Appendix A:

Physical Constants and Functions

For Use in Marine Meteorology
Appendix B:
Wind Force Scales
Appendix C:
Unit Conversions
Edgar L Andreas
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
Hanover, New Hampshire !"##$%&'
April &#
LS! "F S#MB"LS
( (ea)*ort n)mber or *orce +see ,(%.%-.
c
p
Speci*ic heat o* air at constant press)re
p c
%
/eneral val)e o* the speci*ic heat o* air at constant press)re +see ,A0.!-.
c
pd
Speci*ic heat o* dry air at constant press)re +see ,A0.%-.
c
pi
Speci*ic heat o* p)re ice at constant press)re +see ,A0.%-.
c
ps
Speci*ic heat o* seawater at constant press)re +see ,A0.1-.
c
pv
Speci*ic heat o* water vapor at constant press)re +see ,A0.&-.
c
pw
Speci*ic heat o* p)re water at constant press)re +see ,A0.'-.
2 3hermal di**)sivity o* air +see ,A%%.&-.
24 3hermal di**)sivity o* air modi*ied *or the e**ects o* s)r*ace c)rvat)re +see ,A%!.&-.
d
a
,5
%
!." % m

- E**ective diameter o* an air molec)le

2
g
2i**)sivity o* an arbitrary gas in air +see ,A%&.6- and ,A%&.#-.
2
g3
2i**)sivity o* an arbitrary gas in air at a speci*ied temperat)re and at press)re 7

+see
3able A#.
2
g
2i**)sivity o* an arbitrary gas in air at temperat)re 3

and press)re 7

+see 3able A#.

d
w
,5
%
%.0# % m

- 2iameter o* a water molec)le

2
v
8olec)lar di**)sivity o* water vapor in air +see ,A%&.%-.
v
2 4
8olec)lar di**)sivity o* water vapor in air modi*ied *or the e**ects o* s)r*ace c)rvat)re
+see ,A%!.!-.
e 9ater vapor press)re
e
sat
Sat)ration press)re o* water vapor +see ,A6.%-:,A6.6-.
* ,5 RH;%- <ractional relative h)midity
< <)=ita n)mber +see ,(!.%-.
g Acceleration o* gravity
H
s
Sensible heat *l)> +see ,A0.!-.
H
%;!
Signi*icant wave height +see 3able (%.
? ,5
&! %
%.!10# % @ A

- (oltBmann constant
?
a
3hermal cond)ctivity o* air +see ,A%%.%-.
a
? 4
3hermal cond)ctivity o* air modi*ied *or the e**ects o* s)r*ace c)rvat)re +see ,A%!.%-.
L
*
Latent heat o* *)sion o* water +see ,A".&-.
L
s
Latent heat o* s)blimation o* ice +see ,A".!-.
&
L
v
Latent heat o* vaporiBation o* water +see ,A".%-.
8
a
,5
! %
&1.'066 % ?g mol

- 8olec)lar weight o* air
m
s
8ass o* salt in a seawater sample
m
w
8ass o* p)re water in a seawater sample
8
w
,5
! %
%1.%# % ?g mol

- 8olec)lar weight o* water
7 (arometric press)re
7
re*
7ress)re meas)red a height B
re*
above the sea s)r*ace +see ,A%6.6-.
7
s
(arometric press)re at the sea s)r*ace +see ,A%6.6-.
7

,5 %%!.&# mb- Standard press)reC i.e., one atmosphere

7r 8olec)lar 7randtl n)mber +see ,A%&.&-.
D Speci*ic h)midity +see ,A6.0-.
D
sat
Sat)ration speci*ic h)midity +see ,A6."-.
r 8i>ing ratio +see ,A6.'-.
R ,5
% %
1.!%66"@ mol A

- Universal gas constant
r
sat
Sat)ration mi>ing ratio +see ,A6.%-.
r

Radi)s o* an atmospheric aerosol

RH Relative h)midity in percent +see ,A6.%&- and ,A6.%#-.
s ,5 S;%- <ractional salinity +see ,A1.!-.
S Salinity in practical salinity )nits ,ps)-
Sc 8olec)lar Schmidt n)mber +see ,A%&.!-.
t 3)rb)lent *l)ct)ation in temperat)re +see ,A0.!-.
3 3emperat)re
3
a
Air temperat)re
3
C
3emperat)re on the Celsi)s scale
3
d
2ew$point or *rost$point temperat)re
3
*
<reeBing point o* seawater +see ,A#.!-.
3
<
3emperat)re on the <ahrenheit scale
3
A
3emperat)re on the Aelvin scale
3
v
Eirt)al temperat)re +see ,A!.1-.
v 3
Average virt)al temperat)re +see ,A%6.6-.
3
vre*
Eirt)al temperat)re at some re*erence height
3
vs
Eirt)al sea s)r*ace temperat)re
!
3
wet
9et$b)lb temperat)re
3

,5 &"!.%# A- Standard temperat)re

U S)r*ace$level wind speed +see ,(!.%-.
U
%
9ind speed at a height o* % m +see ,(%.%-.
w 3)rb)lent *l)ct)ation in vertical velocity +see ,A0.!-.
B Height
B
re*
A re*erence height +see ,A%6.6-.

c
,5 .!0- Empirical constant in the eF)ation *or the modi*ied water vapor di**)sivity +see
,A%!.!-.

3
,5 ."- Empirical constant in the eF)ation *or the modi*ied thermal cond)ctivity +see
,A%!.%-.

3
,5
"
&.%0 % m

- Empirical length scale in the eF)ation *or the modi*ied thermal

cond)ctivity +see ,A%!.%-.

v
,5
1
1." % m

- Empirical length scale related to the mean *ree path o* an air molec)le
and )sed in the eF)ation *or the modi*ied water vapor di**)sivity +see ,A%!.!-.

a
2ynamic viscosity o* air +see ,A%.%-.

w
2ynamic viscosity o* p)re water +see ,A%.6-.

a
8ean *ree path o* air molec)les +see ,A'.6-.

v
8ean *ree path o* water vapor molec)les in air +see ,A'.#-.

a
Ainematic viscosity o* air +see ,A%.!-.

sw
Ainematic viscosity o* seawater +see ,A%.0-.

w
Ainematic viscosity o* p)re water +see ,A%.#-.

a
2ensity o* moist air +see ,A!.#- and ,A!."-.
%
a
Air density in general +see ,A0.!-.

d
2ensity o* dry air +see ,A&.&- and ,A!.&-.

d
,5
!
%.&'&&?g m

- 2ensity o* dry air at standard temperat)re and press)re +see ,A&.&-.

sw
2ensity o* seawater +see ,A#.&-.

v
2ensity o* water vapor ,or absol)te h)midity- +see ,A!.%-.

v,sat
Sat)ration water vapor density

w
2ensity o* p)re water +see ,A#.%- and ,A#.#-.
6

sw
S)r*ace tension o* an inter*ace between water vapor and seawater +see ,A1.#-.

w
S)r*ace tension o* an inter*ace between water vapor and p)re water +see ,A1.%- and
,A1.&-.
#
Appendix A:
Physical Constants and Functions $or Use in Marine Meteorology
A%& '!(")UC!"'
St)dies o* geophysical bo)ndary layers always reF)ire ?inematic and thermodynamic
constants *or the *l)ids involved. 3he most obvio)s e>amples are *or the *l)id densitiesG air,
p)re water, seawater, and water vapor. (o)ndary$layer st)dies *reF)ently involve e>changing
properties across inter*acesC conseF)ently, molec)lar properties li?e the ?inematic viscosity,
thermal cond)ctivity, water vapor di**)sivity, and s)r*ace tension are also necessary. Hn t)rn, the
ratios o* the molec)lar transport F)antitiesIthe 7randtl and Schmidt n)mbersIare rec)rring
variables.
Here, we s)mmariBe the val)es and *)nctions *or these and other F)antities that are )se*)l
in marine meteorology. 3his s)mmary is admittedly not all$encompassing. <or e>ample, we
tend to *oc)s on the F)antities and the range o* conditions *or st)dies o* air:land, air:sea, and
air:sea:ice interaction. 9e also describe some microphysical F)antities )sed in st)dies o*
aF)eo)s sol)tion droplets, li?e clo)d droplets and sea spray. 9e tend to simply describe ways to
calc)late the F)antities o* interest witho)t also e>plaining why yo) might want this F)antity.
3here*ore, chec? any good boo? on atmospheric thermodynamics, s)ch as Hribarne and /odson
,%'1%-, 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''"-, or (ohren and Albrecht ,%''1-, *or academic disc)ssions
o* the thermodynamic F)antities.
A*& A( )E'S!#
2ry air obeys the ideal gas law,
a
d
8 7
R3

, ,A&.%-
where
d
is the density o* dry airC 8
a
, the molec)lar weight o* airC 7, the barometric press)reC R,
the )niversal gas constantC and 3, the air temperat)re in ?elvins. At standard temperat)re
,3 5 3

5 &"!.%# A- and press)re ,7 5 7

5 %%!.&# mb-, ,A&.%- gives

d
5 %.&'&& ?g m
:!
.
3here*ore, ,A&.%- also gives

d d

3 3 7 7
%.&'&&
3 7 3 7
_ _
_ _


, ,
, ,
, ,A&.&-
where
d
is in ?g m
:!
when 7 is in millibars and 3 is in ?elvins.
A+& WA!E( ,AP"( )E'S!#
9ater vapor in the atmosphere also obeys the ideal gas lawC
0
w
v
8 e
R3

, ,A!.%-
where
v
is the water vapor density, 8
w
is the molec)lar weight o* water, and e is the partial
press)re o* the water vapor.
3o be rigoro)s, we need to recogniBe that, in ,A&.%-, the partial press)re o* dry air is not
the barometric press)re 7 b)t rather is appro>imately 7 : e. 3hat is, in rigoro)s )sage, ,A&.%-
sho)ld be
( )
a
d
8 7 e
R3

. ,A!.&-
(y rearranging ,A!.%- and ,A!.&-, we can write the *ollowing e>pression *or the barometric
press)reG
( )
d v
a w
R3 R3
7 7 e e
8 8

+ +
, ,A!.!-
or
a a v
a w a
R3 8
7 % %
8 8
1 _
+
1

, ]
. ,A!.6-
Here,
a d v
+
,A!.#-
is the density o* moist airC and we recogniBe
v
;
a
as the speci*ic h)midity, D ,more on this
soon-.
EF)ation ,A!.6- rearranges to
( )
a
a
8 7
R3 % .01D

+
, ,A!.0-
where
a w
8 ; 8 % .01
. EF)ation ,A!.0- implies that ,A&.%- is inacc)rate by the *actor
,% J .01D- i* we want the total air density. Since *or normal atmospheric conditions D is
seldom larger than .!# ?g ?g
:%
, the term in parentheses in ,A!.0- is always between %. and
%.&&. 3here*ore, ,A&.%- may be acc)rate eno)gh *or many p)rposes.
Nevertheless, we o*ten rewrite ,A!.0- as ,e.g., L)mley and 7ano*s?y %'06, p. &%6-
"
a
a
v
8 7
R3

