631 (d) and footnote 1. Ghayr, prop, subs., p. 100 (a) (2) privative
va-ghayra, (a) (2) Rem.; izafat after ghayr, (a) (2), Rem. and footnote 3 ghayr and ghayr-i, p. 166 ghayr-i maqbilza, (11) and footnote 1 ghayr-i manqula, ghayr-i malfufa. why Rem. 166 fern., p. p. 331 (6). (11), Ghayat, p. 307 (4) and footnote 1, and p. 311 (12). Ghayrat, p. 359, and footnote 1.
ghayr, (a)
(2),
Rem.;
note 7Future Definite, how formed, p. 513 (e) used in Condit. sense for Pres. Subj .of Mod. Pers., p. 514 and .footnote 1 Fut. Def. reg. used by Indians and Afghans, indicates certainty, p. 514 (e) (1); used
; ;
in Condit. sentences (e) (2) not much used in Mod. Pers. (/) " I do not and will not," how expressed, p. 526 (k); Fut. Indie, used for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2 Fut. Indie, used
classically
; ; ;
Ghazl, p. 635.
in class. Pers. where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj., p. 542: FUTURE and AORIST in same sentence with same meaning, p.
j06 and footnote 2: FUTURE PERFECT and PAST SUBJUNCTIVE or PRESUMPTIVE
PAST,
p. 233 (c) (4)
p. 521
(?)
in Class.
Ghuluv, a div. of Hyperbole, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. (Surra. =first of the month, etc., p. 193 (h). Gi, termination, p. 398 (a) and footnote 1 p. 40_0. p. 399 GUas, 'vide' Alu-balu. Giram, glrlm, giriftam,= although, p. 556 (a) and footnote 8.
;
;
INDEX.
Giriftan, tr. and intr., pp. 254-6; =to begin, pp. 254-6 (6) (2) =to suppose, admit, p. 255 (6) pleonastic (c) intr. or reflex.
;
J19
(d); =eclipsed, p. 256 (e); glrandagl attractiveness, p. 256 (/) ; vagiriftam =to caase, p. 256 (g) ; intr. =to begin, p. 256 in m.c. =to buy (i). (h) Gw, name of the son of Gudarz. God, attributes of, p. 190, footnote 1.
;
Hadlqa, p. 323, footnote 1. Hajls, signature of, p. 70 (c), Rem.: hail for hajiyi,, etc., p. 525, footnote 2 Hafv, p. 635.
Hal
or
Mia and
;
Goodbye, p. 373 and footnote 2. Government of Verbs and Prepositions, and Errors, pp. 600-3 object of trans,
;
verbs should be in obj. or ace. case, p. 600 (a) objects connected by con Junes, should be in the same case, also nouns
;
and prons.
in oppos., p. 601 (6)
and
(c)
one relative may do duty for more than one clause, relative in different cases must be repeated (e). Greeting, Muslim, to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p. 382 (g) and footnotes 3 to 5; of Persians, Muslim, p. 382-3, p. 382 and footnote 5
;
note 2 p. 312 and footnote 2 p. 618 and footnote 1 hal an ki, p. 365 (18). with nunation in m.c., p. 314 footnote 4. Halva-yi arda, p. 376 and footnote 7 Ham, p. 302 (7) 342 (3) ham and nlz, difference between, p. 339, Rem. Hama, the whole, also=/iar, p. 112 (i) classically precedes or follows its subs.! in Gulistan, verb and subs, in the sinor pi., p. 112 (i) (1) with; pi. noun, with of unity, p. 113 class, and mod. con; ; . * ' ; ; ;
al-hal, p. 291
(8)
and
foot-
footnote 5. ku, p. 234 (i) pp. 345-6 (10). Gufta, for alif, 'vide,' p. 13 (8); p. 231, footnote 2. Guftan,to think, p. 247 (6), footnote 2. Gufti, p. 507 and footnote 5. p. 346 (6) r Gu, 'l, p. 346 (6) p. 507 and footnote 5. Gurg u mlsh, p. 313 and footnote 1. Guruh-i, a number, p. 124 (n), and (n) (2). Gusfand-i farangl, p. 393 and footnote 1. Gusht-i bulbul, p. 393 and footnote 1. Guya, p. 363 (15). Guzashtan, guzarldan, etc. caus. or trans, forms, p. 283 (d) (1) (2). Guzashtan, p. 261 (a) (&).
Gu and
hama
structions with, p. 113; in Indian Pers. hama is an ordinary adj., p. 113; construes. in Mod. Pers., pp. 113-4 (2) and (3) Rem.; before suffixed -ash, p. 114 (3); hama chlz, hama kas, etc.; hama kas with sing, or pi. verb, p. 114 (4);
,
usual pi., p. 115 (7) hama with compar., followed by sup., p. 175 (I) hama si, m.c. for har si, p. 109 (/) Rem. (I),
;
kasan, Afghan, p. 115(5); hama " all tu-yi ham, m.c. together," p. 115 (6); reg. pi. hamagan, old, hamginan
Hamagl, subs., followed by pi., verb, differs from hamginan, p. 115 (8); by some, said to equal an adv., p. 116 (10), Rem. Haman, p. 302 (8) and p. 361 (12) and footnote
3.
Hamana,
;
p. 295 (1)
and Rem.
and
foot-
note 2 ki may be omitted after not after mana, p. 295, Rem. I.
it,
but
Hamchln,
colloq. for
hamchunln,
p. 319
and
Hamchu
H,
19-20; a vowel, p. 19 and footnote 1 termination, aspirated, p. 19 elided, p. 395 (3) and Rems. I and III Rem. Ill, p. 395, Rem. IV; dimin., pp. 394 (a)-396 (5); terminal, pp. 404-6; silent and aspirated, p. 404 (a) silent h added to nouns, p. 405 to stem of verb (6) (2); to adj. (6) (3); to form adj. or adv. of time, number, etc., (&) (4); to Ar. Past Part., p. 406 (5); ha-yi liyaqat, p. 406 (6); other uses of h, p. 406 (c) ; ha-yi atf, p. 406 (c) (1); ha-yi fa'iliyyat, ha-yi tanls, p. 406 (2) (3) final h becomes (q) in Ar., sometimes redundant, p. 406 (c) (4), Rems. I and II; final h of Past Part, considered a cop. conj., p. 527 (m)
silent,
; ; ; ; ; l
;
footnote 1. or hamchun, p. u hamchin, p. 89 (h) (1),
9 (h)\
hamchun
Rem.
Hamchunan-l ki, correct, Pers., p. 148 (.9). Ham-chunin and ham-chunan, emphatic forms of chunln and chunan, etc., p. 89
Ham-digar and yak-dlgar,
99(1); p. 101
(6)
2)! (/) (9)-
recip.
pron., p
ml-, p. 224, Rem. I; p. 225 and footnote 2 p. 230, III B p. 257 (e). Hamila, p. 119 (M). Hamln and haman, p. 302 (8); p. 361 (12) and footnote 2. Hamln H=as soon as, p. 361 (12) and foot:
;
Haml- or
note
3.
Hamln
Ha
(1).
qadr and hamln qadr-ha, p. 475 Hamvn-tfiwr, p. 366. Ham-rah, p. 504 (/).
'
(y).
and
a, p. 371,
Rem.
Hamza,
a
,
Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a, interj., p. 375, Rem. I. Ha ball, p. 582 (e) or ha bash bash, p. 584 and footnote 4, introducing afterthought. Habitual or Past Potential tense, p. 519 (i) and footnote 4 with prefix bi- and mlor hami-, p. 520 is class. Pers. used for Imperf. (1) ; in poten. sense (2) ; in class Pers. used in Condit. and Opt. sentences
; ;
p. 16;
pp. 23-7; silent; vide under Ayn alif-hamza, 1st letter of alpha(c)
;
bet. p. 25 p. 400.
substituted for ya-yi nisbat,

(c).
Haqlr, 1st pers. of verb, p. 70

;
Handwritings, p. 35. Har, p. 119 (/) emphasized by

p.
^ of unity,
120
(;')
(3).
karan
(ki)
(1); used for hama, (/) (1); (;'), Rem.; har yak, har yak-l.
920
INDEX
Husn-i ta'blr or euphemism, p. 631 (c). Husayn, a name of, p. 201 and footnote 5 p. 378 and footnote 1.
har kas, har Jcudam, take sing, or pi. verb (2) har= whatever (3) har kudam ki, har an ki, p. 121 (&) (1) (2) and p. 122 har kas-l ki, har ki, hama kas-l (3) (4) ki, etc., p. 121 (3); har an chi, p. 123 Vide also Har chi, Har ki, Har du. (5). Harchand, harchand ki, harchi, p. 358 (1); Vide also Harchi. p. 363 (13). Harchi, har chiz, har an chi, an, chi, p. 121
;
;
Hymns,
and
2.
635.
p.
Hyperbaton or Trajection,
Hyperbole,
pi. of
;
605
(i).
respect a form of, p. 588 footnote 4 p. 630 (c) and footnote
'
(Z)(l) (2) and p. 123 (5); anchi, p. 123(5) harchi= any thing, p. 258 (b) and footnote
1 harchi bad-a-bad, p. 535, footnote 4; harchi tamam-tar=aup., p. 175 (n). Har du, pp. 108-9 (/) (1); har si=m.c. hama si, p. 109 (/) (1), Rem. with neg. =neither of two, p. 109 (2). Hardly, p. 300 (5).
;
yak q.v. Ibham or ambiguity, p. 631 (d). Ibn and abu disappear when ya-yi nisbat is added to kunyat, p. 402, Rem. V. Vide
also Bin.
'Ids, p.
/, for
202 and footnote 2, p. 203, foot-
note
'Id"
I.
in def. pron., p. 104, Rem. takes the place of the indef. pron. " one," p. 178 (u) and footnote 2. Harf-i zarf= particle, p. 289; harf-i ta'lll, p. 574 and footnote 7. Hargah \i, p. 361 (10); az an gah ki, etc. (U). Hargiz=ever, 292, footnote 1. Hasha ki and hasha zadan, p. 292 (d) (1) and footnote 7. Hashv, different kinds of, p. 644 (6) hashv-i qablh vide Tautology. Hatim, p. 135, footnote 2. Hay, contin. particle, p. 230 III B p. 257 (e) and 537, footnote I. Hayf, interj., p. 367 and footnote 7. Heavens, revolution of, p. 343 ("). ' Help, gave no more than (I) could help,' p. 501 (g). Hich, for sizdah, p. 182, footnote 4. Hlch kas, etc., hich na, p. 104 (d); hich as
HarH="one"
II
;
'l-fitr, p. 202 (10) and footnote 2; I'd* 'l-azha, p. 202 (12) and p. 203, footnote I.
'
'
(?) and footnote 4. Ighraq, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. Iham, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Ihtikar, p. 661 and footnote 4. Ijaz-i mafazl, p. 663 (d). Ikhtiyar darld, polite form of affirmation or negation, p. 294 (i). Il,T.,pl. of, p. 66 (/). I hope, p. 373 and footnote. Ilahl, m.c. Ilia, p. 345. footnote 2; p. 584 (4). Iltifat, change of persons, p. 533 and foot-
Idma'j, p. 632
note 3. Imala, p. 38. Imperative, pp. 536 (v)-1 in m.c. used prein class. Pers., 2nd catively, p. 536 (v) can begin a clause, pers. so used, p. 537
; ; ;
subs., p. 105, Rem.; =some any, p. 105 (2); =nothing, p. 105 (3); hwh-tar, p. 106 (d) (3) ; =at all, ever, p.
adj.
and
106
(4)
hich
u puch,
p.
106
(4),
Rem.
hich
kudam,
p. 106 (5).
Hijrah, p. 203 (/). Hizhdah, old for hashdah, p. 183, footnote
Hope, I,Ilahl,
'
373 and footnote Vide also under In aha* Allah.

p.
1.
However
(13).
or
dered, p. 557
1
no matter how,' how renhowever much, p. 362 (c)

;
the more (or less),' how rendered pp. 180-1 (w). Hubara and hubara, p. 626 (11) and foot;
How much
note
3.
other methods of expressing Impera., p. 233 (i) Imperative CONTINTJATIVE. p. 537 p. 224, Rem. I p. 230 III B kanda ml-bashad, apparently incorrect, p 233 (c) (3) Imperfect tense, gives a pi. sense to sing, noun, p. 475 (x), but with Pret. pi. must be used (x) Imperf. tense, pp. 517 (&)519; denotes frequency or duration, may take the place of Eng. Pret., 517 (h) (1) and footnotes 4 and 5, p. 518 (2) "be" rendered by Imperf. (3) Imgan to perf. Pass gives pot. senses, p. 518 (4) ; in m.c. used for Pres. p. 519 (5) used for conditions, its place sometimes taken by Contin. Perf. (6) Imper. Indie, substituted for Past Condit., p. 548 (2); time past or future, p. 548, Rem. I and footnote 3, and footnotes 1 and 2, p. 549; class use of Imperf. for Pres. Subj.,
p. 605
(/)
;
Huma,
p. 400 and footnote footnote 2.
1,
and
p. 407,
Rem.
II.
;
Hurmuz,
p. 208.
;
Huruf-i mutashabih and huruf-i mutamasil, huruf-i manquta or huruf-i p. 9 (g) mu'jama (i) huruf-i malfuzl (h) huruf-i masrurl (h) huruf-i maktubl (h) huruf-i fawqanl utahtanl, p. 10 (i); huruf-i muwahhada, musannat musallasa, p. 10 huruf-i 'illat, p. 22 (d) and p. 573 (i)i
;
;
Impersonal Verbs, p. 266, etc. me. exs. of some verbs used impersonally, p. 273 (s) Pers. verb with cognate noun = sing,
;
impers. verb, p. 273
(v).
630 (d) p. 631 (d). Inak, p. 87 (o) ; p. 305 (5). Inchunln, etc., vide Chunln.
Impropriety in^tyle,
4,
p.
and footnote
and
(a).
Husn and
su*, p. 160 (w) (3) yash, m.c., p. 160 (w) (3).
husn-i kjiubl-
Including, vide Besides. Incoherence, p. 659 (a); avoid illogical compound sentences, p. 671 (o) incoher ence due to misuse of ' and,' p. 672.
;
INDEX.
Indefinite Article, p. 131 ; yak and may place, p. 131 (a) ;
of unity, pp. 131-2 (a)
is
;
921
use of with certain verbs, p. 540
may
take
its
inf.,
(d).
have the
the
^
;
after har
probably the
of unity
and not the
demons, ya,
;
the ya of p. 132, unity or indefinitenessîndef. article, p. 132 (&) deriv. from .yak, in Mod. Pers. may be added or refer to a pi. noun, p. 132 (6) and p. 137 (2) how written after silent h and final ya, after silent h before
;
Rem.
Indirect Narration, vide Narration. Inhiraf or digression, p. 646 (/). Innuendo or Insinuation, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Insan, indef. pron., p. 103 (c) (4). Insha, p. 630 (6). In sha* Allah,=l hope, p. 383 and footnote
3.
Insured post,
4.
p. 213 (e)
and footnotes
and
ast, p. 132 (d) (1)
after final alif or
waw,
after alif-i maqsura, p. 133 sometimes added to adjs., p. 133 (3), (3) Rem. I in old Pers. added to the qualified noun, but in Mod. Pers. to the adj., p. 133 (3), Rem. II and pp. 136-7 (k) (1) ; sometimes with ast in pronunciation, how written, p. 133 (e) ; exs. of this ya and its significations, pp. 134 (/)-5; in m.c. often preceded by yak for emphasis, pp. 135-6 (g) ; does not admit of the izafat, 136 (h); a noun before an adj. or
p.
Int, p. 87 (p).
133 (2);
;
Intend, expressed by khwastan, p. 280 (e). Intensive Adjectives, pp. 169-71. Interjections, etc., pp. 366-90; simple, p. 366 (1); exs. 367; ver b= inter j., p. 368, Rem.; Admiration, p. 3u8 exs. of, p. 369; Lamentation, p. 369 (3); Hatred, Attention, WarnAversion, Contempt 371 (0) ; ing, p. 370 (5); Impatience, p.
;
Distress,
Want,
p. 372 (8);
;
Repentance,
;
p. 371 (7) ; Fie, for shame, p. 372 (9); Mis
p.
another noun in construction may discard ya, p. 136 (i) concrete nouns, in I may take the ya of unity, p. 136 (j}j of ya, sing, abstract nouns do not admit in yak is substituted, p. 136 (/), Rem.
;
;
Mod.
Pers. in
added to qualifying
adj.,
can be referred to a
(k) (1) (2); indef.
pi. noun, pp. 136-7 art. in Eng. before a
cellaneous, p. 372 (10) Imitative sounds. Dervish Cries, p. 375-6 (c) and p. 375 (6) Street cries, p. 276, footnotes 1 and 2; 376 (d) Greeting to Guests, p. 380 (e) ; Wife, how referred to, p. 382 (/) GreetCalling to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p. 382 (g) ; 383 (h) Coming, etc., etiquette of, p.
; ; ;
plimentary Phrases, p. 384 sions of Tenderness, p. 385