,A!."-
to preserve the *orm o* ,A&.%- while retaining the acc)racy o* ,A!.0- by de*ining the virt)al
temperat)re
( )
v
3 3 % .01D +
. ,A!.1-
Hn e**ect, 3
v
is the temperat)re that dry air m)st have to prod)ce the same density as moist air at
the given barometric press)re.
A-& WA!E( ,AP"( ,A(ABLES
8any types o* instr)ments are available *or meas)ring atmospheric water vapor. Some
act)ally meas)re the water vapor density ,the absol)te h)midity-, b)t many meas)re derivative
F)antities s)ch as the mi>ing ratio, the dew$point temperat)re, or the wet$b)lb temperat)re.
Hence, analyses and data reporting o*ten reF)ire converting among the di**erent water vapor
variables. Schwerdt*eger ,%'"0- and 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''", p. %0*.-, among many others,
give good s)mmaries o* water vapor variables.
A4.1. Vapor Pressure
H* there is a *)ndamental water vapor F)antity, it is the vapor press)re e. And *or
comp)tational p)rposes, the sat)ration vapor press)re e
sat
is )s)ally the *)ndamental variable.
9e )se ()c?Ks ,%'1%- three eF)ations *or the sat)ration vapor press)re ,c*. (roc? and
Richardson &%, p. 10**.-. <or vapor in sat)ration with a planar s)r*ace o* p)re water at
temperat)re 3 between :& and #C, ()c? gives
( ) ( )
0
sat
%".#&3
e 3 0.%%&% %." !.60 % 7 e>p
&6.'" 3

_
+

+
,
, ,A6.%-
where e
sat
is in millibars when 7, the barometric press)re, is also in millibars.
<or sat)ration over water at m)ch lower temperat)res,
6 3 C
, ()c? ,%'1%- gives
( ) ( )
0
sat
%".'003
e 3 0.%%&% %." !.60 % 7 e>p
&6".%# 3

_
+

+
,
. ,A6.&-
Use this relation, *or e>ample, to comp)te the sat)ration vapor press)re in clo)ds composed o*
deeply s)percooled water droplets.
<inally, i* the vapor is in eF)ilibri)m with a s)r*ace o* p)re ice ,or snow, *or instance-,
()c? ,%'1%- recommends the *ollowing eF)ation *or
# 3 C
G
1
( ) ( )
0
sat
&&.6#&3
e 3 0.%%%# %.! 6.%1 % 7 e>p
&"&.## 3

_
+

+
,
. ,A6.!-
As an alternative *or the sat)ration vapor press)re over ice, 8)rphy and Aoop ,&#-
give a more comple> e>pression that e>tends over a wider temperat)re range,
%0#.%# 3 C
C
( ) ( )
( )
# # &
sat
e 3 .% % % 7 6.'&! .!&#3 #.16 % 3
#"&!.&0#
e>p '.##6&0 !.#!01ln 3 ."&1!!&3
3

1
+ +
]
1
+
1
]
. ,A6.6-
3his gives e
sat
in millibars *or 7 in millibars and 3 in ?elvins. EF)ations ,A6.!- and ,A6.6- di**er
insigni*icantly over their common range. 9e there*ore pre*er ,A6.!- beca)se it is
mathematically simpler. Use ,A6.6-, however, *or temperat)res below :#LC.
<ig)re A% shows e
sat
as a *)nction o* temperat)re *or sat)ration over water, over
s)percooled water, and over ice. Hnstr)ments that meas)re the dew$point or *rost$point
temperat)re essentially provide the temperat)re 3 in ,A6.%-:,A6.6-. Hence, <ig)re A% is
eF)ivalently a plot o* sat)ration vapor press)re vers)s dew$point or *rost$point temperat)re,
depending on whether the s)r*ace in eF)ilibri)m is water or ice.
9hen the water s)r*ace is not p)re b)t, *or e>ample, is seawater with salinity S, the
sat)ration vapor press)re is depressed to e
sat
,3,S-, where ,e.g., Roll %'0#, p. &0&C List %'16, p.
!"!-
( )
( )
sat
sat
e 3, S
% .#!"S
e 3

. ,A6.#-
Here, the salinity is in ps). EF)ation ,A6.#- means that, *or a typical open$ocean salinity o*
!# ps), water vapor in sat)ration with the s)r*ace has a vapor press)re that is '1.%M o* the vapor
press)re over a p)re water s)r*ace with the same temperat)re.
3he disc)ssion nat)rally t)rns now to how to treat a sea ice s)r*ace. 3he point is o*ten
moot, however, beca)se sea ice is )s)ally snow covered, so we wo)ld =)st comp)te the
sat)ration vapor press)re as that *or p)re ice )sing ,A6.!- or ,A6.6-. H* the s)r*ace is tr)ly bare
sea ice, on the other hand, s)ch as *or new ice in a *reeBing lead or s)mmer sea ice when the
snow has all melted, we co)ld still reasonably =)st )se the sat)ration vapor press)re relation *or
p)re ice. <reeBing seawater re=ects saltC conseF)ently, sea ice rarely has a s)r*ace salinity above
1 ps). H* we ass)me that ,A6.#- is also appropriate *or sea iceIa reasonable ass)mptionIthe
depression in vapor press)re over sea ice with salinity 1 ps) wo)ld be only abo)t .6M. 8ost
h)midity sensors cannot resolve s)ch small changes in vapor press)re. Nevertheless, i* s)ch
di**erences are important, ,A6.#- sho)ld be adeF)ate *or F)anti*ying them.
A4.2. Specific Humidity
8ost other water vapor variables are calc)lated *rom the act)al vapor press)re e and the
sat)ration vapor press)re e
sat
. <or e>ample, ,A!.%- shows how to comp)te the water vapor
'
density
v
*rom the vapor press)re. 3he sat)ration vapor density
v,sat
li?ewise comes *rom
,A!.%- with e
sat
s)bstit)ted *or e.
3he speci*ic h)midity is de*ined as
v
d v
D

+
, ,A6.0-
and the sat)ration speci*ic h)midity is
v,sat
sat
d v,sat
D

+
. ,A6."-
Notice that, *rom ,A!.%- and ,A!.&-,
( )
( )
( )
w
w a
a w w
a
8 e
.0&& e ; 7 8 e 8 7
D
8 7 e 8 e % .!"1 e ; 7 8 e
% %
8 7

+ _


,
. ,A6.1-
3hat is, the speci*ic h)midity also derives *rom the vapor press)re. Hn SH )nits, speci*ic h)midity
is given in ?g ?g
:%
.
A4.3. Mixing Ratio
3he mi>ing ratio is de*ined as
v
d
r

, ,A6.'-
and the sat)ration mi>ing ratio is
v,sat
sat
d
r

. ,A6.%-
As with ,A6.1-, we can also write r in terms o* the vapor press)re. <rom ,A!.%- and
,A!.&-,
( )
( )
( )
w
w a
a
8 e
.0&& e ; 7 8 e 8 7
r
e
8 7 e % e ; 7
%
7

. ,A6.%%-
%
A4.4. Relatie Humidity
N**icially, the relative h)midity ,in percent- is de*ined as the ratio o* mi>ing ratios
,(ohren and Albrecht %''1, p. %'1C /lic?man &, p. 06&*.-,
sat
r
RH %
r
_

,
. ,A6.%&-
<rom the de*initions o* mi>ing ratios, tho)gh, we see that
sat
sat
7 e e
RH %
7 e e
_ _

, ,
. ,A6.%!-
9e can rearrange this as
( )
( )
sat sat sat
&
sat sat
% e ; 7 e e e e e e
RH % % %
e % e ; 7 e 7 7
1 _ _ 1 _

1 1

, ] , , ]
;
. ,A6.%6-
Nver marine s)r*ace, *or e>ample, e
sat
;7 and e;7 are )s)ally less than .!, and e is rarely less
than .# e
sat
. Hence, *or practical p)rposes, we can generally ignore the term in sF)are brac?ets
in ,A6.%6-C ,A6.%&- is, th)s, eF)ivalent to the traditional de*inition o* relative h)midity,
sat
e
RH %
e
_

,
. ,A6.%#-
<)rthermore, (ohren and Albrecht ,%''1, p. %10- pre*er ,A6.%#- to ,A6.%&- beca)se it better
re*lects the physics o* evaporation and condensation processes. 9e li?ewise )se ,A6.%#- as o)r
de*inition o* relative h)midity.
3able A% shows the relative h)midity as a *)nction o* air temperat)re and dew$point
temperat)re, where we )se ,A6.%#- to de*ine relative h)midity.
A4.!. "et#$ul% &emperature
3he wet$b)lb temperat)re, 3
wet
, is another common h)midity variable ,e.g.,
Schwerdt*eger %'"0, p #**.-. A wetted thermometer will read lower than the ambient air
temperat)re beca)se o* evaporation ,b)t higher with condensation-, and that rate o* evaporation
depends on the mi>ing ratio. At eF)ilibri)m, a well$ventilated wet$b)lb thermometer obeys
,Andreas %''#C (ohren and Albrecht %''1, p. &%1**-
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p a a wet v a sat wet
c 3 3 3 L 3 r 3 r 1
]
, ,A6.%0-
where c
p
is the speci*ic heat o* dry air at temperat)re 3
a
, L
v
is the latent heat o* vaporiBation at
3
a
, r is the ambient mi>ing ratio, and r
sat
is the sat)ration mi>ing ratio at the wet$b)lb
temperat)re.
%%
Rearranging ,A6.%0- shows that the wet$b)lb temperat)re predicts the mi>ing ratio,
( )
( )
( )
( )
p a
sat wet a wet
v a
c 3
r r 3 3 3
L 3

. ,A6.%"-
And in light o* ,A6.%%-,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
p a
a
sat wet a wet
sat w v a
7 e c 3
8 7 e
e e 3 3 3
7 e 8 L 3
_

,
, ,A6.%1-
which is appro>imately
( )
( )
( )
( )
p a
sat wet a wet
v a
7c 3
e e 3 3 3
.0&&L 3
;
. ,A6.%'-
3hat is, the wet$b)lb temperat)re also predicts the vapor press)re. 3able A& shows the vapor
press)re comp)ted *rom ,A6.%'- *or a range o* 3
a
and
a wet
3 3
val)es.
EF)ations ,A6.%0-:,A6.%'- apply to per*ect wet$b)lb thermometers. Schwerdt*eger
,%'"0, p. #%*.- and (roc? and Richardson ,&%, p. '6- describe some second$order corrections
that may be necessary to acco)nt *or ventilation rate, radiative e**ects, and the siBe o* the wet
b)lb.
A.& WA!E( )E'S!#
3he literat)re contains several modern e>pressions *or the density o* p)re water,
w
. Any
one wo)ld probably be acc)rate eno)gh *or the p)rposes o* this handboo?. 3his one is /illKs
,%'1&, p. #''-G
& ! &
w
6 ! 0 6 ' #
'''.16&#'6 0."'!'#& % 3 '.'#&' % 3
%.%01# % 3 %.%&1! % 3 0.#!0!!& % 3


+
+ +
. ,A#.%-
Ht gives
w
in ?g m
:!
*or a barometric press)re o* one atmosphere when 3 is between L and
6LC.
3o *ind the density o* seawater,
sw
, with temperat)re 3 and salinity S *or press)res near
one atmosphere, /ill ,%'1&, p. #''- gives
%&
! # &
sw w
" ! ' 6
!; & ! 6 0 &
6 &
S,.1&66!' 6.1'' % 3 ".06!1 % 3
1.&60" % 3 #.!1"# % 3 -
S , #."&600 % %.&&" % 3 %.0#60 % 3 -
6.1!%6 % S

+ +
+
+ +
+
. ,A#.&-
3his is appropriate *or S in +, 6& ps). and 3 in +3
*
, 6LC., where 3
*
is the *reeBing point o*
seawater with salinity greater than ps).
/ill ,%'1&, p. 0&- give 3
*
as a *)nction o* salinity *or S between and 6 ps)C b)t we
pre*er AesterKs ,%'"6- *orm)la, which is always within .%LC o* /illKs *or S in +%, 6 ps).,
beca)se it is easier to invert. Aester gives 3
*
in LC as
& # &
*
3 .%!" #.%'' % S ".&&# % S

. ,A#.!-
Hn t)rn, i* we ?now that the seawater is at its *reeBing point, we can invert ,A#.!- to *ind the
corresponding salinity,
( )
%; &
& ! ! 6
*
S !.#'1 % 0.'& % &."! % &.1' % 3 .%!"

1 + +
]
. ,A#.6-
<or s)percooled p)re water in the temperat)re interval [ ] !! , C
, 7r)ppacher and Alett
,%''", p. 1"- give
& ! & 6 !
w
0 6 " # ' 0
'''.10 0.0' % 3 1.610 % 3 %.#%1 % 3
0.''16 % 3 !.066' % 3 ".6'" % 3


+ +

. ,A#.#-
Here, again,
w
is in ?g m
:!
when 3 is in LC. 7r)ppacher and Alett have ta?en ,A#.#- directly
*rom Hare and Sorensen ,%'1"-.
<or completeness, we also incl)de in this section an eF)ation *or the density o* p)re ice,

i
. 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''", p. "'*.- give
6 &
i
'%0." .%"#3 #. % 3

, ,A#.0-
which yields
i
in ?g m
:!
*or 3 in LC. 7r)ppacher and Alett claim that this relation *its the
e>perimental data *or 3 in [ ] %1 , C
. Nn comparing the predictions o* ,A#.0- with HobbsKs
,%'"6, p. !61- tab)lation o*
i
, we can *)rther say that ,A#.0- is acc)rate to better than .#M over
this range.
%!
A/& SPECFC 0EA!
A'.1. Specific Heat of (ry Air
3he speci*ic heat o* air appears rec)rrently in st)dies o* the atmospheric bo)ndary layer.
Using data *rom Hilsenrath et al. ,%'0-, we have obtained the *ollowing polynomial prediction
*or the speci*ic heat o* dry air at constant press)reG
&
pd
c %#.0 .%"&%%3 .!'&3 + +
. ,A0.%-
3his gives c
pd
in @ ?g
:%
LC
:%
*or temperat)re 3 between :6L and 6LC and *or barometric
press)res near one atmosphere. EF)ation ,A0.%- has a minim)m o*
% %
%#.6%@ ?g C

at
&%.'#LC .
A'.2. Specific Heat of "ater Vapor
Reid et al. ,%'1", p. 0#0*., 001- give a polynomial e>pression *or the speci*ic heat o*
water vapor at constant press)re *or barometric press)res near one atmosphere. 3he temperat)re
in their polynomial is in ?elvins, however, and their )nits o* c
pv
are @ mol
:%
LC
:%
. 9e have
there*ore converted their polynomial to
% 6 & " !
pv
c %1#1 !.1& % 3 6.&& % 3 %.''0 % 3

+ +
, ,A0.&-
which give c
pv
in @ ?g
:%
LC
:%
when 3 is in LC. EF)ation ,A0.&- sho)ld be acc)rate *or all near$
s)r*ace atmospheric temperat)res.
A'.3. )n t*e &ur%ulent Sensi%le Heat +lux
A *reF)ent )se *or the speci*ic heat o* air is in *inding the t)rb)lent sensible heat *l)>,
which is de*ined as
%
p
a s
H c wt
%
. ,A0.!-
Here, w is the t)rb)lent *l)ct)ation in vertical wind velocity, t is the t)rb)lent *l)ct)ation in air
temperat)re, and the overbar denotes a time average. 3he tildes over the
a
and the c
p
terms in
,A0.!- denote these as general val)es o* the air density and speci*ic heat o* air at constant
press)re beca)se con*)sion e>ists as to which val)es constit)te the proper de*inition o* sensible
heat *l)>.
8ost o* the bo)ndary$layer comm)nity simply )se
a
, the density o* moist air, *or
%
a
and
c
pd
*or p c
%
. ()singerKs ,%'1&- analysis con*irms that this is proper practice *or
micrometeorological st)dies. 3hat is, ,A0.!- wo)ld be
s a pd
H c wt . ,A0.6-
Nn the other hand, when long time intervals or global averages de*ine the scope o* the
st)dyI*or e>ample, in balancing the hydrological cycleI()singer ,%'1&- e>plains that the
%6
re*erence temperat)re *or enthalpy trans*er m)st be chosen care*)lly. 9hen s)ch Ocare*)l
boo??eeping o* the energyP is necessary, ()singer concl)des that the sensible heat *l)> m)st be
e>pressed as
( )
s d pd v pv
H c c wt +
. ,A0.#-
<)ehrer and <rieheKs +&&, EF. ,%%6-. e>tensive thermodynamic analysis yields
essentially this same res)lt, altho)gh they give it as general res)ltInot one necessary only *or
large areal averages. 3hey also incl)de two other small terms in ,A0.#- that are associated with
the *l)> o* water vapor between temperat)re re*erence states.
As a practical e>ercise, we can chec? how di**erent ,A0.6- and ,A0.#- are. 9e can
convert ,A0.#- into a *orm similar to ,A0.6-,
pv pd
s a pd
pd
c c
H c % D wt
c
1 _
+ 1

1
, ]
. ,A0.0-
Using ,A0.%- and ,A0.&-, we see that ( )
pv pd pd
c c ; c
ranges *rom .10% to .1!! *or air
temperat)res between :6L and 6LC. Hence, we appro>imate ,A0.0- as ,c*. Larsen and ()sch
%'"6-
( )
s a pd
H c % .1#D wt + ; . ,A0."-
As we mentioned earlier, D is seldom larger than .!# ?g ?g
:%
in the nat)ral atmosphereC
and it wo)ld attain this val)e, probably, only over the tropical ocean. Hence, ,A0.#- yields
val)es o* the sensible heat *l)> that are, at most, !M larger than the val)es *rom ,A0.6-. Hn many
applications, this is a negligible di**erence since
wt
)s)ally is meas)red to no better than t%M.
And at temperat)res below LC, where D is less than .6 ?g ?g
:%
, ,A0.6- and ,A0.#- di**er by
m)ch less than %M.
A'.4. Specific Heat of "ater
(oth temperat)re and salinity in*l)ence the speci*ic heat o* seawater at constant press)re,
c
ps
. Ne)mann and 7ierson ,%'00, p. 6"- tab)late val)es o* c
ps
that come *rom data collected by
Co> and Smith ,%'#'-. Horne ,%'0', p. 01- gives a *)nctional e>pression *or c
ps
in terms o*
temperat)re and salinity that he converted *rom a similar e>pression that (romley et al. ,%'0"-
ded)ced *rom their own meas)rements.
8illero et al. ,%'"!- also reported meas)rements o* c
ps
and *itted an eF)ation to these
meas)rements in terms o* temperat)re and chlorinity. /ill ,%'1&, p. 0%- converted this to an
e>pression in terms o* temperat)re and salinity. 3he *ollowing is essentially /illKs eF)ation,
altho)gh we have modi*ied it slightly to better represent the precision that 8illero et al. implied
in their *itting coe**icientsG
%#
( )
( )
! &
ps pw
!; & ! # &
c c S ".0666 .%"&13 %.!16 % 3
S .%"" 6.1 % 3 #.!# % 3

+ +
+ +
. ,A0.1-
Here, c
pw
is the speci*ic heat o* p)re water,

& ! ! # 6
pw
c 6&%".6 !."&&1!3 .%6%&1##3 &.0#6!1" % 3 &.'!&!0 % 3

+ +
. ,A0.'-
Hn ,A0.1- and ,A0.'-, 3 is in C and ranges *rom 3
*
to 6CC in ,A0.1-, S is in ps) and ranges
*rom to 6 ps). 3he press)re is ass)med to be one atmosphere. 3able A! shows val)es o* c
ps

that res)lt *rom ,A0.1-.
3he val)es in 3able A! are F)ite compatible with the val)es in Ne)mann and 7iersonKs
,%'00, p. 6"- table, which are based on Co> and SmithKs ,%'#'- data. 3he val)es in 3able A!,
however, have some systematic di**erences *rom the res)lts *rom (romley et al. ,%'0"C also
Horne %'0', p. 0"*.-, especially *or *resh water in the lower part o* the temperat)re range. <or
e>ample, (romley et al. report
% %
pw
c 6&"@ ?g C


*or 3 5 LC, while 3able A! gives
% %
6&%"@ ?g C

. 3here*ore, we concl)de that ,A0.1- and ,A0.'- are acc)rate to ro)ghly
% %
!@ ?g C

t ,c*. (romley et al. %'0"C 8illero et al. %'"!-.
A'.!. Specific Heat of )ce
8)rphy and Aoop ,&#- give a new e>pression *or the speci*ic heat o* ice *or
temperat)res down to & A. (eca)se their )nits, however, are @ mol
:%
A
:%
, we convert their
e>pression to predict c
pi
in @ ?g
:%
A
:%
)sing
! %
w
8 %1.%# % ?gmol