; ;
numeral, expressed by ya, p. 137 (2); if the adj. is simple and can precede its noun, ya is added to the noun (3) in Mod. Pers., both jam' -I and jam' i az used (0; in Mod. Pers., if qualifying in def. adj. end in ya, a yak is used as "a "a glass art. (m) spoonful of milk," ex. of water," etc.. how rendered (m) Pers. of omission after generic noun in
;
;
ExpresAdjura(;) Shi' as and Sunnls, p. tions, p. 386 (k) 386 (m) Maledictions, p. 387 (2) Abuse,
(2)
;
;
p. 387 (3);
;
Examples,
p. 388 (4).
added both to noun and adj., p. 138 (o) exs. dlgar and digar-i, p. 138 (p) m.c. construction borrowed from Ar. (p) ya added to Ar. phrases ya added (q)
;
;
;
(in
def.
art.
in
Eng.), pp.
137-8 (w)
to last only of a series of nouns, p. 139 noun, in m.c., may be pre(s) ; first ceded by yak (s); in Mod. Pers. ya added to second only of two adjs., Rem. I ; class. E. of ya added to both adjs., 125 (c), p. 511 ; does not, as a rule, take some pers. ra, exs. (t) ; can be added to 140 (u) ; not added to mo, ,
Interrogation, may express negation, p. 293 (e) adverbs of, p. 296. Interrogative Verbs, p. 238. Inversion, p. 605 (i) (I) to (5). Invitation, to accept is a sunnat, p. and footnote 3 p. 383, footnotes. 586 and footnote 2 Iqllm, meanings of, p. 41G and lr and Tur, sons of Faridun, p. footnote 5. footnote 1. Irony, p. 633 (?) and Irrelevancy, p. 646 (/). Rem. Isha, dimin. term., p. 397 (6), 635. 'Ishqiyya, love song 638, p. 638 and footnote* 4 and
J*
IshtiqZq, figure, p.
/*
whan
am,
prons
p.
;
(u)
yak-l
man-am and man

,
yak-l
;
can be added to subs, qualiand chandan (x) fied by chunln, etc with ace. of man (y); can be added to
(v)-,
the Inf., p. 141 (z). Indigo, 'vide' Vasma.
56). Ism-i mawsul, p. 559 (4) and p. Ism-i mu k'abbar, p. 170 (e) (1). Ism-i sawt,p. 275 (b). " Isnayn both," p. 109 (3). 632 (e). Isti'ara-yi 'inadiyya, p. footnote 2. Istikhara, p. 390 (a) and and footnote 4 Istiqbal, p. 380 footnote 4. Istiqbal<, p. 314 and * and Istitbagh, p. 632 (/) 645 (b) and p. Itnab or Circumlocution, p.
****
Infinitive, in nominal compound verb, p. 286 280 (5) ; trans. Inf. used for Pass., p. be substi(3); in some sentences may tuted for Aor., p. 510, Rem. II; inf. used as a noun, p. 535 (s) in class. Pers., 536 (2) of trans, neg. of, how framed, p. verb often used intransitively (3) class, used for subj.. p. 539 (6); shortened
; ; ;
(*!_("
f\
52 (e) Izafat, kinds of, p. 54 "silent h, how written, p.

aspirated h
(f) (2)
;
Rem.
(/) (1
) ,
**
e
after
(/) (1),
Rem.
after final
p.
^,
P-
.**.**? 55 (/) (3)

,
final
hamza,
54," (f)
(/)
(2);
after
alif-i
rtra, p. 55
(3); written
and pro-
922
INDEX.
Jallall Year, p. 209 (d). Jama ak, dimin., p. 396, footnote
nounced by Indians L and Afghans, p. 55 (g) (h); with man, pp. 70-1 (/), Rem.;
with other pers. prons., 71 (/), Rom. I with after har du, p. 72, footnote 2 with verbs, p. affixed prons., p. 73 (/) some modern vulgarisms^ p. 74, Rem. I 75 (i) after kh_ud, p. 80 (e) after yliayr
;
;
5.
privative, p. 100 (a) (2). Rem. and footnote 3 may connect a series of adjs., p. 151 (i) (1): after some Parts, instead of incorrectly inserted prep., p. 161 (y) before Ar. verb, pp. 167-8 (15), Rem.; with Ar. sup., p. 171 (6) (3) and (e) (I); before compar. adj., p. 173 (d) in India omitted after name Hatim, p. 177 (p) and footnote 1 after sad-ha, Afghan, p. 190 (fc); after subs. avvaL p. 193 (g) with fractions, p. 194, Rem. II nlm-i USE and roz, Afghan, p. 206, footnote 3 OMISSION of IZAFAT, pp. 433-45; cases
; ; ; ;
;
followed by izafat, majmu' occasionally substituted, 'p. 116 (11). Janab-i 'All, followed by 2nd or 3rd persons pi., p. 282 (/)(!) and footnote 2. Janan, sing., p. 386 and footnote 2. Jaras, p. 297, footnote 3. Jarr and majnlr, p. 322 (11). Jav and ju, dimins. of, p. 397 (c). Javab-i Amr, p. 65 (r) and footnote 4. Javak-i, dimin., p. 396 and footnote 4. Jaw, dimin. of, p. 397, Rem. I and p. 396 and footnote 4. Jilav, p. 336 (14). Jlm-i yak=Jamada 'l-ulq, p. 201 and footnote 1. Jinas vide Tajnls. Jingling sounds vide under Repetition, etc. Jlra, p. 3 and footnote 3.
,
Jaml
433-4
which IZAFAT must be INSERTED, pp. between prop, name and profession, before tribal designation, p 433 (a) (6); before the words 'country river,
in
;
Job, patience of, p. 171 (4). Joking phrase expressing affirmation, p. 295 (5) and footnote 4. Joseph, beauty of, etc., p. 179 (4) and footnotes 466.
jav, dimins. of, p. .97 (c), Rem. I. Juft and linga, p. 189 (h) p. 469 and foot;
city, etc.,' in titles of books, for patronymic, with fractions, with superlative, p. 434 (c) (d) (e) (/) (g) and footnote 2 before a phrase, is inserted in Mod. Pers. but omitted in Indian, p. 435 (h) ;
; ,
Ju and
note
3.
Juja= chicken,
IZAFAT after PARTICULAR WORDS, p. 435 after Janab and Hazrat, mablagh. and ahl,
;
Jum
p. 435 (a) (b) (c) ;' after a/656, p. 436 (d) with marhum, p. 436 (e) abna* (/), sahib FAKK-I IZAFAT, p. 437 omitted 'with {g) amir, mir, vail, bin, sar, sahib, p. 437 further exs. of, pp'. 441-2 (6) (a) to 441
;
p. 379 (16) and footnote 6. banidan, word avoided in m.c., p. 181 (9) and footnote 1. Jumla whole, usually followed by izafat,
Jumla-yi zarfiyya,
p. 115 (9); in apposition, p. 116 (9). p. 570 (a), Rem. ; jumlayi 'atftyya, p. 577 (c) and footnote 3 jumla-yi tardldiyya, p. 579 (d) ; jumla-yi
;
IZAFAT-I MAQLUBI, p. 149 (6) and p. 150 (g); p. 442 cases in which IZAFAT must be OMITTED, pp. 442-3; none between prop, name and title, p. 442 (a) ;
(c)
; ;
izrabiyya, p. 582
p.
jumla-yi mu'tariza, (c) 618 and footnote 3 jumla-yi baslta and jumla-yi murakkaba, p. 036 (n).
; ;
;
Jumlagl, jumlahi
shade of difference in
none between compound words, seldom after measures of length, etc., (6) (c)
;
further examples, pp. 443-51

after
with nisf
;
meaning between jumla and jumlagi, p. 116(10); "all come," different ways of expressing, p. 116 (10), Rem.; by some,
said
and footnote
444
(d)
;
but not with nlm, p. 443 and footnote 6 blm but not after maslahat, p. 444
blshtar, aghlab, aksar, p. before an Inf. governed by a
;
to=an
adv., p. 116 (10),
Rem.
Jurra, a water measure, p. 215, footnote Juzv-i and juzvl, p. 137 (8) and Remark.
3.
prep., p. 444 (e) ; gen. subjective and objective, p. 445 (/) ; not used after voc. in -a, p. 463 ; in m.c. wrongly inserted in
appos., p. 620 (g) and Rem. man-i banda and man banda, footnote 3; after ma6lagh and muvazl, p. 621 (h), Remark;
;
K, dimin.
2.
Ka, dimin. termin.,
terrain., p. 396 (4) and (5). p. 395 (2) and footnote
with pronoun in appol. to noun or adj., is inserted or omitted, p. 621 (i) and footnotes not used after pron. ?7, with not used when the pi. prons., p. 622;
;
is pi. footnote 2 repetition of subs, with izafat, p. 625 (h) izafat possibly expressed' in writing by 55, p." 156
predicate
Ka'bah, p. 144, footnote 5. Kablsa. Leap Year, p. 207, footnote 1. Kaf-i istifham or kaf-i kudamiyya, p. 92 (/), Rem.; before -am, etc., how written, p. 92 (g) pi. kiyam and kl-ha, pp. 92-3 (h)
;
same
ki bi-klst=disorder, p. 93 (i) sag-i klst, p. 93 (/); kaf-i tarahhum, p. 397, Rem. ' II; kaf-i mawsul or sila, vide' Mawsul.
;
Jacob, p. 179 (4) and footnote 6. " Jafang, m.c. = bosh," p. 596 and footnote
Jakh.t=]uat now,
p.
315
(5).
Kaffa, not common, followed by izafat, p. 117(13). Kaf-gu,=a, shovel, etc., p. 396, footnote 1. Kaj dar u ma-riz, p. 291, line 1 and footnote 1. Kam, kam-l, kam-tar kam-l, p. 126 (4); kam, positive for compar., I74(i); kam
;
INDEX.
and kam
(5)
;
1)23
tar, as negs.
p. 231 (/)
kam-tar, p. (6). Kam 65r, = " seldom " in class. Pers., but *' of light weight," p. 196 (d) and in m.c.
kam and
p.
304
490
footnote 4. Katriina positive

,
and
sup.,
p.
51
(/)
kamina, banda,
etc.,
used for 1st and 3rd
fern, in Mod. pera. prons., p. 69 (c) ; in class Pers. posiPers. , p. 157 (s) (2) tive masc. (s) (2). KnmiL Pers. compar. and sup , p. 174 (h). Kandastl, old form of 2nd pers. sing Perf.,
;
note 3;=ma65da, p. 365 (24); or usually introduces subj., p. 539 (a), Rem. when, p. 570 (6), 'vide' Ki. Ki = kl " who ?," p. 218 (d) and footnote 4. Kih, positive for compar., p. 174 (*). Ko,l hai=bachcha-ha, p. 373 and footnote 7. Ku and kush, p. 297 (2) and p. 290, footnote 5. Kuchulu and kuchuli, p. 398 (e). Kudam or kudamln, etc., p. 91 (a) used
;
in 91
both direct and indirect questions, p.

(a);
kich kudamhtch yak (6);

; ;
kudam
p. 232,
VIII, Reni.
Kanlz and kanlzak, p. 69 (c) and footnote 3. Karahiyat, not rel. noun, p. 400, footnote 3. Karavan saray, shops in, p. 439 and footnote 4. Karbala'i, form of address, p. 370 and footnote 4 Kardan, p. 280 (a) (6) Past Part, of, used by Afghans with comparatives, p. 280 (6),
;
yak-l, mod. (c) kudam, used for ace. pi. of ki (c), Rem. har kudam (d); used by " some one " Afghans for Hindustani ko,l
(e).
Kuhistan and
p.
ktihsar, difference
between,
Rem.
Kat,
kas-i, p.
(c)
102
(c)
;
102-3
p.
(3),
Rem
;
(3)
kas=nob\e, pp. kas u na-kas=high

;
411 and footnote 2. Kuja, idiomatic meanings of, p. 297 (3). Kuja*i, adj., p. 218 (5)'and footnotes land 3. Kull, subs., p. 118 (18); classically precedes its subs, without izafat, p. 118 (18) kull Ar. subs, and kulli Pers. subs, (and kuUl Ar. adj.), p. 160 (w) (2) and p. 118
;
and low, bi-kas
friendless, kam-tar kas-i,
(19),
Rem.
I.
kas with neg. verb=no103 (c) (3) one, p. 104 (d) (1). Kash and optative, p. 550 (e). Kashi, adj. of Kashan, p. 402, Rem. V. Ka'a sunestn, construction, p. 661 and foot-
Kulfr* and kulliyyat, p. 307 (5). Kulll, Pers. abstract noun and Ar. adj., p.
118 (19)
;
bi-kulll
and
kulliyyat
different
meanings, p. 118 (19), Rem. I'; kullu-kum used by Afghans in m.c. (19), Rem. II;
Kay = when and how
notes
1,
and
5.
?, p.
293
(e)
and
foot-
Kumaj dan = copper
p. 160 (w) (2).
cooking-pot,
p.
410
note 2. Kayf, p. 385 and footnotes. Kestril, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. Khanam, fern, of Khan, p. 50 (d). Khar, shah, dev, give idea of size, p. 170 (e) kjiar, signifying "ass," in com(I); pounds, p. 171 (2). Kharabat, kbarabatl, p. 344, footnote 2. Khuk bar sar-am, p. 463 and footnote 4. Khariyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. Kharits-i Larl, p. 379 and footnote 5. -Khattr-i musnad, p. 9, footnote 3; khatfci shagari or kjiatt-i sarm, p. 36. Khayli and bisyar, followed by sing, or pi. subs., kh,ayli, cannot follow its noun, p.
150 (d)
;
and footnote 4. Kurur, cardinal, p. 184 and footnotes 3, and p. 185 (6).
and
and
Xw5=drum,
'
'
Kushia shudan not used,

footnote 5. Rush vide Ku. Khwah, p. 580 (3);
311 (14).
p. 297, footnote 3. p. 286 (d) (3)
jchwah ma-kJuuah, p.
Khwabanidan, p. 248 and footnote 3. Kliwaja, in Mod. Pers., address to Armenians and Hindus, p. 473 and footnote
1
;
= Jew vide under
Mula.
Khwasta
I
p. 306.
Khayr=no, should not be used
alone, p.
294 (g) (1) and footnote 3. Khirsak, p. 615 and footnote 5. Khifiba, oratory, p. 629 (a). Khud, pp. 77-9 (a) jchud-ha and khudhayi-man, etc., p. 79, Rem. II; p. 80 (e)
;
bashid, more polite than mljchwahid, p. 460 and footnote 1. Khwastan, pp. 257-61 followed by apocopated Inf. , p. 257 (a) ; by unapocopated Inf., p. 258 (6): bi-bhwahad raft, p. 259, Rem. I; Subj. after, p. 259, Rem. II;
;
p. 81,
Rem.
II.
Khuda
hafizl kardan, p. 373
and footnote
2.
Khurandan, p. 284, Rem. Khurda-l and yak bhurda, p. 125 (p) (3). Khurdan, in passive sense, p. 285, footnote
5
Inf., Afghan, p. 259 (c) tr.=to summon, followed by Subj. (c) desire, love, pp. 259-60 (d);=to intend, 260 (/) =it is p. 260 (e) = requires, p. necessary, p. 260 (/) =should, p. 261 (g). 78 (4), p. 79 (c) in m.c. a subs, Khwish,
preceded by
p.
only, p. 81
(/).
Khwlshawand,
p. 81
(/).
Khwishtan, applicable
;
Khustira, vulg. for khnsh ast, p. 90 (h) (1). Ki= -who?," how declined, p. 92 (/) ay with compar. of adj. or noun, p. 172 = chunan 1 (d) (3) and p. 353 and footnote ast ki, p. 179 (v) (3) ;=so as, (w)(5); " whether ?," interr., p. 238, (6) and footki conj., significations of, p. 349 note 3 saying that, p. 351 and foot(13), etc.
= =
to rational beings 81 (g). only, in compounds, p. 80 (d) p.

;
La, in comp.
adj.,
p.
167
(12);
la-uball
"careless," really Ar. verb, p. 167 (12),
'
Rem.
924
Labbayk,
INDEX.
Malla, gana, gharlb-gaz, p. 273, footnote (alif), pp. 20-1.
1.
p. 373 and footnote 5. Labbe, p. 294 (i) (4) and footnote 5. La-bud, p. 295 (1) and footnote 1. La-hawl a etc., p. 533 and footnote 1. Lak (for lakh) cardinal, p. 184 and footnote 2, and p. 185 (6). Lakht or dash=inverted commas, p. 37. Lakht-l=& short time, p. 127 (9) and p. 308
,
6.
Mamduda
Masrurl
Manquta letters, p. 9 (h). Mardaka, p. 370 and footnote
Man,
letters, p. 9 (h). 1st pers. pron. ;
man
ra vulg. and
(9).
poppy p. 394 and footnote 2. Lammergeyer, p. 4 00 and footnote 1. Lar or lar, Turkish pi. p. 67 (/) and p. 429
Lala
, ,
man-i ra correct, p. 63, footnote 3, and p. 140 (y); man and izafat, pp. 70-1 (/), Rem. I man-i banda or man banda, p. 620 (g) and footnote 3; man u tu, com;
mon man
(P).
Lassarii or verbosity, p. 646 (g). Lawh, the tablet, p. 227, footnote 1, and p. 422, footnote 1. Lazim and ZfmmS,=intr., p. 221 and footnote 1, and p. 574 (d) (1) and footnote 8 lazim dashtan, p. 266 (i) ; lazim shudan, p. 269, footnote 5.
:
Mana, Rem. I. Manand, p.
in poetry, p. 71. Rem. II; voc. of as a possess, pron., p. 76 (6), Rem. must be followed by ki, p. 295,
156
(r),
Rem.
=like, in comp.
;
adjs., p. 168 (16).
Mandan. tr.. Afghan idiom, p. 262 (/) kam manda bud for kam mand. m.c. p.
,
262 (/) (4), and footnote Manistan.
4.
Vide also
Leap Year,
p. 207 (a)
and footnote
;
1.
10 (m) of alphabet and significations, pp. 11-21; solar and lunar, p. 31 comparisons if poetry, p. 34. Like, equal to, in comparison between clauses, p. 179 (v) (3). Linga, odd one of pair, etc., p. 108, footnote 3; p. 189 (6). Local Clauses, vide under Temporal Clauses.
Letters, change of, p.

;
Manistan and mandan, amongst Afghans, tr., =to place, p. 242 and footnote 1. Ma qabl and ma ba'd, p. 21. Maqbul and maqbiila, p. 158 (7). Maqsura (alif) as used by Indians, p. 10 (/)', Rem. II p. 20 and footnote 3. Maqula, p. 563 (6).
;
Love Songs, p. 635. Lunar letters, p. 31. Luqman, p. 179 (4) and footnote
Lyric, p. 635.
2.
M
Ma,
neg., p. 235 (6)
(c) (e),
Rem.
;
Mabad, mabada, p. 228 352 and footnote 1.

*
5
(e)
p. 365 (24)
p.
before dative, particle, p. 57 (c) 299 (2) and footnote 5; p. 322 (6); p. 455 (12). Mardaka, p. 370, footnote 1. Mardaku, p. 398 (e). Mardum, pi., also marduman, p. 465 (b) and footnote 3. Mardumiyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. Marhaba, p. 369, footnote 1. Marhvm, in m.c. precedes its subs, with an izafat, p. 436 (e) and p. 151 (q).
;
Mar,
p.
Ma baqqiy", p. 129 (3). Ma bayn, vide Miyan.

Mablagh and muvazi, followed by
Marsiya, p. 635. Marvazl and Marghazl, p. 402, Rem. V. Mast and dust, once Past Parts., p. 156
izafat, p.
(r)
Ma dam
Madar,
621 (h),
Rem.
ki, etc., p.
interj., p.
363 (14). 374 and footnote
2.
Ma'dum,
note note
2.
adj., p. 167 (13). Magar, interr., p. 238 (a); p. 298 (8) and 299 (k) (1), p. 343 (5) p. 345 (9) and foot-
in
comp.
Vide
Ay a.
p.
Allah, p. 369 and footnote 2. Mash'al Ar., and mash'ala Pers., p. 410 and footnote 1. Mash.hadi, pilgrim, p. 300, footnote 1; p. 370 and footnote 4. Mashkula, dimin. of mashk, p. 398 (g). Ma'shuq and ma'shuqa, p. 159 (n).
Ma sha
(5).
Maggots
1.
and nightingales,
276,
foot-
Ma-ha
we," p. 70 (e). Ma'haza,p. 365(21).

Mahalla-yi khamushan and shahr-i kjiamushan, p. 435 and footnote 2. Mahbilb, and mahbuba, p. 159 (u). Mahz, p. 310 (Q); = baray, p. 311; p. 338, footnote 2; p. 361 (12) footnote 4. Majaz-i mahall bi-ismi hal, p. 667 (h) and footnote 3. Majaz-i mursal, p. 631 (e). Majhul sounds, p. 23.
Masnavl, p. 635. Maudlin or sentimental and footnote 3. Mawsul, kaf-i mawsul,

l
in style, p. 632
(/)
Majmu
=jami>'
'
'
p. 116 (11).
Majnun, p. 179 (4) and footnote 5. Majrur vide Jarr. Mai, absolute gen., p. 35 (4) in m.c. used
;
M.C. = Modern Colloquial. Meaningless Appositive, p. 615 (a) and p. 622 (a) p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and II. Measures of length, p. 213 tasu, Afghan, = and footnote 2; inch, p. 214 (6) "square," p. 214 (d): Ar. measures, Appen. E. Metaphor, briefer than lit. statement,
;
kaf-i sila, p. 559 (4) ; raji* or a*id, p. 559'. Mazanna, p. 299 (k) and footnote 3. azaq, p. 633 (I).
sila,
false, p. 665 p. 650 (m) Metre, p. 634 (m).

;
(g) (1).
for mine, thine, etc.," Malfuzl letters, p. 9 (h).
p. 77 (g).
Ml = haml, q.v.
Mih, positive
for compar., p. 174
(*').
INDEX.
Million,
925
how
expressed, p. 184
rtillyun,
(6).
Milyun or
p. 184.
French,
=
;
Mutawwal,
1,000,000,
= diffuse,
'
p. 644
note
(a)
and
foot-
5.
'
in m.c. exetc., pp. 76-7 (/) pressed by mal-i, p. 77 (/). Min ba'd, p. 360 (5). Minnat mi-daram, etc., p. 310 (3). Ir vide Amtn. Mirza, p. 437 and footnote 3. Misfortune, attributed to the revolution of the sky, p. 238, footnote 4; good to Allah, ditto. Misl-i ham, p. 82 (i). Misrelated Participle, p. 531 (n) to 532. Miyan, may take place of bayn, but not always vice versd, p. 503 (d) and footnote 4, and p. 504 footnote 2. Modal Clauses, vide under Temporal. Money, various coins current, p. 212 (a) (6) how sent by post, p. 213 (c). (c) (d) Month, first and last of, p. 193 (h). Months, Syrian, pp. 208-9; Yazd-gardi, p. 209 (6). More, how expressed, p. 175 (6). Miibalagha, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. Mubtada 9 subject, p. 636 (n). Muchal, T., cycle of TurkI year,=Pers. duvazdah sal-i turki, p. 204 (c). Mudam, p. 316 and footnote 2. Mufjhul, p. 639 and footnote 4.
Mine, thine,
Muvazl vide Mablagh. Muyassar, prop. = facilitated, and footnote 1.
p. 174
(i) (1)
Muwahhada
letters, p. 10
(i).
'
'
N
nasal, none in Persian; in Ar. occurs before certain letters, p. 18 and footnotes. Na-, and net-, p. 165 (10) and p. 166 (10); preferred to ma, m.c., p. 231, III, c and footnote 1 ; ria in compounds, p. 231 (g) na, p. 235 (a) (d) (e) (/) with bayad, 231 ria and not na position of, p. (i) used with a part, that is an adj., p. 235, footnote 4; na for "no," vulg., nakhayr
N,
polite, p. 322
p.
;
and footnote 5;
p.
note
na and andar, and foot347 footnote 4 na and na in

(g)
294
(1);
p. 343
;
neg. parts, p. 531
Nabat
4.
(1). = sugar-candy, p.
377 and footnote
Nabza,
p. 127 (10),
Rem.
Nafar, p. 187 (g) and p. 189, Rem. II. Nafl, = adv.,p. 289. Na-ghafil, m.c. for ghaftat, p. 166
Rem.
(10),
I.
Muhal-i mumkin, vulg.,
Muhammad and Umar

footnote
1.
p. 161 (y). Year, p. 200

(;')
and
foot-
Muhtamalu
note
4.
'z-ziddayn, p. 632
and
Na*ib, pi. only used in m.c., p. 458 (e) and footnote 6. .Na khitshi, m.c. = sickness, p. 385 and footnote 2. Namaz-l plshm, namaz-i digar, Afghan,
p. 206.
Mujama
letters, p. 9 (h).
Mujtahids, right to see women unveiled, p 292, footnote 3. Mukhaffafat, p. 38. MukJitasar, = brief, p. 644 (a) and footnote
5.
Namvdan,
p. 280
'
(c).
/an, p. 374 and footnote Nari, = he-goat, vide Chapish. Narration, direct and indirect, p. 502
'
Nana and nana

to p. 570. vide
3.
(a)
Mula or
note
kj^waja = Jew, p.
380 (18) and foot-
Nasal n,
'
N.
p. 35.
3.
Naskh and Kufi, handwritings,

Nasr, p. 634 (m).
Na'sta'liq, p. 36.
'
'
Multiplicative numerals, p. 197. Milmiyafi, p. 657 and footnote 1. Mumayyaz vide Tamiz.
.
Nauha,
Munajat-i manziima,
Muqaddam
,
p. 635. antecedent, p. 560 (4).