. 3he res)lt is
( )
&
pi
c %%6.%' 1.%&113 !.6&%3e>p 3;%&#.%
1
+ +
]
, ,A0.%-
in which 3 m)st be in ?elvins. 8)rphy and Aoop )se ,A0.%-, *or e>ample, to derive their
e>pression *or the sat)ration vapor press)re over ice, ,A6.6- above.
<ig)re A& compares val)es *or the speci*ic heats o* air, p)re water, ice, and water vapor
*or temperat)res between :6L and 6LC.
A1& LA!E'! 0EA!
<leagle and ()singer ,%'1. p. %%!- give the *ollowing eF)ations *or the latent heats
associated with the phase transitions o* water molec)lesG
Latent heat o* vaporiBation,
( )
#
v
L &#. .&&"63 %
C ,A".%-
Latent heat o* *)sion,
%0
#
*
L !.!6 % C ,A".&-
Latent heat o* s)blimation,
( )
#
s
L &1.!6 .%6'3 %
. ,A".!-
Each o* these gives the latent heat in @ ?g
:%
when the temperat)re 3 is in LC.
3he val)e *or L
*
in ,A".&- is appropriate only near LC beca)se L
*
decreases with
decreasing temperat)res. HobbsKs ,%'"6, p. !0%- tab)lation o* L
*
*or temperat)res below LC
disagrees dramatically with a similar tab)lation in the Smithsonian 8eteorological 3ables ,List
%'16, p. !6!-, however. 3he *)nctions *or L
v
and L
s
, on the other hand, agree F)ite well with the
Smithsonian tab)lation. 3he L
v
val)es predicted by ,A".%- are within .!M o* the Smithsonian
val)es *or temperat)res *rom L to 0LC, and the L
s
val)es *rom ,A".!- are within .&M o* the
Smithsonian val)es *or temperat)res between :#L and LC.
A2& SU(FACE !E'S"' "F WA!E(
Earga*ti? et al. ,%'1!- tab)late consens)s val)es *or the s)r*ace tension o* p)re water *or
temperat)res between C and the critical temperat)re, !"6C ,(ohren and Albrecht %''1, p.
&"**.-. 3hey also develop *rom these data the *ollowing relation *or comp)ting the s)r*ace
tension o* p)re waterG
%.&#0
w
!"6. 3 !"6. 3
.&!#1 % .0&#
06".%# 06".%#
1 _ _

1
, , ]
. ,A1.%-
3his gives
w
in @ m
:&
when the water temperat)re 3 is in C. 3his eF)ation predicts e>actly the
val)es o* s)r*ace tension that Lide ,&%, p. 0$!- tab)lates and matches the val)es in (atchelor
,%'", p. #'"- to within abo)t .%M.
<or temperat)res between :6# and C, 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''", p. %!- s)ggest
comp)ting the s)r*ace tension o* p)re water *rom
& 6 # & 0 !
w
" 6 ' # %% 0
".#'! % %.%# % 3 0.1%1 % 3 0.#%% % 3
&.'!! % 3 0.&1! % 3 #.&1# % 3


+ + +
+ + +
, ,A1.&-
which again gives
w
in @ m
:&
*or 3 in C. Un*ort)nately, ,A1.%- and ,A1.&- do not meet at C.
EF)ation ,A1.%- predicts
& &
".0#0 % @ m

there, while ,A1.&- gives
& &
".#'! % @ m

. 3he
*ormer val)e is probably the more acc)rate one.
7r)ppacher and Alett ,%'"1, p. %"- li?ewise give an e>pression *or the s)r*ace tension o*
an inter*ace between water vapor and saline water. 3hat e>pression, however, F)anti*ies the
salinity in terms o* m
s
;m
w
, where m
w
is the mass o* p)re water per )nit vol)me and m
s
is the
mass o* dissolved salt in the vol)me. Since the de*inition o* salinity is
%"
s
w s
m
s
m m

+
, ,A1.!-
we see that
s
w
m s
m % s

, ,A1.6-
where s is the *ractional salinity +s 5 S,in ps)-;%..
Hence, we convert 7r)ppacher and AlettKs ,%'"1- e>pression *or the s)r*ace tension at a
seawater inter*ace to
&
sw w
s
&."" %
% s

_
+

,
, ,A1.#-
where
w
comes *rom ,A1.%- or ,A1.&-, depending on the water temperat)re. 3he coe**icient
m)ltiplying the salinity term in ,A1.#- is virt)ally the same val)e that HQnel ,%'"0- recommends.
EF)ation ,A1.#- sho)ld be acc)rate *or temperat)res in [ ] &# , 6 C
and S in [ ] , &0ps)
.
A3& MEA' F(EE PA!0S "F A( A') WA!E( ,AP"( M"LECULES
3he mean *ree path o* a gas molec)le is an estimate o* the distance it travels between
collisions with other molec)les in the gas. Starting with eF)ations that 9agner +%'1&, EFs.
,A#.##-, ,A#.#0-. gives, we derive these e>pressions *or the mean *ree paths o* air molec)les ,
a
-
and water vapor molec)les ,
v
- in airG
( )
a
&
a
?3
& 7 e d


, ,A'.%-
( ) ( )
v &
a w
6? 3
%.0&& 7 e d d

+
. ,A'.&-
Hn these, ? is the (oltBmann constantC 3, the ?elvin temperat)reC 7 and e, the barometric press)re
and the water vapor press)re in pascalsC and d
a
and d
w
, the diameters o* air and water molec)les.
EF)ation ,A'.%- is essentially the same as Rei*Ks ,%'0"- e>pression *or the mean *ree path o* air
molec)les,
a
&
a
? 3
& 7d

. ,A'.!-
Hn ,A'.%- and ,A'.&-,
a
and
v
F)anti*y the distance between consec)tive collisions, not
the distance between collisions between molec)les o* the same species. 3hat is, a water vapor
%1
molec)le will li?ely hit an air molec)le ne>tC
v
estimates the distance *rom the previo)s to this
ne>t collision.
Using val)es *or d
a
and d
w
o*
%
!." % m

and
%
%.0# % m

, respectively ,personal
comm)nication, @ames H. Cragin &-, and e>pressing 7 and e in millibars, we simpli*y ,A'.%-
and ,A'.&- to
"
a
&.! % 3
7 e

, ,A'.6-
"
v
6.1 % 3
7 e

. ,A'.#-
Hn these,
a
and
v
are in meters when 3 is in ?elvins and 7 and e are in millibars.
<or e>ample, when 3 5 &'!A and 7 : e 5 % mb,
1
a
0." % m

, ,A'.0-
"
v
%.6 % m

. ,A'."-
<or comparison, 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%'"1, p. !&!- state witho)t proo* that
1
a
0.0 % m

*or 7 5 7

and 3 5 &'!.%# A. (ohren and Albrecht ,%''1, p. 01- estimate

"
a
% m

*or
press)res near one atmosphere.
A%4& M"LECULA( ,SC"S!#
A1,.1. Air
Hilsenrath et al. ,%'0, p. %- give the *ollowing e>pression *or the dynamic viscosity o*
airG
0 !; &
a
%.6#1 % 3
3 %%.6

+
. ,A%.%-
Here,
a
is in ?g m
:%
s
:%
when 3 is in ?elvins, and they s)ggest that this relation is acc)rate *or a
press)re o* one atmosphere *or temperat)res between % and %' A.
3he ?inematic viscosity o* air,
a
, however, occ)rs more commonly in bo)ndary$layer
st)dies. 9e can obtain this *rom
a
as
a
a
d

. ,A%.&-
%'
9e have combined this de*inition, ,A&.&-, and ,A%.%- to obtain a polynomial e>pression *or
predicting
a
*or the temperat)re range [ ] # , # C
C
( )
# ! 0 & ' !
a
%.!&0 % % 0.#6& % 3 1.!% % 3 6.16 % 3

+ +
. ,A%.!-
Here,
a
is in m
&
s
:%
, and 3 is in C.
<ig)re A! shows ,A%.!- plotted as a *)nction o* temperat)reC 3able A6 lists these
val)es. 3he predictions *rom ,A%.!- agree to three signi*icant *ig)res with val)es tab)lated in
/oldstein ,%'0#, p. "- and (atchelor ,%'", p. #'6-.
A1,.2. "ater
Reid et al. ,%'1", p. 66%, 6##- give the *ollowing e>pression *or the dynamic viscosity o*
p)re waterG
( )
! ! % & # &
w
% e>p &6."% 6.&' % 3 6.#&" % 3 !.!"0 % 3

+ +
. ,A%.6-
As with ,A%.%-, here
w
is in ?g m
:%
s
:%
, and the temperat)re is in ?elvins.
(eca)se Ne)mann and 7ierson ,%'00, p. #&- s)ggest that salinity and press)re a**ect the
dynamic viscosity o* water only slightly, we comp)te the ?inematic viscosity o* p)re water ,
w
-
and seawater ,
sw
- *rom
w
w
w

,A%.#-
and
w
sw
sw

. ,A%.0-
Hn these,
w
and
sw
are in m
&
s
:%
C and
w
and
sw
come *rom ,A#.%- and ,A#.&-, respectively.
As e>amples o* these calc)lations, *or 3 5 &C, S 5 !6 ps), and press)res near one
atmosphere, we *ind
! % %
w
%.%1 % ?g m s

,
!
w
''1.&?g m

,
!
sw
%&6.?gm

,
0 & %
w
%.%' % m s

, and
0 & %
sw
.''6 % m s

. Hn partic)lar, these
w
and
w
val)es and
val)es we have calc)lated at other temperat)res are within !M o* val)es tab)lated in Horne
,%'0', p. 610- and (atchelor ,%'", p. #'"-.
A%%& !0E(MAL C"')UC!,!# A') !0E(MAL )FFUS,!# "F A(
Hilsenrath et al. ,%'0, p. "- also tab)late the thermal cond)ctivity o* air, ?
a
. 9e have
*itted their data *or temperat)res between :%'! and &""C with the *ollowing polynomialG
&
( )
& ! 0 &
a
? &.6%% % % !.!' % 3 %.66% % 3

+
. ,A%%.%-
3his gives ?
a
in 9 m
:%
C
:%
*or temperat)re 3 in C.
3he thermal di**)sivity 2 is analogo)s as a molec)lar transport variable to the ?inematic
viscosity
a
. 9e de*ine 2 as
a
d p
?
2
c

, ,A%%.&-
which has )nits o* m
&
s
:%
. <ig)re A! plots 2 as a *)nction o* temperat)re, while 3able A6 lists
val)es *or normal atmospheric bo)ndary layer temperat)res.
Notice that, in general,
a
and c
p
in ,A%%.&- sho)ld incl)de the e**ects o* atmospheric
water vapor. 9e have ignored those small e**ects in creating <ig)re A! and 3able A6 beca)se
,A%%.%- predicts the thermal cond)ctivity o* dry air. 9e pres)me that incl)ding water vapor
e**ects in ?
a
wo)ld tend to o**set the e**ects o* water vapor in
a
and c
p
and wo)ld, th)s, yield a
thermal cond)ctivity 2 comparable to the dry$air val)e that we have calc)lated.
A%*& M"LECULA( )FFUS,!ES "F 5ASES ' A(
A12.1. "ater Vapor
Hall and 7r)ppacher ,%'"0- developed the *ollowing e>pression *or the molec)lar
di**)sivity o* water vapor in airG
%.'6
#
v