(o).
Murajjaz, p. 637 Murasea' prose,
p. 637 (o) Murgh', == hen, p. 379 (16)
muryh-i dawlat, p. Musallasa letters, p. 10 (i). Mufiannat letters, p. 10 (i). Musajja' or muqaffa, prose, p. 637 (o). Mush-i fct'r, = bat (not mole), p. 173, footnote 1. Mushkil and ishkal, p. 159 (v) (1) mushkil =hardly, p. 300 (5). Mushkula, *p. 398 (g). Music and dancing, waving the arms in,
;
and footnotes. and footnote 5; 400 and footnote 7.
Na'uff* billah, p. 293 (/)(!) and footnote 6. NawakJitan, p. 245 (3) and footnote 4. Naw-Ruz, p. 205 (e) p. 393 (h). Nay, p. 292 (d) (1) and footnote 4; nay nay =balki, p. 355 and footnote 2. Nazakat, Pers. word on Ar. measure, p. 404,
;
p. 635.
Rem.
I.
Nazd, used for persons only, p. 333 (o). Nazdik, p. 332 (9). Nazm-i zarlfana, p. 635. Necessary, expressed by khwastan, Afghan,
; ;
507 and footnote 4; forbidden, p. 552, footnote 1. Mustafl and Mustafavl, p. 402, Rem. V. Must have, =bayad with Fut. Perf., p. 271 (p) p. 233 (c) (5). Mutaradif, p. 645 and footnote 2. Mutawazl, of prose, p. 637 (o).
p.
;
paraphrase for, p. 273, Rem. p. 260 (/) and andak Negatives, p. 235 (a) to (*) kam as negs., p. 236 (i); advs. of negation, 294 (g) polite form of neg., p. p. 292 (d) of prohibition, neg. subj. after verb (2) after 5, p. 500 (e) and footp. 497 (i) note 6; neg. participles, p. 531 (11). Neither nor, p. 49s (6) (5) and Rem neither and either, distrib. pronouns, neither of two, concord of, p. 599 (/)
;
p. 108
(/).
INDEX.
Never,
p. 293
emphatic denial, how expressed, too many negatives a source of (/)

; ;
Vide Ever. error, p. 663 (e). Nightingale, p. 276, footnote 1 p. 351, footnote 4. Vide also under Rlza-khwarii. Nihayat* 'lamr, p. 365 (22). Nik and nikii, rare in m.c., p. 162 (6) (1),
Rem. I riik and bad precede their subs. p. 149 (6). Nim, nl nlma, p. 194 (a) and footnote 2, and riim-shab and mraa, p. 313 p. 195 (e) (d) and footnote 2 nim-i roz, Afghan, p. 206,
; , ; ;
tional beings preferably pi. (d) (1); unqualified by adj. are usually sing., p. 466 (d) (2) pi. gives prominence, p. 467 (e) wheat, butter, etc., pi. or sing., p. 468 (/); pi. for Eng;. sing., p. 469 (g) ; after 'pair' and card. no. in sing, (h) ; subs, of compounded verb is sing, (i) ; pi. for
;
collectives, when pi. (/) p. 470 qism and aqsam with sing, and pi. noun used fig. may be sing, with (I) (m) pi. of shutur-bachcha,. pi. meaning, (n) etc. p. 475 (w) sine, and pi. nouns with
dual
(k)
;
footnote
3.
Nlsf and
p. 194 (a) p. 195 (e) (d).

;
mm,
and footnote
and
Niz, incorrectly used as a correlative of nlz and ham, differagarchi, p. 556 (b) ence between, p. 339, Rem. Nizd, not adv., prep, only, p. 303, footnote
2.
Pret. (x) ; harmn qadr and hamin qadr-ha (y) subs, repeated in pi. as a superlative, p. 476 (z) sing, in Pers. before two inconsistent qualities, pi. in Eng., p. 493 (/). Vide also under Nouns. Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, pp. 644-52; three forms of diffuseness,
Imperf. and
Na*ib and navvab, No matter how

'
65 (c), p. '
or
'
Rem.
however,'
how
ren-
644 (b); Tautology, Pleonasm, Redundancy, Circumlocution, p. 645 (b) justidual tautological fiable Tautology (c)
p.
;
'
'
dered, p. 557
(c).
Nominal verbs,
note
2.
p. 275 (e)
and
p. 274, foot-
Nominative
case, pp. 445-6; used absolutely, p. 445; subj. of passive verb, hi
Urdu and Indian Persian sometimes put

in the accusative, p. 446. 'No sooner than,' p. 501 (h)
3.
and footnote
Not only, vide only. Noun, common, collective, generic, concrete, abstract, p. 56, Rem. II primitive and derived, def. and indef., p. 56, Rem. II; Pers. noun of instrument usually a compound, p. 428, Rem. II NOUNS of MULTITUDE, concord of, pp. 464-476 and
; ;
expressions (d) (1) (2); refrain of song, p. 646 (3) ; emotion expressed by repetition (e); circumlocution, examples, euphemism, is used in tafslr (/) verbosity (g) ; prolixity (h) ; SOURCES of BREVITY ; selection of aptest words, use of Figures, p. 647 (i) and footnotes 1 and 2 ; METHODS of ABBREVIATION, one predicate 'for several subjects, etc. (i) ; employ"ment of participles, (?) (1); parts, as
:
relative clauses, p. 648 of phrases (3); "being" omitted, p. 649 (3); omission of verb, p. (k) ; ELLIPSES (I) ; METAPHOR briefer
equivalents of
(z);
equivs.
briefer
p. 586 (e)
take sing, or
;
pi.
verb,
pi. after
,
ya of unity, p. 464 (a) mardum, pi. p. 465 (6); dushman, sing, (c); generic nouns
denoting rational beings or preferably,
(d) (1) ; unqualified by adj. are usually sing., p. 466 (d) (2) pi. for sing. Eng., p. 469 (g); COLLECTIVES, when pi., noun used fig. may be sing. p. 470 (k)
pi.
; ;
statement, p. 650 (m) gen. terms than particular, p. 651 (n) and footnote 1 phrase expressed by one word (o); a statement briefly implied, Impera. for (p); con Junes, omitted, (q) " " if APPOSITION is brief, p. 652 (r)
than
lit.
with
pi.
pi.
meaning
be
(n)
as a superlative, p. 476
noun repeated in noun (z)

;
parenthesis, p. 652 (t) CLEARNESS consideration. Rem. Numerals, pp. 182-203; CARDINALS, p. 182 (a) ; Ar. numerals 1 to 10 (and ordinals up to 20), p. 184; system ceases at
(s);
;
the
first
500,0 0; one million,

p. 185 (6)
;
repeated in comparisons, p. 491 (d); but not so in superlatives (e) sing, in Pers. before the inconsistent to be qualities, pi. in Eng., p. 493 (/) repeated after each adj., p. 494 (I) concord of collectives, p. 586 (e) NOUN of AGENCY in -anda, vide under Agency NOUN of POSSIBILITY or FUTURE PART., GENERIC NOUNS vide under p. 535; Generic. Vide also Number of Nouns. Number, a number repeated has a distributive, contin native or intensive sense, when repeated in Afghan, but p. 623 (6) not in mod. Persian, p. 627 (32) and footnote 4.
;
should
constr. of
(e)
;
Ar.
pi.
with card., p.
t
'
'
Numbers, Approximate, p. 199. Number of Nouns, nour.s of multitude take

sing, or pi. verb, pi. after ya of unity, p. 464 (a) ; mardum, p. 465 (6) ; dushman sing, (c) ; generic nouns devoting ra.
p. 191 (&); suffix in -m added, (c); card, for ord. in poetry, (c), Reno.; may be made by adding digar, p. 193 (?) ; FRACTIONS, Pers., how formed, p. 194 (a); for f , Ar. frac. to be used, Rem. I ;
after hard, (/) harsi,etc., (/) qualifying or determining words used with numerals, p. 187 (g) : ya of unity and cardinal, p. 189, Rem. II ; juft, zauj, linga, darzhan, p. 189 (h) du char shudan (/) sad-ha, hazar-la (k) ; sadha-yi mardum (Afl), p. 190 (k}; year expressed by card, (m) things commonly accompanied by nos., p. 190, footnote ORDINALS, p. 191 Ar. ordinals up to 20, p. 184; formative suff. added to last only,
;
1 ; as predicate sad~ha, etc., (e)

;
karvr and lak, (&) noun with card, (e) 786 (e) and footnote noun in pi. after
;
; ;
no ra
si-yak not used,
Rem.
II;
nim and nw/,
INDEX.
p. 194, footnote 2; Ar. fractions in speaking, p. 195 (6) duals and pis. rarely used (6); minus J, Rem.; per cent., p. 196 other methods (c) ; DECIMALS, p. 196 (/) of expressing fractions (g) ADVERBIAL, NUMERALS, p. 196; MULTIPLICATIVE, Ar. seldom used (b) and (a) DISp. 197 TRIBUTIVES, p. 198; yaganyagan, p. 198 and footnote 2; RECURRING, p. 198; (1) APPROXIMATE, p. 199; numeral prefixed to noun forms comp. adj., p. 168 (17) and
; ;
;
927
Pacha, leg of cattle only, in m.c.,

footnote 3. Padshahat, Indian, on Ar. measure,
p. 309,
p.
Rem.
404
I.
Pah,
interj., p. 369. noun in sing, after, p. 469 (6). Pak and fa/, p. 161 (2). Palindromes, letters that are, p. 9 (h)
Pair,
and
footnote.
Rem.
Numerical Adjectives, pp. 199-200 formed 55 (a), p. 199; Story by silent (h), Tellers idioms (6) obs. idioms from Tuzuk-i Jahangirl, (6); Ar. num. adjs.,
;
;
p. 200
(c).
Numerical Figures, p. 33. Nun-i munfasil, p. 343, footnote

Nuqra*i,
etc.,
1.
how
(e)
Paludci'&nd faluda; p. 243, footnote 4. Palvdan and palidan, amongst Afghans to search, p. 243, footnote 4. Panja-yi duzdlda, or Ishamsa-yi mustariqa, names of, p. p. 206 (a) and footnote 7 209 (&)(!). Paradise, four grades of, p. 180 (w) and footnote 1 p. 190, footnote 1.
written, p. 400.
Nuvvab, p. 458
and footnote
Paragraphs
and chapters,
p.
613,
Rom.
6.
Objective genitive, p. 448. Obscurity, =. ghamazat, p. 631 (d) p. 654 (b) (1) to (4) great length or brevity causes it, p. 659 (6). Vide Ambiguity and Incoherence. * or Odd,' more, p. 198 (3).
; ;
Para-i, subs., p. 125 (p) (2). p. 244, Rem. and footnote 5. Parenthesis, p. 652 (t) and footnote 2. Pari kah-i, p. 127 (12). Participles, Past, p. 527 (m) (1) to (w),p. 531 ; used conjunctively, final n considered
Pardakhtan,
a copulative conj., p. 527 (m)

:
(1)
re-
Odes,
p. 635.
Omens,
On = immediately after, = bi-,

p. 197 (e). position in sentence, p.
1.
p. 392 (e).
dundant vav with, p. 528 can take place of adv. (2) and footnote 3; of subs., p. 5-9 (3) and footnotes 1 and 4; of a clause (4) of an adj. (5); as pass, part.,
;
p.
504
(g),
Once again,
Only, note
p. p.
530 (6) used for pres. part, in Eng., 530 (7); and in Pers. with slight
;
(
496 and foot-
Onomatopy, p. 633 (k). Optative mood, p. 233 (/)

is
clauses, 550 (e);
form of condit. clause, introduced by

;
kash chi budi, etc., p. 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5 Opt. and Past Opt. , represented by same tense, p. 551 (e), Rem. in Mod. Pers., both can be represented by the Aor. or the Imperf., and the Past Opt. by the Plup. also, p. 551 (/). Or, p. 342 (4). Order of Words, and Errors in, pp. 604-13 ; formal order, p. 604 (a) ; dat. follows the ace. (b) words denoting time placed first (c) when complement is a sentence,
; ; ;
indicates state of certain trans, vbs. is used pas(9) sively, p. 531 (10); neg. formed with na-, with na (11); as a means of condensa' tion, p. 531 (n); misrelated,' p. 531 (n) to 532 ; p. 156 (r) (4) ; Ar. fern. Past Part., p. 51 (g); Perf. Part, prefixed to buda asi "must" in Af. Pers., p. 906
change of meaning
;
(8)
(48;
(o)
;
and footnote
PART. PRES.,
p. 532
part, in -an not much used, always for contin. action, p. 532 (o) to 533: contin. tense may be formed by it, p. 533; p. 156 (r) (1) and (3); VERBAL ADJEC. in -a, p. 54, Rem. ; ADVERBIAL PART., p. 528 (2) and footnote 3; vide
how formed used

2.
above: PARTICIPLE FUTURE, p. 535 (r), in pi. (r) and footnote

;
it
can precede (e) more than one verb at end of sentence, p. 605 (/) Impera. can begin clause (/) in m.c. a few verbs precede their dat. (g) position of first portion of comp. or pot. verb Inversion (i) exam, of, pp. 605-7 (h) avoid crowding circumstances together, p 607 (?) circumstances should not be placed between two capital members (k) corresponding order to be assigned to circumstances (I) examples of collocation, pp. 608 (m) (n), 613 adjs. and phrases in
clause
it
;
comes by a rel.
;
last (d)
when
obj. is qualified
p. 628 (?) and p. 655 (b) (2) Vide also Tajnls. footnote 1. Parsis, Indian, how divided, p. 401, footnote 3. Pas for va, p. 578 (2). Pashmadan so-and-so, such and such,
Paronomasia,
p. 107 (2).'
Pas manda and 'aqab manda,

II.
p. 129,
Rem.
of ex-
appos. may follow the verb, p. 615 Ordinals, pp. 191-3.
(2).
Oxymoron,
Orthography and Orthoepy, p. 1. p. 631 (e) and footnote
7.
Passive Voice, pp. 285-88 ; methods verb adpressing, p. 285 (6) not every mits of a Passive, p. 286 (c) ex. of gram, trans. Inf. used for pass. p. 286 (d) pass., p. 286 (3); pass, to express possibility for impossibility, p. 286 (4); pass, expressed by Ar. Past Part. p. 287 (e) by
;
;
928
3rd pers.
pi.
INDEX.
of trans.
(/)
;
pass, of neut.
verb to express impossibility, App. B, p. 891 and footnote 2. Past Tense, vide Preterite Eng. Past Indie, expressed by Pers. Aor. p. 539 (c) PAST HABITUAL, for mere supposition, p. 547 and footnote 3 for future but impossible suppositions, p. 547 and footnote 4; PAST POTENTIAL vide Habitual PAST SUBJ. and PAST PRESUMPTIVE, p. 531 (/)'; CONTIN. PAST SUBJ. p 523. Pathos, p. 622 (g) and footnote 3. Paya = thunder, vulg., p. 274, footnote 1. Per, p. 322 (11) and footnote 9. Per cent., p. 1:6 (e). Perfect Tense, old form of 2nd pers. sing.,
;
,
Plup. not used, p. 538 (u) and p. 232 (c) a little used form of (2) and footnote 3 Plup., p. 232, IX, Rem. and p 668 (i) Ploce, p. 655 and footnote 1 ) and footnote ( Plural, formation of, in CLASS. PERS., pp. 5864 of nouns ending in a or u t p. 59 of words ending in silent (h), p. 59 (c) in aspirated h, p. 60 (e), Rem.; (d) (e) br. Ar. words take Pers. pi., p. 60 (/) Ar. pis. (/) reg fern. Ar. pi. (g) used for neu. nouns, p. 61 (g) pi. of pis. (h) barbarous form, p. 62 (i) Pers. words with Ar. br. pi. (/) Ar. fern. pi. added to
;
i
some
Pers.
pi.
barous
232, VIII Rem.; contin. Perf., p. 232 Perf. tense, pp. 523 (fc)-7 ; its use in Eng. (k) (1) ; expressed by Pers. Pret., pp. 52.S (fc)-4 ; Pers. Perf. indicates that an act is past but its effects continue, p. 524; indicates time indef. and anterior to Pret., p. 524 ; indicates as recently finished if time is indefinite, p. 525 (1) ; h
(c) (1)
;
p. 63, Rem. MOD. PERS.,
words (k) br. pi. and barmay have different meanings,

; ;
reg. Ar. p. 64; a
masc
few
pi.
(I)
in
br. pis.
used
;
;
in m.c.
dropped
in
;
3rd
pers.
sing.,
(2);
;
ast
even by the vulgar, p. 65 (c) incorrectly used as sings., p. 1 (c), Rem. Pers. fom., Ar. pis. used in m.c. (d) words with imitation, Ar. fern. pi. (d) reg. pis. of pis. used in m.c., p. 66 (e) br. pi. raasc. Ar. pi. in speaking (h) treated as sing., Pers. pi. added, p. 469
;
;
omitted (3) subs, verb of other persons omitted in certain sentences (3) some emphatic statements, p. 526; exs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (I) CONTIN. PERF., p. 536 (t) and Rem.; PERF. PROGRESSIVE, how expressed, p. 513 (8); PERF. SUBJ., p. 542 (/). Periphrasis, p. 646 (/) and footnote 3. Permit, pp. 261-2. Persian, dialects of, p. 636 (p) prose works, p. 639; Mod. Pers. simpler, but lax (r) rhetorical style, p. 642 (t) styles to be compared, p. 644 (u).
; ; ; ;
footnote
(p)
:
pi.
used for respect, p. 472

p.
to give
(e)
;
prominence to a word,
;
used for sing, to avoid a pointed allusion, p. 473 (q) Eng. pi. trans, by Pers. sing., p. 473 (r) pi. after cardinal (s); with several nouns, pi. termination added to .last, p. 474 (v); pi. of shuturwith Pret. or bachcha, etc., p. 475 (w) Imperf. difference (x); ham/in qadr and
467
;
(y) ; royal pi. p. 476, footsubs, repeated in pi. to indicate superlative (z) pi. dama* "bloods" for excess, p. 350 and footnote 1 ; pi. used in
,
hamin qadr-ha
note 2
:
Perspicuity, p. 631 (d). Pidar-sag, p. 387 and footnote 5. Pig in stables, p. 393 and footnote
Qur*an when Allah speaks, p. 288 (h) and footnote 3 the Fates as a possible
;
1.
pi.
subject, footnote
4.
Filar-sal, vulg. for pirar-sal, p. 314, foot-
note 1. Pir and Plra,

Plr-sal,
p. 156 547 and footnote 6.
(s) (1);
pira, fern., p.
Afghan,
p. 151
(g).
;
Pisar, as dimin., p. 397 (c) pisar-bazzaz young cloth merchant, p. 441 and footnote 3: pisar farangl p. 442 (6): pisaru, vulg., p. 5 (I) and p. 95, Rem. II. Pish, p 331 (6) pish-i man of place, and pish az man of time, p. 303 and footnote 3 m.c nazd-i man, pish-i man Af. p 86, footnote 3; pish, a cornpar.,p. 175 (5); pish kardanto set a door ajar, 336, footnote 4; pish az an ki, followed E. y Pres. Subj. even when referring to past time, p. 502 (i). Pisf.a*i, p. 400 and footnote 5. Pithy, p. 644 and footnote 5. Please, 'vide' Bi-farmayld. Pleonasm, p. 645 and footnote 1. indicates time Pluperfect, pp. 526 (l)-7 anterior to Pret., used in Condit. sentences, after kashki, Eng. Plup. expressed by Pers. Pret., p 526 (1): exs. Perf. and Plup. (I) illustrating Pret. Old Condit. Plup., p. 527, Rem. Contin.
,
Poetry, p. 634 (m). Polysyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Posh posh, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 and footnote 3. Possession, expressed by dat., p. 77 (g), Rem. by mat, vide under Mine. Possible, expressed by shudan, p 248 (b) as quickly as possible, p. 627 (23) and footnote 1. Potential, Past tense, vide Habitual. Prayer, times of, p. 206 (d). Precative, class., p. 231, Rem. p. 233 (/). Precision, lack of, p. 658 (a). Predicate kjiabar, p. 636 (n). Predicative Clauses, pp. 562-70; in class. Pers., the statement that completes the predicate is indirect nom., p. 562 (a);
' ' ; ; ;
but in Mod. Pers. in indirect

;
(6)
after
etc..
verbs of commanding, for bidding,

;
exs. of direct, p. indirect preferred (c) 564 (d) m.c. exs. of indirect, p. 565 (e) ; same sentence may be rendered by direct or indirect and have different meanings, exs., p. 566 (/) and p. 567; the 2 constructions may account for the difference in tenses in some subor. clauses, Pred. p. 567, Rem. II; exs. of other
INDEX.
clauses, p. 568 (g) to p 570; Pred. clauses changed from Condit., p. 551 (g).
929
;
Prepositions, pp. 322-38; noun preceded and followed by a prep., p. 322 (c) prep, added for emphasis, p. 323 (c) (2); 2 preps., or prep, and adv., joined (d) exs. of simple andar=dar, p. 324 (g)
;
; ;
man ra (vulg.) and man-l ra, footnote 3 with preps., p. 69 (a) for 3rd pers., the demons, sometimes used, p. 6i) (b); u used for an (b) banda mukjilis, kamina, vide also Aqall, Du'a-gu, D&i, Haqu (b) 3rd pers. pi., polite forms, p. 70 (d) (e)
;
(/)
Syntax
of, p.
476;
preps, (h)
(1),
; ;
Rem.
Particles of exception, p. 330 may be used adverbially (;')

;
AFFIXED PRONOUNS,
-shan for
j
j
pi. of
shema
;
(e);
p.
71
-ash
and
may be preceded by simple preps., p. 331 (2); the subs, that take the place of preps, in m.c., p. 332 (ri) exs. of common preps., p. 333 (o); nazd,
;
words that
71 (a) (2); how enunciated, p. 72 (3); after final -* (4) after alif-i maqsura (5) ;
;
animates, and inanimates, p.
'
vowel
poetically
omitted
(6)
;
(5),'
Rem.;
after final
used for pers. only some preps, interchangeable, p. 338 (20) compar. and
;
;
sup. suffixes
added
preps, syntax, pp. pressed by izafat, p. 502 (a) repeated and not repeated (b) among and amidst and betwixt between (e) (d) govern;
to, p. 176 (o) (2); 502-5; may be ex-
after silent h, p. 72 (6) and p. 73 (/) joined to conj. ki exs. (d) ; (b), Rem.; after -5 or -u (c) pi. affixed prons. not much used in class.
; ;
hamzah
not followed by ra, p. Pers., p. 73 (c) 74, Rem. II ambiguity of, p. 74 (g) ; in m.c. affixed to some preps., p. 75 (h) not affixed to bar, ba, bl, ta, juz, zabar,
; ;
ment
of , p. 600, vide under Vide also Pish, Ba'd.

;
Government.
when possess. how named (h) some mod. vulgarisms (i) may take
etc. (h)
; ,
;
Present Tense, dramat. pres., p. 299 (2) and footnote 4 pres. tense, p. 510 (c) in class. Pers. chiefly used for Def. or Contin. Pres., rarely for Fut., p. 511 (c) in Mod. Pers. as a Pres. Def. or Indef. (d) in Pot. sense, p. 512 (1), as Fut. (d) (2) in dram, narration in quoting (4) (3) inconsistent to change time from (5) used in Persia for Eng. Pres. to Past (5) for propositions that Past, p. 513 (6)
;
; ; ;
;
the place of reflexives

adj.
(/) ; joined to qual. to noun, p. 152 (/) ; affixed take the place of the dat. in ra, p. 450 (8) ; ra omitted after noun in class. Pers.,
and not
p. 457 (18); ra omitted when the pron. POSSESSIVE PROis the obj., p. 458 (21) NOUNS, p. 75; affixed prons. as posses;
are always
true or false (7); for Eng. Perf. (8) ; dramatically used for Fut., Rem. I; Contin. Pres., Rem. II; "I do
followed by ra (a) sives, p. 75 (a) classically ra used only after 3rd pers., footnote 2 ; cases formed by preps. , p. 76 suffixed to last of a series of nouns, (a)
;
not and will not" and "is and always has," how expressed, p. 526 (k). Presumptive Past, vide Fut. Preterite Perfect, Past Definite, pp. 515-7 used in narrating events that closely follow each other, bi- prefixed, exs., p. 515 (g) expresses action just completed, used for Pres. Subj., as an uncertain Future, in class. Pers. after verbs of ordering, p. 576 and footnotes 1 to 6; refers to a definite point of time and Pref. to Indef., p 517 like the Imperf. is used for the Pres., p. 517 and footnotes 2 and 3 used for Eng. Plup., p. 526 (I); exs. illustrating Pret.,
; ; ; ;
last (b), Rem.; voc. of man (b), Rem. (d) possession sep. pron. with az demons, reflex, pron possession (e)
expressed by pers. prons. (6); dat. ace. requires ra (b) formed by ra or bl- (b) sep. prons. come
(a),
;
Rem.
sep. pron. in
pron.
"mine,
mine, etc., p. 77 (g) possession expressed by the dat. (g), Rem.; 612 (10) and poss. preceding its noun, p. footnote 2. REFLEXIVE and RECIPROCAL Pronouns, p. 77 (a); refer to subj. Tchud for animate or inanimate nouns (a) lehud or khwish but not jchwlsh(a) (1) tan with immaterial things, p. 78 (4)
man,
etc.
thine." etc.,
(/)
malri
',
khud common
Rern.
in
compounds,
p. 79 (a),
Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (I); takes place of Eng. Inf., p. 530, footnote 3 ; used for Aor. and Pres. in conditions, p. 251, footnote 1 used for Pres. Subj., p. 539 (b), Rem. and p. 543 (2) ; in conditions, p. 555 (e) ; Pret. and Imperf. with sing, and pi. noun, p. 475 (x) ; class. Pret. forms of 3rd pers. sing., as gufta,p. 231 footnote 2.
; ,
II; I; khud-ha jpl., (o), khudha-man, etc., ditto; bi-nafsi-h* (b) khwish for {chud (c) khwishtan, poss. and reflex., unlike khwish can stand in alone, occurs compounds, used for
;
;
Rem.
Prose, p. 634 "(w); three kinds, p. 637 (o) 8; impassioned Eng. prose has rhythm, etc., Rem., Prosody, accent and quantity, in Eng. and Ar., p. 635 and footnote 1. Pros to semainomenon, p. 661 and footnotes
1, 2 and 5. Protasis, understood, p. 548
(c)
(l),Rem.
in m.c. rational beings only, p. 80 (d) in Mod. Pers. is a subs, only, p. 81 (/) can be expressed by affixed pronouns, in m.c. reflex, does p, 81 (h); kjiud (e) not always refer to subj., p. 81, Rem. I ; kjiud-ha, Rem. II; bl-khud-am and blkhud, Rem. Ill; kj^wlsha-wand , subs., reflex, pron. (g) ; jchwlsh t an p. 81 (/) in Mod. Pers. reflexives can be expressed by affixed prons., p. 81 (h) ; RECIPROCAL DEpronouns, p. 81 (i) and p. 100 (6)
; ; ;
;
Plup. for Irnperf., p. 549 (d). Pronouns, Personal, p. 68; ma vulg. for
MONSTRATIVE
pronouns
;
may =
man
(a)
voc. of tu (a)
ay an ki
(a)
im ancient sion, pp. 76 (/)-7 In, p. 82 (6) ; pis. (6) ; un-ha classically
possesform of
930
they
INDEX.
(6)
;
idioms with an, p. 83 (d) (/) ; an in certain phrases (g) t* an an in mystic poetry, p. 84 (A); In = about to m.c. = various things (i) In =- here I am, p. 85 (/) old idiom (i) with In (I) In kuja va an kujd (k) position of (m) added exs. of demonstratives (n) inak, anak. p. 87 (o) ; ant
m = latter ()
',
Pronunciation of consonants,
p.
11;
sum-
m
;
mary, p. 40. Proper names,

' '
definite, p. 130 (6).
(p);
EMPHATIC
DEMONSTRATIVE
pro;
nouns, pp 87-8, vide Hami.n and Hainan COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns, 'vide' Churiin, Chunan pp. 88-90, Hamchu, etc., Chandln, Chandan; INTERROGATIVE pronouns, pp. 91-8 kil is 'Vide' def. and requires ra, p. 130 (6). Kudam, Ki, Chi, Chand, Chlm; SUBSTITUTES for INTERR. pronouns, p. 98; chiquna, p. 98 (a); chun (b); INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, pp. 98-129; hama "is def. and " one can often requires ra, p. 130 (6) be rendered by har ki, p. 104, Rem. II expressed by 2nd pers. sing. Aor. or Past Vide' Yak-i, Habit, (c) (6). Dlgar ghayr, Ahad-l, Kas, kas-l, Adam, Insan, >hakjj,8- i, Hich, etc., chiz, chlz-i, Fulan, So-and-so, Such and such. Both, Neither of two, Chand (a few), Qadr-i, etc., Hama, etc., Jumla, etc., Jaml', Sa'ir, Kaffa,
;
Prophets, number of, p. 190, footnote 1. Pun vide Tajriis, Punctuation, p. 37. Pusht pusht, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 (10) and footnote 3; pusht-i ham, p. 337, footnote 2. PiJstin darldan, etc., idioms, p. 416 and footnote 1.
,
Puzzles, Persian, in points, etc., p. 44.
inserting diacritical
'
Qabl, p. 331 (6); qabl az an ki, followed by Pres. Subj., p. 502 (i). Qabulanidan, m.c., p. 284 (/). Qadr-l. In qadr, etc., p. 112 (h). Qahwa-chl. p. 409 and footnote 5. Qajar, p. 653 and footnote 5. 3. Qalam-dan, p. 410 and footnote ' ' QalU and qalll-l, vide Andak-l. Qamia and chihil-var, p. 378 (7) and foot-
note 4
loaf sugar, p. 377 and footnote 4. Qaslda-yi madhiyya, p. 635. Qatiiba, not common, followed by izafat, p. 117 (13). Qaza and Qadar, p. 393 (). ' ' Qishlaq, vide Yllaq. Qism and Jur, p. 470 (I) aqsam, pi. (m). Qizil-bash, p. 653 and footnote 5. and footQiziljih, qizilcha, dimin., p. 396
Qand
Tamam,
etc., Kull, etc.,
'Amma, Har,
Guruh-l, Aksar, Para-l, Kam-i, Andak-l, Taraf-l, Khurda-i, Lakht-l, Shamma-l, Barkh-i, Juzv-l, Nabza, Zana, Par-i kah-l, Ba'z-i, BisSYNTAX OF PRONOUNS, yar, Baql, etc. pers. prons. Shah and pi. pp. 476-90 prons. should follow their p. 476 (a), etc. nouns without the intervention of another noun, p. 479 " it" prospective, impersonal, p. 480; pronoun should not
etc., Bas-i, etc.,
:
note 3. Quantity, words signifying