7 3
2 &.%% %
3 7

_
_


,
,
. ,A%&.%-
3his gives 2
v
in m
&
s
:%
*or temperat)re 3 in ?elvins and press)re 7 in millibars. Hall and
7r)ppacher e>plain that no good meas)rements o* 2
v
e>ist *or temperat)res below LC.
3here*ore, they obtain ,A%&.%- by e>trapolating meas)rements above *reeBing to s)b*reeBing
temperat)res. Still, Hall and 7r)ppacher claim that ,A%&.%- applies over the temperat)re interval
[ ] 1 , 6 C
. 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%'"1, p. 6%!- originally recommended ,A%&.%-, and
7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''", p. #!- still do. <ig)re A! and 3able A6 compare val)es o* 2
v
with

a
and 2.
3he 7randtl ,7r- and Schmidt ,Sc- n)mbers compare the relative e**iciencies o* molec)lar
e>change processes. 3he molec)lar 7randtl n)mber *or air is
a
7r
2

, ,A%&.&-
and the molec)lar Schmidt n)mber *or air is
&%
a
v
Sc
2

. ,A%&.!-
9e can comp)te these *rom ,A%.!-, ,A%%.&-, and ,A%&.%-. 3able A6 also lists val)es o* 7r and
Sc *or 7 5 % mb and temperat)res in the range [ ] 6 , 6 C
.
A12.2. -t*er Atmosp*eric .ases
3he molec)lar di**)sivities o* atmospheric trace gases s)ch as carbon dio>ide, methane,
and nitro)s o>ide also occ)r in atmospheric bo)ndary layer research. Reid et al. ,%'1", p. #1"-
give a semi$empirical e>pression, which they adapted *rom <)ller et al. ,%'0'-, to predict how
the di**)sivities o* these trace atmospheric gases depend on temperat)re and press)re.
3able A# lists di**)sivities in air *or several environmentally important gases. 9e have
comp)ted some o* these ,labeled O2
g
, Reid et al.P- *or 3

5 &"!.%# A and 7

5 %%!.&# mb *rom
eF)ation ,%%$6.6- and 3able %%.% in Reid et al. ,%'1"-. <or comparison, we also incl)de in 3able
A# di**)sivity val)es ,labeled 2
g3
- at temperat)res o* LC ,&"!.%# A- or &#LC ,&'1.%# A- that
3hibodea)> ,%'"', %''0- tab)lates. 3hibodea)>, however, does not mention the barometric
press)re corresponding to his val)esC we there*ore ass)me it is appro>imately one atmosphere.
EF)ation ,%%$6.6- in Reid et al. ,%'1"- implies a general e>pression *or how the
di**)sivities o* gases in air depend on temperat)re and press)re,
%."#

g g

7 3
2 2
3 7
_
_

,
,
. ,A%&.6-
Hn this, 2
g
is in m
&
s
:%
, 3 is in ?elvins, 7 is in millibars, and 2
g
is the val)e at 3

and 7

in 3able
A#. Alternatively, we co)ld =)st as well s)bstit)te 3hibodea)>Ks ,%'"', %''0- val)es *or 2
g3
in
place o* 2
g
in ,A%&.6-, replace 3

with the tab)lated temperat)re, and ass)me that 3hibodea)>Ks

listed val)es all correspond to press)re 7

.
8assman ,%''1- also reviews the di**)sivities o* vario)s gases in air in the conte>t o* an
eF)ation li?e ,A%&.6- b)t ass)mes that the e>ponent is %.1%G
%.1%

g g

7 3
2 2
3 7
_
_

,
,
. ,A%&.#-
3able A# lists the val)es that he recommends *or 2
g
. Coincidently, the Smithsonian
8eteorological 3ables ,List %'16, p. !'#- also s)ggests a relation li?e ,A%&.#- *or the
di**)sivities o* gases in air.
Comparing the 2
g3
val)es reported at &"!.%# A directly with the 2
g
val)es in 3able A#
or )sing ,A%&.6- or ,A%&.#- to convert the Reid et al. ,%'1"-, 8assman ,%''1-, or 3hibodea)>
,%'"', %''0- val)es to the same temperat)re lets )s eval)ate the )ncertainty in these gas
di**)sivities. <or e>ample, the *o)r di**)sivities listed in 3able A# *or carbon dio>ide have a
spread o* only
# & %
.0 % m s

at LC. 3he di**)sivities *or ammonia, on the other hand, have a
spread o* abo)t
# & %
.# % m s

at LC.
&&
3able A# also incl)des *o)r new estimates o* the water vapor di**)sivity to compare with
,A%&.%-. 3he two val)es *rom 3hibodea)> ,%'"', %''0- both predict
# & %
v
2 &.& % m s

at
LC. 3he comparable val)e that we predict *rom Reid et al. ,%'1"- is
# & %
v
2 &.%# % m s

,
while 8assman ,%''1- recommends
# & %
v
2 &.%1 % m s

. Hall and 7r)ppacherKs ,%'"0-
eF)ation, ,A%&.%-, gives
# & %
v
2 &.%% % m s

at LC and %%!.&# mb. ConseF)ently, we
concl)de that the di**)sivities *or the gases listed in 3able A# are typically ?nown to an acc)racy
o* t!M. 8assman similarly concl)des that most o* the di**)sivities listed in 3able A# have an
absol)te )ncertainty that is no more than #:'M, tho)gh the tab)lated di**)sivities *or N
!
, NN,
and NN
&
might be )ncertain by &#M beca)se o* the pa)city o* data *or these molec)les.
A%+& EFFEC!S "F SU(FACE CU(,A!U(E "' 6
a
A') )
v
3he trans*ers o* heat and moist)re at the s)r*ace o* small atmospheric particles, li?e
clo)d droplets, sea spray droplets, snow*la?es, and aerosols, cannot strictly be parameteriBed in
terms o* the ?
a
and 2
v
val)es given above. (eca)se o* the e>treme c)rvat)re o* the s)r*ace o*
these small particles, the air aro)nd them no longer behaves as a contin))m. 3his is the so$
called Aelvin e**ect ,e.g., 7r)ppacher and Alett %''", p. %"-. Li?ewise, s)r*ace c)rvat)re will
also a**ect the trans*ers o* heat and moist)re aro)nd the snow grains in a snowpac?, which is
always poro)s.
7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''"- present eF)ations to acco)nt *or how these c)rvat)re e**ects
modi*y ?
a
and 2
v
,also Andreas %'1', %'', %''#-. <or predicting the e**ects o* c)rvat)re on ?
a
,
they give ,7r)ppacher and Alett %''", p. #'-
a
a %; &
a a
3 3 a p
?
? 4
r ? & 8
r r c R3

_
+

+
,
. ,A%!.%-
Hn this,
a
? 4
,in 9 m
:%
A
:%
- is the thermal cond)ctivity modi*ied *or c)rvat)re e**ects, r

is the
particle radi)s in meters,
3
,
"
&.%0 % m

- and
3
,5 ."- are empirical constants, and 3 is
again the ?elvin temperat)re.
Hn ,A%!.%-, we recogniBe ?
a
;
a
c
p
*rom ,A%%.&- as the thermal di**)sivity 2. Hence, i* we
divide ,A%!.%- by
a
c
p
, we get an analogo)s e>pression *or c)rvat)re e**ects on the thermal
di**)sivity,
%; &
a
3 3
2
24
r & 8 2
r r R3

_
+

+
,
. ,A%!.&-
3his predicts the modi*ied thermal di**)sivity in m
&
s
:%
.
Similarly, 7r)ppacher and Alett ,%''", p. #0- give the *ollowing eF)ation *or predicting
how s)r*ace c)rvat)re in*l)ences the vapor di**)sivity aro)nd small particlesG
&!
v
v %; &
v w
v c
2
2 4
r 2 & 8
r r R3

_
+

+
,
. ,A%!.!-
Here,
v
2 4
,in m
&
s
:%
- is the water vapor di**)sivity modi*ied *or c)rvat)re e**ects, and
c

,5 .!0- and
v
,
1
a
%.! 1." % m

*or typical sea$level temperat)re and press)re- are

empirical constants.
<ig)re A6 compares
a
? 4
with ?
a
and
v
2 4
with 2
v
*or particles with radii between .% and
% m, which is a typical siBe range *or sea spray droplets ,c*. Andreas %'1'-. According to
this *ig)re, c)rvat)re e**ects signi*icantly in*l)ence sensible heat trans*er only aro)nd particles
with radii less than abo)t # m. Hn contrast, s)r*ace c)rvat)re signi*icantly decreases the rate o*
vapor di**)sion aro)nd particles with radii )p to abo)t & m.
A%-& BA("ME!E( C"((EC!"'
Comp)ting the t)rb)lent s)r*ace *l)>esI*or e>ample, the sensible heat *l)> thro)gh
,A0."-IreF)ires the air density right at the air$sea inter*ace. 3ho)gh this density can be
calc)lated *rom ,A!."-, )sing this eF)ation reF)ires the virt)al s)r*ace temperat)re ,3
vs
- and the
barometric press)re right at the air$sea inter*ace ,7
s
-. 3he barometer, however, is rarely at sea
level b)t may be on the bridge, *or instance, several tens o* meters above the sea s)r*ace.
(eca)se, near the s)r*ace, press)re typically *alls at abo)t
%
.%&mbm

as height increases, we
derive a correction here to ad=)st the press)re read at re*erence height B
re*
,7
re*
- to sea level
press)re.
3he hydrostatic eF)ation,
a
% 7
g
B

, ,A%6.%-
is the basis *or this correction. Here B is the height, and g is the acceleration o* gravity.
S)bstit)ting the ideal gas law, ,A!."-, into ,A%6.%- gives
a
v
% 7 g8
7 B R3

. ,A%6.&-
Hntegrating this eF)ation *rom the re*erence height down to the s)r*ace ,at B 5 - yields
7
s
a
7 B
re* re*
v
d7 g8 dB
7 R 3


. ,A%6.!-
3he le*t side here integrates easily. Nn the right side, 3
v
is the only variable that depends on BC
b)t that dependence is *airly wea? within a *ew tens o* meters o* the sea s)r*ace. 3here*ore, we
can ass)me 3
v
is essentially constant in ,A%6.!- and p)ll it o)t o* the integral. 7ossible val)es to
&6
)se *or this constant ,
v 3
- are 3
vs
or ( )
vs vre*
.# 3 3 +
, where 3
vre*
is the virt)al temperat)re at some
re*erence height above the s)r*ace.
9ith this simpli*ication, ,A%6.!- becomes
a re*
s re*
v
g8 B
7 7 e>p
R3
_