\
are in
a noun following, p. 480, Rem. and p. 612 (10) and footnote 2; 1st pers. more worthy than 2nd, etc., p. 481
refer to
appos'.,p. 621 (h). Qudrat-i Tcamil and qudrat^ kamila, p. 157

I
II
antecedent to prons. is not known ambiguity results, p. 482 (d) (1) position of ra with an affixed pron. often deterformer ' and mines antecedent (2) 'latter,' p. 483 (e) (1) and (2); pros, and ' such '= of unity, retros, p. 484 (3)
(6)
;
Qnr*an, purchasing, p. 380 (17) and
Rem.
if
'
Ra
of
prons
p.
an ki, te ki and accusatives 484 (4) omission of pers. pron. when not emphatic, p. 485 (g) (h) noun repeated to avoid use of ambiguous pron., Rem.
p.
;
ace., after proper names, certain hama, interr.of, ki, yak-l, etc., 130 (b); omitted in Gulistan, foot,
;
note 4
in
(/)
pers. pron. inserted

'
when emphatic
'
;
ra of dat. cannot be omitted (c) : Pers. the affix, possessive prons. rare in usually have ra, this construe, ra and def. nouns that class. Pers. ;
Mod.
(i)
each other and one another,' every,' pp 479-80 (I) either, neither (m) self all (o) both (p) RELATIVE PRO(n) NOUNS, syntax of ,pp. 487 (g)-900 'which' referring to a clause = ki, p. 487 (q) (1) * 'that,' for who,' and Pers. paraphrase
*
; ;
;
'
'
(q) (2);
that' and
'
who
'
restrictive (q)
p.
ra of unity, p. 131 (/) ra with footnote and 5; 463 baray, p. def. and indef. noun in appos., p. 618 (d). Vide Accusative and Dative cases. Radd kardan and shudan, p. 334, footnote to pass by, 1 in m.c. radd shudan miss the mark, p. 176 (o) (3) and footnote
(c)
have the
<j~
(3);
(4)
;
'what' and 'that which,'
488
Rafizi, p. 653 and footnote 6. to continue, Raft'an, p. 263;
relatives should be placed to avoid ambiguity (6) transition from a rel. clause to one of affirmation, p. 489 (8) ; errors in the use of the relatives (8) ; errors in concord of, p. 600 (g) ; pron. of
;
how
p. 263 (a) : raw k. point of, m.c. (h).
(/)
Afghan
and
foot-
to be on the
rel.
clause,
how
styled, p. 559
(4).
Rajay, note
name
1.
of a metre, p. 637 (o)
INDEX.
Raji'
(4).
931
and
a*id,
= pron.
in rel. clause, p. 559
Ram,
popular note 3.
belief, p.
379 (16) and foot7.
Rasta-bazar, p. 653 and footnote
'Rather
than,' p. 179 (v) (2); zinhar. pp. 370-1. Indian Rail, weight, p. 214, footnote 3.
Rauza vide Rawza. Razm, a division of poetry, p. 635. Rawza, meanings of, Indian belief,
*
'
p. 323,
(c),
noun in restrictive rel. clauses may b preceded by demonstrative pron. or followed by ya, footnote 4; antecedent and pron. of relative clause, how termed, 60 (5): excessive susp. 559; exs., p. pence, p. 561 (6) and footnote 5, and rel. clause may be converted p. 562 (c) into condit. (d) one relative may do duty for more than one clause, if in different cases the rel. repeated or otherwise, p. 601 (e); exs. illustrating the
;
;
footnote
1,
Rawza-fehwan, style of signature, p. 70
Rem.
Ravanidan
p. 284,
ravana
k.,
substituted
for,
Rem.
footnote 1 ; Redundancy, p. 645 (&) p. 668 (/). 285 Reflexive Verbs, p. (I). Refrain of Song, p. 646 (d) (3). and Demonstrative or Relative Pronoun, Relative Fa, pp. 141-9, so rel. pron., its place, p. 141 (a) particle hi takes
;
ad
of some verbs and preps., 602 (/). Relative Noun, Ar., p. 400 (3) and footnote 3; Persian imitations, ditto. Vide also Appendix A. Repetition of Word or Phrase, Jingling Sounds, Alliteration, pp. 622-8; exs. of jingling words, p. 622 (a); MEANINGLESS
government
p.
APPOSITIVE
(a)
and Remarks
and
II
omitted or inserted, (a); noun before a rel. clause may be considered def. even if preceded in Eng. by in def. article, p. 141 (6) and footnote 4, and p. 142 (d\ noun made
pron
in rel. clause
the same number repeated has a distributive, continuative, or intensive sense, other words (6) Ar. Sing, followed by its br. pi. p. 624 (c) two different measures from same root (d) Pers. pi preceding
; , ;
;
by ya (6); is possibly an extension of the izafat, p. 142 (6) ; this ya corresponds to the Eng. restrictive rel. names of this ya (c) ; hove pron. (c) written (c) pron. in rel. clause expressed another or understood, pp. 142-4 (d) way of declining the rel., p. 144 (e) ; ex. of incorrect modern construction (e) and footnote 5 ; rel. cannot be joined to sing, of demons, prons. an and In, or to kar t may be added to pi., pp. 144-5 (g) should not be joined to pers. p. 145 (g)
specially; ;def.
; ; ; ; ;
Profess. Story-tellers repeat same word for continuation (/) repetition of word or phrase for emphasis (g) ; repetition of substantive with izufat, p. 625 (h); Exs. of repetition (*) (1) to
Pers.
sing,
(e)
Persians repeat Present but not p. 627 (26) and footnote 2; Afghans repeat Past Part. (28); ALLITERATION, p. 628 (7). Require, expressed by khwastan, p. 260 (/). 213 (c). Registered post,
(37)
;
Past Part.,
Resemblance, adjectives of p. 16S (16). Rhetoric and Composition, pp. 629-44

,
p.
definition of Rhetoric, oratory, etc.
how
divided
no Ar.
terms exactly
corre-
prons
;
can be omitted when noun is made def. by demonstr. pron., exs. omitted from noun following anchi, (h)
(g)
; ;
Rhetoric "; how divided by sponds to the Arabs, p. 629 (a): COMPOSITION^ insha, p. 630 (6) Style, kinds of (c)
; ;
footnote 1 ex. of its employment after an and in (i) ; with proper names a simple adj. (?) ; with noun qualified by ex. from Sa'dl and its mod. (k) (I) equiv. p. 146 (m) with subs, and num., az qarar-l ki ma'-lum mlp. 147 (n) shavad (o) if noun is indef. , verb precedes ki (h) exs of omission in non-restrictive demons, ya before ki rel. clauses (r) may represent the Eng. indef. art.,
p. 146,
; , ; ; ; ; ;
two merits common to

Figures
(g)
(/)
(I)
; ; ;
all
styles
(d)
p. 148,
Rem. chunan and chandan used with demons, ya in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia (s) abstract sing, nouns do not admit of rel. ya may be used with pi. abstract nouns, concrete added to nouns take p. 149 (v)
:
^,
two nouns coupled by (w) RELATIVES introducing the SUBJUNCTIVE, p. 538 (a); RELATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 558-62; introduced by "who, what, etc.,' p 558 (a) (1) position of relative,
last
of
antecedent to ki may be a demons indef., or pers pron., or common or proper noun, p. 559 (4) common
p.
559
(2) (3)
,
dialects, some Indian prose Mod. Pers. prose simple works, p. 639 but lax, p. 640 (r) .; quality, preferable to quantity, long and short sentences, rhetorical style of the Persians, p. 641 the Anvar-i Suhayll, p. 642-4; comfor students, parison of works suggested
tries (p)
;
;
tences, p. 636 (n) (I); balanced sentence Muperiodic or loose sentences (3) ; (2) or Muqaffa. Saj' rajjaz prose, Musajja' and its divisions. Murassa" , p. 637 (o) ; <Arl prose, p. 638 (o) ; Eng. prose and rhythm, balance, exs. of Antithesis, Ishfiqaq, Tajnis, Taqlib, the Faoana-yi 'Aja'ib the language of several coun(o) ; Persian,
;
rhythm, rhyme, metre, p. 634 footnote 2 p. 635 and Bazm and Razm, what they include divisions of Eng. poetry, p. 635; Prose; sensimple, compound, and complex
Poetry;
(m)
;
variety, p. 632 (/); pathos ludicrous style (h) : humour (*') ; wit melody or harmony, p. 633 (k) ; taste and composition divided into Prose
(e)
;
git
not nazm,
932
p.
INDEX.
Salam, kardan and kj&wandan, p. 604 and footnote 2; salam Hn 'alay-kum, etc.,
p.
644. ERRORS in RHETORIC, pp. 65972; incoherence, p. 659 (a); length and brevity, source of obscurity (b) construction that looks to the implied sense pros to semainomenon and katasunesin, p. 660 (c) zeuqraa, p. 663 (d) negatives, too many exs. of further errors, p. 664 (/) (e) metaphor, false, p. 665 (g)(l) Irish bulls, incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2) and footnote 2; confusion as to topical subject majaz-i mahall bi-ism-i hal (h) and {h) footnote 3 skilful use of same word in different senses, p. 668 (i) (1) ; unskilful
;
;
382
(g).
Salasat-i f ibarat or simplicity, p. 631 (d). last of the month, p. 193 (h). Salkh, ' Salu, vide Shlla. Salutation, of Jews, p. 382 and footnote 4 of Muslims, p. 382-3 and footnote 5.
'
San, T., = total, p. 419 and footnote SariaH or Figures, p. 631 (e).
1 -
Vide Greeting.
3.
use,
Rem.
(2)
;
QABIH
;
TAUTOLOGY or HASHV-I a new construction should
215 (6). Sang_-i 36, p. Sani, not rel. adj., p. 401, Saqi-nama, p. 635.
;
Rem.
II.
not be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k) ANTITHESIS, faulty, incomplete, p. 670 (?); CLIMAX, (m) (1); ANTICLIMAX (TO) (2); RULE OF STJSPENCE, violation of, p. 671 (n) COHERENCE, illogical compound sentences, p. 671 (o) mistaken use
;
of 'and,' p. 672
(o).
p. 634 (TO). Rice, grains for weighing drugs in India, p. 214, footnote 3. Ridan, coarse, polite phrases, p. 241 and footnote 4. Riza-khwarii, of nightingale, p. 380 and footnote 1.
Rhyth,
Roots or Stems, of simple Pers. verbs, p. 239; of Arabic, Appendix A. Ru-yi ham, m.c., = on an average, p. 355,
footnote 4 p. 302 (7) and p. 304. Rud-khjana, p. 413 and footnote I. Ruq'-ah handwriting, p. 36. Rustam, p. 179 (4) and footnote 2. RGz'ii jawza*, longest day, p. 210 (c)
;
Sar, without izafat, p. 437 (a) and p. 438 Sar-i stiuna, p. 386 and footnote 3 (4) sar-i sar-i ash, etc.*, Af. idiom, p. 310 (4) khar, intruder, p. 386 (I) sar-afganda, in Mod. Pers. head cut ashamed class. off, p. 174 (i) (2) and footnote 3. Sar-a-bala, p. 304 and footnote 1. Sarahat, clearness, style, p. 631. Sar-darakhtl, p. 440 and footnote 4. Sarf, p. 48 Sarf-i saghlr and sarf-i kdbir, Indian term, p. 234, Rem. II. Sarkan parkan, Afghan, p. 627 (30) and footnote 3. Sar-khwar, of wife, p. 440 and footnote 3. Sarma-yi plr zal, p. 210 (d). Sar-rahi, vide Dam-rahi.
;
'
'
Satires, p. 635.
Savar and Savara, p. 308 and footnote 2. Saya-yi shuma kam na-sha'ad, p. 384 and
footnote 3. Sayyid, signature of, p. 70 (c). Sazldan, p. 266, etc. scarcely ever, vide Scarcely, p. 293 (3) Ever. Sea-cunny, p. 666 and footnote 1. Seasons, p. 205: yllaq and qishlaq, p. 206
;
iskamba-shuy
(c)
ruz-i
(e).
mabada
and
ruz-i
rainy day,' p. 228
Ruzana, p. 291, Rem. Ruz-gah and Ruzak-l,

note
2.
p. 228
(?)
foot.
(c).
Sects of Islam, etc., p. 199, footnote 1 pi. of, from Ar. rel. noun, p. 400 and foot;
note
'
3.
3 and asa, suffix, prob. connected with Hindi sa, p. 419 and footnote 1. Sad, written with s to distinguish it from Ar. said, p. 183,' footnote 3 and p. 184, Rem. II du sad class, for duvlst, p. 183 sadha, hazar-ha, etc., p. 189 (k) sadha-yi mardum, Af., p. 190 (k). Saf and pak, p. 161 (z). Safar, Prophet died in, Last Day, p. 392 and footnote 2. Sag-i klfit, p. 293 (/) (2) and footnote 9. Sahib, with izafat, p. 436 (g) fern, and pi. of without izafat, p. 437 (a) ; p. 440 (5). (g) *' " the Saîr, prop. remainder." also whole " followed by izafat, p. 117 (12). Saj rhymed prose, mutavazin, mut.arraf, murassa' p. 637 (o). Sakhtabash, p. 265 (6), Rem IV. Sakhtaji, = adulteration, p. 281, footnote
; ; ; ; ;
and
Sakhtan,
= kardanin compounds, p. 245 (3) and footnote 3; p. 281 (d) intr. = "to put up with," (d) (1).
;
(d) (2).
if ever,' p. 50 (/). Semi-vowels, p. 22 (d). Sentences, order of, pp. 612-3. Remarks I and II; BALANCED Sentence, p. 636 (n) PERIODIC or LOOSE sentence (3) (2) sentences not to be extended beyond their natural close, p 658 (d). Sentimental vide Mandhir. <S7ia, corrup. of cha, dimin., p. 396 (5). shab-i chahar Shdb-i yalda, p 210 (c) shamba, etc., p. 211; shab-guzashta, in m.c., izafai often omitted, p. 313 (6). Shabash,'p. 368 and footnote 3. Shab-kh'm and S/KZ&-* khiin, p. 425 and footnote 4. Shagird chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Shah, how addressed, p. 70 (c), Rem. look fortunate, right to see any woman unveiled, p. 392 and footnote 3. Shah-i chiragh, for castor oil, p. 378 (6) and footnote 3. Shah, Miar, dw, give idea of size, p. 170 (e). Shahr-i kjiamiishan and mahalla-yi khamushan, p. 435 and footnote 2.
;
Seldom
INDEX.
Shakhs, indef. prons., p. 103 (c) (4) and Rem. I shamma-i, p. 127 (10). Shan, affixed pron., vide Ash. Sharminda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Shast for shast, p. 184, Rem. II. Shavanda, p. 248, footnote 2. Shay ad, = hould, p. 287 (/) and footnote 6; p. 299 (k) (I) and footnote 1 always followed by Aor., p. 300 (3) p. 365 (24). Vide also Shayista. Shayista and shay ad, the only parts of shayistan, q.v., used in coll., p. 541 (d)
;
;
933
Speech, parts of, p. 48. Spite of, in, p. 307 (8)
p. 350, footnote 1 expressed by ba, p. 504 (/). so Square, many yards square, p. 214 (d).
;
Stories, poetical, p. 635. '
and footnote 1. Shayistan, p. 266, etc. p. 540 (d). Shi'ahs' oath, p. 296 (t). Shikasta, hand writing, p. 36. Shlla, vulg. for shilla, the Indian p. 378 (7) and footnote 5. Shilla, vide Shila.
; ' '
salu,
Strange still,' how expressed, p. 178 (r). Street cries, p. 376 (d). Style, p. 630 (c) (d) rhetorical style of Persians, p. 642 (t) further observations on style, pp. 652 (a)-8; better known word preferable to less known, a concrete term to an abstract, etc. (a) Persians fond of obsolete and out-of-the-way terms, p. 652 (a); exs. of ambiguous words, p. 653-4; phrases or words susceptible of different interpretations or used successively in different senses, skilful use of same word in p. 654 (b)
; ; ; ;
Shinawanidan, not used

(c) (2).
in Persia, p. 283
Shir,
shayad, p. 287 (/) and footnote 6. Shout's distance, p. 213 (a) and footnote 5. Shudan, aux. verb, p. 248: for forming grammatic pass, (c) idioms with p. 249 = tavanistan, p. 253 (d) p. 540 (d). (d)
;
; ;
in Persia, p. 23, footnote 1. Should, expressed by Imperf. of khwastan, p. 261 (g) by bayad, p. 271 (o) by
lion
;
"
"
Shuma-ha and Shumayan,

p. 70
(e).
?
pis.
of
shuma,
1.
Shutur dtdl
Na;
p. 343, footnote
SI, si-sad (class.) and si-sad, p. 183. Sifr, in Ar. not a numeral, p. 182, foot-
note. Signs and Signals, pp. 389-90. ' Sila, kaf-i sila, vide Mawsul, wire, p. 415, footnote 3. Sim, Simile or Tashblh, p. 631 (e). salasat-i ibarat, p. 631 (d). Simplicity. Since, p. 523 (k) and footnote 4 and p. 525,
'
the marvellous, puerile, profound styles, p. 656 (c) (1); lack of precision, sentences not to be extended p. 658 (2) beyond their natural close, p. 658 (d) figurative language, p. 658 (e). Subject, confusion as to logical subject of discourse, p. 667 (h); subject and verb, concord of, vide Concord. Subjective genitive, p. 448. Subordinate clauses, p. 545, etc. p. 636 (n) Vide Conditional, Optative, Con(1). cessional, Temporal, Local, Modal, Relative and Predicative Clauses. Subjunctive Mood, pp. 538-44; indicates uncertainty conjs. and rels. that introduce it gen. employed to express condition, intention, desire, doubt, end, p. 538 (a); introduced by ki, p. 539 (a), Rem.
(4)
; ;
;
different senses, p. 655 (6) (2) ; inconsistent words or phrases to be avoided (3) ; ' affectation of excellence or fine writing
'
when 2nd verb

is
is Inf.
in Eng., Pers. Subj.

if
used for
;
it,
even
;
principal verb
is
Remark.
Sipas, p. 331 (4) and (7). Siyahat, probably implies pilgrimage, p. 585, footnote 1.
past, p. 539
(b)
in class. Pers., Inf. also
exs. of Pers. Pres. Subj. for used (b) Eng. Past Indie., pp. 539 (c) to 540;
Siyag or Dlwanl, p. 34. Slzdah, unlucky to say, p. 182, footnote 4. So As, in compar. between clauses, p. 179
(5).
So-and-so, or such and such, pp. 107-8; fulan for person or thing, fulana or fulan, fern., p 107 (c)'; yarn, vulg. m.c. Rem. II Fulan n fulanl, persons only (2) Bahman, Fulan u Pashmadan, pi. of fulan, but not persons or things (2) fulanl, may be used as an adj., former indef., latter def., p. 108 (2); chi chlz,
; ; ;
after tavanistan, bayistan and shayistan either subj. or shortened Inf. used ; Fut. Indie, for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2; in class. Pers. Fut. Indie, used where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj p. 542 ; Perf. Subj. used to express doubt where the Pres. obviously could not be used Past. Subj. used for Pres., p. 543 (/) ; for Aor. (2); Aor. (1); Pret. Indie, used " ' to have of dashtan (h) ; Past Habit.,
,
etc.
= what's
his
name
(3)
blstar,
practically
obsolete
(4)
Bastar u ; fulan
for chandln,
Rem.
;
Imperf. Indie., and Plup. Indie., take the place of certain tenses of the Subj. Afghan Imperfects, for Pres. Subj. (**).; COTIN. exs., p. 544 (k) and (m) f/j ; PAST SUBJ., p. 523; CONTIN. PERF. Vide also Aorist SUBJ., p. 536 (<)i Rem.
;
So much,
p. 362 (13). solar months, Solar, year, p. 206 (a) p. 207 (6) ; solar letters, p. 31. Solecism, p. 630 (d) and footnote 3 and p. 631 (d). " Somehow or other," how rendered, p. 370
(e).
and Future
gender
(6)
;
Perfect.
;
Substantive, p. 48
def.
and
indef., p. 49;
Ar. nouns forms of, p. 50 (c ) in old Pers. -a added to subs, qualified by intensive adj. in -a, p. 169 (a) (2)-; compar. and super, suffixes added to subs., pp. 176-7 (o) (3) and p. 178, foot-
Song, comic,
p. 635.
note
1.
934
Substantive Verb vide Verb to Such and such, vide So-and-so.
be.
INDEX.
and 6 ex. of, p. 654 and footnote 655 (6) (2). Takaltu, p. 321 (1) and footnote 1. TakJiallus, in Persia joined by izafat but not in India, p. 616, Rem. II. Takhfif, p. 29 (d), Rem. I. Tcfkld or mvbalagha, exs. of, p. 534 and footnote 1 ta^kld-i lafzl and ta^kld-i ma'navi, p. 616 (c) to p. 618: p. 645 (d)
3, 4, 5
1
; ;
p.
Suffixes, ban, van, etc., lakJi, kada, etc., etc., pp. 406-20. " coarse," Sufta, past part, and sifta adj., p. 247 (6) and footnote 1. Suhayl, p. 205, footnote 3. Sukkan, p. 666 and footnote 1. Sukun or Jazm, p. 28. Sulsl handwriting, p. 36. Sunnl, p. 387 and footnote 1 ; oath of, p. 296 an d footnote 1. Superlative latter term of corapar. should not include former, p. 491 (e) followed by pi. or used as a simple adj., p. 492 (/) if Ar. and precedes noun, izafat sometimes inserted (/) compar. used as
>
(2).
Taklif and zahmat, p 279, footnote 1. Ta'liq handwriting, p. 35. Tamam, both subs, and adj., has the same izafat constructions as hama, p. 117 (14) tamam-i rilz and tamam-i ruzha, p. 117
;
super., double comparatives and supersome adjecs. strictly latives, p. 492 (g) speaking do not admit of super, (k) ; order in sentence is num., subs., adj., p. 493 (i) ; to avoid repetition, inconsistent qualities may be added to the same noun, sing, in Pers., pi. in Eng. (?) ; nonrepetition of adj. cause of ambiguity (;),
;
izafat in class. Pere. when ta(14); precedes its subs., p. 117 (14); harchi tamam-tar, p. 117 (14), Rem. I; tamm u tamam, p. 118 (15). Tamamat, class., subs., still used by In-
no
mam
dians and Afghans, p. 118 (17). subs., p. 118 (16). Tameness, p 630 (c) and footnote.
Tamaml,
Tamm,
class.
= tamam, tamm u tamam

p. 617 (3);
em-
Rem.
subs, with prep.
= adj.
(n);
phatic, pp. 117-8 (15).
adjs. followed
by gen.
(m) superlative
;
some
and
Tamylz and mumayyaz,
= adv.,
tamylz
p. 289.
with or without izafat, p. 434 footnote 2. Superstitious vide Bibliomancy.

Siirat,
(g)
Tan, contrac. of tavan, p. 252 (a), Rem. Tan-i chand, = a, few individuals, class.,
p. Ill (6).
= disguise, p. 311 (10). SurkjL, = rati,p. 214, footnote

Surma
'
Tanslq-i si/at, p. 151

3.
(i) 1.
Tanwin,
1,
p. 400.
;
p. 30. Taqllb, p. 638 and footnote 5.
Suspence,' Rule of, p. 641, footnote 4; 1 excessive susp. 607 (5) and footnote pence, p. 561 (6) and footnote 5, and and footp. 562 (6); also p. 647 (/) (1) note 3 violation of rule, p. 671 (n). Synchysis, p. 607 (5), Rem. Syndoche, p. 632 (e) and footnote 1. Syntax, etc., pp. 433 to 672.
;
participles, preps., advs., subs., adjs., p. 176 (o) (1) (2) and (3); tarln seldom added to Pers. parts., Rem. tar, where placed p. 176 (1), after compound adj. of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) and Rem.; where added after two or more Comparatives or Superlatives, p. 178 ()(!) (2) and footnote. Taraf-i, p. 126 (6). Taraf-tar, pp. 176-7 (o) (3).
;
Tar and farm, added to
Tarh,= design,
Ta,
pattern,
etc., p.
290
(5)
and p. 189, Rem. 11;=' and,' p. 348 footnote 2 ta-yi ibtida*iyya,p. 348, footnote 3 ta-yi tajahul, p. 258, last line and footnote 4, and p. 259 and footnote 2 ; and p. 349 and footnote 1 ; ta-yi takidl or zinhariyya, p. 349, footnote 2; pp. 347-8
; ;
and footnote 4. Tarji'-band, p 646 and footnote 1. Tascha or tasak, measure of water, (c) and footnote 3.
p.
215
p. 504 (g), Rem. T56t', ex., p. 617 (3), Rem.; tabi'-i muk. mat, p. 615 (a); and p. 622 (a); and Vide also p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and 11.
" on,"
(12)
ta
not strictly an equivalent for
bi-
Tashabih, vagueness, p. 631 (d). Tashbih or Simile, p. 631 (e). Tashdld, p. 29; loss of, p 30; for poetical licence, p. 84 (h) and footnote 2.
Tasriif (ballad), p. 635.
Taste, p. 633 (/). inch, p. 214 Tasu, Af.,
Tatimma,
p. 129,
(a)
= = mlzan
(6) and footnote 2. "balance of account,"
Apposition. Tabligh, form of Hyperbole q.v., p. 630 and footnote 2.
Rem.
I; tatvll diffuseness. p. 644
(c)
and
(6); tatvil-i la-t&Hl, p.

1
646
;
Tautology, p. 534 and footnote

qabih, p. 631 (d)
(6)
;
= hashv-i
;
(k).
Tafa*ul, p. 391. Tafsir, p. 646 (/) and footnote 4. Tahakkum, a Figure, p. 633 (/), footnote 1. Indian, p. 345, nevertheless, Taham, footnote 2; p. 358; p. 365(23); p. 556 (b) and footnote 9. Tajnis, p. 297 (2), and footnote 1 tajnls-i khattj,, p. 322, footnote 2 and p. 546 and footnote 3; p. 638, Rem. and footnotes
and footnote 4 645 (c) and (d) p. 646 (e) and footnote 1 (exs. of ghuluv)
'p; ;
p. p.
p.
644 658 668

;
(2)
and
(/).
(2) and p. 252 (a), Rem. tan contrac., p. 252 (a), Rem. Tavanad ki-, p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Tavanistan, p. 249; class, constructions, p. 249-52 (a); Mod. Pers. constructions,
Tavan, pp. 250-1
INDEX.
tavan, pp. 250-1 (2) and p. 252 tan contrac. p. 252 (a), Rem. need not be repeated before two verbs, p. 252 (4); trans, or trans, verb understood, p. 252 (4); tavanad bud, Indian idiom, p. 253 (c) before a cornp. verb, position of, p. 254, Rem.; tavaria, etc.] tawr-l K, p. 365 p. :54 (/); p. 540 (d)
p.
(6)
;
252
(a),
Rem.
Uftadan, Ubht, pi. _ (n).
of,
to begin, p. 257 (d). an address in preaching, p.
(iO
Ula, p. 193
(g),
Rem.
Ulu
'l-amr, p. 445
Vide Aulg or Awla. and footnote 2.
'Umar, name,
5.
"Ulya-jah, 'vide' 'All-iah. p. 450 (7)
and footnote
Tazadd u tabaq, p. 631 (d). Vide Antithesis. Tawjlh or muhtamalu 'z-ziddayu, p. 632 (;') and footnote 4. Tawriya, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Temporal Clauses, p 555 (/) and pp. 570-2; normal shape and order, p. 572 and footnote 2
(e);
'Umar-i Khayyam, astronomer, p. 209, footnote 1. subs, and adj., p. 159 (v) (2). wm,, pp. 118-9 (20) and p. 119 (23). 'Umumi, adj. and 'umiim-l, p. 119 (23).
,
ki when (6) ; ta until (c) ; correlatives (d); '-somehow or other"

;
Ura for aura, p. 86 (10) and Remark. Urmuz, vide Hnrmuz.