,
. ,A%6.6-
3h)s, *or e>ample, i*
re*
7 %.mb
,
&
g '.1%ms

, v 3 &'A , and
re*
B !m
, then
s
7 %!.#mb
.
&#
Appendix B:
Wind Force Scales
B%& BEAUF"(! SCALE
A common way to describe wind and sea state is with the (ea)*ort Scale. Hn the early
nineteenth cent)ry, Admiral Sir <rancis (ea)*ort developed a wind scale based on the behavior
o* sailing ships ,H)ler &6-. Hn %1!1, the (ritish Admiralty adopted this scale as a method *or
)ni*ying the reporting o* winds at sea. ()t not )ntil the early twentieth cent)ry did that scale
emerge as the descriptive list o* wind e**ects on both land and seat that we now ?now as the
(ea)*ort Scale ,H)ler &6-.
Hn e**ect, the (ea)*ort n)mber or *orce ( is related to the wind speed ,in m s
:%
- at a
standard re*erence height o* % m, U
%
, thro)gh ,List %'16, p. %%'C Strangeways &%-
!; &
%
U .1!0( . ,(%.%-
()t the ?ey *eat)re o* the (ea)*ort Scale is that it associates U
%
and ( with a description o*
wind, sea state, and wind e**ects on land and, th)s, provides an estimate o* U
%
*rom vis)al
observations alone ,e.g., (owditch %'"", p. %#'C List %'16, p. %%'-.
3able (% shows the (ea)*ort Scale and incl)des descriptions o* conditions *or a given
(ea)*ort *orce over both land and sea.
B*& SAFF(7SMPS"' SCALE
3he (ea)*ort Scale classi*ies all ocean storms with s)r*ace$level winds above !&." m s
:%

as h)rricanes. ()t conditions at sea and when the storm comes ashore vary widely depending on
the wind speed. 3he Sa**ir$Simpson Scale, developed by Herbert Sa**ir and (ob Simpson,
*)rther divides h)rricanes into *ive categories. 3able (& shows the Sa**ir$Simpson Scale.
At sea, storms are assigned to a Sa**ir$Simpson category on the basis o* their ma>im)m
s)r*ace$level wind speed and minim)m central press)re. Storms may change category d)ring
their li*etime as they intensi*y or degrade. 3he OStorm S)rgeP listed in 3able (& is the height o*
the ocean wave that comes ashore ahead o* the storm. 3he val)es shown give a typical rangeC
the act)al storm s)rge will depend on the slope o* the continental shel*.
3he main relevance o* the Sa**ir$Simpson Scale is that it attempts to *orecast *looding
and damage i* the storm does move onshore. 3he OE**ectsP col)mn in the table lists these
predictions. E**ects range *rom minor *or a Category % storm to catastrophic, as they were with
8itch, a %''1 Category # h)rricane that ?illed over 1 people in Hond)ras and Nicarag)a.
B+& FU8!A SCALE
Similarly, the <)=ita Scale categoriBes tornadoes in terms o* their ma>im)m wind speed
and the damage they ca)se ,<)=ita %'1%C /lic?man &, p. !&&*.-. 3able (! shows the <)=ita
Scale. <)=ita ,%'1%- associated the lower s)r*ace$level wind speed limit *or a tornado category
with the <)=ita n)mber < thro)gh the e>pression
&0
( )
!; &
U 0.! < & + , ,(!.%-
where U is the wind speed in m s
:%
.
&"
Appendix C:
Unit Conversions
C%& !EMPE(A!U(E
3he three temperat)re scales in common )se in meteorology are the Celsi)s ,LC- scale,
the <ahrenheit ,L<- scale, and the Aelvin ,A- scale. 3he temperat)re o* absol)te Bero is A or
&"!.%# C C hence, the Celsi)s temperat)re ,3
C
- is related to the Aelvin temperat)re ,3
A
- by
C A
3 3 &"!.%#
. ,C%.%-
3hat is, a temperat)re step o* %LC is eF)ivalent to a temperat)re step o* % A.
Li?ewise, the *ollowing eF)ations relate temperat)res on the <ahrenheit ,3
<
- and Celsi)s
scalesG
( )
< C
3 '; # 3 !& +
, ,C%.&-
and
( ) ( )
C <
3 #; ' 3 !&
. ,C%.!-
Here are a *ew e>amples o* )sing these eF)ations to *ind comparable <ahrenheit and Celsi)s
temperat)resG
6 < 6 C
,
!& < C
,
01 < & C
, and
&%& < % C
.
C*& "!0E( U'!S
3able C% lists conversions among SystRme Hnternational ,SH- )nits and other non$SH )nits
that occ)r in marine meteorology.
&1
(EFE(E'CES
Andreas, E. L, %'1'G 3hermal and siBe evol)tion o* sea spray droplets. CRREL Rep. 1'$%%,
U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, !" pp. ,N3HSG A2
A&%616.-
, %''G 3ime constants *or the evol)tion o* sea spray droplets. Tellus, -*B, 61%:6'".
, %''#G 3he temperat)re o* evaporating sea spray droplets. J. Atmos. Sci., .*, 1#&:10&.
(atchelor, /. A., %'"G An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University 7ress,
0%# pp.
(ohren, C. <., and (. A. Albrecht, %''1G Atmospheric Thermodynamics. N>*ord University
7ress, 6& pp.
(owditch, N., %'""G American Practical Navigator. Eol. %. 7)blication No. ', 2e*ense
8apping Agency Hydrographic Center, 9ashington, 2.C., %!10 pp.
(roc?, <. E., and S. @. Richardson, &%G Meteorological Measurement Systems. N>*ord
University 7ress, &' pp.
(romley, L. A., E. A. 2esa)ss)re, @. C. Clipp, and @. S. 9right, %'0"G Heat capacities o* sea
water sol)tions at salinities o* % to %&M and temperat)res o* &L to 1LC. J. Chem. ngng.
Data, %*, &&:&0.
()c?, A. L., %'1%G New eF)ations *or comp)ting vapor press)re and enhancement *actor. J.
Appl. Meteor., *4, %#&":%#!&.
()singer, @. A., %'1&G 3he *l)>es o* speci*ic enthalpy, sensible heat and latent heat near the
EarthKs s)r*ace. J. Atmos. Sci., +3, %11':%1'&.
Co>, R. A., and N. 2. Smith, %'#'G 3he speci*ic heat o* sea water. Proc. !oy. Soc. "ondon#
A*.*, #%:0&.
<leagle, R. /., and @. A. ()singer, %'1G An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics. &d ed.
Academic 7ress, 6!& pp.
<)ehrer, 7. L., and C. A. <riehe, &&G <l)> corrections revisited. $ound.%"ayer Meteor., %4*,
6%#:6#".
<)=ita, 3. 3., %'1%G 3ornadoes and downb)rsts in the conte>t o* generaliBed planetary scales. J.
Atmos. Sci., +2, %#%%:%#!6.
<)ller, E. N., A. Ensley, and @. C. /iddings, %'0'G 2i**)sion o* halogenated hydrocarbons in
heli)m. 3he e**ect o* str)ct)re on collision cross section. J. Phys. Chem., 1+, !0"':
!01#.
/ill, A. E., %'1&G Atmosphere%&cean Dynamics. Academic 7ress, 00& pp.
/lic?man, 3. S., Ed., &G 'lossary o( Meteorology. &d ed. American 8eteorological Society,
1## pp.
/oldstein, S., Ed., %'0#G Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics. Eol. %. 2over, !! pp.
Hall, 9. 2., and H. R. 7r)ppacher, %'"0G 3he s)rvival o* ice particles *alling *rom cirr)s clo)ds
in s)bsat)rated air. J. Atmos. Sci., ++, %''#:&0.
&'
HQnel, /., %'"0G 3he properties o* atmospheric aerosol particles as *)nctions o* the relative
h)midity at thermodynamic eF)ilibri)m with the s)rro)nding moist air. Advances in
'eophysics, Eol. %', Academic 7ress, "!:%11.
Hare, 2. E., and C. 8. Sorensen, %'1"G 3he density o* s)percooled water. HH. ()l? samples
cooled to the homogeneo)s n)cleation limit. J. Chem. Phys., 21, 616:616#.
Hilsenrath, @., C. 9. (ec?ett, 9. S. (enedict, L. <ano, H. @. Hoge, @. <. 8asi, R. L. N)ttall, S. S.
3o)lo)?ian, and H. 9. 9oolley, %'0G Ta)les o( Thermodynamic Transport Properties
o( Air# Argon# Car)on Dio*ide# Car)on Mono*ide# +ydrogen# Nitrogen# &*ygen# and
Steam. 7ergamon 7ress, 6"1 pp.
Hobbs, 7. E., %'"6G Ice Physics. Clarendon 7ress, 1!" pp.
Horne, R. A., %'0'G Marine Chemistry. 9iley$Hnterscience, #01 pp.
H)ler, S., &6G De(ining the ,ind. 3hree Rivers 7ress, &' pp.
Hribarne, @. E., and 9. L. /odson, %'1%G Atmospheric Thermodynamics. &d ed. 2. Reidel,
&#' pp.
Aester, 2. R., %'"6G Comparison o* recent seawater *reeBing point data. J. 'eophys. !es., 13,
6###:6##0.
Ainsman, (., %'0#G ,ind ,aves. 7rentice$Hall, 0"0 pp.
Larsen, S. E., and N. E. ()sch, %'"6G Hot$wire meas)rements in the atmosphereG 7art %.
Calibration and response characteristics. DISA In(ormation, %/, %#:!6.
Lide, 2. R&9 Ed., &%G C!C +and)oo- o( Chemistry and Physics. 1&d ed. CRC 7ress.
List, R. @., %'16G Smithsonian Meteorological Ta)les. Si>th ed. Smithsonian Hnstit)tion 7ress,
#&" pp.
L)mley, @. L., and H. A. 7ano*s?y, %'06G The Structure o( Atmospheric Tur)ulence.
9iley$Hnterscience, &!' pp.
8assman, 9. @., %''1G A review o* the molec)lar di**)sivities o* H
&
N, CN
&
, CH
6
, CN, N
!
, SN
&
,
NH
!
, N
&
N, NN, and NN
&
in air, N
&
, and N
&
near stp. Atmos. nviron., +*, %%%%:%%&".
8illero, <. @., /. 7erron, and @. E. 2esnoyes, %'"!G Heat capacity o* seawater sol)tions *rom #L
to !#LC and .# to && o;oo chlorinity. J. 'eophys. !es., 12, 66'':6#".
8)rphy, 2. 8., and 3. Aoop, &#G Review o* the vapo)r press)res o* ice and s)percooled
water *or atmospheric applications. .uart. J. !oy. Meteor. Soc., %+%, %#!':%#0#.
Ne)mann, /., and 9. @. 7ierson, @r., %'00G Principles o( Physical &ceanography. 7rentice$Hall,
#6# pp.
7r)ppacher, H. R., and @. 2. Alett, %'"1G Microphysics o( Clouds and Precipitation. 2. Reidel,
"%6 pp.
, and 9 %''"G Microphysics o( Clouds and Precipitation. &d revised ed. Al)wer,
'#6 pp.
Reid, R. C., @. 8. 7ra)snitB, and (. E. 7oling, %'1"G The Properties o( 'ases and "i/uids. 6th
ed. 8c/raw$Hill, "6% pp.
!
Rei*, <., %'0"G Statistical Physics0 $er-eley Physics Course. Eol. #. 8c/raw$Hill, !'1 pp.
Roll, H. U., %'0#G Physics o( the Marine Atmosphere. Academic 7ress, 6&0 pp.
Schwerdt*eger, 7., %'"0G Physical Principles o( Micro%Meteorological Measurements. Elsevier,
%%! pp.
Strangeways, H., &%G (ac? to basicsG 3he Tmet enclos)reGK 7art 0:9ind. ,eather, ./, %#6:
%0%.
3hibodea)>, L. @., %'"'G Chemodynamics0 nvironmental Movement o( Chemicals in Air#
,ater# and Soil. 9iley$Hnterscience, #% pp.
, %''0G nvironmental Chemodynamics0 Movement o( Chemicals in Air# ,ater# and Soil.
&d ed. @ohn 9iley and Sons, #'! pp.
Earga*ti?, N. (., (. N. Eol?ov, and L. 2. Eol=a?, %'1!G Hnternational tables o* the s)r*ace
tension o* water. J. Phys. Chem. !e(. Data, %*, 1%":1&.
9agner, 7. E., %'1&G Aerosol growth by condensation. Aerosol Microphysics II0 Chemical
Physics o( Microparticles, 9. H. 8arlow, Ed., Springer$Eerlag, %&':%"1.
!%
3able A%. Relative h)midity ,RH, in percent-, *rom ,A6.%#-, as a *)nction o* the air temperat)re
,3
a
- and the dew$point depression, where 3
d
is the dew$point temperat)re ,*rost$point
temperat)re *or 3
d
less than C-. 3he barometric press)re 7 is ass)med to be % mb.
3
a
2ew$7oint 2epression, 3
a
: 3
d
,C-
,C- . .& .6 .0 .1 %. %.# &. !. 6. #. 0. 1. %.
$6 % '".1 '#.0 '!.6 '%.! 1'.! 16.! "'.0 ".' 0!.% #0.% 6'.1 !'.& !."
$!# % '".' '#." '!." '%." 1'." 16.' 1.6 "%.' 06.! #".# #%.! 6." !&.&
$! % '".' '#.' '!.' '&. '.% 1#.# 1%.% "&.' 0#.# #1.1 #&." 6&.! !!.1
$&# % '1. '0.% '6.& '&.! '.# 10. 1%.1 "!.1 00.0 0.% #6.% 6!.1 !#.!
$& % '1.% '0.& '6.6 '&.0 '.1 10.# 1&.6 "6." 0"." 0%.! ##.# 6#.! !0.1
$%# % '1.& '0.6 '6.0 '&.' '%.& 1". 1!. "#.0 01." 0&.# #0." 60." !1.!
$% % '1.& '0.# '6.1 '!.% '%.# 1".# 1!.0 "0.6 0'." 0!.0 #1. 61.% !'."
$# % '1.! '0.0 '#. '!.6 '%.1 1".' 16.& "".& "." 06." #'.& 6'.6 6%.%
% '1.6 '0.1 '#.& '!.0 '&.% 11.! 16." "".' "%.0 0#." 0.! #." 6&.#
# % '1.0 '".& '#.' '6.0 '!.& '. 10.' 1.' "#.! ".% 06.# #6.0 60.%
% % '1." '".6 '0.% '6.1 '!.# '.6 1".6 1%.0 "0.& "%.% 00.! #".# 6'.1
%# % '1." '".# '0.& '#. '!." '." 1".1 1&.! "". "&. 0".! #1.1 #%.&
& % '1.1 '".# '0.! '#.& '6. '%.% 11.! 1&.' "".1 "&.' 01.6 0. #&.#
&# % '1.1 '".0 '0.# '#.! '6.& '%.6 11." 1!.# "1.# "!.1 0'.6 0%.& #!.1
! % '1.' '"." '0.0 '#.# '6.6 '%." 1'.% 16. "'.& "6.0 ".! 0&.! ##.%
!# % '1.' '".1 '0." '#." '6.0 '&. 1'.6 16.# "'.' "#.6 "%.& 0!.6 #0.!
6 % '1.' '".' '0.1 '#.1 '6.1 '&.! 1'.1 1#. 1.# "0.& "&.% 06.6 #".#
!&
3able A&. Eapor press)re ,e, in mb- *rom ,A6.%'- as a *)nction o* the air temperat)re ,3
a
- and
the wet$b)lb depression *or wet$b)lb temperat)res above *reeBing. 3he col)mn with
a wet
3 3
is also the sat)ration vapor press)re ,e
sat
- at the indicated air temperat)reC
conseF)ently, the ratio o* e at 3
a
: 3
wet
U to e
sat
is the *ractional relative h)midity ,*- at
a wet
3 3
. 3he barometric press)re 7 is ass)med to be % mb.
3
a 9et$()lb 2epression, 3
a
: 3
wet
,C-
,C- . .& .6 .0 .1 %. %.# &. !. 6. #. 0. 1. %.
0.%
& ".% 0.' 0.0 0.6 0.& 0. #.6 6.1
6 1.& ".' "." ".6 ".& ". 0.6 #.1 6." !.#
0 '.6 '.% 1.' 1.0 1.6 1.% ".# 0.' #." 6.# !.! &.&
1 %.1 %.# %.& '.' '." '.6 1." 1.% 0.1 #.0 6.6 !.& .'
% %&.! %&. %%." %%.6 %%.& %.' %.& '.# 1.% 0.1 #.# 6.! %.'
%& %6.% %!.1 %!.# %!.% %&.1 %&.# %%.1 %%. '.0 1.& 0.1 #.# &.' .#
%6 %0. %#." %#.6 %#. %6." %6.6 %!.0 %&.1 %%.& '." 1.& 0.1 6.% %.0
%0 %1.! %".' %".# %".& %0.1 %0.# %#.0 %6." %!.% %%.# '.' 1.6 #.# &.1
%1 &." &.! %'.' %'.0 %'.& %1.1 %".' %0.' %#.% %!.6 %%." %.% ".% 6.&
& &!.# &!. &&.0 &&.& &%.1 &%.6 &.6 %'.6 %".# %#.0 %!.1 %&.% 1.1 #."
&& &0.# &0.% &#.0 &#.& &6." &6.! &!.& &&.% &.% %1.% %0.% %6.! %.1 ".#
&6 !. &'.# &'. &1.# &1. &".# &0.6 &#.& &!. &.1 %1." %0." %!. '.6
&0 !!." !!.& !&." !&.& !%." !%.% &'.' &1.0 &0.& &!.' &%.0 %'.# %#.6 %%.0
&1 !1. !".6 !0.1 !0.& !#." !#.% !!.1 !&.6 &'.1 &".! &6.' &&.0 %1.& %6.%
! 6&.0 6&. 6%.6 6.1 6.& !'.0 !1.% !0.0 !!.1 !%.% &1.# &0. &%.& %0.1
!& 6".1 6".% 60.6 6#.1 6#.% 66.# 6&.' 6%.! !1.& !#.! !&.# &'." &6.0 %'.'
!6 #!.6 #&." #&. #%.! #.0 6'.' 61.% 60.6 6!.% !'.' !0.' !!.' &1.6 &!.!
!0 #'." #1.' #1.% #".6 #0.0 ##.1 #!.' #&.% 61.# 6#.% 6%.1 !1.0 !&.0 &".%
!1 00.0 0#." 06.' 06. 0!.& 0&.6 0.6 #1.6 #6.# #.1 6".& 6!." !".& !%.&
6 "6.% "!.& "&.! "%.6 ".# 0'.0 0".6 0#.& 0%. #". #!.% 6'.6 6&.6 !#.'
!!
3able A!. Speci*ic heat o* seawater at constant press)re, c
ps
,in @ ?g
:%
C
:%
-, as a *)nction o*
temperat)re and salinity. 3hese res)lts come *rom ,A0.1-. 3he barometric press)re is ass)med
to be one atmosphere.
3emperat)re Salinity ,ps)-
,C- % & &# ! !# 6
6&%" 6%6" 61 661 6%" !'10 !'#0
# 6&& 6%!0 6"! 66! 6%6 !'1# !'#0
% 6%'& 6%&' 6" 66& 6%6 !'10 !'#'
%# 6%10 6%&0 6" 66! 6%0 !'' !'06
& 6%1& 6%&# 6"% 66# 6%' !''6 !'0'
&# 6%"' 6%&# 6"& 66" 6&& !''1 !'"6
! 6%"1 6%&# 6"6 66' 6&# 6% !'""
!# 6%"1 6%&# 6"# 6#% 6&" 6! !'1
6 6%"1 6%&0 6"0 6#& 6&1 66 !'1%
!6
3able A6. 8olec)lar val)es o* the ?inematic viscosity ,
a
- and thermal di**)sivity ,2- o* air, the
di**)sivity o* water vapor in air ,2
v
-, and the 7randtl ,7r- and Schmidt ,Sc- n)mbers.
Calc)lations o* the thermal di**)sivity ass)me dry air. 3he barometric press)re is ass)med to be
% mb.
3emperat)re %
#