'Ushur, pi. for sing, footnote 5.
"a
tenth,"
p.
195,
"before that" and "after that,"

(/)
;
p. 571
exs. (g).
; ;
Tensos, some rarely used, p. 232 (c) paraphrases for (g) USE of TENSES, pp. 50537. Vide Aorist, etc., etc. EXAMPLES of use of TENSES, App. B, p. 898. Terse, style, p. 644 and footnote 5. 'That' for 'who,' and Pers. paraphrase, that' restrictive, (q) (3) p. 487 (q) (2) that which' and * what,' p. 488 (4). * The quicker the better,' how rendered, p. 178 (u). Thirteen, unlucky number, p. 182, footnote 4. Tikran or Tikranfp. 19, footnote 5. Tilism, p. 392 and footnote 5. Times, twenty times as much, etc., p. 197
* ;
; 4
Fa, vide Pas. Va, p. 274 (b) (1) and footnote
'
'
3.
Fa asafa, interj., p. Fa an ki-, p. 329,

p. 354
368.
;
Vagueness, = tashabih, p. 631 (d). Vail, without izafat, p. 437 (a) (1) (2). Vail ha or ha 'ball or bash bash, for afterthought, p. 582 (e). Vangahl, Vungahl. p. 315 and footnote 3.
Fasraa,
10.
footnote 2 = " or," and footnote 1 and p. 340 and footnote 3; va hal an ki, how written, p. 357 and footnote 4.
= indigo,
p. 378 (11)
and footnote
(a).
Tiryaq and
note
4.
tiryak, p. 180 (w) (4)
and
foot-
Too, how
expressed, p. 175 (/). Toward, p. 505 (i). Trajection or Hyperbaton, p. 600 (i). Transliteration, Exercise in, p. 41 puzzled in, p. 44 (d). Tu bi-mlrl, p. 299 (10). Vide Marg-i shuma. Tufayl, p. 330, footnote 4. Tu/u, interj., p. 369 and footnote 4.
;
Vav, pronunciation of, p. 340 (2) and footnote 2; indicating state, p. 341;=t/o, with several adjs. qualifying one p. 341 noun, pp. 341-2 = a point in punctuaas dimin. tion, p. 351 and footnote 3 termination, p. 50 (e), and p. 398 (e)
; ;
;
vulg.
p.
and dimin.,
(d)
;
p. 50 (e)
and Rem. and
57
final,
Rem. I; redundant
528 (m)
(1).
;
as consonant, p. 56, after Past Part., p.
Verb, pp. 217-88
Verb To BE, simple form
Tufu
liyyat,
3.
not
rel.
noun, p. 400 and foot-
of, p. 217 (a) ; neg. of, p. 219 (g)
how
;
written (a) to (c) separate subs, verb,

;
note
Tughra handwriting, p. 36. Tula, p. 651 (n) and footnote

Tiiman,
p. 219 (a) p. 221 ;

2.
verb TRANS, and INTBANS., of, pp. 221-8; karchi bad-a-bad, bad, bada, p. 227 (d)
;
BUDAN paradigm
;
;
100,000, obs., p. 184, footnote 1,

3.
and p. 185 (6). Turan, p. 639 and footnote

Turk-bachcha, p. 151
(g).
Turk! year-cycle, p. 203 (a) Turkish dialects.in Persia, p. 40, footnote 2. Tuv Kbuda, m.c. for tura bi-Khuda, p. 71,
'
ruz-i mabada, p. 218 (e) ; 3 p. 227 (d) forms of Pres. tense " to be," p. 228 (g) ; chi bu di, p. 228 and footnote 1 (h) ; Pret. used for Imperf. in Mod. Pres., p. 228 (i) ; " ** in m.c. (/) ; Afghans use halt bash Pres. tense for "to dwell," p. 229 (/) ;
!
footnote 2 tuv-khuda^l vulg. for mu-ft, p. 71, footnote 2.

;
'
some VERBS are both TRANS, and INTRANS., p. 229 (;'); ACTIVE VOICE of
KANDAN,
sing
Twice two makes
four,' etc., p. 197
(/).
p. 229; old form of 2nd pers. Perf., p. 232, VIII; Past Condit.
p.
p. 231, VI Rera. 230, footnote 2;
;
can take U-,

Impera..
bi-
and
another
;
U
U, dimin. form
in, pL7, pers. pron., class,
398 (c). used for an, p. 69 (b). Uf, interj., p. 369 and footnote 4. Uftad, perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 3.
NEG. form of Plup., p. 232 IX, Rem. ACCENT, pp. 237-8 VERBS, pp. 235-7 INTERR. VERBS, p. 238 STEMS or ROOTS
;
HYBRIDS, of simple verbs, p. 239; pp. 248-9 (c), Rem. AUXILIARY verbs, pp. 248-9 (c), Rem.; SHUDAN, p. 248
;
(a)
= possible
(b)
gram. pass, formed
936
; ;
INDEX.
Whoever, whosoever,
Wife, how mentioned,
kas-l ki, p. 121 (k).
liar
by (c) idioms with, p. 249 (d) DEFECTIVE verbs, p. 249 (e), Rem. TAVANISTAN, q.v., p. 249. Khwastan, q.v.
; ,
kudam
382
1.
ki,
har
etc., p.
(/).
p.
257;
GUZASHTAN, DADAN, MANDAN,

; ;
PERMIT, to, other verbs for, tr., q.q.v. RAFTAN q.v., continue, p. 262 (e) p. 263 (a) = to be on the point of doing, m.c., p. 263 (h) ; DASHTAN, q.v._, p. 263 IMPERSONAL verbs, p. 296 BA.YISTAN,
Wit, zarafat, p. 632 (;). World, age of, p. 190, footnote
Worse and worse, how rendered,

()
p.
178
Would, and footnote
p. 311 (12)
3.
significations of, p. 541
SHAYISTAN, SAZIDAN, ZIBIDAN,
q.q.v.
q.q.v., pp. 274-80; verbs in compound, 280-2 kardan, namudan sakhtan, pp. 280 sakhgardanldan, farmfidan, p. (a) gashtan gardltagl, sakht, saz, p. 28! (d) CAUSAL verbs, q.v., dan, p. 282 (g) pp. 282-4; REFLEXIVE verbs, p. 285 (I) PASSIVE VOICE, q.v., pp. 285-8 SYNTAX of verbs, two or more verbs at end of sentence, p. 559 (3), p. 560 (5) and footnote 3, and p. 561 and footnote 2 p. 561 and footnote 2 p. 561 (b) GOVERNMENT of verbs, q.v., p. 600; in m.c. a fewdat. 605 verbs may precede , p. (g) position of Comp. Pot. verb, h and Verbal Nouns Adjectives, pp. 421-5 ; Impera. root, p. 421 (a) subs, in -an (b) suffixed in -ak (c) -ya (e) Inf. alone = noun (h); Inf. used in pi., p. 422 (h); cornp. nouns from Impera. stem,
COMPOUND verbs
some
common
;
Y, elided in dimin., p. 395, Rem. IV; sometimes added to Ar. past parts., Vide Ya. p. 167 (ii), Rem. and p. 399. Ya, formative pp. 398-404; kinds of formative -I, p. 398 (a) [abs. nouns and
'
adjs. in -a, p. 398 and footnote 2]; added to Ar. Past Part. p. 399
,
Pers.
:
ya-yi
masdar, ya-yi musahabat and ya-yi mushabih, p. 399; ya-yi nisbatl, p. 400 (3) and footnote 2 ; hamzah substituted for (3) : Hindi I, p. 401 (3) ; ya added to nativecity of person, p. 401, Rem. I ; sanl not
adj., Rem. II; bayzl, bayzavl, Basravl, Rem. II and footnote 2 ; pleonastically added to adjs. Rem. Ill ; added to affixed to kunyat, p. 402, Infs., Rem. IV Rem. Ar. terrain, -am, Rem. VI; ;
rel.
;
added
(i)
Pret. Stems,
;
(;)
(k) (I);
;
two
Impera. stems, of agency (p)

; ;
noun p. 423 (m) (n) (o) suffixed to Inf. and
its neg. (q) Pers. or Ar. Past Part. = noun, p. 424 (r) some Pers. nouns of instrument, p. 425 (r), Rem.
Verbosity, p. 646 (g). Vocative, voc. in -a, p
57 (e) ; not followed by izafat (e} and p. 463 ; sing, only, p. 462 (g);' nouns in silent (h) do not admit of this vocative, p. 58, mana voc. of man, p. 463 poetically, dat. in ra voc., p. 463; nouns in voc. in apposition, Vowels, p. 21 (a); short, at p. 616 (5). beginning of words, p. 24 (6); long, at beginning of words, p. 25 (d).
;
ya-yi ma/'wZ, (4) ; ya-yi fa'il, p. 402 (5) ; other descriptions of y (6) ya-yi ma'ruf p. 403 (9) ya-yi majhul, p. 403 (10) ya substituted for alif, p. 404 Rem. II ; Arabic abstract nouns of quality in-iyyat, added to Pers. words, (c) p. 404 (c) (1) no tashdld on ya when fern, h is (2) Rem. II suffixed, ya of unity, to form nouns of number, p. 189, Rem. II; after Ar. sup., p. 172 (6) (3): ya after har, is
; ;
; ; : :
Ya
ya prob. demonstrative 7/5, p. 120, footnote 1 and vide also rel. ya for detail of ya of unity, vide Indefinite Article.
;
W
Walad-i ziria. p. 388 and footnote 1. Songs, p. 638. Wara, adv. and prep., p. 305 (7). Warning, particles of, p. 292 (d). Water, how measured, p. 215 (6);
in ki=illa, etc., p. 581 (4). p. 198 (1) and footnote 2. Yahudl Yahud, etc., p. 401. Rem. II. Yak, yak-l; I for yak is obs. p. 182, footnote 2; yak-l, indef. pron., p. 101 (c) ; an (or In) yak-l t m.c., pi. (c) yak-l dlgar-i "the one the other" (c) (1); " " one in ten (c) (1) Rem. yak-l dar dah
Yagan yagan,
War
how
borrowed or brought Waslah, p. 31.
(c).
Week,
Weights, p. 214 dang = the sixth part of anything, p. 21 (d). Vide Water. What and that which,' p. 488 (4) (5).
;
vide
Days
of
P>
Week
'
Whatever, each,
p. 1203.
'
all,
every, p. 119
(I).
(;')
and
Whatsoever, whichsoever, p. 121 Which referring to a clause =

(g) (i).
ki, p.
487
yak-l requires ra, p. 130 (6) requires ay, p. 136 (*") Rem. requires sing. verb. p. 592 and footnote 1 p. 606 (1) and footnote 2 p. 609 (12) and footnote 3. Yaka u tanha, p 189 (i). Yalc-digar and ham-dlgar, recip. pron., p. 81 not to be con(i) p. 99 (1) p, 100 (6) founded with yak-l dlgar (b), Rem. I. Yak-sar, p. 119(24). Yakum, less common than avval p. 191, footnote 1. Yalta, interj., p. 372(10). Ya'ni chi, p. 298 (7). to be able, p. 254 (g). Yarastan, Yarn, p. 107 (e), Rem. II p. 398 (e). Yazdan, formerly a pi., p. 58, footnote 2.
(c)
;
idioms with
;
(1)
Rem;
INDEX.
Yazd-gardl Year, p. 209 months of, p. 209 " Stolen (6) days," names, (6) (1).
; ;
937
(<) (5).
Za'if and za't/a, p. 157
Ye or yay
or yeg, vulg. for yak

p.
also yazza,
duvazza, etc.,
184,
Rem.
;
III.
;
Zanabu 'S-sirhan, "wolf's down, p. 313 and footnote Zanaku, p. 398 (c).
'
tail"
1.
false
Year, ancient Persian,
5 (panja-yi duzdida) days added (a) leap year, p. 207 (a) and footnote 7 Day or Farvardln, the first month, (a) names of Persian
; ;
p. 206
solar
months (6) Ahriman, p. 208 months, p. 208 (d): YAZD-GARDI

;
Urmuz and (c) Day, p. 20S SYRIAN JALALI YEAR, p. 209 YEAR, v., p. 209 (6);
days
;
TURKI YEAR, p. 203 (a); to find the MUSLIM or A.D. YEAR, p. 34. Yes, p. 295 (2) and (4). YUaq and Qishlaq, p. 206 (o) and footnote
Yusuf and Zulaykha, p 35, footnote
1.
Zagh, magpie, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zaghcha, chough, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zafymat and taUlf p. 279, footnote 1. Zaid, p. 453 and footnote 1.
;
,
Zaniyyat, p. 00, footnote ,3. Zar, p. 415 and footnote 3. Zarafat vide Wit. Zarf = adv., p. 289. Zarra, yak zana, p. 127 (I). Zanj, p. 189 (h). Zengma, p. 663 (d). Zha, dimin. termination, p. 397 (6), Rem. Zl, prep., obs., p. 322, footnote 8. Zi, vide Zu. Zlbldan, p. 273 (t). Zinhar, pp. 370-1. Zir-dast, p. 304 and footnote 2. former pos. and latter Ziyad, ziyada; compar. p. 174 (i) (4) ziyada = slzdah, p. 182, footnote 4 ; ziyaa and ziyada, p. 301 (2) and footnote 1, and p. 300 (I) (1), footnote 2 ziya, p. 384 and footnote 1. Zodia, p. 204 (a) (6) (c) formed 2000 B.C., p. 205 (e). Zoroaster, p. 207 (a). Zu and zl, etc., how used in Persian, p. Vide also Appendix A. 445. Zuma'niyayn, p. 633 (?) (1).
' '
'
Printed at the Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta.
JBIND1NG SECT.
JUN
7 1982
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
Phillott, Douglas Graven Higher Persian grammar

Higher Persian Gra 00 Philu of T

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Higher Persian Gra 00 Philu of T

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PREFACE.

should be borne in mind that considerable differences exist between the

of Persia, not only in pronunciation

but also in construction.

these differences are

trated in this work.

hoped that the notes on composition and

rhetoric will prove especially interesting to Indian students,

for their benefit that these subjects

The author, not being a

In writing this grammar, the works of Platts, Ranking, Rosen,

ShirazI, Persian Instructor to the

assisted throughout in seeing the

work through the Press, Shams"' l- Ulama* Shaykh

and other Persian

friends, for constant advice.

of Arabic (viz. portions of the

the Board of Examiners, to

Shams u 'l- Ulamd* Shaykh Mahmud

and to Maulavi Hidayat Husayn

assisted in revising the proofs

suggestion numerous additions were made.

to other unfortunate causes, this

the consequent loss of manuscript and work has been un-

duly long in issuing from the Press.

CAIRO US. March 1918.

C.S.I., D.L., D.Sc., F.A.S.B., F.R.S.E.,

VICE-CHAN CELLOE OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY, CHAIRMAN OF THE

TRUSTEES OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, VICE-PRESIDENT

OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,

DEDICATE THIS BOOK,

BOTH OF PERSONAL FRIENDSHIP

AND OF THE SERVICES HE HAS

ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.

The Short and Long and Dipthong Vowels

the Short Vowels at the beginning of words

The letter (at the beginning Jazm or Sukun

Solar and Lunar Letters

Abjad Numeral Figures

the year A.D. corresponding to the year of the

16. 17. 18.

Abbreviations, Contractions and Imala

Division of Persian and Arabic Gramnicar

Etymology .. The Article The Substantive

Examples of Declension Formation of the Plural Plurals Modern Persian

Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

Simple Demonstrative Pronouns Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns

Compound Demonstrative Pronouns .. Interrogative Pronouns ..

THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Adjectives Intensive Adjectives

Degree of Comparison and Comparative Clauses

Recurring Numerals Approximate Numbers Numeral Adjectives

Arabian Months The Turki Year-Cycle The Zodiac

Verbal Adjective Negative Verbs

Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs .. .. Interrogative Verbs

The Auxiliary Verb

Guzashtan, Dadan, Mandan " " to Permit, Allow

Impersonal Verbs Compound Verbs

Causal and Reflexive Verbs

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings, Compli.

Signs and Signals

Letters distinguished by dots or Jiuruf-i mu'jama ( A.^^