a
%
#
2 %
#
2
v
7r Sc
,C- ,m
&
s
:%
-
$6 .''" %.!1' %.#"! ."%1 .0!6
$!# %.!0 %.660 %.0!' ."%0 .0!&
$! %."0 %.## %."0 ."%# .0!%
$&# %.%%0 %.#0# %.""# ."%! .0&'
$& %.%#" %.0&0 %.16# ."%% .0&"
$%# %.%'1 %.011 %.'%0 ."% .0&#
$% %.&6 %."#% %.'1' ."1 .0&6
$# %.&1! %.1%# &.0! ."" .0&&
%.!&0 %.11 &.%!1 ."# .0&
# %.!" %.'60 &.&%# ."6 .0%1
% %.6%6 &.%& &.&'& ."! .0%"
%# %.6#' &.1 &.!"& ."% .0%#
& %.#6 &.%6' &.6#& ." .0%!
&# %.## &.&%1 &.#!6 .0'' .0%&
! %.#'0 &.&1' &.0%" .0'" .0%
!# %.06! &.!0 &."% .0'0 .01
6 %.0' &.6!& &."1" .0'# .00
!#
3able A#. 8olec)lar di**)sivities o* vario)s gases in air. 3he col)mns labeled 2
g
show
predictions based on eF)ation ,%%$6.6- and 3able %%.% in Reid et al. ,%'1"- and recommendations
by 8assman ,%''1-. 3hese val)es are appropriate at temperat)re 3

5 &"!.%# A and press)re

7

5 %%!.&# mb. 3he 2

g3
col)mn shows val)es tab)lated in 3hibodea)> ,%'"', 3able C.1,
s)perscript %- or 3hibodea)> ,%''0, 3able C.0, s)perscript &- *or the temperat)res indicated.
/as %
#
2
g
3emperat)r
e
%
#
2
g3
Reid et al. 8assman
,m
&
s
:%
- ,A- ,m
&
s
:%
-
Ammonia, NH
!
%.11 %.'1 &"!.%# &.%0
%
&'1.%# &.1
&
(romine, (r
&
.'"% &'1.%# %.
&
Carbon dio>ide, CN
&
%.!# %.!1 &"!.%# %.!1
%
&'1.%# %.06
&
Carbon mono>ide, CN %."% %.1% &'1.%# &.!
&
Hydrogen s)l*ide, HS &'1.%# %.00
&
8ethane, CH
6
%.'# &"!.%# %.0
&
Nitrogen dio>ide, NN
&
%.!0
Nitric o>ide, NN %.1 &'1.%# &.6
&
Nitro)s o>ide, N
&
N %.&& %.66 &'1.%# %.##
&
NBone, N
!
%.66
S)l*)r he>a*l)oride, S<
0
."'#
S)l*)r dio>ide, SN
&
%.1 %.' &"!.%# %.!
&
9ater vapor, H
&
N &.%# &.%1 &"!.%# &.&
%
&'1.%# &.#0
&
!0
3able (%. (ea)*ort Scale, with the associated wind speed ranges *or each (ea)*ort *orce in meters per second, ?nots, and miles per ho)r. H%;! is the signi*icant
wave height, the average height o* the highest one$third o* all waves occ)rring d)ring a period ,Ainsman %'0#, p. !&*, !'*.-.
<orce
9ind
2escription
U% H%;!
Nver the sea Nver land
,m s
:%
- ,?nots- ,mph- ,m-
Calm .:.& V% V% Sea li?e a mirror CalmC smo?e rises vertically
%
Light
air
.!:%.# %:! %:! .%:.&
Ripples with appearance o* scalesC no
*oam crests
Smo?e dri*t indicates wind directionC
vanes do not move
&
Light
breeBe
%.0:!.! 6:0 6:" .!:.#
Small waveletsC crests have glassy
appearance b)t do not brea?
9ind *elt on *aceC leaves r)stleC vanes
begin to move
!
/entle
breeBe
!.6:#.6 ":% 1:%& .0:%.
Large waveletsC crests begin to brea?C
scattered whitecaps
Leaves and twigs in constant motionC light
*lags e>tended
6
8oderate
breeBe
#.#:".' %%:%0 %!:%1 %.#
Small waves becoming longerC n)mero)s
whitecaps
2)st, leaves, and loose paper raisedC small
branches moveC *lags *lap
#
<resh
breeBe
1.:%." %":&% %':&6 &.
8oderate waves ta?ing longer *ormC many
whitecaps and chance o* some spray
Small trees in lea* begin to swayC
whitecaps on inland waters
0
Strong
breeBe
%.1:%!.1 &&:&" &#:!% !.#
Large waves *ormingC white *oam crests
e>tensive, and spray probable
Larger branches o* trees in motionC *lags
popC whistling in wiresC )mbrellas
)nstable
"
8oderate
gale
%!.':%".% &1:!! !&:!1 #.
Sea heaps )p, and white *oam *rom
brea?ing waves begins to be blown in
strea?sC spindri*t appears
9hole trees in motionC resistance *elt in
wal?ing against the wind
1
<resh
gale
%".&:&." !6:6 !':60 ".#
8oderately high waves o* greater lengthC
edges o* crests brea? into spindri*tC *oam
is blown in well mar?ed strea?s
3wigs and small branches bro?enC
progress generally impeded
'
Strong
gale
&.1:&6.6 6%:6" 6":#6 '.#
High wavesC dense strea?s o* *oamC sea
begins to rollC spray may red)ce visibility
Slight str)ct)ral damage occ)rsC slate
blown *rom roo*s
%
9hole
gale
&6.#:&1.6 61:## ##:0! %&
Eery high waves with overhanging crestsC
sea s)r*ace ta?es on white appearance as
*oam in great patches is blown in very
dense strea?sC rolling sea is heavyC
visibility red)ced
Seldom e>perienced on landC trees bro?en
or )prootedC considerable str)ct)ral
damage occ)rs
%% Storm &1.#:!&.0 #0:0! 06:"& %#
E>ceptionally high wavesC sea covered
with long white patches o* *oamC small
and medi)m siBed ships might be lost to
view behind wavesC visibility *)rther
red)ced
Eery rarely e>perienced on landC )s)ally
accompanied by widespread damage
%& H)rricane U!&." U06 U"! U%#
Air *illed with *oam and sprayC sea
completely white with driving sprayC
visibility greatly red)ced
!"
3able (&. Sa**ir$Simpson Scale *or h)rricane intensity. 3he ma>im)m s)stained winds are given in meters per second, ?nots, and miles per ho)r.
Category S)stained 9inds
Central
7ress)re
Storm
S)rge
E**ects
,m s
:%
- ,?nots- ,mph- ,mb- ,m-
3ropical
Storm
%":!& !#:0! !':"! (ea)*ort *orce 1:%%
% !!:6& 06:1& "6:'# U'1 %.:%."
No real damage to b)ildings. 2amage primarily to )nanchored
mobile homes, shr)bbery, and trees. Some *looding o* coastal
roads and minor damage to piers.
& 6!:6' 1!:'# '0:%% '"':'0# %.1:&.0
Some damage to doors, windows, and roo*ing material.
Considerable damage to vegetation, mobile homes, and piers.
Coastal low$lying escape ro)tes *lood &:6 ho)rs be*ore the storm
center arrives. Small cra*t in )nprotected anchorages brea?
moorings.
! #:#1 '0:%%! %%%:%! '06:'6# &.":!.1
Some str)ct)ral damage to small residences and )tility b)ildings,
with a minor amo)nt o* c)rtainwall *ail)res. 8obile homes are
destroyed. <looding near the coast destroys smaller str)ct)res,
with larger str)ct)res damaged by *loating debris. 3errain
contin)o)sly lower than # *eet above sea level may be *looded 1
miles or more inland.
6 #':0' %%6:%!# %!%:%## '66:'& !.':#.0
8ore e>tensive c)rtainwall *ail)res, with some roo*s on small
residences *ailing completely. 8a=or beach erosion. 8a=or
damage to the lower *loors o* str)ct)res near the shore. 3errain
contin)o)sly lower than % *eet above sea level may be *looded
inland as *ar as 0 milesC massive evac)ation o* residential areas
co)ld, there*ore, be reF)ired.
# U0' U%!# U%## V'& U#."
Complete roo* *ail)re on many residences and ind)strial b)ildings.
Some complete b)ilding *ail)res, with small )tility b)ildings blown
over or away. 8a=or damage to lower *loors o* all str)ct)res
located less than %# *eet above sea level and within # yards o*
the shore. 8assive evac)ation may be reF)ired *or residential
areas on low gro)nd within # to % miles o* the shore.
!1
3able (!. <)=ita Scale to describe tornado intensity. 3he range *or ma>im)m wind speed is
given in meters per second and miles per ho)r.
<)=ita
Scale
9ind Speed Range
2amage speci*ications
,m s
:%
- ,mph-
< %1:!& 6:"&
(ea)*ort *orce 1:%%. Light damage. Some damage
to chimneysC branches brea? o** treesC some shallow$
rooted trees p)shed overC damage to sign boards.
<% !!:6' "!:%%&
8oderate damage. 3he lower wind speed is the
beginning o* the h)rricane range. S)r*aces o* roo*s
peeled o**C mobile homes p)shed o** *o)ndations or
overt)rnedC moving a)tos p)shed o** the road.
<& #:0' %%!:%#"
Considerable damage. Roo*s torn o** *rame ho)sesC
mobile homes demolishedC bo>cars p)shed overC
large trees snapped o** or )prootedC light$ob=ect
missiles generated.
<! ":'& %#1:&0
Severe damage. Roo*s and some walls torn o** well$
constr)cted ho)sesC trains overt)rnedC most trees in a
*orest )prootedC heavy cars li*ted o** the gro)nd and
thrown.
<6 '!:%%0 &":&0
2evastating damage. 9ell$constr)cted ho)ses
leveledC str)ct)res with wea? *o)ndations blown o**
some distanceC cars thrownC large missiles generated.
<# %%":%6& &0%:!%1
Hncredible damage. Strong *rame ho)ses li*ted o**
*o)ndations and carried considerable distance to
disintegrateC a)tomobile$siBed missiles *ly thro)gh
the air in e>cess o* % mC bar? ripped *rom treesC
incredible phenomena occ)r.
<0J U%6& U!%1 3ornadoes are not e>pected to reach <0 wind speeds.
3able C%. Conversions among SystRme Hnternational and non$SH )nits.
Eariable SH Unit Nther Units
Length % ?m 5 .0&%!" miles .#!''# nmi !,&1.1 *t %,'!.0 yd
8ass % ?g 5 &.&# lb !#.&1 oB
2ensity % ?g m
:!
5 %
:!
g cm
:!
Speed % m s
:%
5 !.0 ?m h
:%
&.&!0' mph %.'6!1 ?nots
<orce % N 5 % ?g m s
:&
5 %
#
dyne .&&61 lb
7ress)re % 7a 5 % N m
:&
5 .% h7a .% mb '.10'&!%
:0
atm ".#%%
:!
mm Hg ".#%%
:!
torr %.6#%
:6
psi
Energy
,9or?-
% @ 5 % N$m 5 %
"
erg &."""1%
:"
?9$h .&!' cal '.61#%
:6
(3U ."!"# *t$lb
7ower % 9 5 % @ s
:%
5 .&!' cal s
:%
%.!6%%
:!
hp !.6%6 (3U h
:%
Energy
<l)>
% 9 m
:&
5 .% m9 cm
:&
&.!'%
:#
cal cm
:&
s
:%
&.!'%
:#
langley s
:%
<ig)re A%. Sat)ration vapor press)re as a *)nction o* temperat)re *or three regimesG vapor over
a water s)r*ace +i.e., ,A6.%-., vapor over s)percooled water +i.e., ,A6.&-., and vapor over ice +i.e.,
,A6.!-.. 3he barometric press)re is ass)med to be % mb.
<ig)re A&. Speci*ic heats at constant press)re o* dry air +*rom ,A0.%-., water vapor +*rom
,A0.&-., p)re water +*rom ,A0.'-., and p)re ice +*rom ,A0.%-.. Notice, beca)se the vertical a>is
has s)ch a large range, the small variations in c
pd
, c
pv
, and c
pw
are not obvio)s.
<ig)re A!. 8olec)lar val)es o* the ?inematic viscosity ,
a
- and thermal di**)sivity ,2- o* air
and o* the water vapor di**)sivity ,2
v
- in air at a barometric press)re o* % mb. 3he
calc)lations o* viscosity and thermal di**)sivity ass)me dry air.
<ig)re A6. E**ects o* s)r*ace c)rvat)re on the thermal cond)ctivity o* air +
a
? 4
, *rom ,A%!.%-.
and on the water vapor di**)sivity in air +
v
2 4
, *rom ,A%!.!-.. 3he plot also shows *or
comparison the )nmodi*ied val)es, ?
a
+*rom ,A%%.%-. and 2
v
+*rom ,A%&.%-.. 3he air
temperat)re is ass)med to be &LC, and the barometric press)re is % mb.